Rlhudson o Ring Guide

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS
introduction
Table of
Contents.
INTRODUCTION
Using this Design Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
An O-Ring Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
SELECTING THE MATERIAL

Back to Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Tear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Abrasion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Compression Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
BACK TO BASICS Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
page 11 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Volume Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Chemical Compatibility Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
THERMAL PROPERTIES
High Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Low Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Gough-Joule Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
MATERIAL PROFILES
Butyl Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Chloroprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Epichlorohydrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Ethylene Acrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Ethylene Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Fluorocarbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY
page 33
Fluorosilicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Hydrogenated Nitrile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Natural Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Nitrile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Perfluoroelastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Polyacrylate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Polyurethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
Silicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Styrene Butadiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Tetrafluoroethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Tetrafluoroethylene Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
General Properties Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Military Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
AMS & NAS Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Fuel Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Food & Beverage Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
MATERIAL PROFILES Gas Permeation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
page 89 Plastic Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Semiconductor Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
Underwriters Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
introduction
UNDERSTANDING ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
ANATOMY OF A TEST REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
BATCH TESTING & CURE DATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
AGING & SHELF LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
DESIGNING THE SEAL

DIMENSIONS
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Squeeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
ENVIRONMENT
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
Pressure & Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Back-Up Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
CONSTRUCTION
Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
O-Ring Installation & Gland Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
STATIC SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
DYNAMIC SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
STATIC SEALS
DIAGNOSING O-RING FAILURE page 198
Common Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253

Examples: Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Compression Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Dieseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Explosive Decompression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Extrusion & Nibbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Hardening & Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Hole Crossing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Installation Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Plasticizer Extraction (Shrinkage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Spiral Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Weather & Ozone Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
EXPLORING OTHER OPTIONS

Lobed Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 DYNAMIC SEALS
Square Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268 page 232
U-Cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
PTFE Capped Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
T-Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Crown Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Fluoroplastic-Encapsulated O-Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Spring-Energized PTFE Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
ORDERING INFORMATION
Ordering Made Easy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
O-Ring Size Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
GLOSSARY & ABBREVIATIONS

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 O-RING SIZE TABLES
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 page 274
R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

USING THIS DESIGN GUIDE 5
introduction
Using this
Design Guide.
T
his design guide provides data on the most widely
used type of seal: the O-ring. As you review the
contents, please keep in mind that the many
materials and designs featured in this guide are just part of
the wide variety of sealing solutions offered by R.L.
Hudson & Company.
In order to arrive at the best seals for your projects, you’ll need
to consider the following factors: the material to be used for
the seal; the type of seal application; the conditions under “The many
which the seal will have to operate; the seal dimensions; and
materials and
the construction of the gland into which the seal will be
installed. Follow the steps below to design your O-ring seal. designs featured in
this guide are just
DESIGNING THE BEST O-RING SEAL FOR
part of the wide
YOUR APPLICATION
variety of sealing
1. Review the discussion of material properties beginning on
page 18 to determine which of these factors are most solutions offered
important to your project.
by R.L. Hudson &
2. For chemical compatibility questions, see the guide starting
on page 33. Company.”
3. Review the material profiles beginning on page 89.

4. For general information on seal dimensions, see the
discussion starting on page 177.
5. Review the discussion of seal environment beginning on
page 182.
6. For recommendations regarding gland construction, see
the discussion starting on page 192.
7. Review the discussion and dimensions of static and
dynamic designs beginning on page 198.
Before you begin, however, you may find it helpful to quickly

review a few of the basics. “An O-Ring Primer” (starting on
page 6) gives a brief overview of sealing concepts. “Back to
Basics” (beginning on page 11) takes a look at why
elastomeric materials make good seals.

6 AN O-RING PRIMER
introduction
AnO-Ring
Primer.
I
n industries from aerosol to aerospace, O-rings are
the most commonly used seals in the world. Why?
Because they are effective, economical, and easy
to use.
Although O-ring sealing is a simple concept, there is a lot to
consider as you design a seal for a specific application. This
guide provides detailed information on the many factors
that influence the design of an effective O-ring seal. Here’s a
“The purpose of quick overview:
any seal is to block BLOCKING THE GAP
the clearance gap Any mechanical assembly containing fluids must be
designed so that these substances flow only where
so that nothing intended and do not leak into other parts of the assembly
passes through it.” (or out of the assembly entirely). Seals are incorporated into
mechanical designs to prevent such leakage at the points
where different parts of an assembly meet. These meeting
points are known as mating surfaces, and the space between
them is called a clearance gap. The purpose of any seal is to
block the clearance gap so that nothing passes through it.
ROD & PISTON GLANDS
Figure 1: Components of a Rod Gland & a Piston Gland

AN O-RING PRIMER 7
introduction
A number of methods may be used to block the gap,
including welding, brazing, soldering, or machining lapped
fits.You might also simply squeeze a softer material between
the two harder materials of the assembly. This last method
describes the function of an O-ring.
IN THE GROOVE
An O-ring seal has two essential parts: the O-ring and the
gland.The gland consists of the machined groove into which
the O-ring is installed and the mating surface to be sealed.
The primary components of rod and piston glands are
shown in Figure 1.
A seal is effected when an O-ring is squeezed between
mating components, thereby creating zero clearance and
preventing the escape of fluids through the clearance gap.
Figure 2 shows rod and piston O-rings installed. As can be
seen, the groove for a rod seal is machined into the housing,
whereas the groove for a piston seal is machined into the
piston itself. The versatility of O-rings allows them to
function effectively in either configuration.
ROD & PISTON SEALS
Figure 2: Rod & Piston O-Rings Installed
SEALING YOUR FATE

To better understand how an O-ring seals, think of the O-
ring as a highly viscous (thick) “fluid”with very high surface
tension. When placed under pressure, the O-ring is forced
to “flow” within the groove toward the clearance gap. As
the O-ring flows against (and slightly into) the gap, it
produces zero clearance and prevents the sealed
substance from escaping. Figures 3 through 6 (see next
page) illustrate this process.
8 AN O-RING PRIMER
introduction
In Figure 3, the O-ring has been installed but is not under
pressure. In Figure 4, the O-ring is under just enough
pressure to effect a seal. Figure 5 shows the seal under
maximum pressure. The seal is extruding (extending) slightly
into the clearance gap but is still functioning effectively. In
Figure 6, the pressure has now exceeded the seal’s
capabilities, forcing it to extrude severely. A leak path forms,
and the seal fails.
AN O-RING IN ACTION
Figure 3: Installed Figure 4: Pressurized
Figure 5: Extruded Figure 6: Failed
STAYING IN SHAPE
An important factor in the effectiveness of any O-ring is its
memory, or ability to remember its shape. The molecular
properties of the O-ring are such that it is always trying to
regain its original shape despite being squeezed and/or
distorted by pressure. This memory function allows a properly
designed O-ring seal to block the clearance gap and prevent
leakage, all the while resisting extrusion into the gap or
otherwise losing its shape. Since an O-ring’s memory is directly
related to its chemical structure, let’s take a closer look at some
basic structural concepts next.

