Industrial Hygiene

Definition:
Industrial hygiene is defined as the recognition, evaluation, and control of workplace hazards. Its origins
are based on limiting personal exposures to chemicals, and have evolved to address the control of most
other workplace hazards including over-exposure to noise, heat, vibration, and repetitive motion.

History:
There has been an awareness of industrial hygiene since antiquity. The environment and its relation to
worker health was recognized as early as the fourth century BC when Hippocrates noted lead toxicity in
the mining industry. In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, perceived health risks to
those working with zinc and sulfur. He devised a face mask made from an animal bladder to protect
workers from exposure to dust and lead fumes. In the second century AD, the Greek physician, Galen,
accurately described the pathology of lead poisoning and also recognized the hazardous exposures of
copper miners to acid mists.

In the Middle Ages, guilds worked at assisting sick workers and their families. In 1556, the German
scholar, Agricola, advanced the science of industrial hygiene even further when, in his book De Re
Metallica, he described the diseases of miners and prescribed preventive measures. The book included
suggestions for mine ventilation and worker protection, discussed mining accidents, and described
diseases associated with mining occupations such as silicosis.

Industrial hygiene gained further respectability in 1700 when Bernardo Ramazzini, known as the "father
of industrial medicine," published in Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial medicine, De
Morbis Artificum Diatriba (The Diseases of Workmen). The book contained accurate descriptions of the
occupational diseases of most of the workers of his time. Ramazzini greatly affected the future of
industrial hygiene because he asserted that occupational diseases should be studied in the work
environment rather than in hospital wards.

Industrial hygiene received another major boost in 1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg published a pamphlet on
occupational diseases and injuries among gold miners. Ellenborg also wrote about the toxicity of carbon
monoxide, mercury, lead, and nitric acid.

In England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a result of his findings on the insidious effects of soot on
chimney sweepers, was a major force in getting the British Parliament to pass the Chimney-Sweepers
Act of 1788. The passage of the English Factory Acts beginning in 1833 marked the first effective
legislative acts in the field of industrial safety. The Acts, however, were intended to provide
compensation for accidents rather than to control their causes. Later, various other European nations
developed workers' compensation acts, which stimulated the adoption of increased factory safety
precautions and the establishment of medical services within industrial plants.

In the early 20th century in the U.S., Dr. Alice Hamilton led efforts to improve industrial hygiene. She
observed industrial conditions first hand and startled mine owners, factory managers, and state officials
with evidence that there was a correlation between worker illness and exposure to toxins. She also
presented definitive proposals for eliminating unhealthful working conditions.
At about the same time, U.S. federal and state agencies began investigating health conditions in
industry. In 1908, public awareness of occupationally related diseases stimulated the passage of
compensation acts for certain civil employees. States passed the first workers' compensation laws in
1911. And in 1913, the New York Department of Labor and the Ohio Department of Health established
the first state industrial hygiene programs. All states enacted such legislation by 1948. In most states,
there is some compensation coverage for workers contracting occupational diseases.

The U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of legislation related to safeguarding workers'
health: (1) the Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966, (2) the Federal Coal Mine Safety and
Health Act of 1969, and (3) the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act). Today, nearly
every employer is required to implement the elements of an industrial hygiene and safety, occupational
health, or hazard communication program and to be responsive to the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) and its regulations.

Recognizing And Controlling Hazards

Industrial hygienists recognize that engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are the
primary means of reducing employee exposure to occupational hazards.

Engineering controls minimize employee exposure by either reducing or removing the hazard at the
source or isolating the worker from the hazard. Engineering controls include eliminating toxic chemicals
and substituting non-toxic chemicals, enclosing work processes or confining work operations, and the
installation of general and local ventilation systems.

Work practice controls alter the manner in which a task is performed. Some fundamental and easily
implemented work practice controls include (1) changing existing work practices to follow proper
procedures that minimize exposures while operating production and control equipment; (2) inspecting
and maintaining process and control equipment on a regular basis; (3) implementing good housekeeping
procedures; (4) providing good supervision; and (5) mandating that eating, drinking, smoking, chewing
tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics in regulated areas be prohibited.

Administrative controls include controlling employees' exposure by scheduling production and tasks, or
both, in ways that minimize exposure levels. For example, the employer might schedule operations with
the highest exposure potential during periods when the fewest employees are present.

