CHAPTER 5: Radio Wave Propagation

5.1 Introduction
Radio waves are one form of electromagnetic radiation. They have the lowest frequency, and hence
the longest wavelengths. Above the radio spectrum, other forms of radiation can be found. These
include infra red radiation, light, ultraviolet and a number of other forms of radiation. Although they
have different names, and they are often thought of as different entities, they are all forms of
electromagnetic wave. The only fundamental difference is the wavelength / frequency. As a result of
this difference they act in slightly different ways, and they may be used for different purposes. For
example infra-red radiation may be used for heating, while light is used for illuminating areas and
visibly seeing things. Nevertheless they are all fundamentally the same.

The different types of electromagnetic wave and their relative frequencies and wavelengths may be
displayed on what is often termed the electromagnetic spectrum. This covers radio waves at the
lower end with the lowest frequencies and longest wavelengths to infra-red, light and ultraviolet
radiation and extending further up in frequency to radiation such as gamma and x-rays.

While the whole of the electromagnetic wave spectrum covers a huge range of frequencies, radio
waves themselves extend over a very large range as well. Again it is useful to be able to easily refer
to different sections of the spectrum. To achieve this different designations are given to different
areas. The frequencies that are covered are split into sections that vary by a factor of ten, e.g. from 3
MHz to 30 MHz. Each section is allocated a name such as high frequency and these areas are
abbreviated to give terms like HF, VHF and so forth that are often used. Often talk is heard of VHF
FM, or UHF television. The VHF and UHF refer to the areas of the radio spectrum where these
transmissions take place.

It can be seen from the diagram that transmissions in the long wave broadcast band which extends
from 140.5 to 283.5 kHz available in some parts of the world falls into the low frequency or LF
portion of the spectrum. There are also a number of other types of transmission which are made
here. For example there are a number of navigational beacons which transmit on frequencies around
100 kHz or less.

Moving up in frequency, the medium wave broadcast band falls into the medium frequency or MF
portion of the spectrum. Above this broadcast band is often where the lowest frequency short wave
bands start. Here there is an amateur radio band together with allocations for maritime
communications.

Between 3 and 30 MHz is the high frequency or HF portion. Within this frequency range lie the real
short wave bands. Signals from all over the world can be heard. Broadcasters, radio amateurs and a
host of others use them.

Moving up further the very high frequency or VHF part of the spectrum is encountered. This
contains a large number of mobile users. "Radio Taxis" and the like have allocations here, as do the
familiar VHF FM broadcasts.
In the ultra high frequency or UHF part of the spectrum most of the terrestrial television stations are
located. In addition to these there are more mobile users including the increasingly popular cellular
telephones.

Above this in the super high frequency or SHF and extremely high frequency or EHF portions of
the spectrum there are many uses for the radio spectrum. They are being used increasingly for
commercial satellite and point to point communications.

Importance for propagation

For many terrestrial applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then its
polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change
the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected
signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it usually remains broadly
the same. When reflections take place from the ionosphere, then greater changes may occur.

In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical polarisation.
For example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation because ground
wave propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical polarisation, whereas
horizontal polarisation shows a marginal improvement for long distance communications using the
ionosphere. Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite communications as there are some
advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the fading caused if the satellite is changing
its orientation.

RF propagation

Radio signals can travel over vast distances. However radio signals are affected by the medium in
which they travel and this can affect the radio propagation or RF propagation and the distances over
which the signals can propagate. Some radio signals can travel or propagate around the globe,
whereas other radio signals may only propagate over much shorter distances.

Radio propagation, or the way in which radio signals travel can be an interesting topic to study. RF
propagation is a particularly important topic for any radio communications system. The radio
propagation will depend on many factors, and the choice of the radio frequency will determine
many aspects of radio propagation for the radio communications system.
Radio propagation definition

Radio propagation is the way radio waves travel or propagate when they are transmitted from one
point to another and affected by the medium in which they travel and in particular the way they
propagate around the Earth in various parts of the atmosphere.

