COMPUTER NETWORKS-QUESTION BANK

UNIT II DATA-LINK LAYER & MEDIA ACCESS

Introduction – Link-Layer Addressing – DLC Services – Data-Link Layer Protocols – HDLC

– PPP - Media Access Control - Wired LANs: Ethernet - Wireless LANs – Introduction – IEEE
802.11,
Bluetooth – Connecting Devices.

2-Marks

1. What are the functions of MAC?

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It
contains synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications
necessary to move information from one place to another, as well as the
physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.

2. What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a multiple-access network, meaning that a set of nodes
send and receive frames over a shared link.
3. Define Repeater?
A repeater is a device that forwards digital signals, much like an
amplifier forwards analog signals. However, no more than four repeaters may be
position
. between any pairs of hosts, meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach of
only 2,500m.
4. Why Ethernet is said to be a I-persistent protocol?
An adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability „1 „whenever a busy line goes
idle.
5. What is exponential back off? (Nov 2016)
Once an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission, it
waits a certain amount of time and tries again. Each time it tries to transmit but
fails, the adaptor doubles the amount of time it waits before trying again. This
strategy of doubling the delay interval between each transmission attempt is a
general technique known as exponential back off.

6. What are the four prominent wireless technologies?

Bluetooth
Wi-Fi(formally known as 802.11)
WiMAX(802.16)
Third generation or 3G cellular wireless.

7. Define Bluetooth? (May 2016)

Bluetooth fills the niche of very short-range communication between
mobile phones, PDAs, notebook computers, and other personal or peripheral
devices. For example, Bluetooth can be used to connect mobile phones to a
headset, or a notebook computer to a printer.
8. Explain the term handoff?
If the phone is involved in a call at the time , the call must be transferred
to the new base station in what is called a hand off.

9. What is the use of Switch?

It is used to forward the packets between shared media LANs such as
Ethernet. Such switches are sometimes known by the obvious name of LAN
switches.

10. What is meant by circuit switching? (NOV/DEC 2010)

Circuit switching is a process that establishes connections on demand and
permits exclusive use of those connections until released.
11. What is Spanning tree?
It is for the bridges to select the ports over which they will forward
frames. A spanning tree is a subgraph of this graph that covers (spans) all the
vertices but contains no cycles. That is, a spanning tree keeps all of the vertices of
the original graph but throws out some of the edges

12. What are the three pieces of information in the configuration messages?
The ID for the bridge that is sending the message.
The ID for what the sending bridge believes to the root bridge.
The distance, measured in hops, from the sending bridge to the root bridge.

13. What is broadcast?

Broadcast is simple – each bridge forwards a frame with a destination
broadcast address out on each active (selected) port other than the one on which
the frame was received.
14.. What is multicast?
It can be implemented with each host deciding for itself whether or not to
accept the message.

15. How does a given bridge learn whether it should forward a multicast
frame over a given port?
It learns exactly the same way that a bridge learns whether it should
forward a unicast frame over a particular port- by observing the source addresses
that it receives over that port.

16. Differentiate fast Ethernet and gigabit Ethernet. (NOV/DEC 2012)

Fast Ethernet cards connect to networks at a rate of 100 Mbps while Gigabit
network cards can connect at speeds up to 1000mb/s. The main difference
between the two is speed. A fast Ethernet card can run on bandwidths at 100mb/s
while a gigabit Ethernet can run at ten times that speed. However, the existence of
FDDIs around made this technology more like a stepping stone to something
better – enter the gigabit card. Gigabit networks are made to run the best at Layer
3 switching meaning it has more route functionality than the 100mbs fast
Ethernet.
17. What is Transceiver?
Transceiver is a device which connects host adaptor to Ethernet Cable. It
receives and sends signal
18. What is the difference between switch and bridge? (NOV/DEC 2012)
Bridge Switch
 A bridge is device which operates at the A bridge with more than two interface
data link layer. It may be used to join two (ports)is also known as a switch
LAN segment(A,B),Constructing a larger
LAN
Bridges receive Ethernet frames then A switch, on the other hand ,forward the
forward all frames, like a repeater frame to only the required interfaces

Bridges learns the association between the The switch reduces the number the
system MAC addresses and the interface number of packets on the other LAN
ports. segments, by sending the packet only
where it need to go.