When effective work practices or engineering controls are not feasible or while such controls are being
instituted, appropriate personal protective equipment must be used. Examples of personal protective
equipment are gloves, safety goggles, helmets, safety shoes, protective clothing, and respirators. To be
effective, personal protective equipment must be individually selected, properly fitted and periodically
refitted; conscientiously and properly worn; regularly maintained; and replaced, as necessary.
Examples Of Job Hazards:
To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job hazards and recommending controls, industrial
hygienists must be familiar with the hazards' characteristics. Potential hazards can include air
contaminants, and chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards.

 Air Contaminants

These are commonly classified as either particulate or gas and vapor contaminants. The
most common particulate contaminants include dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, and
fibers. Dusts are solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, colliding,
exploding, and heating organic or inorganic materials such as rock, ore, metal, coal,
wood, and grain. Any process that produces dust fine enough to remain in the air long
enough to be inhaled or ingested should be regarded as hazardous until proven
otherwise. Fumes are formed when material from a volatilized solid con- denses in cool
air. In most cases, the solid particles resulting from the condensation react with air to
form an oxide. The term mist is applied to liquid suspended in the atmosphere. Mists
are generated by liquids condensing from a vapor back to a liquid or by a liquid being
dispersed by splashing or atomizing. Aerosols are also a form of a mist characterized by
highly respirable, minute liquid particles. Fibers are solid particles whose length is
several times greater than their diameter, such as asbestos. Gases are formless fluids
that expand to occupy the space or enclosure in which they are confined. They are
atomic, diatomic, or molecular in nature as opposed to droplets or particles which are
made up of millions of atoms or molecules. Through evaporation, liquids change into
vapors and mix with the surrounding atmosphere. Vapors are the volatile form of
substances that are normally in a solid or liquid state at room temperature and
pressure. Vapors are gases in that true vapors are atomic or molecular in nature.

 Chemical Hazards

Harmful chemical compounds in the form of solids, liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes,
and vapors exert toxic effects by inhalation (breathing), absorption (through direct
contact with the skin), or ingestion (eating or drinking). Airborne chemical hazards exist
as concentrations of mists, vapors, gases, fumes, or solids. Some are toxic through
inhalation and some of them irritate the skin on contact; some can be toxic by
absorption through the skin or through ingestion, and some are corrosive to living
tissue. The degree of worker risk from exposure to any given substance depends on the
nature and potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and duration of exposure.
Information on the risk to workers from chemical hazards can be obtained from the
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) that OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard-
requires be supplied by the manufacturer or importer to the purchaser of all hazardous
materials. The MSDS is a summary of the important health, safety, and toxicological
information on the chemical or the mixture's ingredients. Other provisions of the Hazard
Communication Standard require that all containers of hazardous substances in the
workplace have appropriate warning and identification labels.
 Biological Hazards

These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living organisms that can cause acute
and chronic infections by entering the body either directly or through breaks in the skin.
Occupations that deal with plants or animals or their products or with food and food
processing may expose workers to biological hazards. Laboratory and medical personnel
also can be exposed to biological hazards. Any occupations that result in contact with
bodily fluids pose a risk to workers from biological hazards. In occupations where
animals are involved, biological hazards are dealt with by preventing and controlling
diseases in the animal population as well as properly caring for and handling infected
animals. Also, effective personal hygiene, particularly proper attention to minor cuts and
scratches especially on the hands and forearms, helps keep worker risks to a minimum.
In occupations where there is potential exposure to biological hazards, workers should
practice proper personal hygiene, particularly hand washing. Hospitals should provide
proper ventilation, proper personal protective equipment such as gloves and
respirators, adequate infectious waste disposal systems, and appropriate controls
including isolation in instances of particularly contagious diseases such as tuberculosis.