Factors affecting radio propagation

There are many factors that affect the way in which radio signals or radio waves propagate. These
are determined by the medium through which the radio waves travel and the various objects that
may appear in the path. The properties of the path by which the radio signals will propagate governs
the level and quality of the received signal.

Reflection, refraction and diffraction may occur. The resultant radio signal may also be a
combination of several signals that have travelled by different paths. These may add together or
subtract from one another, and in addition to this the signals travelling via different paths may be
delayed causing distorting of the resultant signal. It is therefore very important to know the likely
radio propagation characteristics that are likely to prevail.

The distances over which radio signals may propagate varies considerably. For some radio
communications applications only a short range may be needed. For example a Wi-Fi link may only
need to be established over a distance of a few metres. On the other hand a short wave broadcast
station, or a satellite link would need the radio waves to travel over much greater distances. Even
for these last two examples of the short wave broadcast station and the satellite link, the radio
propagation characteristics would be completely different, the signals reaching their final
destinations having been affected in very different ways by the media through which the signals
have travelled.

5.2 Types of radio propagation

There are a number of categories into which different types of RF propagation can be placed. These
relate to the effects of the media through which the signals propagate.

5.2.1 Ground Wave Propagation

The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in free space may be
divided in to the following categories −

i. Ground wave Propagation(VLF, LF, MF)

2. Space wave Propagation(HF, VHF, UHF)
3. Ionospheric Propagation(2MHz-30MHz)

In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth, and
the ionosphere act as a wave guide for electromagnetic wave propagation.

In these frequency ranges, communication signals practically propagate around the world. The
channel band widths are small. Therefore, the information is transmitted through these channels has
slow speed and confined to digital transmission.

Ground wave propagation(2MHz)

Ground wave propagation is particularly important on the LF and MF portion of the radio spectrum.
Ground wave radio propagation is used to provide relatively local radio communications coverage,
especially by radio broadcast stations that require to cover a particular locality.

ground wave radio signal is made up from a number of constituents. If the antennas are in the line
of sight then there will be a direct wave as well as a reflected signal. As the names suggest the direct
signal is one that travels directly between the two antenna and is not affected by the locality. There
will also be a reflected signal as the transmission will be reflected by a number of objects including
the earth's surface and any hills, or large buildings. That may be present.
In addition to this there is surface wave. This tends to follow the curvature of the Earth and enables
coverage to be achieved beyond the horizon. It is the sum of all these components that is known as
the ground wave.

Beyond the horizon the direct and reflected waves are blocked by the curvature of the Earth, and the
signal is purely made up from the diffracted surface wave. It is for this reason that surface wave is
commonly called ground wave propagation.
Surface wave

The radio signal spreads out from the transmitter along the surface of the Earth. Instead of just
travelling in a straight line the radio signals tend to follow the curvature of the Earth. This is
because currents are induced in the surface of the earth and this action slows down the wave-front
in this region, causing the wave-front of the radio communications signal to tilt downwards towards
the Earth. With the wave-front tilted in this direction it is able to curve around the Earth and be
received well beyond the horizon.

Effect of frequency on ground wave propagation

As the wavefront of the ground wave travels along the Earth's surface it is attenuated. The degree of
attenuation is dependent upon a variety of factors. Frequency of the radio signal is one of the major
determining factor as losses rise with increasing frequency. As a result it makes this form of
propagation impracticable above the bottom end of the HF portion of the spectrum (3 MHz).
Typically a signal at 3.0 MHz will suffer an attenuation that may be in the region of 20 to 60 dB
more than one at 0.5 MHz dependent upon a variety of factors in the signal path including the
distance. In view of this it can be seen why even high power HF radio broadcast stations may only
be audible for a few miles from the transmitting site via the ground wave.

Effect of the ground

The surface wave is also very dependent upon the nature of the ground over which the signal
travels. Ground conductivity, terrain roughness and the dielectric constant all affect the signal
attenuation. In addition to this the ground penetration varies, becoming greater at lower frequencies,
and this means that it is not just the surface conductivity that is of interest. At the higher frequencies
this is not of great importance, but at lower frequencies penetration means that ground strata down
to 100 metres may have an effect.