BACK TO BASICS 11
selecting the material

Back to
Basics.
A
nyone designing an O-ring seal must answer a
multitude of questions. In a sense, that’s really
what good design work is all about:
determining which questions to ask and where to find
the answers. Though the sealing industry has a
multitude of exotic terms, a clear understanding of a
few basic concepts will help you ask the most pertinent
questions and find the most productive answers.To that
end, here’s a quick review, starting with the building “A clear
block of all materials, the atom.
understanding of
AN ATOM IN ACTION
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that 1) retains all a few basic
the element’s distinctive properties and 2) can enter into a
concepts will help
chemical reaction. In other words, anything less than an
atom of carbon (C) is no longer carbon. A carbon atom can you ask the most
be split into its component parts (see Figure 7), but the pertinent
resulting subatomic particles (positively-charged protons,
non-charged neutrons, and negatively-charged electrons) questions and find
do not reflect the properties of carbon. Though their the most
number and arrangement vary from element to element,
productive
subatomic particles alone tell you nothing about the atoms
from which they came. A proton from a carbon atom is answers.”
identical to an oxygen (O) proton.
Subatomic particles are important,
however, because they determine CARBON ATOM Electrons (6 total)
orbiting the nucleus
one of the defining characteristics of
any atom: its atomic weight, or the
total mass of the protons and
neutrons within its nucleus (orbiting
electrons are of negligible weight and Protons, Neutrons (6 each)
don’t figure into this total). For in the nucleus
example, the nucleus of a hydrogen
(H) atom contains one proton and no
neutrons, so its atomic weight is 1.
Carbon is composed of six protons Figure 7: Subatomic Particles
and six neutrons, for an atomic weight
of 12.
12 BACK TO BASICS
Each individual atom is also distinguishable by the one or
more energy bonds it can form with neighboring atoms.This
ability to combine is known as valence, and the amount of
valence varies with each element. For example, an atom of
hydrogen has a valence of 1, meaning it can form only one
such energy bond. Oxygen has a valence of 2 and carbon has
a valence of 4, meaning they can form two and four bonds,
respectively. To be more precise, atoms need to form these
energy bonds in order to be “satisfied” or “stable.” The
interaction of differing valences is what allows a group of
atoms to join together into a molecule.
MOLECULAR MATCHMAKING
The kind of molecule is determined by the exact type and
number of atoms. For example, a water molecule is made up
of just three atoms: two of hydrogen and one of oxygen.The
components of a water molecule are most simply expressed
by the well-known chemical formula “H 20” or by the
structural diagram: H-O-H (see Figure 8). A water molecule
can be considered stable because the valences of each of its
atoms are satisfied: the two hydrogen atoms have formed
one bond each, and the single oxygen atom has formed the
two bonds it needs.
When dissimilar atoms join together (as with water), the
resulting molecule is called a compound. There are two
major types of compounds: organic and inorganic. Generally
speaking, organic compounds contain
carbon and inorganic compounds do not,
WATER MOLECULE
though a handful of carbon-containing
compounds (such as metallic cyanides,
carbon dioxide, carbides, and carbonates)
are studied as part of inorganic
chemistry.
The specific way in which a molecule is
Figure 8: A Simple formed depends on which type of
Inorganic Compound compound it is. Inorganic compounds are
formed when an atom gives up, or
transfers, one of its orbiting electrons to a nearby atom.
Thanks to the rules of valence, this electron transfer can help
both the donor atom and the recipient atom become more
stable. Because the carbon atom has a compact structure, it
is much less inclined to give up an electron. It will, however,
share an electron with a nearby atom (such as hydrogen) to
attain a more stable compound.

BACK TO BASICS 13

As previously stated, each atom has its own atomic weight.
When atoms unite to form a molecule, the sum of these
atomic weights is then known as the molecular weight. For
example, a methane molecule (CH4) combines the atomic
weight of one carbon atom (12) with the atomic weight of
four hydrogen atoms (1 x 4), for a total molecular weight of
16. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, there are a
handful of other atomic elements that form the basis for the
majority of raw materials used in the sealing industry. These
include nitrogen (N), fluorine (F), silicon (Si), sulfur (S), and
ELEMENT ATOMIC WT VALENCE

(ENERGY BONDS)
Hydrogen 1 1
Carbon 12 4
Nitrogen 14 3
Oxygen 16 2
Fluorine 19 1
Silicon 28 4
Sulfur 32 2
Chlorine 35 1
Table 1: Atomic Elements Most Commonly Used as

Building Blocks in the Sealing Industry
chlorine (Cl). The atomic weights and valences of each of

these elements are listed in Table 1.
LINKS IN THE CHAIN
Small, individual molecules are known
MONOMER TO POLYMER
as mers, or monomers (literally, “single
mers”). When conditions are right, these
small molecules can chemically “link”
together to form long, chainlike
structures. The macromolecules (giant
molecules) that result may incorporate Methane Ethane
thousands of the original monomers.
These long chain macromolecules are
therefore known as polymers (“many
mers”). The linking process itself is called
polymerization. An example of this process
is shown in Figure 9. Methane monomers
can combine to form ethane, and Polyethylene
eventually, polyethylene. Rubber and
plastics are polymer-based materials. Figure 9: Effect of Polymerization

14 BACK TO BASICS
Changes in physical properties as a result of polymerization
are largely a factor of molecular weight. When molecules
(each with their own total weight) join to form a polymer,
the sum of the molecular weights has a huge impact on the
polymer’s physical properties. As a general rule, an increase
in chain length (and thus molecular weight) also means an
increase in strength and viscosity (resistance to flow).
Table 2 shows the effects of increased molecular weight. By
adding CH2 groups, the polyethylene molecule goes from a
gas (with little or no physical properties) to a liquid, then to
a wax. Continued addition of molecules forms a tough solid
(of relatively low molecular weight, or LMW) such as is used
for plastic grocery bags, then a very tough solid (of high
molecular weight, or HMW), and soon an extremely tough,
solid plastic (of ultra-high molecular weight, or UHMW) used
in abrasion pads and bridge bearings. No matter what its
physical state, the molecule is made up of the same two
COMMON NAME CHEMICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR WT STATE (RM TEMP)
Methane CH4 16 Gas

Ethane C2H6 30 Gas
Propane C3H8 44 Gas
Butane C4H10 58 Gas
Pentane C5H12 72 Liquid
Kerosene C17H36 240 Liquid
Paraffin Wax C18H38 254 Soft Solid
Hard Wax C50H102 702 Brittle Solid
LMW Polyethylene C100H202 1402 Tough Solid
HMW Polyethylene C70,000H140,002 (avg.) 980,002 Very Tough Solid
UHMW Polyethylene C220,000H440,002 (avg.) 3,080,002 Extr. Tough Solid
Table 2: Changes in Physical Properties as a Result of Polymerization
elements, carbon and hydrogen, and is configured the same

way. The only difference is the number of molecules (the
chain length) and thus the molecular weight. Polymers with
higher molecular weights are key in the formulation of high
strength materials for extreme applications. In the higher
molecular weights, the numbers of carbon and hydrogen
atoms are ranges rather than absolute values. The HMW and
UHMW polyethylene formulas in Table 2 are averages.
FORCES OF NATURE
Long polymeric chains (such as those in polyethylene) are

BACK TO BASICS 15

held in place by intermolecular forces (known as van der
Waals forces) and by chain entanglement (as in a bowl of
spaghetti). The intermolecular forces are heat-sensitive, so
that as a polymer is heated, the molecular motion increases
and the attractive forces between the molecules decrease.
The polymer chains can then slide past one another.
Some polymers are composed CRYSTALLINE
primarily of linear, symmetrical
molecules arranged in close proximity
to one another. This proximity allows
the intermolecular van der Waals
forces to be at their strongest, and the
polymer will thus be very rigid. These
orderly polymers are said to be
crystalline in structure (see Figure 10).
Polyethylene plastic is a good example
of a crystalline polymer.
Figure 10: Linear, Symmetrical Chains
Other polymers are composed mainly
of branched, non-symmetrical
AMORPHOUS
molecules that cannot fit closely to
one another. Because of this increased
distance between the molecules, the
van der Waals forces will be at their
weakest, resulting in a random mass of
twisted and entwined polymer chains.
These polymers are said to be
amorphous (see Figure 11).
Because their intermolecular forces are
not very strong, amorphous polymers Figure 11: Random, Non-Symmetrical Chains
can be thought of as very viscous
(thick) liquids that appear to be
“COMBO” STRUCTURE
solids.Though it is possible to have an
amorphous plastic, most plastics are
either crystalline or semi-crystalline.
Keep in mind that it is common to see
tough polymers in which the numerous
crystalline segments are surrounded by
a few amorphous areas (as in Figure
12). All rubbers or elastomers are
amorphous at room temperature.
Though the term elastomer was
initially used to denote a synthetic Figure 12: Crystalline Regions
Surrounded by Amorphous Regions
form of natural rubber,“elastomer” and