 Physical Hazards

These include excessive levels of ionizing and nonionizing electromagnetic radiation,

noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature. In occupations where there is exposure
to ionizing radiation, time, distance, and shielding are important tools in ensuring
worker safety. Danger from radiation increases with the amount of time one is exposed
to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation danger. Distance
also is a valuable tool in controlling exposure to both ionizing and nonionizing radiation.
Radiation levels from some sources can be estimated by comparing the squares of the
distances between the worker and the source. For example, at a reference point of 10
feet from a source, the radiation is 1/100 of the intensity at 1 foot from the source.
Shielding also is a way to protect against radiation. The greater the protective mass
between a radioactive source and the worker, the lower the radiation exposure.
Similarly, shielding workers from nonionizing radiation can also be an effective control
method. In some instances, however, limiting exposure to or increasing distance from
certain forms of nonionizing radiation, such as lasers, is not effective. For example, an
exposure to laser radiation that is faster than the blinking of an eye can be hazardous
and would require workers to be miles from the laser source before being adequately
protected. Noise, another significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various
measures. Noise can be reduced by installing equipment and systems that have been
engineered, designed, and built to operate quietly; by enclosing or shielding noisy
equipment; by making certain that equipment is in good repair and properly maintained
with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced; by mounting noisy equipment on special
mounts to reduce vibration; and by installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles. Substituting
quiet work methods for noisy ones is another significant way to reduce noise--for
example, welding parts rather than riveting them. Also, treating floors, ceilings, and
walls with acoustical material can reduce reflected or reverberant noise. In addition,
erecting sound barriers at adjacent work stations around noisy operations will reduce
worker exposure to noise generated at adjacent work stations. It is also possible to
reduce noise exposure by increasing the distance between the source and the receiver,
 by isolating workers in acoustical booths, limiting workers' exposure time to noise, and
by providing hearing protection. OSHA requires that workers in noisy surroundings be
periodically tested as a precaution against hearing loss. Another physical hazard, radiant
heat exposure in factories such as steel mills, can be controlled by installing reflective
shields and by providing protective clothing.

 Ergonomic Hazards

The science of ergonomics studies and evaluates a full range of tasks including, but not
limited to, lifting, holding, pushing, walking, and reaching. Many ergonomic problems
result from technological changes such as increased assembly line speeds, adding
specialized tasks, and increased repetition; some problems arise from poorly designed
job tasks. Any of those conditions can cause ergonomic hazards such as excessive
vibration and noise, eye strain, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting problems.
Improperly designed tools or work areas also can be ergonomic hazards. Repetitive
motions or repeated shocks over prolonged periods of time as in jobs involving sorting,
assembling, and data entry can often cause irritation and inflammation of the tendon
sheath of the hands and arms, a condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome. Ergonomic
hazards are avoided primarily by the effective design of a job or jobsite and by better
designed tools or equipment that meet workers' needs in terms of physical environment
and job tasks. Through thorough worksite analyses, employers can set up procedures to
correct or control ergonomic hazards by using the appropriate engineering controls
(e.g., designing or redesigning work stations, lighting, tools, and equipment); teaching
correct work practices (e.g., proper lifting methods); employing proper administrative
controls (e.g., shifting workers among several different tasks, reducing production
demand, and increasing rest breaks); and, if necessary, providing and mandating
personal protective equipment. Evaluating working conditions from an ergonomics
standpoint involves looking at the total physiological and psychological demands of the
job on the worker. Overall, the benefits of a well-designed, ergonomic work
environment can include increased efficiency, fewer accidents, lower operating costs,
and more effective use of personnel.

Workplace Assessment Methods

Although there are many aspects to Occupational Hygiene work the most known and sought after is in
determining or estimating potential or actual exposures to hazards. Several methods can be applied in
assessing the workplace or environment for exposure to a known or suspected hazard. Occupational
Hygienists do not rely on the accuracy of the equipment or method used but in knowing with certainty
and precision the limits of the equipment or method being used and the error or variance given by using
that particular equipment or method.

 Walk Through Survey

A traditional method applied by Occupational Hygienists to initially survey a workplace

or environment is used to determine both the types and possible exposures from
hazards (e.g. noise, chemicals, radiation). The Walk Through Survey can be targeted or
limited to particular hazards such as silica dust, or noise, to focus attention on control of
those hazards. Frequently a full walk through surveys is used to provide information on
 establishing a frame work for future investigations, prioritizing hazards, determining the
requirements for measurement and establishing some immediate control of potential
exposures.

