Developing resilience

An evidence-based guide for practitioners

Developing resilience:
An evidence-based guide for practitioners

Resilience is now recognised as an important factor in the workplace. In the

increasingly and endlessly turbulent context of today’s working world, the
resilience of both individuals and organisations becomes paramount in order
to survive and thrive. This leaflet is designed to give guidance to practitioners
based on a thorough review of the available evidence about how to develop
resilience at individual and organisational level.

What is resilience? Resilience at the organisational level

At the organisational level, resilience is defined
Resilience at the individual level in the same way as it is for individuals but with
A consistent theme among the range of definitions a different focus: it must include not only the
of resilience is a sense of adaptation, recovery and individuals within the organisation, but also the
bounce back despite adversity or change. Most processes and culture those individuals work with
of those working in this field identify resilience on a daily basis. Organisational resilience looks at
as a dynamic process that involves a personal how well the organisation can ‘weather the storm’
negotiation through life that fluctuates across time, or adapt to challenges it faces. This requires a
life stage and context. There is a huge diversity and combination of resilience and an understanding of
complexity of definitions, concepts and approaches the circumstances which pose the greatest threat
used, but the following captures the essence of to survival: for example, organisations may become
resilience succinctly: more susceptible to adverse events if they have
faced previous crises, as their resources are stretched
‘the successful adaptation to life tasks in the face and defences weakened.
of social disadvantage or highly adverse conditions’
(Windle 1999, p163). The greater the diversity of resilience strategies
available to an organisation, the greater its ability
Resilience is also contextual in many ways and is to respond to challenges. Having a number of
therefore best understood as multidimensional and strategies provides a bigger buffer to survive larger
variable across time and circumstance. crises, or the cumulative effect of frequent crises.
Risk management provides a good framework for
organisations to be proactive in thinking about and
managing the unexpected, though it may bring
uncertainties, such as ‘we don’t know what we
don’t know’.

2    Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners

What approaches are taken they have in their job, what type of motivators or
rewards (internal and external) are associated with
to resilience? a particular job: ‘the ability to interpret events,
manage complexities, improvise, redefine roles,
Approaches to individual resilience
immediately correct errors and learn from them’
The approaches taken to individual resilience can
(Weick and Sutcliff 2001).
be clustered according to whether they focus
on internal attributes of the person, the social
2 Organisational culture and structure – the
environment or a combination of the two:
culture of the organisation and way the organisation
adopts work processes and procedures are
1 Personality/individual characteristics – resilience
seen as central to resilience. For example, if an
is internal to the individual and is seen as an innate
organisation has a bureaucratic structure coupled
ability that forms part of their personality. This might
with a command and control culture, this may be
include: internal locus of control (control over one’s
detrimental to the extent to which people within
life), perseverance, emotional management and
the organisation are able to respond and adapt
awareness, optimism, perspective, sense of humour,
to challenges: ‘A resilient organisation effectively
self-efficacy (belief in own capabilities) and the ability
aligns its strategy, operations, management
to problem-solve: ‘innate human psychological
systems, governance structure and decision support
immune capacity’ (Kelley 2005).
capabilities so that it can uncover and adjust to
continually changing risks, endure disruptions to its
2 Environment – resilience is wholly dependent
primary earnings drivers, and create advantages…’
on the experiences that a person has with their
(Starr et al 2007).
environment. So, factors external to the individual will
determine how resilient a person is, such as how much
3 Leadership – emergent leadership (leadership
social support they receive. The person’s personality
from middle managers) and engaging, supportive
is not seen as relevant: ‘a multi-faceted process from
leadership styles may heavily influence the ability
which people draw and learn from the best they can
of employees to be resilient to adverse events:
find in their environment, which can include family,
‘Leaders are the stewards of organisational energy
school or the community’ (Greef 2002).
[resilience]...they inspire or demoralise others, first by
how effectively they manage their own energy and
3 Person–environment – resilience is a product
next by how well they manage, focus, invest and
of a person’s personality in combination with
renew the collective energy [resilience] of those they
environmental influences such as family, peers and
lead’ (Loehr and Schwartz 2003).
social environment: ‘…categories that promote
resilience, namely individual dispositional attributes,
4 Systemic/external environment – the external
family support and cohesion, and external support
environment and social relationships are seen
systems’ (Richardson 2002).
to be key to resilience. If networks of successful
relationships are not established, both for employees
Approaches to organisational resilience
and for the organisation itself, the organisation may
Approaches to organisational resilience can
not have the resources to adapt to change effectively
be clustered according to their focus on: the
and positively. Social and institutional support is seen
characteristics of a person’s job; the culture and
as key at every level. Also, organisational resilience is
operating procedures of an organisation; the
seen as dependent on the resilience of stakeholders,
characteristics and influence of leaders in the
competitors and the industry in which it operates:
organisation; or external events and the environment
‘People with trustworthy relationships and personal
within which the organisation operates:
support systems at work and with friends and family
are more able to cope with stress and organisations
1 Job design – resilience is dependent on the
more likely to hold up in a crisis’ (Johnson-Lenz 2009).
features of a person’s job role, that is, how
demanding the person’s job is, how much control

Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners     3

Key messages The resilience grid
• Despite considerable variability in approaches The resilience grid provided on the following pages
to defining and building resilience, there is outlines organisational and individual interventions
a substantial knowledge base on how and designed to build resilience. It is based on a review
why individuals and organisations are able of the evidence base from both practitioner and
to achieve a higher level of functioning than academic literature.
would be expected during exposure to adversity.
Individual, social and institutional factors all Resilience grid layout
play a role in buffering some of the effects of • Tables with blue headings refer to individual
adversity and facilitating ‘healthy’ adaptation. interventions and those headed in orange refer
to organisational interventions.
• It is largely up to practitioners to determine • Within individual and organisational categories,
when and whether interventions would add there are separate tables for each of the
value to their client base. For instance, at approaches outlined on page 3.
the organisational level, organisations need • Within each table, separate columns provide
to consider their available resources before academic and practitioner references. Some
embarking on building resilience, as appropriate key points about each approach are provided
human and physical resources will be key as well as references for further exploration. If
to sustaining adaptability and to changing measures used in the studies were provided,
behaviours. these are also listed.

• It may be useful to think of resilience in Special notes

terms of occupational health and stress of 1 The resilience grid includes only practitioner
employees. Many of the interventions cited in interventions that provide open source,
the literature use approaches that closely model free materials that are readily available to
stress management interventions. It could be practitioners. The information presented in the
argued, therefore, that components of stress grid is not intended to be a best practice or
management interventions would be a good prescriptive framework, but more an idea of
place to start thinking about organisational the possible approaches practitioners can take
resilience interventions. to address resilience. The main reason for this
is that there is little information available on
• A wider range of approaches for individual what the most effective interventions are and
interventions are reported in the literature than ‘what works’ in given situations, particularly in
for organisational interventions. Almost all of organisational domains.
these individual intervention approaches draw
upon psychological models such as acceptance 2 In the organisational interventions section of
and commitment therapy, cognitive behavioural the grid, references to generic leadership and
therapy, mindfulness and techniques drawn from organisation development (OD) research have
positive psychology. At the practitioner level been made instead of specific references to
particularly, there appears to be a good number organisational resilience research. This is because
of service providers drawing on one or more of there is very little research available specifically
these models to address individual resilience. related to organisational interventions that
do not borrow from traditional organisational
• Coping skills and building buffers to adverse theories of leadership and OD. It therefore
events appear to be only part of the solution. It seems fitting to provide practitioners with
is increasingly clear that building social networks traditional management literature as a theoretical
and support into the intervention is a critical framework for organisational resilience, as this is
success factor. the most applicable to the organisational context.