16 BACK TO BASICS
“rubber” are now more or less synonymous. To be officially
considered an elastomer by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM), a polymer must not break when
stretched 100%, and it must return to within 10% of its
original length within five minutes after being held for five
minutes at 100% stretch.
An elastomer is perhaps best
VISCO-ELASTICITY described as a visco-elastic
material, in that it goes through
both a viscous phase and an elastic
phase. The visco-elastic behavior of
elastomers can be simulated using
a spring coupled with a dashpot
(damper). The spring illustrates the
elastic phase, and the dashpot
exemplifies the viscous phase (see
Figure 13).
STATE OF ENTANGLEMENT
But why is an elastomer elastic and
resilient, able to undergo high
strain and yet recover its original
shape? Put simply, it’s the tangled
nature of its long molecular chains.
When pressure (in the form of a
compressive load or a stretching
Figure 13: A spring-dashpot combination can force) is applied to the elastomer,
illustrate the visco-elastic nature of elastomers. the chains rotate around their
chemical bonds. This rotation tends
to uncoil the entangled mass and straighten the chains.
When the pressure is removed, the chains coil up again,
reverting to their normal state of entanglement. This
tendency to return to its original configuration helps explain
an elastomer’s rubbery, resilient nature.
Under certain conditions, a few elastomers will have their
molecules align and form crystalline regions. In some cases,
this can be advantageous. Natural rubber undergoes strain
crystallization, meaning its entangled macromolecular
chains will untangle and align to form crystals as a result of
a stretching force. This tendency to strain crystallize gives
natural rubber inherently good strength and fatigue
properties. In other cases, the tendency to crystallize can be
a distinct disadvantage. An elastomer that crystallizes due to
cold temperatures becomes harder and less able to stretch.

BACK TO BASICS 17

Because many seals will face potentially detrimental service
conditions (such as extreme cold or heat), an elastomer
alone is seldom an effective seal material. Other ingredients
must often be added to make the elastomer easier to
process and to augment its physical and/or chemical traits.
These other ingredients may include fillers (to reinforce or
extend the material), plasticizers (to aid flexibility and
processibility), cure activators and accelerators (to initiate
and speed processing), inhibitors (to ensure the reaction
does not proceed too quickly), anti-degradants (to help
resist environmental elements like oxygen or ozone), and
pigments (for colorization). The combination of a base
elastomer and additives is called an elastomeric compound.
MAKING CONNECTIONS
After a compound has been formulated, it must still be
processed into a useful form (such as an O-ring). Under
normal conditions, an elastomer’s amorphous chain
segments are free to move relative to one
another. This is not true only when the chains EFFECT OF VULCANIZATION
meet mechanical entanglement (as with the
spaghetti effect), or when the separate chains are
chemically connected. Vulcanization (also known
as cure) is a heat-induced process whereby the
long chains of the rubber polymers are
permanently cross-linked to one another, thus
forming three-dimensional elastic structures (see
Figure 14). Aided by curing agents in the original
compound, vulcanization transforms soft, weak,
non-cross-linked materials into strong elastic Figure 14: A 3-D Elastic Structure
products. In addition to making the compound
stronger, the vulcanization process is also generally the
point at which the material is molded into a useful shape
that it retains due to its memory.
Though every effort has been made to simplify the
preceding discussion, it’s important to realize that putting
together an elastomeric compound can get quite complex.
Decisions made in compounding will ultimately impact the
processing and performance of any seals produced from the
compound. Depending on the type and degree of additives
in use, a single base elastomer can generate hundreds of
different compounds, each with unique characteristics.
Since choices made during compounding directly
determine the properties of an elastomeric seal, let’s look at
these physical, thermal, and chemical properties next.

18 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical
Properties.
T
here are a number of physical properties you
should consider when choosing an elastomeric
compound for your O-ring application. These
include hardness, tensile strength, modulus, elongation,
tear resistance, abrasion resistance, compression set
resistance, and resilience. The extent to which each of
these properties is present in a given material has a
huge impact on the material’s ability to provide an
“The extent to effective seal.
which each of these HARDNESS

Typically defined as resistance to indentation under specific
properties is conditions, the hardness of an elastomer is more accurately
present in a given thought of as two related properties: inherent hardness and
material has a huge processed hardness. As a result of chemical structure, each
elastomer has its own inherent hardness. This inherent
impact on the
hardness can be modified (and is typically supplemented)
material’s ability to via compounding and vulcanization. Hardness in molded
provide an rubber articles (processed hardness) is a factor of cross-link
density (and the amount of fillers). The more cross-linking a
effective seal.”
given material undergoes during vulcanization, the harder
the final molded part will be. When judging
HARDNESS TESTERS the potential effectiveness of a molded seal,
processed hardness is one of the most
common criteria in the rubber industry.
Unfortunately, hardness is also one of the least
consistent concepts in that the most-used
measurement scales have only limited
comparability. There is no single “universal
hardness”unit, so it is often impossible to draw
a clear and easy correlation between readings
on two different scales, even when the
samples being measured are absolutely
identical. There are currently two hardness
tests that predominate in the rubber industry:
Shore durometer and International Rubber
Figure 15: Some instruments can generate Hardness Degrees (IRHD).
both durometer and IRHD readings.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 19

Because Shore Instruments led the way in the marketing of
durometer gauges, the words “Shore” and “durometer” have
become virtually synonymous within the rubber industry.
Now a division of Instron Corporation, Shore Instruments
offers a wide range of durometer scales conforming to the
ASTM D 2240 standard. These scales are designed to gauge
hardness in everything from textile windings to plastics to
foam. Rubber hardness is most often measured via a Shore
Type A or Type D durometer. Since there is more than one
scale, you should always be specific as to which scale is
being applied in a given situation, e.g. “95 Shore A” or “46
Shore D.” The full range of durometer scales and the
materials they are most commonly used on are listed in
Table 3.
DUROMETER SCALE MOST COMMONLY USED ON
Type A All O-Ring Compounds
Type B (not commonly used) Moderately Hard Rubber
Type C (not commonly used) Medium Hard Rubber and Plastics
Type D Hard Rubber; Polyurethane; Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs)
Type DO High Density Textile Windings
Type O Soft Rubber; Medium Density Textile Windings
Type OO Sponge Rubber and Plastics; Low Density Textile Windings
Type OOO Plastic Foams
Type T Medium Density Textile Windings
Table 3: Guide to Durometer Scale Selection

The Shore A durometer is a portable and adaptable device
which uses a frustum (truncated) cone indentor point and a
calibrated steel spring to gauge the resistance of rubber to
indentation. When the durometer is pressed against a flat
rubber sample, the indentor point is forced back toward the
durometer body. This force is resisted by the spring. Once
firm contact between the durometer point and the sample
has been made, a reading is taken within one second unless
a longer time interval is desired. Five readings are typically
taken, then an average value calculated.The amount of force
the rubber exerts on the indentor point is reflected on a
gauge with an arbitrary scale of 0 to 100. Harder substances
generate higher durometer numbers. A reading of 0 would
be indicative of a liquid, whereas 100 would indicate a hard
plane surface (e.g. steel or glass).
That said, it’s important to note that readings of less than 10
or more than 90 Shore A are not really considered reliable.

Materials harder than 90 Shore A (e.g. some polyurethanes
and plastics) are more accurately measured on a Shore Type
D durometer, which utilizes a stiffer spring and a sharp 30°
angle indentor point. The majority of O-ring materials have
readings between 40 and 90 Shore A. Table 4 includes
approximate conversions for several of the most-used
durometer scales.
TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C TYPE D TYPE O TYPE OO
100 85 77 58
95 81 70 46
90 76 59 39
85 71 52 33
80 66 47 29 84 98
75 62 42 25 79 97
70 56 37 22 75 95
65 51 32 19 72 94
60 47 28 16 69 93
55 42 24 14 65 91
50 37 20 12 61 90
45 32 17 10 57 88
40 27 14 8 53 86
35 22 12 7 48 83
30 17 9 6 42 80
25 12 35 76
20 6 28 70
15 21 62
10 14 55
5 8 45
Table 4: Conversions for Durometer Hardness Scales
Though most standard O-rings are either 70 or 90 Shore A,

the application will always govern the necessary hardness.
Softer compounds offering less resistance may be perfectly
fine for low-pressure seals, but high-pressure seals will likely
require a harder, more extrusion-resistant material. Making
decisions about a property such as hardness often entails
compromise in order to ensure the long-term usefulness of
the seal. For example, a relatively hard compound may resist
being extruded under high pressure, but its use can also
lead to increased frictional buildup in dynamic seals.
Increased friction leads to increased heat, which can, in turn,


