Microbial Healing of Cracks in Concrete
Microbial Healing of Cracks in Concrete
Microbial Healing of Cracks in Concrete
DOI 10.1007/s10295-017-1978-0
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become an important research topic during the last decade. concrete was also cited as a probable healing mechanism.
Many reviews have been published addressing the applica- Swelling and hydration of cement paste, blocking of flow
tions of microbial concrete in various fields including the path by water impurities or by concrete particles broken
durability enhancement of building material [5, 10, 24, 26, from crack surface, and precipitation of calcium carbonate
28, 60, 68, 82, 87, 94]. The ecological benefits of MICCP crystals were suggested as possible chemical and physical
in urban development have been highlighted [5]. Different mechanisms contributing to the autogenous healing [37].
applications of the technology have been explored [10, 26, Formation of calcite in the crack seems to be the sole cause
60]. Different microbial pathways and their applicability for the autogenous healing and the crystal growth rate is
in construction have been analyzed [28, 94]. The sustain- dependent on the width of crack and water pressure, whereas
ability of this technology has been examined [82]. More concrete composition and water hardness have no influence
recently, the self-healing ability of the technology has been on autogenous healing [32]. The water entering the cracks
compared with the existing abiotic processes [87]. Self-heal- exhibits the pH value (5.5–7.5), CO2 content and certain
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like acrylic, styrene- butadiene latex, polyvinyl acetate and
References
[57]
[40]
[66]
[71]
[9]
(MICCP)
repaired with epoxy resin by gravity filling method
Geo-materials (montmorillonite)
as [55]:
Sikadur-52 (epoxy adhesive)
Ca2+ + CO32− ↔ CaCO3 (1)
Methyl methacrylate
𝛺 = 𝛼(Ca2+ )𝛼(CO32− )∕Kso with Kso calcite,25◦ = 4.8 × 10−9 .
Fig. 1 Different approaches in
engineered self-healing con-
crete. a In vascular-based self-
healing, hollow channels filled
with healing agent ruptures on
damage and releases healing
material. b In capsule-based
self-healing, healing agent is
released from ruptured capsules
on damage. c In intrinsic based
approach, healing agent possess
latent self-healing functionality
which is triggered on damage or
by external stimulus
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Calcium carbonate precipitation by nitrogen cycle is positively charged cations (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+) on the cell sur-
further categorized into three different mechanisms: (1) face. In bacteria, negatively charged groups dominate over
ammonification of amino acids (presence of organic mat- positively charged ones, giving the cell surface an overall
ter and calcium in aerobic conditions); (2) dissimilatory anionic charge resulting the deposition of divalent positively
reduction of nitrate (presence of organic matter, calcium charged metal ions on interaction [30]. Bacterial cell surface
and nitrate in anaerobic conditions) and (3) urea degrada- plays an important role in precipitation of calcium carbonate
tion (presence of organic matter, calcium and urea in aerobic as nucleation site as shown in Eqs. 14, 15 and 16:
conditions) [17]. In all these mechanisms, carbonate and
bicarbonate ions as well as ammonia (NH3) are produced Ca2+ + Cell ⟶ Cell Ca2+ , (14)
as a metabolic end product. Generation of ammonia creates Cl− + HCO−3 + NH3 ⟶ NH4 Cl + CO2− , (15)
high alkaline pH in the microenvironment of the bacterial
3
cell and decreased H + concentration, affecting the carbon- Cell − Ca2+ + CO2− ⟶ Cell CaCO3 . (16)
3
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The potential of MICCP application in cementitious mate- of damage to concrete materials [26]. To overcome the
rials to enhance the mechanical properties as well as perme- problems associated with urea-based microbial carbonate
ability properties has been reported by various researchers precipitation, Zhu et al. [96] proposed an alternative technol-
as shown in Table 2. Precipitation of calcium carbonate by ogy using autophototrophic bacteria. Their studies showed
bacteria inside the cement matrix leads into pore refinement that biomineralization of cyanobacteria Synechococcus
resulting in reduced permeability and increased compres- PCC8806 formed a thick calcite-cell aggregate layer adher-
sive strength of concrete structure. Ramachandran et al. [62] ing to the concrete and decreased the water absorption and