4    Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners

 INDIVIDUAL
WHAT IS IT? WHAT CAN WE DO?
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC PRACTITIONER
Personality/ Resilience is 1 Cognitive behaviour bibliotherapy 1 ROBERTSON COOPER
individual seen as part (Gregory et al 2004) http://www.robertsoncooper.com/resilience/
characteristics of a person’s Reading materials in the form of exercises your_resilience/
personality that help overcome negative thoughts Looks at the nature of stress and how it interacts
or innate and feelings to combat depression. with people differently (emphasise personality
characteristics. Measures: characteristics) and provides coping mechanisms and
* Beck Depression Inventory tools. Designed for new staff, existing staff, leaders.
* DASS-21 Measures:
Accessed by the hyperlink above
2 Mindfulness (Tugade et al 2004, Bond
and Flaxman 2006, Hayes et al 1999) 2 COPE OHS
Relaxation techniques, promoting http://www.copeohs.com/news/business-
acceptance rather than change, and psychology/managing-workplace-stress/
value-based actions. Cognitive behavioural techniques that can help to bolster
Measures: resilience and enhance performance. Including: coping
*GHQ-12 strategies and stress management techniques, strategies
* AAQ for challenging negative thoughts and promoting positive
thinking, dealing with difficult or challenging people/
3 Resilience regimen (Margolis and
situations.
Stoltzharvard 2010)
Managers can grasp their own and their 3 Mayo Clinic
direct reports’ habits of thought and help http://www.mayoclinic.com
reframe negative events in productive ways Resilience education and training integrated with
through writing about control, impact, medical care to achieve well-being of the mind, body
breadth and duration of adverse event. and spirit. Uses mindfulness and other mind–body
techniques. Focus on cognitive (attention, memory,
4 Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
judgement and problem-solving), physical, emotional,
or psychological debriefing (PD)
spiritual (forgiveness, acceptance, compassion, true
(Devilly and Spence 1999, Foa et al
meaning and purpose).
1991)
CBT aims to solve problems by 4 Trauma resilience training
addressing and challenging the thoughts Training includes exploration of what normal stress
that underlie unhelpful emotions, responses feel like, identifying potential future danger
behaviours. PD is a brief, short-term zones, developing advance response plans, learning a
intervention aimed at mitigating long- skill pre-trauma to aid conscious control of responses
term distress and preventing emergence and thought patterns, identifying support network,
of post-traumatic stress. control of intrusive memories and flashbacks,
relaxation.
CBT is effective for post-traumatic stress
disorder as it allows clients to ‘face’ and 5 In Equilibrium
deal with the thoughts, feelings and http://www.in-equilibrium.co.uk/resources
behaviours associated with traumatic Understanding resilience, pressure, stress and
events. adversity. Focus on boundaries, internal vs. external
Measures: locus of control (whether you perceive life experiences
*BDI as within or out of your control), optimism and
*SCL-90-R negative thinking, emotional awareness and
*PTSD-I regulation, empathy, reaching out, problem-solving,
self-efficacy, controlling impulses (willpower) and
5 Self-efficacy training (Noble and
tolerating ambiguity.
McGrath 2005)
Self-efficacy is a belief in one’s own 6 Organisation Health Psychologists
capability to perform a task successfully, http://www.orghealth.co.uk/document-library/
handle a situation, and so on. Self- Focus on how to reduce impact of adverse events
efficacy built through strengths-based and maintain psychological well-being, Also, how to
approach using humour and optimism. communicate challenges effectively, embrace change,
Encourages ‘positive tracking’, which tackle negativity and set personal goals. Four principles
means finding any positive aspects of a of personal effectiveness are offered: control,
situation. Also teaches coping skills using aligning actions to values, antidotes to negativity and
cognitive behaviour therapy. psychology of stress prevention.

Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners     5

 INDIVIDUAL
WHAT IS IT? WHAT CAN WE DO?
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC PRACTITIONER
Environment Resilience is 1 Job demands (Ferris et al 2005) 1 Psychological first aid (Rutter
dependent on Assess, evaluate and facilitate a level of job demand that 2007)
the social or a person in a particular job could manage, for example http://www.axa-icas.com/
environmental adequate rewards, providing conflict resolution strategies, home.php
context. defining scope of jobs, decision-making control, flexible Training for volunteers in typical
hours, health and nutrition. trauma reactions and how to listen,
Measures: respond and provide support.
*WWP
2 London Resilience
http://www.londonprepared.
gov.uk/businesscontinuity/
essentialdocs/
http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.
uk/ukresilience.aspx
Responses to emergencies –
focus on business continuity (risk
mitigation).

Person– Resilience is 1 (READY) Psychosocial resilience training programme 1 Integration Training

environment a result of (Burton et al 2009) http://integrationtraining.
interaction the person’s Targets key psychosocial protective factors of: (a) positive co.uk/blog/2010/06/integral-
personality emotions, (b) cognitive flexibility, (c) life meaning, (d) social business.html#respond
combined support and (e) coping strategies. Based on acceptance and Tailor-made to fit workplace needs.
with social and commitment therapy (ACT), which teaches acceptance of Focus on relaxation, mindfulness,
environmental adverse events and helps the individual get in contact with a and stress management, cognitive
factors. transcendent self. behavioural therapy (CBT)
Measures: techniques, problem-solving and
*Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being creativity, social support and
*CES-D empathy, supporting organisational
structures, processes and culture,
2 Hardy training (Maddi 2002, Maddi et al 1999)
realistic optimism, gratitude,
Teach ‘hardy skills’ of coping, social support, relaxation,
mood management, emotional
nutrition and physical activity. This builds hardy attitudes of
intelligence.
commitment, control and challenge.
Measures: 2 Smithfield Performance
* Personal Views Survey (3rd ed rev/PVS–III–R) http://www.
* HardiSurvey III-R smithfieldperformance.com/
topics/res/default.aspx
3 Develop resilience buffers synergistically
Explore thinking, behaviour,
(Armendariz et al 2009)
internal motivation and lifestyle
Attention to external supports (organisational and
factors that influence levels of
community resources), inner strengths (individual personality
resilience. Focus on how delegates
characteristics) and learned skills (coping skills).
interpret situations, especially
4 Develop positive psychological resources successes and failures that they
(Luthans and Youssef 2007, Luthans et al 2007) have experienced. Emphasise being
Develop hope and optimism, by building assets (for example realists and personal responsibility
confidence and social support), risk-management strategies in situations. Work–life balance,
(for example contingency planning) and facilitate cognitive, lifestyle choices and their impact
emotional and behavioural adaptation. on motivation and engagement.
Measures:
*NEO-PI-R