Despite all these variables, it is found that terrain with good conductivity gives the best result. Thus
soil type and the moisture content are of importance. Salty sea water is the best, and rich
agricultural, or marshy land is also good. Dry sandy terrain and city centres are by far the worst.
This means sea paths are optimum, although even these are subject to variations due to the
roughness of the sea, resulting on path losses being slightly dependent upon the weather! It should
also be noted that in view of the fact that signal penetration has an effect, the water table may have
an effect dependent upon the frequency in use.
APPLICATION

1.Submarine Communication

2.AM ,FM and television broadcasting

5.2.2 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION(2-30MHz)

Propagation takes place for Medium and high frequencies of 2 to 30 Mhz.Reflection from the
ionized region in the upper atmosphere called Ionosphere (50Km to 400Km above earth surface).
Ionosphere – act as a reflected surface . More than 30 MHz- not reflected & penetrate into
Ionosphere.
Refection from Ionosphere –called as ionosphere propagation.
➢ Suitable for 2 to 30 MHz- called as short wave propagation.
➢  Long distance point to point communication- called as point to point propagation.
➢  Possible with multiple reflectionextremely long distance communication.
Within the ionosphere, the recombination of the ions and electrons proceeds slowly enough (due to
low gas densities) so that some free electrons persist even throughout the night. In practice, the
ionosphere has a lower limit of 50 to 70 km and no distinct upper limit, although 1000 km is
somewhat arbitrarily set as the upper limit for most application purposes.

The presence of free electrons in the ionosphere produces the reflecting regions important to High

Frequency (HF) radio-wave propagation. In the principal regions, between the approximate heights

of 75 km and 500 km, the electrons are produced by the ionising effect of ultraviolet light and soft

x-rays from the sun. for convenience in studies of radio-wave propagation, the ionosphere is

divided into three regions defined according to height and ion distribution: the D,E, and F regions.

Each region is subdivided into layers called the D,E, Es, F1, and F2 layers, also according to height

and ion distribution. These are not distinctly separated layers, but rather overlapping regions of

ionisation that vary in thickness from a few kilometres to hundreds of kilometres. The number of

layers, their heights, and their ionisation (electron) density vary both geographically and with time.

At HF, all the regions are important and must be considered in predicting the operational parameters

of radio communication circuits.

Using HF propagation via the ionosphere, radio signals can be heard around the globe – it was this
form of communication that first opened up many global links to inaccessible regions, and also
enabled international broadcasting.

HF propagation using the ionosphere was also used for ships, although they now utilise satellite
communications.

When using HF propagation via the ionosphere, the radio signals leave the transmitter on Earth's
surface and travel towards the ionosphere where some of these are returned to Earth.

Duct propagation

Under some conditions radio signals may be heard over distances of 2000 or more kilometres with
distances of 3000 kilometres being possible on rare occasions. This can give rise to significant
levels of interference for periods of time.

These extended distances result from much greater changes in the values of refractive index over
the signal path. This enables the signal to achieve a greater degree of bending and as a result follow
the curvature of the Earth over greater distances.

Under some circumstances the change in refractive index may be sufficiently high to bend the
signals back to the Earth's surface at which point they are reflected upwards again by the Earth's
surface. In this way the signals may travel around the curvature of the Earth, being reflected by its
surface. This is one form of "tropospheric duct" that can occur.

It is also possible for tropospheric ducts to occur above the Earth's surface. These elevated
tropospheric ducts occur when a mass of air with a high refractive index has a mass of air with a
lower refractive index underneath and above it as a result of the movement of air that can occur
under some conditions. When these conditions occur the signals may be confined within the
elevated area of air with the high refractive index and they cannot escape and return to earth. As a
result they may travel for several hundred miles, and receive comparatively low levels of
attenuation. They may also not audible to stations underneath the duct and in this way create a skip
or dead zone similar to that experienced with HF ionospheric propagation.