19. Define bridge and switch. (NOV/DEC 2012)

 Bridges are software based ,while switches are hardware based
 Bridges can only have one spanning –tree instance per bridge,
while switches can have many
 Bridges can only have up to 16 ports, whereas a switch can have hundreds.

20. State the difference between token ring and FDDI? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Token ring FDDI

 It uses shielded twisted pair cables It uses fibre optic cables.

 It uses Manchester encoding It uses 4B/5B before NRZ-1 for encoding
 It supports data rate upto 16Mbps It supports data rate upto100 Mpbs
 It is implemented as a ring, switch It is implemented as dual ring, nodes with
or multistation access unit single attachment station and dual
attachment station with concentrator.

21. Define a Bridge. (NOV/DEC 2010)

A network bridge is an abstract device that connects multiple network
segments along the data link layer. A concrete example of a bridge in a
computer network is the network switch.
22. A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000
frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What
is the throughput of this network? (APRIL/MAY 2011)
Throughput=
(12,000*10,000)/60=2Mb
t
ps. It is 1/5h of
bandwidth.
23. What is the role of VCI?
A virtual channel identifier (VCI) distinguishes virtual channels (also known as
circuits) created in a packet/cell switched network. A VCI has multiple circuits
per communication channel and is primarily used for managing the unique
identification of each created circuit.
A VCI is also known as a virtual circuit identifier (VCI).
24. List the two main limitations of bridges.Nov/Dec 2013
– Limited scalability
to O(1,000) hosts
not to global networks
– Not heterogeneous
no translation between frame formats
25. Define source routing. Nov/Dec 2013
Source routing allows a sender of a packet to partially or completely
specify the route the packet takes through the network.
Source routing allows easier troubleshooting, improved trace route, and enables a
node to discover all the possible routes to a host. It does not allow a source to
directly manage network performance by forcing packets to travel over one path
to prevent congestion on another.

26. Why should Ethernet frame should be 512 bytes long?

A Valid collision can only happen within the first 512 bits of frame transmission.
The 512 bits include 12 bytes of addresses, plus 2 bytes used in the type/length
field ,plus 46 bytes of data,plus 4 bytes of FCS. The preamble is not considered
part of the actual frame in these calculations.

27. Define ICMP? (Or) Expand ICMP and write the function (May 2016)
Internet Control Message Protocol is a collection of error messages that
are sent back to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an
IP datagram successfully
28. Define Subnetting? (Nov 2015)
Subnetting provides an elegantly simple way to reduce the total number of
network numbers that are assigned. The idea is to take a single IP network
number and allocate the IP address with that network to several physical
networks, which are now referred to as subnets.
29. What is CIDR? (MAY/JUNE2007)
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a methodology of allocating and
routing packets. It was introduced in 1993 to replace the prior addressing
architecture of design in the with the goal to slow the growth of routing tables on
routers across the Internet, and to help slow the rapid of addresses, uses a syntax
of specifying IP addresses for IPv4 and IPv6, using the base address of the
network followed by a slash and the size of the routing prefix, e.g.,
192.168.0.0/16 (IPv4), and 2001:db8::/32 (IPv6).

30. What is (Differ) ARP and RARP? (MAY/JUNE 2009)

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert IP address to
Physical address RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. It is used
to convert Physical address into IP address.

31. What is DHCP? (NOV/DEC 2012)

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol designed to provide
information
It is a client-server program.
dynamically.
DHCP is used to assign addresses to a host dynamically.
Basically, DHCP server has two databases.
The first database is addresses to IP addresses.