degrade the seal and decrease its useful life span.
It is also important to realize that measuring the hardness of
a rubber sample is an imprecise art (see Figure 16).
Depending on both the specific gauge in use and the
expertise of its operator, it is possible (even probable) that
the same sample will yield two or more different readings.
The rate at which the durometer is applied to the sample,
the force used, the amount of time that elapses before
taking the reading, and the temperature of the specimen at
the time of testing can all impact a test result. For this
reason, all durometer readings normally include a tolerance
of ± 5 points, but sometimes even this may not be enough
to fully anticipate all of the variances to be seen in testing.
Technological advances have reduced many of the
discrepancies, but sometimes at the expense of the
simplicity and portability that initially made durometers
popular. It is generally a good
idea to test a given specimen DUROMETER USE
several times and average the
results to ensure accuracy.
Despite the long-standing close
association between “Shore” and
“durometer,” be aware that there
are other companies which
market high-quality durometers.
These include Rex Gauge
Company and PTC Instruments.
Microhardness testers have also
been developed for use on
samples that are too small or too
irregularly shaped to be
accurately gauged by standard
durometers. Figure 16: An average of several readings is preferable.
The other widely-used test, International Rubber Hardness,

utilizes a spherical indentor and a dial gauge calibrated in
International Rubber Hardness Degrees (IRHD). Though not
as common in the United States as abroad, all IRHD testers
are designed to conform to the ASTM D 1415 standard.
TENSILE STRENGTH
Typically noted in either pounds per square inch (psi) or
megapascals (MPa), tensile strength is the amount of force
required to break a rubber specimen.To convert from MPa to
psi, simply multiply the MPa figure by 145. For example, 14

MPa converts to 2,030 psi. Converting from psi to MPa is just
a matter of dividing the psi number by 145.
To better understand tensile strength, first recall that there
are intermolecular forces (known as van der Waals forces)
helping to hold long polymer chains in place. These forces
are at their weakest when, due to structural irregularities, the
molecules cannot fit closely together, resulting in a non-
regimented, amorphous structure. Some polymers, however,
have their constituent molecules aligned in very regular
patterns. The combination of this regularity and the
intermolecular forces may be enough to “fit” the chains into
a rigid, crystalline pattern.
Tensile strength largely depends on an elastomer’s ability to
partially strain crystallize when stretched. With greater
crystallization comes increased strength and resistance to
stress. Natural rubber is an example of an elastomer with a
very regular chain structure that strain crystallizes. As a
result, natural rubber has high tensile strength. Of course,
the temporary nature of strain crystallization allows natural
rubber to regain its original shape once the stress is
removed. An elastomer with inherently poor tensile
strength, such as styrene butadiene, can be improved
through the addition of highly
TENSILE SPECIMEN particulate reinforcing agents. Silica
and carbon black are common
reinforcing agents. Be aware that the
majority of dynamic applications will
require an elastomeric compound with
tensile strength of at least 1000 psi
(6.9 MPa).
Per ASTM D 412, a compound’s tensile
strength is generally tested using a
molded dumbbell (see Figure 17). The
dumbbell is placed in the grips (jaws)
of a tensile tester (see Figure 18). The
best-known tester is Instron, but
tensiTECH and others are also used.
When the tester is activated, the
dumbbell is pulled steadily at a rate of
20 inches per minute until it breaks.The
force being exerted on the sample at
the time of rupture is said to be the
Figure 17: Molded Dumbbell
sample’s tensile strength. Minimum


tensile strength is often used as both a qualification criterion
when specifying a new material and as a control criterion
(with a ± 15% production
tolerance) when testing TENSILE TESTER
batches of mixed material.
MODULUS
Perhaps the best single gauge
of a compound’s overall
toughness and extrusion
resistance, modulus is the
force (stress) in pounds per
square inch (psi) required to
produce a certain elongation
(strain). This elongation might
be 50%, 100%, or even 300%,
though 100% is the most
widely used figure for testing
and comparison purposes.
Industry literature typically
refers to 100% elongation as
“M100” (or modulus 100).
Compounds with a higher
modulus are more resilient
and more resistant to
Figure 18: Stretching a Sample
extrusion. Generally speaking,
the harder a compound, the higher its modulus. Because it is
basically a measure of tensile strength at a particular
elongation (rather than at rupture), modulus is also known
as tensile modulus or tensile stress.
As described in ASTM D 412, modulus is typically gauged
simultaneously with tensile strength on the same dumbbell
specimen shown in Figure 17. As the specimen is being
stretched, the tester records the psi (for example, 836.7)
needed to achieve a given elongation (for example, 100%).
This figure in psi is considered to be the sample’s modulus at
that elongation. Minimum modulus is typically used as a
qualification criterion when specifying a new material. It can
also serve as a control criterion (with a ± 25% production
tolerance) when testing finished parts.
ELONGATION
Elongation is the percentage increase in original length
(strain) of a rubber specimen as a result of tensile force
(stress) being applied to the specimen. Elongation is

inversely proportional to hardness, tensile strength, and
modulus. That is, the greater a material’s hardness, tensile
strength, and modulus, the less it will elongate under stress.
It takes more force to stretch a hard material having high
tensile strength and high modulus than to stretch a soft
material with low tensile strength and low modulus.
Ultimate elongation is the elongation at the moment the
specimen breaks. Per ASTM D 412, ultimate elongation is
generally noted along with tensile strength and modulus
during tensile testing. Some elastomeric materials are much
more forgiving in this area than others. Natural rubber can
often stretch up to 700% before breaking. Fluorocarbons
typically rupture at about 300%. Keep in mind that these
figures highlight relative failure modes only and are not
acceptable seal installation values.
Overstretching can doom an O-ring, so elongation is an
important installation factor, especially as gland and seal
dimensions decrease. What might be a small percentage
increase in a larger seal can be a large increase in a smaller
seal. For example, an OR-150 seal has a nominal inside
diameter (I.D.) of 2 7/8”. If stretched 1/16”, it is elongated
roughly 2%. On the other hand, an OR-102 seal has a 1/16”
nominal I.D. If stretched 1/16”, it is elongated 100%. Since a
given amount of elongation can mean vastly different
things, elongation is truly relative to a seal’s initial size.
Though elongation is seldom a problem, installing small
diameter, high durometer, and low elongation seals can
TEAR INITIATION be problematic in some instances.
TEAR RESISTANCE
Noted in kilonewtons per meter (kN/m) or pound force
per inch (lbf/in.), tear resistance (or tear strength) is
resistance to the growth of a cut or nick in a vulcanized
(cured) rubber specimen when tension is applied. Tear
resistance is an important consideration, both as the
finished article is being removed from the mold and as
it performs in actual service.
Tear resistance can be gauged via the same ASTM D 412
apparatus used in the testing of tensile strength,
modulus, and elongation. As described in ASTM D 624,
different specimen types can be used to measure both
tear initiation (resistance to the start of a tear, see Figure
Figure 19: Unnicked 90° Angle 19) and tear propagation (resistance to the spread of a
tear, see Figure 20). Either way, the sample is placed in