APPLIATION OF SPACE WAVES:

1.Radar communication

2.Microwave linking

3.Mobile systems and satellite systems.

Virtual Height

When a wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, but not sharply. However, the path of incident
wave and reflected wave are same if it is reflected from a surface located at a greater height of this
layer. Such a greater height is termed as virtual height.

The figure clearly distinguishes the virtual height (height of wave, supposed to be reflected) and
actual height (the refracted height). If the virtual height is known, the angle of incidence can be
found.
Critical Frequency

Critical frequency for a layer determines the highest frequency that will be returned down to the
earth by that layer, after having been beamed by the transmitter, straight up into the sky.

The rate of ionization density, when changed conveninetly through the layers, the wave will be bent
downwards. The maximum frequency that gets bent and reaches the receiver station with minimum
attenuation, can be termed as critical frequency. This is denoted by fcr.

Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

Though critical frequency represents highest frequency which is reflected back from the layer at
vertical incidence; it is not highest frequency which is reflected from the layer.

The highest frequency which can be reflected depends on angle of incidence and on distance
between transmitter and receiver antennas.

Critical frequency
MUF= =f c sec θ
cos θ
As mentioned in the MUF formula, it depends on critical frequency and angle of incidence. MUF
(Maximum Usable Frequency) is the maximum frequency which can be reflected for given distance
of transmission.

MUF is usually 3 to 4 times of critical frequency.

Skip Distance

The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a radio signal is
transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the ionosphere, and been refracted
back by the ionosphere.
Skip zone

The skip zone, which may also be called a silent zone or dead zone, is a region where a radio
transmission can not be received. The skip zone is the region between the point where the ground
wave signals can no longer be heard and the point where the skywave first returns to Earth.

Lowest Usable Frequency, LUF

As the frequency of a transmission is reduced further reflections from the ionosphere may be
needed, and the losses from the D layer increase. These two effects mean that there is a frequency
below which radio communications between two stations will be lost. In fact the Lowest Usable
Frequency (LUF) is defined as the frequency at below which the signal falls below the minimum
strength required for satisfactory reception.

From this it can be seen that the LUF is dependent upon the stations at either end of the path. Their
antennas, receivers, transmitter powers, the level of noise in the vicinity, and so forth all affect the
LUF. The type of modulation used also has an effect, because some types of modulation can be
copied at lower strengths than others. In other words the LUF is the practical limit below which
communication cannot be maintained between two particular radio communications stations.

Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)

The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely on with the least amount of
problems. It should be high enough to avoid the problems of multipath, absorption, and noise
encountered at the lower frequencies; but not so high as to result in the adverse effects of rapid
changes in the ionosphere.

A frequency that meets the above criteria is known as the Optimum Working Frequency. It is
abbreviated "FOT" from the French "fréquence optimum de travail." The FOT is roughly 85 percent
of the MUF, but the actual percentage varies.

Structure of Atmosphere

It is necessary to study the medium above the earth, through which the radio waves propagate.

The atmosphere consists of three regions

➢ Troposphere

➢ Ionosphere

➢ Outer atmosphere

D-layer

➢ Region below E layer

➢ Responsible for attenuation of high frequency in day time.

➢ Lower most region of Ionosphere.

➢ Height range of 50 km to 90 km.

➢ Present at day

➢ Disappears at night

➢ Critical frequency is 100 KHz.

➢ Electron density is ranging from 1014 to 1016 per cm3

➢  Reflecting – VLF Signals.

➢  Absorbing – HF signals.

➢  Ionization increases with solar activity.

E-layer

➢  Layer occurs during day light hours.

➢  Electron density

➢  Day – 105 to 4.5x105 per cm3 and Night – 5x103 to 104 per cm3

➢  Max electron density at noon & summer(at 110 km)

➢  Useful in long distance communication in day hours

➢  Height range from 90 to 140 km.

➢  Critical frequency – 3 MHz to 5 MHz.

➢  Also known as Kennelly Heaviside layer.

F-layer

➢ Height- 140 km to 400 km from earth surface.

➢ Top most layer & highly ionized layer.

