General Biology 2

Week 3 - Patterns of Descent with Modification

Evolution is an unending process that works round the clock. New species are formed as
time goes by, although there are periods in earth’s history that are characterized by unusual
bursts of evolutionary activity – at certain times, speciation (or the formation of new species); at
other times, extinction .
In your previous lesson, you are done with the mechanisms that produce change in
populations from generation to generation (e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic
drift, mutation, recombination).
Lesson 1: Evolution and Origin of Biodiversity: Patterns of Descent with Modification

Biological evolution is a powerful and important process. It is a process which, over

billions of years, gradually selects the organisms that are better adapted to their environment to
continuously change life and make all living organisms in our world the way they are today.
Evolution is not a finished event wherein humans are the final product.
Rather, it is a continuing process which has been changing and forming life on Earth for billions
of years, and continues to do so for as long as organisms are born, dying and competing for
what they need to survive and reproduce.
Core Concepts:

• Species - Ernst Mayer’s definition: “Species are groups of interbreeding natural

populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
- Is a closely related organism that are very similar and capable of producing fertile
offspring.
• Reproductive Isolating Mechanism

- The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms,

behaviors and physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different
species from producing offspring, or ensure that any offspring are sterile. These barriers
maintain the integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related species.
Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms
- prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
- happens before fertilization occurs between gametes.

1.1 Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation

occurs when two species that could interbreed do not because the species live in different areas.
The two species live in different habitats and will not encounter one another: each is isolated
from the other species.

Source: https://study.com/academy/lesson/reproductive-isolation-definition-types- examples.html

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Geographic+or+ecological+or+habitat+isolation&rl
z=1C1CHZN_enPH934PH934&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjHpbfi77PuAhVL
HqwKHZKnDyUQ_AUoAXoECBcQAw&biw=1366&bih=625#imgrc=p7TS1fGN4CFlzM
•1.2 Temporal or seasonal isolation

- different groups may not be reproductively mature. For example, two populations of
plants may produce flowers in different seasons, making mating between the
populations impossible.

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=Geographic+or+ecological+or+habitat+isolation&rl
z=1C1CHZN_enPH934PH934&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjHpbfi77PuAhVL
HqwKHZKnDyUQ_AUoAXoECBcQAw&biw=1366&bih=625#imgrc=p7TS1fGN4CFlzM

•1.3 Behavioral isolation

 - patterns of courtship is different. For example, eastern & western meadowlark songs
differ.

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Behavioral+isolation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKE
wiymLWl8LPuAhVmwJcIHew-ArkQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=Behavioral+isolation&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQQzICCAAyBAgAEEMy
AggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgQIABAeMgQIABAeMgQIABAeUJXOBViVzgVgwtIFaABwAHgAg
AGLAogBiwKSAQMyLTGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=-
AoNYLK8OuaA3_QP7P2IyAs&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPH934PH934#imgrc=YAKnbesjJrJKM

•1.4 Mechanical isolation

- differences in reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding. Mechanical
isolation occurs when mating is physically impossible.

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Mechanical+isolation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiviezC8rPu
AhX_B50JHVE7CEQQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=Mechanical+isolation&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQQzICCAA
yAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADIGCAAQCBAeMgYIABAIEB4yBggAEAgQHlCJ9QRYifUEYOj4BGgAcAB
4AIABiQKIAYkCkgEDMi0xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=Tw0NYO-lIf-
P9PwP0fagoAQ&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPH934PH934#imgrc=5lHIO6QWkEUbOM

•1.5 Gametic isolation

- incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization. Often this occurs
because the female immune system recognizes sperm as foreign and attacks it.

