History: Locating The Epicenter

In
seismology an isoseismal map is used to show lines of equal felt seismic intensity, generally
measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. Such maps help to identify earthquake epicenters, particularly
where no instrumental records exist, such as for historical earthquakes. They also contain important
information on ground conditions at particular locations, the underlying geology, radiation pattern of
the seismic waves and the response of different types of buildings. They form an important part of the
macroseismic approach, i.e. that part of seismology dealing with non-instrumental data. The shape and
size of the isoseismal regions can be used to help determine the magnitude, focal depth and focal
mechanism of an earthquake.
History
The first isoseismal map appears to have been produced for an earthquake in the Rhineland by Egen in
1828, who also proposed a simple six-level intensity scale.[3][4] Robert Mallet coined the term 'isoseismal'
and produced a map for the 1857 Great Neapolitan Earthquake with a threefold intensity scale and used
this and other information to identify the epicentral area (a term he also coined).[5]Later studies made use
of similar techniques, the main changes being to the actual seismic intensity scale employed.
Use
[edit]Locating the epicenter
In most earthquakes the isoseismals define a single clear area of maximum intensity which is known as
the epicentral area. In some earthquakes there is more than one maximum because of the effect of
ground conditions or complexities in the rupture propagation and other information is required to identify
which contains the epicenter.
[edit]Measuring the magnitude

The magnitude of an earthquakes can be roughly estimated by measuring the area affected by intensity
level III or above in square kilometres and taking the logarithm.[1] This allows magnitudes to be estimated
for historical earthquakes.
[edit]Estimating the focal depth

The depth to the hypocenter can be estimated by comparing the sizes of different isoseismal areas. In
shallow earthquakes the line are close together while in deep events the lines are spread further apart.[6]
[edit]Confirming the focal mechanism

Focal mechanisms are routinely calculated using teleseismic data but an ambiguity remains as there are
always two potential fault planes. The shape of the areas of highest intensity are generally elongate along
the direction of the active fault plane.
A response spectrum is simply a plot of the peak or steady-state response (displacement, velocity or
acceleration) of a series of oscillators of varying natural frequency, that are forced into motion by the
same base vibration or shock. The resulting plot can then be used to pick off the response of
any linear system, given its natural frequency of oscillation. One such use is in assessing the peak
response of buildings to earthquakes. The science of strong ground motion may use some values from
the ground response spectrum (calculated from recordings of surface ground motion from seismographs)
for correlation with seismic damage.
If the input used in calculating a response spectrum is steady-state periodic, then the steady-state result
is recorded. Damping must be present, or else the response will be infinite. For transient input (such as
seismic ground motion), the peak response is reported. Some level of damping is generally assumed, but
a value will be obtained even with no damping.
Response spectra can also be used in assessing the response of linear systems with multiple modes
of oscillation (multi-degree of freedom systems), although they are only accurate for low levels of
damping. Modal analysis is performed to identify the modes, and the response in that mode can be
picked from the response spectrum. This peak response is then combined to estimate a total response. A
typical combination method is the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) if the modal frequencies
are not close. The result is typically different from that which would be calculated directly from an input,
since phase information is lost in the process of generating the response spectrum.
The main limitation of response spectra is that they are only universally applicable for linear systems.
Response spectra can be generated for non-linearsystems, but are only applicable to systems with the
same non-linearity, although attempts have been made to develop non-linear seismic design spectra with
wider structural application. The results of this cannot be directly combined for multi-mode response.
Response spectra are very useful tools of earthquake engineering for analyzing the performance
of structures and equipment in earthquakes, since many behave principally as simple oscillators (also
known as single degree of freedom systems). Thus, if you can find out the natural frequency of the
structure, then the peak response of the building can be estimated by reading the value from the ground
response spectrum for the appropriate frequency. In most building codes in seismic regions, this value
forms the basis for calculating the forces that a structure must be designed to resist (seismic analysis).
As mentioned earlier, the ground response spectrum is the response plot done at the free surface of the
earth. Significant seismic damage may occur if the building response is 'in tune' with components of the
ground motion (resonance), which may be identified from the response spectrum. This was observed in
the 1985 Mexico City Earthquake [1] where the oscillation of the deep-soil lake bed was similar to the
natural frequency of mid-rise concrete buildings, causing significant damage. Shorter (stiffer) and taller
(more flexible) buildings suffered less damage.
In 1941 at Caltech, George W. Housner began to publish calculations of response spectra

from accelerographs[2]. In the 1982 EERI Monograph on "Earthquake Design and Spectra"[3], Newmark
and Hall describe how they developed an "idealized" seismic response spectrum based on a range of
response spectra generated for available earthquake records. This was then further developed into a
design response spectrum for use in structural design, and this basic form (with some modifications) is
now the basis for structural design in seismic regions throughout the world (typically plotted against
structural "period", the inverse of frequency). A nominal level of damping is assumed (5% of critical
damping).
For "regular" low-rise buildings, the structural response to earthquakes is characterized by the
fundamental mode (a "waving" back-and-forth), and most building codes permit design forces to be
calculated from the design spectrum on the basis of that frequency, but for more complex structures,
combination of the results for many modes (calculated through modal analysis) is often required. In
extreme cases, where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in
disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex analysis
is required, such as non-linear static or dynamic analysis like in seismic performance analysis technique
Early warning
An earthquake warning system is a system of accelerometers,
communication, computers, and alarms that is devised for regional
notification of a substantial earthquake while it is in progress. Japan,
Taiwan and Mexico all have earthquake early-warning systems.
In a paper in the journal Nature, Richard Allen of the University of
California claims that the distinction between small and large
earthquakes can be made from the very first seconds of seismic energy
recorded by seismometers, though other scientists are not convinced.
[62]
If correct this may make earthquake early warning (as distinct from
prediction) more powerful. Earthquake early warning provides an alarm
that strong shaking is due soon to arrive, and the more quickly that the
magnitude of an earthquake can be estimated, the more useful is the
early warning. However, earthquake early warning can still be effective
without the ability to infer the magnitude of an earthquake in its initial
second or two.
Animal behavior
Animal behavior reports are often ambiguous and not consistently
observed. In folklore, some animals have been identified as being more
able to predict earthquakes than others, especially dogs, cats, chickens,
horses, toads and other smaller animals.
It has been postulated that the reported animal behavior before an
earthquake is simply their response to an increase in low-
frequency electromagnetic signals.[71] The University of Colorado has
demonstrated that electromagnetic activity can be generated by the
fracturing of crystalline rock. Such activity occurs in fault lines before
earthquakes. According to one study, electromagnetic sensors yield
statistically valid results in predicting earthquakes.[72]
In Italy, findings from 2009 suggest that toads are able to detect pre-
seismic cues.[73]
[edit]

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[edit]Measuring the magnitude

[edit]Estimating the focal depth

[edit]Confirming the focal mechanism

In 1941 at Caltech, George W. Housner began to publish calculations of response spectra

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