the tester’s grips, which then exert a uniform pulling force
until the point of rupture. This force may then be divided by
the specimen’s thickness to arrive at the tear
resistance for that particular sample. Three TEAR PROPAGATION
separate samples are typically tested and an
average calculated.
Though epichlorohydrin, natural rubber, and
polyurethane all have excellent tear
resistance, many materials are not very
strong in this area. Silicone and
fluorosilicone have notably poor tear
resistance. Though it might seem logical, it is
in fact a common misconception that
hardness automatically equals good tear
resistance. Compounds whose tear
resistance is less than 100 lbf/in. are most at
risk for installation damage, especially in Figure 20: Slit (“Trouser”) Specimen
designs featuring non-smooth areas (as with
burrs, slots, threads, etc.) and/or sharp, non-radiused (non-
rounded) corners. Once damaged, materials with poor tear
resistance will quickly fail in service.This is especially true for
dynamic seals. Poor tear resistance is linked to poor abrasion
resistance.
ABRASION RESISTANCE
Measured as a loss percentage based on original weight,
abrasion resistance is the resistance of a rubber compound
to wearing away by contact with a moving abrasive surface.
Whereas the cutting or nicking of a seal’s surface is an
instantaneous event, abrasive rubbing or scraping is much
more of a progressive phenomenon that develops over
time. Seals in motion are most susceptible to abrasion. Hard
compounds tend to exhibit less abrasive wear than soft
compounds, but use of a harder compound can also
increase friction in dynamic seals, and increased friction
generates seal-degrading heat.
Because of the many potential variables (including heat
fluctuation and surface contamination), abrasion resistance
is hard to accurately measure. Testing typically involves the
uniform application of an abrasive material (such as
sandpaper) to the surface of a sample. ASTM standards
describe three different abraders: D 1630 relies on a National
Bureau of Standards (NBS) abrader (see Figure 21); D 2228
uses a Pico abrader (see Figure 22); and D 3389 (also known
as Taber Abrasion) employs a double-head abrader and a
rotary platform (see Figure 23). Regardless of the specific
test method, the relative amount of sample material that is
lost due to abrasion is a good indication of abrasion
resistance.
NBS ABRADER Generally speaking, hydrocarbon-

based elastomers tend to offer better
abrasion resistance than fluorocarbon
Material Specimen
elastomers. Polyurethane offers the
most outstanding abrasion resistance,
while carboxylated nitrile and
hydrogenated nitrile offer abrasion
resistance that is superior to other
hydrocarbon-based elastomers.
Sand Paper COMPRESSION SET
Compression set is the end result of a
Figure 21: Rotating Drum progressive stress relaxation, which is
the steady decline in sealing force
that results when an elastomer is compressed over a period
PICO ABRADER of time. In terms of the life of a seal, stress relaxation is like
dying, whereas compression set is like death. The effects of
compression set on an O-ring’s cross-section can be seen in
Figure 24.
Though it is very difficult to accurately quantify stress
relaxation, compression set is easy to measure. ASTM D 395
details compression set testing for rubber that will be
compressed in air or liquid media. Two methods are
described (“A” for constant force; “B” for constant
deflection), but the basic methodology is substantially the
same. Testing generally involves use of cylindrical disk
compression set test buttons (0.49” thick by 1.14”
diameter). In lieu of buttons, die-cut plied (stacked) samples
(0.070” thick by 1.14” diameter) may be substituted. The
Figure 22: Rotating Platform buttons or plied samples are placed between steel plates.
In method A (see Figure 25), the plates are then forced
together using either a calibrated spring or
TABER ABRADER
Test Specimen a pre-defined external force. In method B
(see Figure 26), a bolt-tightened device
and steel spacers are used. Either way,
compression (normally 25% of original
Sand Paper thickness) is held for a given time (e.g. 22
hours) at a specific temperature (e.g. 100°
C), these last two variables based on
Figure 23: Rotating Samples
anticipated service conditions.


COMPRESSION SET
DEFLECTION RETURN
COMPRESSION
SET
ORIGINAL RECOVERED
THICKNESS SPACER THICKNESS
Figure 24: Effects of Compression Set on an O-Ring’s Cross-Section
After removal from the compression device and a 30-minute

cooling period, the specimens are measured using a dial
micrometer. Compression set can then be calculated as
either a percentage of original specimen thickness or as a
percentage of original deflection.
Though a high degree of compression set is to be avoided,
other service variables (such as inadvertent fluid swell or the
intentional application of greater squeeze) may
compensate. Seals are most likely to fail when there is both
high compression set and shrinkage. Table 5 (next page)
shows how several of the most commonly used materials
respond to increasing temperatures. For more information
on compression set, see page 256.
RESILIENCE
As detailed in ASTM D 2632, resilience (also known as
CONSTANT FORCE CONSTANT DEFLECTION
Figure 25: Compression Figure 26: Compression

Set Test Method A Set Test Method B

Table 5: Compression Set in Increasing Temperatures
rebound) refers to a compound’s ability to regain its original

size and shape after temporary deformation. Resilience
testing typically involves the dropping of a small weight
onto a test specimen (such as a compression set button, see
Figure 27). The extent to which the weight bounces back is
then noted as a percentage of the initial drop height. A
highly resilient material (one that can rapidly regain its
dimensions) might engender a 70% rebound value, but
values in the range of 40 to 50% are more typical for the
majority of elastomers tested. Though
RESILIENCE compounding may improve an elastomer in
100 100 100
this area, it can also detract from good
90 90 90
resilience, which is largely an inherent
property. As a general rule, resilience is most
80 80 80
70 70 70
60 60 60 critical in dynamic seals.

50 50 50
40 40 40
Test Specimen As important as they are, the physical
30
20
30
20
30
20
properties of a given material are not the end
10 10 10 of the story. Chemical properties are also
0 0 0
critical, so let’s take a closer look at them next.
Figure 27: Bashore Resilience Testing

30 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical
Properties.
I
n addition to the physical properties discussed in the
preceding section, there are also a couple of very
important chemical properties you should consider
when choosing an elastomeric compound. Primarily, the
material must be chemically compatible with the
substance(s) to be sealed. You must also anticipate any
volume changes that the compound may undergo as a
result of contact with system fluids.
“Because ‘likes COMPATIBILITY
As used by the sealing industry, the term compatibility refers
dissolve likes,’ the
to a seal material’s resistance to having its chemical (and, by
true key to extension, its physical) properties degraded (either
temporarily or permanently) as a result of contact with a
compatibility
liquid or gas. Because “likes dissolve likes,” the true key to
between the seal compatibility between the seal and the fluid(s) being sealed
and the fluid(s) is dissimilar chemical structure. For example, an O-ring seal
made from an oil-derived material can be severely
being sealed is compromised when put in contact with oils or fuels. The
dissimilar chemical most likely result: excessive swelling of the O-ring, resulting
in failure of the seal (see Figure 28).
structure.”
In addition to being resistant to the primary system fluid, the
seal must also be resistant to any and all additives which
may be encountered during the course of operation. For
example, oil-field applications
EVIDENCE OF INCOMPATIBILITY often utilize film-forming amine
inhibitors to coat tubular goods
and help prevent metal
corrosion. Unfortunately, amine
inhibitors act as curing agents for
some fluorocarbon elastomers,
causing seal hardening and
failure. In such an application, an
O-ring would need to be resistant
Figure 28: O-Ring Swell to the fluid(s) being sealed and to
the added amine inhibitors in
order to provide an effective and long-lasting seal.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 31

Even if they do not degrade the elastomeric compound
directly, some fluids degrade surfaces adjacent to the seal
(as with metal corrosion), thus reducing the effectiveness of
the seal itself. You should also keep in mind that while some
compounds formulated from a particular polymer may be
okay for use in a given fluid, not all compounds of that
polymer will be appropriate for use in that fluid. Since a
compound’s properties are a direct result of its interactive
constituents (e.g. reinforcing agents, plasticizers, etc.), each
unique formulation should be tested under actual service
conditions to accurately determine its appropriateness for
an application.
There is no single ASTM test to determine “chemical
compatibility.” Rather, compatibility is understood to be a
wider concept incorporating changes (or the lack thereof ) in
a number of material properties, each with their own test
methods. Hardness, tensile strength, modulus, and
elongation can all be compromised if a compound is not
compatible with (resistant to) a given fluid. Perhaps the most
visible evidence of chemical incompatibility is a change in
the material’s volume.
VOLUME CHANGE
Volume change is either the increase (swell, as in Figure 28)
or decrease (shrinkage, as in Figure 29) in the volume of a
specimen which has been in contact with a fluid. This
contact may range from occasional “splashing” to constant
immersion. Any resulting volume change can range from
minor (indicating there is a relative
compatibility between the fluid EVIDENCE OF INCOMPATIBILITY
and the specimen) to major
(indicative of incompatibility).
Volume change is typically noted
as a percentage of the original
volume. For example, a specimen
that swells to twice its original
volume is said to have undergone
a 100% increase.
Figure 29: Shrinkage Due to Plasticizer Extraction
An elastomeric seal typically
becomes softer as a result of swell, whereas shrinkage
generally hardens the seal. A slightly swollen seal is, in most
cases, still functional. A limited amount of swell may even
compensate for other variables, such as compression set.
Shrinkage, on the other hand, can exacerbate an already-
existing compression set problem. With some of its soluble
32 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
components (such as plasticizer) having been extracted by
system fluid, an O-ring seal that has undergone shrinkage is
more prone to leaks.
As described in ASTM test method D 471, volume change
testing typically employs ASTM and Industry Reference
Material (IRM) oils, as well as ASTM Reference Fuels, Service
Liquids, and Type IV Reagent Water. Regardless of the liquid
in use, testing involves immersing a material sample (of
known properties) in the liquid for a specific period of time
(e.g. 70 hours) at a specific temperature (e.g. 100° C ± 2°),
both variables based on the conditions expected in service.
Material deterioration (if any) is then determined based on
changes in physical properties, including volume.