32. What are the salient features of IPV6? (NOV/DEC 2012)

 New Packet Format and Header
 Large Address Space
 State full and Stateless IPv6 address
 Multicast
 Integrated
 33. Give the CIDR notation for class A, B and C. APR/MAY 2011)

Class Binary Dotted-Decimal CID

R
A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0 /8
B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0 /16
C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0 /24

34. What is IP addressing?

Internet address or IP address is 32 bit identifier that uniquely and
universally defines a host or router connected to the internet.

35. What is the need of subnetting. (NOV/DEC 2013)

Subnetting is the technique used to break down networks into subnets.
With the advent of internet, IP based networks become hugely popular. Due
tothis available IP addresses depleted at huge rate. To overcome this shortage
concept of subnetting was introduced. Subnetting removes the classification of
IP addresses according to classes and helps in creating further subnetworks from
existing range of a IP network range.
For e.g A class B IP address can be broken down into further smaller networks.

36. What is the need for ARP? (NOV/DEC 2013) (Nov 2015)
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an Internet
Protocol address (IP address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in
the local network. For example, in IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in
use today, an address is 32 bits long. In an Ethernet local area network, however,
addresses for attached devices are 48 bits long. (The physical machine address is
also known as a Media Access Control or MAC address.) A table, usually called
the ARP cache, is used to maintain a correlation between each MAC address and
its corresponding IP address. ARP provides the protocol rules for making this
correlation and providing address conversion in both directions.

37.Draw Ethernet frame format

38. Define collision detection?

In Ethernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and
as a consequence, they are said to be in the same collision detection.
39. What are the four steps involves in scanning?
The technique for selecting an AP is called scanning
and involves the following four steps:
The node sends a Probe frame.
All APs within reach reply with a Probe Response frame.
The node selects one of the access points, and sends that AP an
Association Request frame
The AP replies with an Association Response frame.

40. Define Piconet

The basic Bluetooth network configuration, called a piconet, consists of a
master device and up to seven slave devices
41. Differentiate persistent and non- persistent CSMA (Nov/Dec 2014) In
1-persistent CSMA if the medium is busy, the channel will be sensed until it is
idle, then it will transmit immediately. This means that collisions are
almost guaranteed to occur.

In non-persistent CSMA if the medium is busy, there will be a random delay for retransmission.
This reduces the probability of collisions, but wastes the capacity.

42. State the uses of valid transmission timer (Nov/Dec 2014)

The Valid Transmission Timer (TVX) times the period between correct
frame transmissions, therefore is a check for faults on the ring. If it expires then a
new claim process begins

43. What do you understand by CSMA protocol? (May 2015)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access is a probabilistic Media Access control
(MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence of other traffic before
transmitting on a shared transmission medium, such as an electrical bus

44. List the functions of bridges (May 2015)

35. Pass data frames between networks using MAC address
36. Break up collision domains
37. Forwards all broadcast messages

45. Define hidden node problem (May 2016)

In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal
problem occurs when a node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not
from other nodes communicating with that AP.

46. What is scatternet? (Nov 2016)

The bluetooth network consisting of one or more piconets is known as
scatternet. The devices in one piconet type may function as master or slave in
another piconet type of the same scatternet

47. Identify the class of the following IP address: (a) 110.34.56.45 (b)
212.208.63.23 (Nov 2015)
110.34.56.45 - Class A
212.208.63.23 - Class C

48. What is fragmentation and reassembly?

IP fragmentation is an Internet Protocol (IP) process that breaks
datagrams into smaller pieces (fragments), so that packets may be formed
that can pass through a link with a smaller maximum transaction unit
(MTU) than the original datagram size. The fragments are reassembled by
the receiving host.
16 – MARKS
 1 .Explain about Ethernet (802.3).

2. Explain about Wi‐ Fi(802.11).

3. Explain about Bluetooth with its architecture.
4. Explain about Switching and Bridging.
5. Explain about Internet Protocol.
6. Explain about ARP.
7. Explain about CIDR.
8. Explain about DHCP.
9. Explain about ICMP.
10. Problems about Ethernet LAN.