5 Team resilience (Bennett et al 2010)

Five key resources are focused on: (a) personal competence
(self-esteem, self-efficacy, hope and determination); (b) social
competence (social adeptness, cheerful mood and good
communication skills); (c) personal structure (ability to uphold
daily routines, to plan and organise); (d) family coherence
(family co-operation, loyalty and stability); and (e) social support
(access to support from friends and family, intimacy and ability
to provide support).

6    Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners

 ORGANISATIONAL
WHAT IS IT? WHAT CAN WE DO?
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC PRACTITIONER
Job design Resilience can 1 Luthans et al 2006 1 wellbeing4business http://www.
be developed Risk-focused HRD strategy fosters wellbeing4business.co.uk/about-us/resources/
by focusing on a positive employee–employer A risk assessment approach, based on HSE
a person’s role psychological contract. Risk is managed Management Standards to identify and address
and how non- by creating an ethical and trustworthy pressure hot spots within teams and organisations.
monetary rewards culture.
2 WFD Consulting http://www.surveymonkey.
may contribute
Asset-focused HRD strategy. Assets com/s.asp?u=83146511579
to reducing stress
include human capital such as WFD works with leaders, managers and teams
and motivate a
knowledge, skills and abilities, and social to engage and educate leaders about resilience,
person to be more
networks of support. identify impediments to resilience in the organisation,
engaged and
empower managers and enhance their capabilities
productive in the Process-focused HRD strategy. Uses
to foster resilience, engage employees in eliminating
organisation. self-efficacy, self-enhancement,
inefficiencies and practices that lead to excessive
locus of control to adapt to stressful
workload dissatisfaction, monitor resilience levels.
circumstances.
3 EJT Associates
Also refer to literature on
http://www.ejtassociates.co.uk/articles.html
psychosocial hazards in the
Critical incident aftercare (CIA) and trauma first aid.
workplace and job design theory.
Turner Rebuilding Resilience Programme (TRRP) –
alternative to CI debriefing. Group work aimed at
normalising effects. Identify resources and build on
them, how to recognise and deal with dissociation
and/or high arousal states and supports individual
with relationships. TRRP for Managers – how to relate
skilfully with employees post-incident (for example
provide an adequate level of support and allowances for
adjustment back to work). Mediation Service – ‘buddy
scheme’/trauma support volunteer. Offer of an incident
guide for vulnerable staff, outlining how to maintain
resilience and the procedure if exposed to an incident.

Leadership Focus on the role Refer to various leadership models on 1 Team resilience
of leadership engagement, well-being and emergent Academics and practitioners from a range of disciplines
in resilience leadership such as transformational, supporting leaders and managers in organisations who
and how it transactional, functional, situational must support teams and the individuals within them
may promote and contingency theories. to operate effectively when faced with continuous
resilience. business re-engineering.

2 WFD Consulting http://www.surveymonkey.

com/s.asp?u=83146511579
WFD works with leaders, managers and teams to
engage and educate leaders about resilience, identify
impediments to resilience in the organisation,
empower managers and enhance their capabilities
to foster resilience, engage employees in eliminating
inefficiencies and practices that lead to excessive
workload dissatisfaction, monitor resilience levels.

3 Steelhenge
http://www.steelhenge.co.uk/index.php
Crisis and incident management approach which
includes business continuity, crisis management,
emergency management. Focus on business continuity
methods such as business impact analysis and risk
assessment. Also provide scenario-based workshops to
rehearse decision-making and actions during response
and recovery phases following an incident.

Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners     7

 ORGANISATIONAL
WHAT IS IT? WHAT CAN WE DO?
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC PRACTITIONER
Leadership Focus on the role 4 EJT Associates
(continued) of leadership http://www.ejtassociates.co.uk/articles.html
in resilience Critical incident aftercare (CIA) and trauma first aid.
and how it Turner Rebuilding Resilience Programme (TRRP) –
may promote alternative to CI debriefing. Group work aimed at
resilience. normalising effects. Identify resources and build on
them, how to recognise and deal with dissociation
and/or high arousal states and supports individual with
relationships. TRRP for Managers – how to relate skilfully
with employees post-incident. Mediation Service – ‘buddy
scheme’/trauma support volunteer. Offer of an incident
guide for vulnerable staff, outlining how to maintain
resilience and the procedure if exposed to an incident.