reported increased compressive strength of cement mortar resistant to sonication. We proposed utilization of CO2 as
cubes on direct incorporation of live bacterial cells of S. alternative source to urea in biocementation [46]. Urea was
pasteurii strain inside the cement matrix. De Muynck et al. replaced with direct influx of C O2 and studied the precipita-
[25] reported the effectiveness of pure and mixed ureolytic tion of carbonates by Bacillus megaterium SS3. The bacteria
cultures in biodeposition on surface treatment of concrete. was able to grow well and precipitate carbonates with C O2
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Table 2 Overview of applications of different microorganisms and nutrient media to prevent deterioration of monumental stones and cementitious materials with microbial C
aCO3 precipitation
Microorganism Nutrient Application Mechanism of treatment Evaluation of specimens References
Micrococcus sp. Bacillus B4 nutrient medium (cal- Monumental limestone con- Samples were brushed with bacteria Water absorption, colorimetric analysis, [74]
subtilis. cium acetate, yeast extract, servation and kept wet with B4 medium for stone cohesion, SEM, XRD and FTIR
dextrose) 15 days to feed the bacteria of crystals
Myxococcus xanthus Pancreatic digest of casein, Porous ornamental limestone Immersion of samples (shaking and Weight increase, MIP, XRD, SEM analy- [64]
calcium acetate, potassium stationary conditions) in bacterial sis, sonication analysis.
carbonate culture with nutrient medium for
30 days
M. xanthus M-3P nutrient solution Archaeological gypsum Bacterial solution was sprayed till Drilling resistance analysis, TGA, XRD, [44]
(pancreatic digest of casein, plasters 6 days (twice a day) on the upper SEM, MIP, TEM and colorimetric
calcium acetate, potassium surface of sample analysis
carbonate)
B. pumilus Basic growth medium (bacte- Marble substrate Marble samples were sprayed every Chromatic analysis, weight loss with [22]
riological peptone, calcium 12 h with bacterial culture for ultrasonic treatment, XRD, SEM and
acetate) 15 days FTIR
Sporosarcina pasteurii Urea and calcium chloride Porous sand column Sand slurry mixed with bacterial cells XRD, SEM, CaCO3 estimation [72]
medium and urea–CaCl2 medium was fed
with nutrient medium for 10 days
S. pasteurii Urea and calcium chloride Cement mortar Casting of mortar cubes with bacte- Compressive strength, XRD and SEM [62]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa medium rial cells and cured in urea–CaCl2 analysis
medium
B. sphaericus Urea, nutrient broth, calcium Mortar and concrete speci- Specimens were immersed in Compressive strength, sorptivity test, [25]
chloride and calcium acetate mens bacterial culture for 1 day prior to SEM, gas permeability, XRD, chro-
submersion in nutrient medium for matic analysis of specimens
6 days
B. megaterium Nutrient broth, urea and Mortar and concrete speci- NBU-bacteria and fly ash admixed Compressive strength, water imperme- [6]
calcium chloride mens specimens were prepared and cured ability test, water absorption test and
with respective medium for 28 days SEM analysis
Bacillus sp. CT-5 Nutrient broth, urea and Cement mortar Mortar mixture was admixed with Compressive strength, water absorption [4]
calcium chloride NBU medium-bacterial cells and test and SEM analysis
cured with respective medium for
28 days
B. megaterium SS3 Nutrient broth, urea and Cement mortar blocks and Bacterial-admixed specimens were Water absorption test, SEM–EDX, XRD, [27]
calcium chloride cylinders cured by spraying with respective MIP and C aCO3 estimation of treated
medium for 28 days samples
S. pasteurii Nutrient broth, urea and Concrete specimens Specimen’s top surface was wetted Water absorption test, SEM–EDX and [47]
B. sphaericus calcium acetate with nutrient medium containing XRD analysis
S. pasteurii and B. sphaericus cells
separately for 28 days
S. pasteurii Urea, yeast extract medium Cement mortar Vegetative cells with UYE medium Hydration kinetics, compressive strength, [17]
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was investigated by Ramachandran et al. [62]. Cracks in Sharma et al. [69] demonstrated the potential application of
cement mortar beams and cubes were simulated artificially alkaliphilic Bacillus pseudofirmus in concrete crack repair
with constant width 3.175 mm and different depths. Their by rapid spore production and germination, calcium carbon-
results suggested that calcite precipitated during microbial ate formation in vitro and in situ.