UNIT III NETWORK LAYER 9

Network Layer Services – Packet switching – Performance – IPV4 Addresses – Forwarding of IP Packets
- Network Layer Protocols: IP, ICMP v4 – Unicast Routing Algorithms – Protocols – Multicasting
Basics – IPV6 Addressing – IPV6 Protocol.

2
Marks 1. Define packet switching?
A packet switch is a device with several inputs and outputs leading to
and from the hosts that the switch interconnects.

2. What is a virtual circuit?

A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers.
The connection is made after both computers do handshaking. After the
connection, all packets follow the same route and arrive in sequence.

3. What are data grams?

In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently
from all others. Even when one packet represents just a place of a
multi packet transmission, the network treats it although it existed
alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.

4. What is meant by switched virtual circuit?

Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up
line in circuit switching. In this method, a virtual circuit is created
whenever it is needed and exits only for the duration of specific exchange.

5. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit?

Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in
circuit switching. In this method, the same virtual circuit is provided
between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit is dedicated to the
specific uses.

6. What are the properties in star topology?

 Even though a switch has a fixed number of inputs and
outputs, which limits the number of hosts that can be
connected to a single switch , large networks can be built by
interconnecting a number of switches.
  We can connect switches to each other and to hosts using
point-to point links, which typically means that we can build
networks of large geographic scope.

7. What is VCI? (Nov 2016)

A Virtual Circuit Identifier that uniquely identifies the connection
at this switch, and which will be carried inside the header of the packets
that belongs to this connection

8. What is hop-by-hop flow control?

Each node is ensured of having the buffers it needs to queue the packets
that arrive on that circuit. This basic strategy is usually called hop-by-hop flow
control.

9. Define Reliable flooding?

It is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the
routing protocol get a copy of the link state information from all the other nodes.

10. What are the different types of AS?

 Stub AS
 Multi homed AS

 Transit AS

11. Compare circuit switching and virtual circuit based packet Switching, in
respect of queuing and forwarding delays. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Circuit Switching
In circuit switching dedicated communication path is available between two stations.
It is easier to double the capacity of a packet switched network than a circuit network.
A circuit network is heavily dependent on the number of channel available.
Packet switching
More security
Bandwidth used to full potential
Devices of different speeds can communicate
Not affected by line failure(redirects signal)

12. Differentiate between connection less operation and connection oriented

operation. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Connection-oriented communication includes the steps of setting up a call from
one computer to another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call,
just like a voice phone call.

Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call

establishment and release occur. A message is broken into packets, and each
packet is transferred separately.

13. What are the different routing techniques available to manage routing table entries?
1. Next hop routing.
2. Network specific routing
3. Host specific routing
4. Default routing
S.no Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

1. It is defined as routing inside an AS. It is defined as routing between AS.

2. It is classified as, The path vector is of type interdomain.
1.Distance Vector,
2.Link State
3. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is an
Is an implementation of the distance vector implementation of the path vector protocol.
protocol and OSPF(Open shortest path first)
is an implementation of link state protocol.

14. What is meant by router?

Router is network node connected to two or more networks that forwards
packets from one network to another.

15. Give the types of routing table?

There are two types of routing table. They are,
Static routing table: The entries are created or update manually by an administrator.
Dynamic routing table: The entries are updated automatically by dynamic
routing protocols such as RIP, OSPF or BGP.

16. Define routing protocol.

Routing protocols is defined as “a combination of rules and procedures,
which allows routers to share whatever they know about the internet or their
neighborhood. It also includes procedures for combining information received
from other routers”.

17. Mention the types of routing protocol.

There are two basic categories of routing. They are,
 Intradomain routing, and Interdomain routing

18. Distinguish between Intradomain and Interdomain routing protocol.

19. Define AS.

A group of networks and routers under the authority of single
administration is called as Autonomous System (AS).

20. Define RIP (or) Express the purpose of RIP?

Routing information protocol (RIP) is a simple protocol intradomain
routing protocol used inside and Autonomous System(AS) based distance vector
routing algorithm, in which each router shares, at regular intervals, its
knowledge about the entire AS with its neighbors.