Organisational Resilience 1 Luthans

 et al 2005 1 UK Work Organisation Network.net
structure and interventions Risk-focused HRD strategy fosters a positive http://www.ukwon.net/resilience/index.php
culture using processes employee–employer psychological contract. The Resilience Action Resource Kit (ARK) is an online
and organisational Risk is managed by creating an ethical and questionnaire and learning resource: designed to
culture to trustworthy culture. help organisations assess their ability to survive and
best equip Asset-focused HRD strategy. Assets include thrive in an environment in which radical change and
organisations to human capital such as knowledge, skills and uncertainty have become commonplace.
face challenges. abilities, and social networks of support.
2 Steelhenge
Process-focused HRD strategy. Uses self-
http://www.steelhenge.co.uk/index.php
efficacy, self-enhancement, locus of control
Crisis and incident management approach which
to adapt to stressful circumstances.
includes business continuity, crisis management,
2 Gibson and Tarrant 2010
emergency management. Focus on business continuity
Four broad strategic approaches to
methods such as business impact analysis and risk
improved resilience: resistance, reliability,
assessment. Also provide scenario-based workshops to
redundancy and flexibility.
rehearse decision-making and actions during response
3 Kobasa et al 1982
and recovery phases following an incident.
HardiAttitudes are the ‘3 Cs’ of
commitment, control and challenge.
HardiOrganizations see their way of
excelling as based on anticipating the
direction of relevant environmental and
social change and turning that change
to advantage by helping to bring it
about and improving life in the process.
HardiOrganizations are not solely
motivated by financial success. They are
especially energised and excited by the
conviction that participating in ongoing
change is of potential environmental and
social value and by helping to find that
value through their efforts to turn the
change to advantage.
Measures:
* Schedule of Life Events
* Seriousness of Illness Survey
* Self and Alienation From Work scales of
the Alienation Test
* External Locus of Control Scale

Refer to organic vs. mechanistic

corporate structures. Also consult OD
theory/management literature such as
Schein’s model, Lewin’s model, action
research and implementation theories.

8    Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners

 ORGANISATIONAL
WHAT IS IT? WHAT CAN WE DO?
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC PRACTITIONER
Systemic/ Interventions Refer to various OD theories such as 1 Steelhenge
external that use risk Schein’s model, Lewin’s model, action http://www.steelhenge.co.uk/index.php
environment management research and implementation theories. Crisis and incident management approach which
and assess risk includes business continuity, crisis management,
by examining emergency management. Focus on business continuity
external factors methods such as business impact analysis and risk
and threats. assessment. Also provide scenario-based workshops to
rehearse decision-making and actions during response
and recovery phases following an incident.

How we developed the grid This project has been funded by the Affinity
A comprehensive literature search was designed Health at Work research consortium, including
and carried out by occupational psychologists at the CIPD, Business in the Community (BITC) and
Affinity Health at Work to provide information on the Institution of Occupational Safety and Health
the theories, research approaches and practice-based (IOSH). We are most grateful for the support and
interventions relating to individual and organisational advice of the research project steering group and
resilience. The aim was to compile a framework that all the organisations who support us through their
practitioners could use as a quick reference guide membership of the research consortium. For further
to assist in deciding what interventions to use when details about the project, please contact Rachel
thinking about building resilience or providing clients Lewis, [email protected]
with advice in this area. or Emma Donaldson-Feilder,
[email protected]
For the full research report, Developing Resilience,
including a reference list and more information on
methodology, gaps and limitations in the literature,
and the measures used in resilience interventions,
go to: cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/research/
developing-resilience.aspx

Developing resilience: An evidence-based guide for practitioners     9

We explore leading-edge people management and development issues through our
research. Our aim is to share knowledge, increase learning and understanding, and help
our members make informed decisions about improving practice in their organisations.

We produce many resources including guides, books, practical tools, surveys and research
reports. We also organise a number of conferences, events and training courses. Please visit
Issued: May2011 Reference: 5490 © Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 2011
cipd.co.uk to find out more.

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

151 The Broadway London SW19 1JQ
Tel: 020 8612 6200 Fax: 020 8612 6201
Email: [email protected] Website: cipd.co.uk

Incorporated by Royal Charter Registered charity no.1079797