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Gametic+isolation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi
U2dXq8rPuAhUKGc0KHeafBXsQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=Gametic+isolation&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzICCAAyAggAM
gIIADIECAAQQzI CCAAyBggAEAgQHjIECAAQGDIECAAQGDIECAAQGDIECAAQGFCemAhY_akIYJ2tCGgAcA
B4BIABmAKIAYsOkgEDMi03mAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWewAQDAAQE&sclient=img&
 ei=ow0NYNT7A4qytAbmv5bYBw&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CHZN_enPH934PH934#img
rc=BycjMerdXAyTxM

2. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms

- allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids are formed. In these
cases, the zygote formed is called a hybrid. However, even after a hybrid zygote forms,
reproduction may still not be successful.
2.1 Hybrid inviability

- fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonic stages. For example, when
tigers and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to develop but the pregnancy ends in
miscarriage
or stillborn.

Source: https://www.patnauniversity.ac. in/e-content/science/zoology/Isolating%20

mechanisms.pdf

2.1 Hybrid sterility

-their hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or

there is
abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. A
horse and a donkey may produce a hybrid offspring, a
mule. Mules are sterile

Source:://legacy.hopkinsville.kctcs.edu/instructor
s/JasonArnold/VLI/Module3Evolution/Module3Ev olution5.html

2.2 Hybrid breakdown

- F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but

F2 contains many weak or sterile individuals
 Source: https://www.slideshare.net/mooshoo1/14-lecture-presentation0

• Speciation - is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct

species. It is the process by which new species develop from existing species.
• Mode of Speciation

A. Allopatric Speciation (allo – other, patric – place; ‘other place’)

- A. Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation occurs when some members of a

population become geographically separated from the other members thereby preventing
gene flow. Examples of geographic barriers are bodies of water and mountain ranges.
 Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=snail+allopatric+speciation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUK
Ewjtgqj5gLTuAhUHhZ4KHapKAt8Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=snail+allopatric+speciation&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1AAWABg48EbaABwAHgAg
AEAiAEAkgEAmAEAqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWc&sclient=img&ei=bxwNYK2PNYeKgSqlYn4DQ&bih=625&biw=1366
&hl=en-US#imgrc=UA3aKbJCPuUHgM

B. Sympatric Speciation (sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’)

- occurs when members of a population that initially occupy the same habitat within the
same range diverge into two or more different species. It involves abrupt genetic changes
that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals. Example is
change in chromosome number (polyploidization).
Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=sympatric+speciation+orca&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUK
Ewi5ypuBg7TuAhUPmJ4KHbpVASYQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=sympatric+speciation+orca&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIGCA
AQCBAeMgQIABAYOg
QIABBDOgIIADoGCAAQBRAeUM9DWK1NYLxSaABwAHgAgAGWA4gBsw2SAQcyLTEuMy4xmA
EAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=mR4NYPmZE4-
wgS6q4WwAg&bih=625&biw=1366&hl=en-US#imgrc=ScAfhREiWzIdVM
C. Parapatric Speciation (para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’) - occurs when
the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow occurs
but with great distances is reduced. There is also abrupt change in the environment over
a geographic border and strong disruptive selection must also happen.

Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=Parapatric+Speciation+oriole&tbm=isch&ved=2ahU
KEwjN78usg7TuAhXEnJ4KHRdHAD4Q2cCegQIABAA&oq=Parapatric+Speciation+oriole&gs_lcp
=CgNpbWcQAzoCCAA6BAgAEEM6BAgAEB46BggAEAUQHjoGCAAQCBAeOgQIABAYUNHLAViD
5QFguf4BaABwAHgAgAGgA4gB-A-
SAQcyLTYuMC4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=9B4NYM2lEcS5gSXjoHwAw&bih=6
25&biw=1366&hl=en-US#imgrc=zQ2wBz2yy7aKDM
 Shown in the figure are the differences of the three models of speciation
(Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=models+of+speciation&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiH
l5W9g7TuAhVThJ4KHYOSAhgQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=models+of+speciation&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA
zIECAAQQzIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBAgAEBhQkp0EWJKdBGD7oARoAHAAeACAAZ0CiA
GdApIBAzItMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=Fx8NYMevAtOIgSDpYrAAQ&bih=625&
biw=1366&hl=en-US#imgrc=CZAiCe8woH9l1M)

Note: The present-day species evolved from earlier species and that the relatedness of
organisms is the result of common ancestry. This can be supported by morphological and
anatomical data, homology, biogeography, DNA and protein sequences (molecular data), and
embryology.