21. Mention the advantages of RIP over OSPF.

(i) RIP for IP is easy to implement. In its simplest default
configuration, RIP for IP is as easy as configuring IP addresses and subnet
masks for each router interface and then turning on the router.
(ii) RIP for IP has a large installed base consisting of small and
medium-sized IP internetworks that do not wish to bear the design and
configuration burden of OSPF.
22. What is Link state routing (LSR)?
It is a lowest-cost algorithm used in routing. The information on
directly connected neighbors and current link costs are flooded to all routers;
each router uses this information to build a view of the network which is the
base to make forwarding decisions.
23. What do you meant by flooding?
Flooding means that a router sends all its link-state information about
in neighbors, then the neighbors forward this information to in neighbors and so
on. Thereby, every router receives the copy of the same information. This
process continues until the information has reached all the nodes in the network.
24. Elaborate OSPF.
Open shortest path first (OSPF) is protocol widely used for intra-
AS routing in the internet. It is the popular intradomain routing protocol
based on link state routing that uses flooding of link-state information and a
Dijkstra least-cost path algorithm.
25. Mention the advantages of OSPF.
OSPF has the following
advantages  Authentication
 Support for hierarchy within a single routing
domain  Multiple same-cost paths and
 Integrated support for unicast and multicast routing.

26. Compare distance vector routing with link state routing.

S.No. Distance vector routing(DVR) Link state routing(LSR)

1. In DVR, each router periodically shares its In LSR, each router shares its
knowledge about the entire network with its knowledge of its neighborhood with
neighbours. all routers in the internetwork.

2. The three important keys are, The three important keys are,
->Knowledge about the whole network. ->Knowledge about the
->Routing only to neighbors neighborhood.
->Information sharing at regular intervals. ->Routing to all routers
->Information sharing when there is
a change.

27. Define the term latency.

The term latency is a measure of how long a single bit takes to propagate
from one end of a link or channel to the other. It is measured strictly in terms of
time.

28. Define switches.

Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices linked to the switch.

29. Give the comparison between router and switch.

 30. A switch can process 2 million packets each second and each packet contains
average of 64 bytes, then find out the throughput of the switch.
Solution:
Packet per second(pps)=2million packets=2x10^6

Throughput = pps x (bits per packet)

= 2 x 10^6 x 64 x 8
= 1024 x 10^6
= 1 Gbps

31. A 640-Gbps switch can handle a steady stream of 64-byte packets then
what is pps rate? Solution:
Packet per second (pps) rate =Through put
Bits per packet
= 640 x 10^9
64 x 8

= 10 x 10^9
8
= 1.25 x 10^9 pps

32. Define an area.

The link-state routing protocols such as OSPF amd IS-IS can be used to
partition a routing domain(AS) into subdomains called areas, to improve
scalability, which is a set of adjacent routers that administratively configured to
exchange full routing information with each other.
33. Define BGP. (NOV/DEC 2014)
The Border Gateway Protocol(BGP) is an interdomain routing protocol
based on path vector routing by which different autonomous system (ASs)
exchange reachability information.

34. Mention the names of two interdomain routing protocols.

There have been two major interdomain routing protocols in the history of the Internet.
(i) Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) and
(ii) Border Gateway Protocol(BGP).

35. What is EGP? Mention its drawbacks.

Exterior gateway protocol (EGP) is an interdomain routing protocol of the
internet, which was used by exterior gateway (routers) of autonomous systems to
exchange routing information with other autonomous systems, which had a
number of limitations.
EGP was designed when the Internet had a tree like topology, and did not
allow for the topology to become more general and autonomous systems are
connected only as parents and children and not a peers. The replacement for EGP
is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

36. Define an IGP.

Interior Gateway Protocol(IGP) is a routing protocol used to exchange
routing information among routers within a single autonomous system.
37. Write the functions of BGP. BGP provides each AS:
(i) Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring Ass
(ii) Propagate the reachability information to all routers internal to the AS.
(iii) Determine “good” routes to subnets based on the reachability
information and on AS policy.
38. Mention the drawbacks of IPV4.
2 Its provides a very limited number if host and network addresses. For
example, if an organization chooses class C only 256 IP addresses are available to
it, it‟s a very little number.