 Electronic Hazard Survey Equipment

An Occupational Hygienist may use one or a number of commercially available

electronic measuring devices to measure noise, vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation, dust, solvents, gases, et cetera. Each device is often specifically designed to
measure a specific or particular type of contaminate. Often such devices are subject to
multiple interferences. Electronic devices need to be calibrated before and after use to
ensure the accuracy of the measurements taken and often require a system of certifying
the Precision of the instrument.
 Dust Sampling

Nuisance dust is considered to be the total dust in air including Inhalable and Respirable
fractions.Various dust sampling methods exist that are internationally recognised.
Inhalable dust is determined using the modern equivalent of the Institute of
Occupational Medicine (IOM) MRE 113A monitor (See section on Workplace exposure,
measurement & modelling). Inhalable dust is considered to be dust of less than 100
micrometers Aerodynamic Equivalent Diameter (AED) that enters through the nose and
or mouth.Respirable dust is sampled using a 'cyclone' dust sampler design to sample for
a specific fraction of dust AED at a set flow rate. The respirable dust fraction is dust that
enters the 'deep lung' and is considered to be less than 10 micrometers AED.Nuisance,
Inhalable and Respirable dust fractions are all sampled using a constant volumetric
pump for a specific sampling period. By knowing the mass of the sample collected and
the volume of air sampled a concentration for the fraction sampled can be given in
milligrams (mg) per metre cubed (m3). From such samples the amount of Inhalable or
Respirable dust can be determined and compared to the relevant Occupational
exposure limits.By use of Inhalable, respirable or other suitable sampler (7 hole, 5 hole,
et cetera) these dust sampling methods can also used to determine metal exposure in
the air. This requires collection of the sample on a Methyl-Cellulose Ester (MCE) filter
and acid digestion of the collection media in the laboratory followed by measuring
metal concentration though an Atomic Absorption (or Emission) Spectrophotometery.
Both the UK HSE [4] and NIOSH NMAM [5] have specific methodologies for a broad
range of metals in air found in industrial processing (smelting, foundries, et cetera).A
further method exists for the determination of asbestos, fibreglass, synthetic mineral
fibre and ceramic mineral fibre dust in air. This is the Membrane Filter Method (MFM)
and requires the collection of the dust on a grided filter for estimation of exposure by
the counting of 'conforming' fibres in 100 fields through a microscope. Results are
quantified on the basis of number of fibres per millilitre of air (f/ml). Many countries
strictly regulate the methodology applied to the MFM.

 Chemical Sampling

Two types of chemically absorbent tubes are used to sample for a wide range of
chemical substances. Traditionally a chemical absorbent 'tube' (a glass or stainless steel
tube of between 2 and 10 mm internal diameter) filled with very fine absorbent silica
 (hydophylic) or carbon, such as coconut charcoal (lypophylic), is used in a sampling line
where air is drawn through the absorbent material for between 4 hours (minimum
workplace sample) to 24 hours (environmental sample) period. The hydrophylic material
readily absorbs water soluble chemical and the lypophylic material absorbs non water
soluble materials. The absorbent material is then chemically or physically extracted and
measurements performed using various Gas Chromatograph or Mass Spectometry
methods. These absorbent tube methods have the advantage of being usable for a wide
range of potential contaminates. However, they are relatively expensive methods, time
consuming and require significant expertise in sampling and chemical analysis. A
frequent complaint of workers is in having to wear the sampling pump (up to 1 kg) for
several days of work to provide adequate data for the required statistical certainty
determination of the exposure.In the last few decades advances have being made in
'passive' badge technology. These samplers can now be purchased to measure one
chemical (e.g. formaldehyde) or a chemical type (e.g. ketones) or a broad spectrum of
chemicals (e.g. solvents). They are relatively easy to set up and use. However,
considerable cost can still be incurred in analysis of the 'badge'. They weigh 20 to 30
grams and workers do not complain about their presence. Unfortunately 'badges' may
not exist for all types of workplace sampling that may be required and the charcoal or
silica method may sometimes have to be applied.From the sampling method results are
expressed in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) or Parts Per Million (PPM) and
compared to the relevant Occupational exposure limits.It is a critical part of the
exposure determination that the method of sampling for the specific contaminate
exposure is directly linked to the exposure standard used. Many countries regulate both
the exposure standard, the method used to determine the exposure and the methods to
be used for chemical or other analysis of the samples collected.