86 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermal
Properties.
M
ost physical and chemical properties are
impacted when an elastomeric compound
meets high or low temperatures, especially if
the exposure is for a prolonged period. Affected
properties can include hardness, tensile strength,
modulus, elongation, compression set, and volume.
Because O-rings often face extreme heat or extreme cold
(and in some cases, both extremes), there are important
thermal properties you must consider. These include
“Because O-rings
high and low temperature effects, coefficient of thermal
often face extreme expansion, and the Gough-Joule effect.
heat or extreme HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Unless specially formulated, elastomers will typically soften
cold, there are
when first exposed to high temperatures. Extended heat
important thermal exposure can cause irreversible changes in tensile strength
properties you and elongation, as well as alterations in the chemical
makeup of a seal such that it hardens and cracks. This
must consider.” hardening is the result of additional cross-linking, plasticizer
evaporation, and/or oxidation. Table 7 shows how high
temperatures impact a handful of the most-used materials.
Table 7: Material Performance in High Temperatures

THERMAL PROPERTIES 87

There are four different ASTM test methods related to high
temperature effects. All are designed to gauge the amount
of material degradation that results from exposure to a
heated environment. The main difference between these
tests is the device used to keep pressure and heat on the
specimen. D 454 uses an air-pressure chamber to mimic the
degrading effects of heat and air. D 572 utilizes a similar
oxygen-pressure chamber to simulate deterioration by heat
and oxygen. D 573 details testing in an air oven, and D 865
describes heat and air testing within a test tube enclosure.
LOW TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Unlike the changes that result from exposure to high
temperatures, changes brought about by low temperature
exposure are generally not permanent and can often be
reversed once heat returns. For example, extended exposure
to low temperatures will increase an elastomer’s hardness,
but the material will soften again when the temperature
rises. Perhaps the most important consideration related to
low temperatures involves seals which must also work in a
low-pressure environment. Unless the selected seal
compound is sufficiently soft and resilient, the combination
of low temperature (which can cause shrinkage and
hardening of the seal) and low service pressure (which will
not help hold the seal against the mating surface) can cause
leakage and failure.
There are two main tests
related to low temperature LOW TEMPERATURE TESTING
effects. The first is described .08
70 F
21 C
in ASTM D 2137 (Method A) 21 C
0
0
0C
as a way to measure the

brittleness point, or the NORMAL REST STATE
lowest temperature at
which a sample will not .07 -94 F
-70 C
fracture or crack when 0C
0
struck once. The second test -70 C

0
100% ELONGATION
is described in ASTM D 1329.
More commonly known as a
TR-10, this temperature -40 F
-40 C
retraction test (see Figure 0C
0
30) is considered by many 10% RETRACTION

-40 C
0
(90% ELONGATION)
within the rubber industry
to be the most useful 0
-40 C is the TR10 Value of this sample
indicator of a material’s low
Figure 30: Temperature Retraction, or “TR-10”
temperature performance.

88 THERMAL PROPERTIES
In a nutshell, the TR-10 measures material resilience.
Samples are frozen in a stretched state, then gradually
warmed until they lose 10% of this stretch (i.e. retract by
10%).The results of such tests are believed to provide a good
basis for evaluating the effects of crystallization and the
impact of low temperatures on visco-elastic properties. TR-
10 results are generally thought to be consistent with the
capabilities of most dynamic seals. Static seals can often
function at 15° F / 8° C below the TR-10 temperature.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
Coefficient of thermal expansion may be either linear or
volumetric.The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is the
change in length per unit of length for a 1° rise in
temperature. The coefficient of volumetric thermal
expansion is the change in volume divided by the product
of the original volume and the change in temperature. In
solids, the coefficient of volumetric expansion is three times
the coefficient of linear expansion.
Because elastomeric compounds have much higher
coefficients of expansion than steel or aluminum (i.e. than
the materials from which many glands are made), thermal
expansion may cause an already tight seal to swell and
overfill the gland as temperatures rise. Glands have even
been known to rupture under the force exerted by an
MATERIAL RETRACTION expanding seal. Conversely, a seal design that provides
only minimal squeeze in a low temperature setting cannot
look to thermal effects for help in tightening the seal.
GOUGH-JOULE EFFECT
The Gough-Joule effect (see Figure 31) is actually two
related phenomena. First, unlike many materials, rubber
heats up when stretched quickly. Second, rubber that is
held stationary at one end and stretched under a given
load will actually retract if localized heat is applied. This is
true because the rubber’s stressed macromolecular chains
are trying to regain a less-stressful state. The Gough-Joule
effect is perhaps most important in rotary seal designs,
where excessive installed stretch in conjunction with
system heat can cause an O-ring to retract, seizing the
Figure 31: Gough-Joule Effect
rapidly rotating shaft and dooming the design.
With these physical, chemical, and thermal properties in
mind, let’s now look more specifically at the relative
strengths and weaknesses of the most commonly used O-
ring materials.

MATERIAL PROFILES 89

Material
Profiles.
T
he following profiles of the most commonly used
O-ring materials are intended to serve as general
guidelines only. Inherent strengths and
weaknesses are noted, but keep in mind that these
properties may be enhanced or diminished through
compounding. Selecting the best material for a given
application will inevitably require both comparison and
compromise. You should always test final formulations
(the base material and all additional modifying agents) “Selecting the best
in actual service conditions prior to field use.
material for a given
• Butyl Rubber (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Page 90
application will
• Chloroprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
inevitably require
• Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
both comparison
• Epichlorohydrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
and compromise.”
• Ethylene Acrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
• Ethylene Propylene (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
• Fluorocarbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
• Fluorosilicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
• Hydrogenated Nitrile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
• Natural Rubber (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
• Nitrile (Buna N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
• Perfluoroelastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
• Polyacrylate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
• Polyurethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
• Silicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
• Styrene Butadiene (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
• Tetrafluoroethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
• Tetrafluoroethylene / Propylene . . . . . . . . . . .128
* Non Oil-Resistant Material

90 MATERIAL PROFILES
Butyl Rubber.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: IIR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: AA, BA
STANDARD COLOR: Black
TRADE NAMES:
• Exxon Butyl® (Exxon Chemicals)
• Polysar® (Bayer Corp.)
“Butyl offers RELATIVE COST: Medium
excellent GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -50° to +250° F
resistance to gas An unsaturated copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene
permeation.” (thus the designation IIR), butyl rubber has two defining
traits: (1) it is composed entirely of petroleum, limiting its
usefulness around hydrocarbons (since
IIR “likes dissolve likes”); and (2) it offers
excellent resistance to gas permeation,
making it ideal for vacuum seals. Though
ethylene propylene is now used rather
than butyl for a number of applications,
butyl is still used in some aircraft
hydraulic systems. Butyl offers stronger
resistance to sunlight and ozone than
isoprene alone; presence of the saturated
isobutylene in the polymer chain makes
this possible (see Figure 32). Butyl also
Figure 32: Molecular Structure of Butyl Rubber resists heat, chemicals, and abrasion.
IIR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Hot water & steam (up to 250° F, 121° C)
• Phosphate ester type hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol®,
Fyrquel®, Pydraul®)
• Silicone fluids & greases
IIR DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Mineral oil & grease
• Hydrocarbon oil & fuel