➢ Remains ionized irrespective of hours.

➢ Critical frequency is 5MHz to 7MHz.

➢ During day, F layer is found to split up into two layers called,

 F1 Layer

 F2 Layer

F1 Layer F2 Layer
Upper most region Upper most region(above F1)
Height – 140 km to 250 km. Height – 250km to 400 km
Critical frequency at noon – 5 MHz to 7 MHz Critical frequency at noon – 10 MHz to 12 MHz
5 5 3
Electron Density – 2x10 to 4.5x 10 per cm Electron Density – 3x105 to 2x 106 per cm3
Formed by ionization of Oxygen atoms. Formed by ionization of UV & X rays.
More absorption of HF waves. More important reflecting medium for HF Radio
Waves.

5.2.3 SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

These waves occur within the lower 20 km of the atmosphere i.e.troposphere .

In this mode of wave propagation electromagnetic waves after transmitted from transmitting
antenna reaches the receiving antenna either directly or after reflection from earth’s surface and
tropospheric region. i.e., direct wave and ground reflected wave or indirect wave.

On frequencies above 30 MHz, it is found that the troposphere has an increasing effect on radio
signals and radio communications systems. The radio signals are able to travel over greater
distances than would be suggested by line of sight calculations. At times conditions change and
radio signals may be detected over distances of 500 or even 1000 km and more. This is normally by
a form of tropospheric enhancement, often called "tropo" for short. At times signals may even be
trapped in an elevated duct in a form of radio signal propagation known as tropospheric ducting.
This can disrupt many radio communications links (including two way radio communications links)
because interference may be encountered that is not normally there. As a result when designing a
radio communications link or network, this form of interference must be recognised so that steps
can be taken to minimise its effects.

The way in which signals travel at frequencies of VHF and above is of great importance for those
looking at radio coverage of systems such as cellular telecommunications, mobile radio
communications and other wireless systems as well as other users including radio hams.
Line of sight radio communications

It might be thought that most radio communications links at VHF and above follow a line of sight
path. This is not strictly true and it is found that even under normal conditions radio signals are able
to travel or propagate over distances that are greater than the line of sight.

The reason for the increase in distance travelled by the radio signals is that they are refracted by
small changes that exist in the Earth's atmosphere close to the ground. It is found that the refractive
index of the air close to the ground is very slightly higher than that higher up. As a result the radio
signals are bent towards the area of higher refractive index, which is closer to the ground. It thereby
extends the range of the radio signals.

The refractive index of the atmosphere varies according to a variety of factors. Temperature,
atmospheric pressure and water vapour pressure all influence the value. Even small changes in these
variables can make a significant difference because radio signals can be refracted over whole of the
signal path and this may extend for many kilometres.

Figure : Line-of-sight
Let h₁ is the transmitting antenna height above the ground, is the transmitting antenna height above the ground,

h2 is the treceiving antenna height above the ground,

R= 6371 km is the mean Earth radius.

From the above figure, it is clear that

d 21=(R+h1 )2−R2

d 21=2 Rh1+ h21

for h1 ≪R

d 1=√ 2 Rh1

and
d 22=(R+h2 )2−R2

d 22=2 Rh2+ h22

for h2 ≪R

d 2=√ 2 Rh2

Hence d=d1 + d2

i.e. d= √2 Rh1 + √ 2 Rh2

The equations above do not take into account the effect of the atmosphere on the propagation of
VHF and UHF signals. Because of the refractive effects of atmospheric layers with different
temperatures under normal conditions, RF signals propagate not in straight lines; they bend towards
the Earth surface and can propagate over the horizon. If we consider the effect of the atmosphere on
the propagation of RF signals, the Earth’s radius and hence the radio horizon can be increased by
the factor of 4/3 or about 33%. Therefore, we can rewrite the formula above as

4 8
3√
d 1= 2. Rh1= Rh
3 1 √
4 8
d 2= 2.
√ 3
Rh2= Rh
3 2 √
8 8
d=d1 + d2 =
√ 3
Rh1 + Rh
3 2 √