Lesson 2: Development of evolutionary thoughts

• Early scientists who contributed in shaping and developing evolutionary thought.

Carolus Linnaeus
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus)
• Swedish naturalist and explorer that was the first to frame principles for defining natural
genera and species of organisms and to create a uniform system for naming them, known as
binomial nomenclature.
•Linnaean System of Classification
❖ The most influential early classification system was developed by Carolus
Linnaeus. In fact, all modern classification systems have their roots in Linnaeus’
system. Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist who lived during the 1700s. He is
known as the “father of taxonomy.” Linnaeus tried to describe and classify the
entire known natural world. In 1735, he published his classification system in a
work called Systema Naturae (“System of Nature”).
❖ The taxa are below:
 o Kingdom - This is the highest taxon in Linnaean taxonomy, representing
major divisions of organisms. Kingdoms of organisms include the plant
and animal kingdoms.
o Phylum (plural, phyla) - This taxon is a division of a kingdom. Phyla in the
animal kingdom include chordates (animals with an internal skeleton) and
arthropods (animals with an external skeleton).
o Class - This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes in the chordate
phylum include mammals and birds.
o Order - This taxon is a division of a class. Orders in the mammal class
include rodents and primates.
o Family - This taxon is a division of an order. Families in the primate order
include hominids (apes and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons).
o Genus - This taxon is a division of a family. Genera in the hominid family
include Homo (humans) and Pan
(chimpanzees).
o Species - This taxon is below the genus and the lowest taxon in Linnaeus’
system. Species in the Pan genus include Pan troglodytes(common
chimpanzees) and Pan paniscus (pygmy chimpanzees).

Thomas Malthus
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus)

• An English cleric, scholar and influential economist in the fields of political economy and
demography.
• Author of the 1798 book, An Essay on the Principle of Population.
• He observed that an increase in a nation's food production improved the wellbeing of the
populace, but the improvement was temporary because it led to population growth, which in
turn restored the original per capita production level. In other words, humans had a
propensity to utilize abundance for population growth rather than for maintaining a high
standard of living, a view that has become known as the "Malthusian trap" or the "Malthusian
spectre". Populations had a tendency to grow until the lower class suffered hardship, want and
greater susceptibility to famine and disease, a view that is sometimes referred to as a
Malthusian catastrophe. Malthus wrote in opposition to the popular view in 18thcentury
Europe that saw society as improving and in principle as perfectible.

• Father of Paleontology
• Theory of Catastrophism = boundaries represent floods,
droughts, etc.
• that destroyed many species living at that time
• According to him, fossils are remains of extinct life forms

Georges Cuvier
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Cuvier)
 James Hutton
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton)

• Theory of Gradualism = Profound changes can result from cumulative effect of slow but
continuous processes.
• Proposed that the Earth was shaped by geological forces occurring over very long periods
of time, and is MILLIONS not THOUSANDS of years old.

Charles Lyell
(Source: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/717890/view/sir-charles-lyell-british-geologist)

• Principles of Geology = argued that the formation of Earth's crust took place through countless
small changes occurring over vast periods of time, all according to known natural laws. His
"uniformitarian" proposal was that the forces molding the planet today have operated
continuously throughout its history. He also wrongly assumed that these causes must have
acted only with the same intensities now observed, which would rule out asteroid impacts and
the like.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck)

• One of first scientists to recognize that living things changed over time and that all species
were descended from other species.
• Lamarckism
- He proposed that the characteristics that an animal acquired during its lifetime in
response to life’s struggles or felt needs could be passed on to its offspring
• 1809- Published his ideas about “Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics”