Chloroprene.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: CR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: BC, BE
TRADE NAMES:
• Baypren® (Bayer Corp.)
• Neoprene® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
RELATIVE COST: Medium “Chloroprene was
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -40° to +250° F one of the first
Chemically known as polychloroprene but often referred to synthetic materials

by the trade name Neoprene®, chloroprene was one of the developed as an oil-
first synthetic materials developed as an oil-resistant
resistant substitute
substitute for natural rubber. Neoprene’s molecular
structure closely mirrors that of natural rubber, with the for natural rubber.”
exception that a chlorine atom has replaced a methyl (CH3)
sidegroup (see Figure 33). Presence of a chlorine atom in
each repeating unit increases the compound’s polarity and
improves its resistance to hydrocarbon fluids despite the
presence of a double bond in the main chain. Because the
chlorine atom essentially deactivates the double bond,
chloroprene is more resistant to oxygen,
ozone, and UV light than similarly CR
unsaturated polymers.
Due to the similarity of their structures,
natural rubber and chloroprene are
generally comparable in their good
strength, abrasion resistance, resilience,
elongation, and strain crystallization
characteristics. Both also offer a similar low Figure 33: Molecular Structure of Chloroprene
fatigue property, low heat build up, low
temperature flexibility, and high bondability. Chloroprene
surpasses natural rubber in its resistance to aging, heat, oils,
ozone, and solvents. Chloroprene has also gained FDA
approval for use in the food and beverage industries.

CR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• High aniline point petroleum oils
• Mild acids
• Refrigeration seals (resistance to Freon® & ammonia)
• Silicone oil & grease
• Water
CR DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Hydrocarbons (aromatic, chlorinated, nitro)
• Ketones (MEK, acetone)
• Phosphate ester fluids
• Strong oxidizing acids


Chlorosulfonated
Polyethylene.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: CSM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: CE
TRADE NAME:
• Hypalon® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
RELATIVE COST: Medium
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -20° to +250° F “Chlorosulfonated
Best known by the trade name Hypalon®, chlorosulfonated polyethylenes are

polyethylenes (see Figure 34) are valued for their attractive valued for their
combination of physical resilience and chemical resistance
to corrosives, heat, oil, oxygen, ozone, and weather. Both heat attractive
resistance and low temperature flexibility can be combination of
augmented through use of lower amounts of chlorine, but
physical resilience
oil resistance is only fair in such formulations. Higher
chlorine levels lead to greater oil resistance at the expense and chemical
of the heat resistance and low temperature flexibility. CSM
resistance.”
can also be compounded to retain permanent bright colors.
On the down side, CSM suffers from poor compression set
resistance.
CSM
Figure 34: Molecular Structure of Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene

CSM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Acids
• Alkalies
• Water & water solvents
• Refrigerants (high chlorine compounding lends
Freon® resistance)
• Ozone
CSM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Aldehydes
• Esters
• Ethers
• Hydrocarbons (aromatic, chlorinated, nitro)
• Ketones


Epichlorohydrin.
ASTM D 1418 Designations: CO, ECO, GECO
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: CH
TRADE NAME:
• Hydrin® (Zeon Chemicals, L.P.)
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -55° to +275° F “Epichlorohydrin
Epichlorohydrin is an oil resistant compound available in combines low gas

three formulations: as a homopolymer (CO), as a copolymer and solvent
of epichlorohydrin and ethylene oxide (ECO, see Figure 35),
and as a terpolymer of epichlorohydrin, ethylene oxide, and permeability with
a cure site monomer (GECO). high resistance to
Epichlorohydrin combines low gas and solvent permeability hydrocarbon oils
with high resistance to hydrocarbon oils and fuels.
and fuels.”
Epichlorohydrin is very resistant to weathering and ozone
due to complete saturation within the polymer chain.
Epichlorohydrin also remains
stable during low to high ECO
temperature cycling. Because it
exhibits less sub-zero stiffness,
epichlorohydrin is often used in
place of nitrile and chloroprene
(Neoprene®) for applications
requiring resistance to low
temperatures. Epichlorohydrin
has only fair compression set
resistance at high temperatures
(i.e. 250° to 275° F).
Figure 35: Molecular Structure of Epichlorohydrin

EPICHLOROHYDRIN PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons
• Mineral oil & grease
• Ozone
EPICHLOROHYDRIN DOES NOT PERFORM
WELL IN:
• Aldehydes
• Brake fluids
• Esters
• Hydrocarbons (chlorinated, nitro)
• Ketones
• Peroxides


Ethylene Acrylic.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: AEM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: EE, EF, EG
TRADE NAME:
• Vamac® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -40° to +300° F “Vamac offers
Better known as Vamac®, ethylene acrylic is a copolymer of exceptional

ethylene and methyl acrylate. Vamac also has a third, acid- resistance to ozone,
containing monomer to cure the polymer chain’s active
sunlight, and heat.”
groups (see Figure 36). Vamac offers exceptional resistance
to ozone, sunlight, and heat, as well as low gas permeability
and moderate oil swell resistance. Flex life is good, as are
tear, abrasion, and compression set properties.
AEM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Alkalies AEM
• Dilute acids
• Glycols
• Water
• as power steering & automatic
transmission seals
AEM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL
IN:
• Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene,
toluene, xylene)
• Brake fluids
Figure 36: Molecular Structure of Ethylene Acrylic
• Gasoline
• Ketones
Note: The “R” in the carboxyl
• Phosphate esters cure site monomer denotes
an alkyl group, a (typically
• Strong acids aliphatic) organic structure.
Ethylene Propylene.
ASTM D 1418 Designations: EPM, EPDM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: AA, BA, CA, DA
TRADE NAMES:
• Buna EP® (Bayer Corp.)
• Keltan® (DSM Copolymer, Inc.)
“Ethylene propylene • Nordel® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
is primarily valued • Royalene® (Unir oyal, Inc.)
for its outstanding • Vistalon® (Exxon Chemicals)
resistance to RELATIVE COST: Low
phosphate ester
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -65° to +300° F
type hydraulic fluids,
Ethylene propylene is a copolymer of ethylene and
as well as for its propylene (EPM), or, in some cases, a terpolymer due to the
addition of a diene monomer (EPDM). This additional diene
typical temperature
monomer can be important because it includes
range.” unsaturation to facilitate sulfur crosslinking (see Figure 37).
In use since 1961, ethylene propylene is primarily valued for
its outstanding resistance
EPDM to Skydrol® and other
phosphate ester type
hydraulic fluids (including
Pydraul® and Fyrquel®), as
well as for its typical
temperature range (-65° to
+300° F, -54° to +149° C).
Ethylene propylene is also
known for its good
resistance to weathering
thanks to saturation within
Figure 37: Molecular Structure of Ethylene Propylene its chemical backbone.


EPM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Alcohols
• Automotive brake fluids
• Dilute acids & dilute alkalies
• Silicone oils & greases
• Steam (up to 400° F, 204° C)
• Water
EPM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Aliphatic & aromatic hydrocarbons
• Di-ester based lubricants
• Halogenated solvents
• Petroleum oils

Fluorocarbon.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: FKM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: HK
STANDARD COLORS: Black, Brown, Green
TRADE NAMES:
• DAI-EL® (Daikin Industries)
• Dyneon®, previously Fluorel® (Dyneon)
“Fluorocarbons • Tecnoflon® (Ausimont USA, Inc.)
make excellent • Viton® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
general purpose O- RELATIVE COST: High
rings due to their
exceptional
Also referred to as fluoroelastomers, fluorocarbon
resistance to compounds are thermoset elastomers containing fluorine
(see Figure 38). Fluorocarbons make excellent general
chemicals, oil, and
purpose O-rings due to their exceptional resistance to
temperature chemicals, oil, and temperature extremes (-15° to +400° F).
extremes.” Specialty compounds can further extend the low
temperature limit down to about -22° F for dynamic seals
and about -40° F in static applications.
Fluorocarbons usually have good
FKM compression set resistance, low
gas permeability, and resistance
to ozone and sunlight. Over the
last five decades, this remarkable
combination of properties has
prompted the use of FKM seals in
a variety of demanding sectors.
Though they were initially
formulated for use in aerospace
applications, FKM compounds
are now widely used in the
Figure 38: Molecular Structure of Fluorocarbon (Type A) automotive, appliance, fluid
power, and chemical processing
industries.