3 Since the IP address is 32 bits long, the space of the IP address will be
exhausted soon. This space growth won‟t match with the user‟s growth in th
e internet.

4 The IPv4 doesn‟t provide real-time audio and video support, which is
needed by the modern internet applications.

39. List the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4.

The advantages of Next generation IP or IPv6 over IPv4 are,
3. Larger address space
4. Better header format
5. New options
6. Support for real-time services
7. Support for resource allocation
8. Support for more security
9. Auto –configuration
10. Enhanced routing functionality, including support for mobile hosts.

40. The extension headers in IPv6 are equivalent to what in IPv4?

The length of the base header is of about 40 bytes in length. The base
header can be followed by six extension headers, in order to give more
functionality to the IPv6 datagram. The extension headers here are equivalent
to the options in IPv4.

41. What is multicast?

Multicast is a special form of broadcast in which a single source transmits
the packets and they are delivered to specified subgroup of network hosts(one-
to-many).

42. Give the comparison of unicast, multicast and broadcast Routing. (Nov 2016)

43. Expand DVMRP.

Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) is a multicast
distance vector routing uses the source-based least cost trees, but the router never
actually makes a routing table.

44. Name the strategies used in multicast DVR protocol.

The multicast DVR algorithm uses a process based on four decision-making strategies.
Each strategy is built on its predecessor.
5. Flooding,
6. Reverse Path Forwarding(RPF),
7. Reverse Path Broadcasting(RPB), and
8. Reverse Path Multicasting(RPM)
45. What do you meant by PIM?
Protocol independent multicast (PIM) is a multicasting protocol family
with two independent multicast routing protocols such as:
6. PIM-DM (Dense Mode) and
7. PIM-SM (Spare Mode)

Both protocols are unicast-protocol dependent.

46. Define the terms PIM-DM & PIM-SM.

Protocol independent multicast- Dense Mode (PIM-DM) is used in a dense
multicast environment, such as a LAN. It is a source-based tree routing protocol
that uses RPF and pruning and grafting strategies for multicasting.

Protocol independent multicasting-Spare Mode (PIM-SM)

Is used in a spares multicast environment such as a WAN. PIM-SM is group-
shared tree routing protocol that has a rendezvous point (RP) as the source of the
tree. PIM-SM is similar to CBT but uses a simpler procedure.

47. Write down any two differences between circuit switching and
packet switching (Nov/Dec 2014)

Circuit switching
In circuit switching network dedicated channel has to be established
before the call is made between users
The channel is reserved between the users till the connection is active

Packet switching
 In packet switching network unlike CS network, it is not required
to establish the connection initially
 The connection/channel is available to use by many users.
 48. How does a router differ from a bridge? (May 2015)

A bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another

local area network that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or
Token Ring). You can envision a bridge as being a device that decides
whether a message from you to someone else is going to the local area
network in your building or to someone on the local area network in the
building across the street.
A router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that
determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded
toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two networks and
decides which way to send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is
located at any gateway (where one network meets another), including each
point-of-presence on the Internet. A router is often included as part of a
network switch.

49. What are the metrics used by routing protocols? (May 2015)
Router metrics can contain any number of values that help the router
determine the best route among multiple routes to a destination. A router
metric typically based on information like path length, bandwidth, load,
hop count, path cost, delay, Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU),
reliability and communications cost.

50. Define routing (Nov 2015)

Routing is the process of moving packets across a network from one host to
a another. It is usually performed by the dedicated devices called routers

16 – MARKS

1. Explain about Switching and Forwarding.

2. Explain about RIP.
3. Explain about OSPF.
4. Explain about BGP.
5. Explain about Routing areas.
6. Explain about IPv6.
7. Explain about Multicast.
8. Explain about DVMRP.
9. Explain about PIM.
10. Explain about Multicast address.