growth enhanced the compressive strength of cracked mortar The combination of non-ureolytic bacteria with organic
cubes. The mineralization process was effective in shallow calcium source as a two-component self-healing system was
cracks than in deeper ones because the bacteria grow more proposed by Jonkers et al. [43]. The organic calcium com-
actively in presence of oxygen. To enhance the effective- pounds are converted to calcium carbonate due to respiration
ness of MICCP in remediation of deep cracks, polyurethane- effect of bacteria. They reported that by this method true
immobilized S. pasteurii cells were used in cement matrices self-healing can be achieved because all the components are
[11]. In cement mortar cubes (50.8 × 50.8 × 50.8 mm) with added to the concrete mixture prior to casting and become
simulated cracks of width 3.18 and 25.4 mm crack depth, an integral part of the concrete. Wiktor and Jonkers [84]
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strength in bacterial-treated specimen with crack depth of with complete crack closing up to 0.45 mm crack width after
13.4 and 27.2 mm, respectively, as compared to control. 4 weeks. In specimen without CERUP, autogenous crack
Successful healing of deepest crack of depth 27.2 mm was healing was observed with closing of crack with 0.25 mm
reported in bacterial-treated specimen (Fig. 3). Qian et al. crack width (Fig. 5). Effective crack healing was performed
[61] reported the healing of early age cracks in cement-based by directly pooling the S. pasteurii culture supplemented
materials by carbonic anhydrase-producing bacteria Bacillus with CaCl2 and urea around the cracked area of fiber con-
mucilaginosus L3. Their experimental results showed that crete beam [65]. They reported about 100% consolidation
the cracks formed at early ages were completely healed (up of the micro-cracks to a depth of approximately 20 mm.
to 0.4 mm) due to bacterial treatment and the healing effect Silva et al. [70] analyzed the costs involved in biological
reduced with the increasing of cracking age. To protect bac- self-healing in concrete and emphasized to develop the bio-
teria from high pH environment of concrete, Wang et al. [78] additive at much lower costs to make the biological self-
used diatomaceous earth to immobilize the bacteria. healing industrially applicable.
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Bacillus pasteurii Cells mixed with sand After microbial plugging mortar Crack with depth of 3.175 mm [62]
cubes were immersed in urea–
CaCl2 medium for 28 days
Bacillus pasteurii Polyurethane-immobilized cells Incubated in urea–CaCl2 medium for Crack width of 3.18 mm and depth [11]
28 days of 25.4 mm
Bacillus sphaericus Cells immobilized in silica gel Immersed in solution of urea and Crack width of 0.3 mm and depths [75]
calcium source for 3 days of 10.0 and 20.0 mm
Bacillus alkalinitrilicus Spores embedded in expanded clay Immersed in water for 100 days Crack width ranging from 0.05 to [84]
with calcium lactate 1.0 mm
Bacillus sp. CT-5 Cells mixed with sand Immersed in urea and CaCl2 Crack width of 3.0 mm and depths [8]
medium for 28 days of 13.4, 18.8 and 27.2 mm
Bacillus sphaericus Hydrogel-encapsulated spores with Submerged in water for 4 weeks Crack width of 0.5 mm [80]
nutrient and calcium source with wet–dry cycle
Bacillus cohnii Treated externally Submerged in medium containing Crack width ranging 0.1–0.4 mm [88]
bacterial spores, yeast extract and
calcium source
Bacillus sphaericus Spores encapsulated in microcapsule Immersed in water for 8 weeks with Maximum crack width healed is [81]
Fig. 2 Stereomicroscopic
images of before and after
crack-healing process in control
(a, c) and bacterial-treated (b,
d) mortar specimens, respec-
tively Reprinted from Wiktor
and Jonkers [84] with permis-
sion from Elsevier
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Fig. 3 Microscopic image
of a remediated crack with b
enlarged portion of remediated
crack showing calcite precipita-
tion and c rod-shaped bacteria
Reprinted from Achal et al. [8]
with permission from Elsevier
Fig. 4 Maximum crack width of 0.5 mm healed in the specimen treated with hydrogel-encapsulated bacterial spores Reprinted from Wang et al.
[80] with permission from Elsevier
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