Industrial hygiene - 5S housekeeping

5S is the acronym for 5 Japanese words; Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu and Shi tsuke. It is the Japanese
Technique of Good Housekeeping and Workplace Organization. Although the concept of 5S is
deceptively simple, implementing and sustaining 5S is not easy; and many of our clients have found that
engaging the services of a committed and experienced consultant can go a long way to prevent and
overcome the difficulties of 5S implementation. 

If there were a simple, inexpensive system available for any factory floor to reduce waste, improve
productivity, quality and safety, help it retain good employees, and contribute considerably to the bottom
line year after year, it is 5S Housekeeping.

It is a structured, systematized approach to housekeeping and a cornerstone of any world class

manufacturing operation. Most manufacturing professionals can walk into a facility and in a matter of
minutes make a reasonable judgment about the degree of efficiency with which it can produce quality
products. This judgment is derived primarily from observation of the cleanliness or the clutter of the plant.

After all, if a company cannot successfully conduct housekeeping activities its customers might
reasonably assume that it would struggle to deliver even mildly complex products on time.

Additionally, a 5S program is a great way to get a continuous improvement effort off to a flying start.

As the name suggests there are five steps to the 5S system. They corresponded originally to five
Japanese words starting with 'S' but now are most commonly known as: sort, set in order, shine,
standardise and sustain.

1. Sort 
The first step in the 5S program is to get rid of excess materials and equipment lying around your factory
gathering dust and just taking up space. This is achieved by an exercise called 'red-tagging'.

Take some brightly coloured tags and tag everything not necessary for getting the job done. For doubtful
items create a 'holding area' and put them there after they have been tagged. Any items that have not
been used after a certain time (e.g. six months) can then be discarded.

After tagging is completed, analyse the findings. Ask yourself questions such as:
a) Why is this tag here and what can be done to prevent it from reappearing?
b) Why did we order so much more than we needed?

Document all items tagged as well as the corrective and preventive actions taken. Following this analysis,
items with no value or future need should be discarded. Decide the maximum number of any type of item
to be retained.

2. Set in Order
The second step is to ensure that all materials, tools and equipment have a designated location and that
all such locations are easy to find. This can be achieved through visual workplace principles and simple
systems. Having removed the clutter through your sort efforts you can straighten up the facility by:
a) making some layout changes, such as creating work cells; 
b) clearly marking shelves and bins for inventory and tool locations;
c) creating tool boards;
d) painting aisles and zones for work or storage on the floor;
e) keeping everything in its designated location (this can also assist with quantity control by not
generating more than a receiving area can handle.

3. Shine
This third step is sometimes referred to as 'sweep' or 'scrub'. It emphasises the removal of dirt, grime and
dust from the factory, and its purpose includes improving morale and ensuring that when someone needs
to use an item it is in good condition and ready for use. This goes beyond removal of swarf or a quick
brushing-off of a machine. It includes activities such as:
a) painting machines after cleaning;
b) removing cobwebs from the ceilings;
c) painting walls, ceilings and floors in bright colours.

A 5S schedule posted in the factory shows who is responsible for cleaning which areas on which days
and at what time/s of the day.

4. Standardise
Step four is to establish standards to be regularly applied to the workplace that will help maintain the first
three steps (3S). If you apply the first three steps as a one-off or even as an annual event, the benefits
are likely to be minimal at best; you need to implement a program to ensure its ongoing success.

Some components of standardise include: 

a) developing a 3S schedule;
b) assigning responsibilities;
c) formulating work-in-progress/inventory rules;
d) establishing cleaning procedures;
e) developing maintenance schedules;
f) colour coding containers, shelves, labels etc.

Key parts of this step are assigning 3S responsibilities, integrating 3S duties into regular work duties,
checking on 3S maintenance and prevention.
5. Sustain
The fifth step is to make a habit of maintaining the momentum of the previous four steps to assure
sustainability of the system. This step involves people and cultural issues: it is critical for 5S success to:
a) build an awareness of how important 5S is;
b) allow enough time for 5S activities;
c) have management support staff efforts in terms of acknowledgment, leadership and resources;
d) reward and recognise efforts of staff;
e) develop a sense of satisfaction and excitement amongst staff by discussing the benefits, such as
improved morale and safety and recognition that it’s now a better place to work.

Sustainable implementation of 5S requires the support of top management; the system needs to become
habitual - ingrained into the culture of the organisation.