The inheritance of such a

characteristic means its reappearance in one or
more individuals in the next or in succeeding
generations. An example would be found in the
supposed inheritance of a change brought
about by the use and disuse of a special organ.
 Charles Darwin
(Source: https://www.thoughtco.com/interesting-facts-about-charles-darwin-1224479)
Evolution of Darwin’s Theory
• His voyage and his observations led him to write ‘The Origin of Species
• In 1831, 22-year old Charles Darwin left England as naturalist aboard the HMS
Beagle for 5 year voyage around the world. His mission is to chart the South
American coastline
•He noticed plants and animals were different from those he knew in Europe • He wrote
thousands of pages of observations and collected vast number of Specimens.
• He spent a month observing life on the Galapagos Islands and realized that each island has
different rainfall and vegetation and its own unique assortment of plant and animal species.
• He collected 14 species of finches and hypothesized that the Galapagos had be colonized by
organisms from the mainland that had then diversified on the various. • In 1859 , his book On
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection was published. It presented evidence
and proposed a mechanism for evolution that he called NATURAL SELECTION.
• It took Darwin years to form his theory of evolution by natural selection. His reasoning went
like this:
1.Like Lamarck, Darwin assumed that species can change over time. The fossils he found
helped convince him of that.
2. From Lyell, Darwin saw that Earth and its life were very old. Thus, there had
been enough time for evolution to produce the great diversity of life Darwin had
observed.
3. From Malthus, Darwin knew that populations could grow faster than their
resources. This “overproduction of offspring” led to a “struggle for existence,” in
Darwin’s words.
4. From artificial selection, Darwin knew that some offspring have variations that
occur by chance, and that can be inherited. In nature, offspring with certain variations
might be more likely to survive the “struggle for existence” and reproduce. If so, they
would pass their favorable variations to their offspring.
5. Darwin coined the term fitness to refer to an organism’s relative ability to
survive and produce fertile offspring. Nature selects the variations that are most
useful. Therefore, he called this type of selection natural selection.
6. Darwin knew artificial selection could change domestic species over time. He
inferred that natural selection could also change species over time. In fact, he thought
that if a species changed enough, it might evolve into a new species.

Week 4 -Evidence of Evolution

Pieces of Evidence for evolution
In the previous lessons, it is said that evolution is the process of change in species over time.
Some changes are easily visible. Other changes occur so gradually through time and are not
easily observed.
Darwin’s theory of evolution was eventually recognized when scientists were able to
supply verifications that Darwin himself had been unable to specify. Natural selection gives us
with an outline in understanding the ideologies of evolution. Darwin’s idea of evolution has been
improved by new evidence that have been gathered by modern scientists. Moreover still, modern
scientists are at an interminable expansion on collecting data and evidence that may verify or
invalidate the information about evolution of life that we have now. And these pieces of evidence
are significant in the field of biology.
 Previously, you have studied the patterns of descent with modification from our common
ancestor to the present organismal diversity. As well as you also have traced the development of
evolutionary thoughts from a few notable individuals in the field of evolution.

CONCRETE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION AND HOW TO INFER USING ITS EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP

A. Fossils

Fossils are preserved remnants of once living organisms trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen
in ice or embedded in amber. The most common fossils are bones, shells and seeds or pollen
grains. Most fossils are formed in sedimentary rock.
Paleontologists (a specialist in the study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or geologic
times), use the fossils found in rocks to track the evolutionary history of many organisms.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Fossilized shrimp. (b) Mammalian (peccary) fossil
Source: http://www.citruscollege.edu/lc/archive/biology/Pages/Chapter17-Rabitoy.aspx

By identifying the age of rocks in which fossils appear, we can obtain an accurate idea of
how old the fossils are. Geologists use Relative dating rocks were dated by their position with
respect to one another; rocks in deeper strata are generally older. On the other hand, in absolute
dating rocks are dated by measuring the degree of decay of certain radioisotopes contained in the
rock; the older the rock, the more its isotopes have decayed. Since radioactive isotopes decay at a
constant rate unchanged by temperature or pressure, the isotopes in a rock act as an internal
clock, determining the time after the rock was formed. Hence, the records found in the rocks
show a gradual evolutionary descent from simpler to more complex life forms. Furthermore, the
fossil record provides a clear record of the major evolutionary transitions that have
occurred through time.

B. Embryology

An embryo is an organism in its initial phases of development. While embryology is the study of
the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form also gives evidence of
relatedness between now widely different groups of organisms. Scientists observed that at some
point during the development process, embryos of many different animals appeared so similar
that it was difficult to tell them apart. During development, at some time all vertebrates have a
supporting dorsal rod, called a notochord, and demonstrate paired pharyngeal pouches. This
could indicate that an organism passes through some of the embryonic stages that its ancestors
passed through. Then numerous variations occur in ways appropriate to an organism’s final
form.
However, the similarities in the early stages of embryo development are further evidence
that living organisms have evolved from earlier living things and that they do share a
common ancestry.
 Figure 2. Vertebrate embryonic development
Source: http://www.geo.arizona.edu/Antevs/nats104/00lect12.html

C. Anatomical Evidence

In comparing the anatomy and the development of organisms, it shows a unity of plan
among those that are closely related. The more body structures that two species have in
common, the more closely they are related. It adopts the idea of “descent from a common
ancestor”.

Similar structures in different species irrespective of their functions are called homologous
structures. Homology seems to indicate descent from common ancestor. The limb skeletons of
vertebrates are homologous structures.

Figure 3. The limb skeletons of vertebrates are homologous structures.

Source: http://www.geo.arizona.edu/Antevs/nats104/00lect12.html

Analogous structures are structures which are different in appearance but have the
similar function. Analogy does not indicate common ancestry. Examples of are the limbs of
insects and mammals, and wings of butterflies and birds.

Figure 4. Analogy of bat & bird wings

Source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/ Analogy_of_forelimbs.htm
 Vestigial structures seem like to give more evidence for evolutionary change. Vestigial
structures are anatomical features that are usually reduced and have no function in many
organisms. These are organs that were previously functional in the ancestors of the species but
are only remnants in the present-day species. For example, skeletal extremities discovered in
certain snakes have no known use to these animals. In humans, appendix is thought to have no
use, but in other mammals it aids in the digestion of cellulose.
Table 1. Some Vestigial Organs in Man
Coccyx (tail bone) Appendix
Ear muscles for wiggling Wisdom teeth
D. Biochemical

Living organisms shared numerous related biochemical molecules, such as DNA, ATP, amino
acids, and enzymes. This finding supports descent from a common ancestor. The more closely
linked organisms are the more related is their biochemical genetic makeup.

1. DNA/Nucleic acids
Genes are located in the chromosomes, which are made of DNA or deoxyribonucleic
acid. The more closely related two living organisms are, the more similar the sequence
of their DNA molecules will be.

Figure 5. The phylogenetic tree of the hemogobin gene (with its branches) shows the number
of nucleotide changes that have occurred.
Source: https://evidenceforevolution13bio.weebly.com/biogeography.html

2. Proteins
Proteins are molecules that are used to
build up and repair body parts. Scientists
believe that the more similar the structure
of protein molecules of different organisms
is, the more related they are and the more
recent the existence of their
common ancestor. Unrelated species
have different amino acids.
Table 2. Cytochrome c
E. Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the geographic distributions of organisms. Darwin’s trip around
South America allowed him to observe the diversity of organisms in different areas and the
resemblance of such species of birds and tortoises in an island to nearby mainland. Darwin
believed that the group of organisms in each island is adapted to a distinct way of life. The
common ancestors of these organisms had come from one place, expanding out into other
accessible regions.

Figure 6. Pangolins share similar characteristics with anteaters and armadillos