Three main factors contribute to the remarkable heat (see
Table 8) and fluids resistance of fluorocarbon compounds.
First, there are extremely strong bonds between the carbon
atoms comprising the polymer backbone and the attached
(pendant) fluorine atoms. Under most circumstances, these
bonds cannot be broken, and thus the polymer is not prone
to undergo chain scission (division of the macromolecular
chains into smaller, weaker, more susceptible segments).
Second, fluorocarbons feature a high fluorine-to-hydrogen
ratio. In other words, fluorine (rather than hydrogen) atoms
fulfill the majority of the available bonds along the material’s
carbon backbone. Polymers with a high level of fluorination
have proven to be extremely stable. A stable compound is
less inclined to react to, or be broken down by, its
environment.
Third, the carbon backbone is fully saturated. That is, it
contains only single bonds between the carbon atoms. It
does not contain any of the covalent double bonds present
in unsaturated compounds. Since double bonds are the
focus for chemical attack, the saturated structure of
fluorocarbons renders them impervious to harmful agents
(such as oxygen, ozone, and UV light) that typically degrade
unsaturated materials.
Table 8: Heat Resistance of FKM

FKM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Acids
• Aircraft engine applications
• Gasoline (& alcohol blends)
• Hard vacuum applications
• Low outgassing applications
• Petroleum products
• Silicone fluids & greases
• Solvents
FKM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Amines
• Hot chlorosulfonic acid
• Hot hydrofluoric acid
• Hydrocarbons (nitro)
• Ketones
• Low molecular weight esters & ethers
• Fireproof hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol®)
Depending on the specific needs of your application, there
are a number of different fluorocarbon formulations
available for use. Though they may share some common
characteristics, these different types are distinguished by
their processing and end-use properties. Perhaps the most
well-known fluorocarbon manufacturer is DuPont Dow
Elastomers, to the point that the trade name for their
compound, Viton®, is often used as if it were a generic term
for FKM. In the interests of simplicity, the following
descriptions of some of the most common FKM
formulations will make use of the DuPont “type” names.
The original commercial fluorocarbon, Viton A, is the
general-purpose type and is still the most widely used.Viton
A is a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride (VF 2) and
hexafluoropropylene (HFP). Generally composed of 66%
fluorine, Viton A compounds offer excellent resistance
against many automotive and aviation fuels, as well as both
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon process fluids and
chemicals. Viton A compounds are also resistant to engine
lubricating oils, aqueous fluids, steam, and mineral acids.


Viton B fluorocarbons are terpolymers combining
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) with VF2 and HFP. Depending on
the exact formulation, the TFE partially replaces either the
VF2 (which raises the fluorine level to approximately 68%) or
the HFP (keeping the fluorine level steady at 66%). Viton B
compounds offer better fluids resistance than the Viton A
copolymers.
Viton GF fluorocarbons are tetrapolymers composed of TFE,
VF2, HFP, and small amounts of a cure site monomer.
Presence of the cure site monomer allows peroxide curing of
the compound, which is normally 70% fluorine. As the most
fluid resistant of the various FKM types,Viton GF compounds
offer improved resistance to water, steam, and acids.
Viton GFLT fluorocarbons are similar to Viton GF, except that
perfluoromethylvinyl ether (PMVE) is used in place of HFP.
The “LT” in Viton GFLT stands for “low temperature.” The
combination of VF2, PMVE, TFE, and a cure site monomer is
designed to retain both the superior chemical resistance
and high heat resistance of the G-series fluorocarbons. In
addition, Viton GFLT compounds (typically 67% fluorine)
offer the lowest swell and the best low temperature
properties of the types discussed here (see Table 9). Viton
GFLT can seal in a static application down to approximately
-40° F. A brittle point of -50° F can be achieved through
careful compounding.
VITON A VITON B VITON GF VITON GFLT

PERCENT FLUORINE 66 68 70 67
FUEL SWELL (70 hrs. at 23° C):
Fuel C, % volume +5 +4 +3 +3
Methanol, % volume +70 +22 +3 +5
LOW TEMPERATURE FLEXIBILITY:
TR-10, °C/°F -17/1 -14/7 -6/21 -24/-11
COST/POUND* $20 $20 $25 $55
* At time of publication
Table 9: Comparison of Standard Fluorocarbons to Specialty Type GFLT

Fluorosilicone.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: FVMQ
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: FK
STANDARD COLOR: Blue
TRADE NAMES:
• FE® (Shincor Silicones)
• FSE® (General Electric)
“Fluorosilicones • Silastic LS® (Dow Corning Corp.)
combine the best RELATIVE COST: High
properties of GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -70° to +350° F
fluorocarbons and Fluorosilicone is the common name for fluorovinylmethyl
silicones.” silicone rubber (see Figure 39). Fluorosilicones combine the
best properties of fluorocarbons and silicones.
Fluorosilicones resist solvents, fuel, and oil (similar to
fluorocarbons). They also have high and low temperature
stability (as with silicones). Fluorosilicones are resilient, with
low compression set characteristics. Though widely used in
aerospace fuel systems and auto fuel emission controls,
fluorosilicones are really only good as static
FVMQ seals. High friction tendencies, limited
strength, and poor abrasion resistance
disqualify them from dynamic uses.
FVMQ PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Hot air
• Hydrocarbons (aromatic, chlorinated)
• Ozone
• Sunlight
FVMQ DOES NOT PERFORM
WELL IN:
• Brake fluids
Figure 39: Molecular Structure of Fluorosilicone • Hydrazine
• Ketones

Hydrogenated
Nitrile.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: HNBR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: DH
STANDARD COLORS: Black, Green
TRADE NAMES:
• Therban® (Bayer Corp.)
• Zetpol® (Zeon Chemicals, L.P.)
RELATIVE COST: High “As part of an
GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -25° to +300° F ongoing effort to

engineer more
Though the double bonds within nitrile’s butadiene segments
are needed for cross-linking (see page 109), they are also the resistant
main attack sites for heat,chemicals,and oxidation.As part of an
compounds, a new
ongoing effort to engineer more resistant compounds, a new
class of nitrile was developed in the 1980s. Initially known as class of nitrile was
highly saturated nitrile (HSN), this class is now more commonly developed in the
called hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR), or just
hydrogenated nitrile (see Figure 40). 1980s.”
As you might guess, hydrogenated

HNBR
nitrile results from the hydrogenation
of standard nitrile. Hydrogenation is
the process of adding hydrogen atoms
to the butadiene segments. Adding
hydrogen greatly reduces the number
of carbon-to-carbon double bonds
that would otherwise be weak links in
the polymer chain. Why are double
bonds weak? It stems from valence, or Figure 40: Molecular Structure of Hydrogenated Nitrile
the ability of an atom to form one or
more energy bonds with neighboring atoms.A carbon atom can
form four distinct covalent bonds. Because carbon has this
valence of four, it is most “satisfied” when it has actually formed
four single bonds (a state known as saturation) rather than two
single bonds and a double bond. A satisfied, saturated atom is
more stable, so a compound composed largely of saturated
carbons is less reactive and more resistant to chemical attack.
As shown in Figure 40, HNBR’s main chain is primarily
composed of highly saturated hydrocarbons and
acrylonitrile (ACN). Thanks to their saturation, the
hydrocarbon segments impart heat, chemical, and ozone
resistance. Keep in mind that increased hydrogenation and
heat resistance make HNBR more likely to creep (cold flow).
Increased hydrogenation also leads to decreased low
temperature elasticity. As with standard nitrile, the ACN
content of HNBR imparts toughness, as well as fuel and oil
resistance. This ACN content can be modified for specific
uses. There are also a few remaining unsaturated butadiene
segments (typically well under 10%) to facilitate peroxide
curing or, in some instances, sulfur vulcanization. Peroxide-
cured HNBR has improved thermal properties and will not
continue to vulcanize like sulfur-cured nitriles.
Since its introduction, HNBR has proven itself in a variety of
applications. Deeper and deeper oil wells require materials
that can resist heat, crude oil, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), amine-
based corrosion inhibitors, steam, and the detrimental
effects of explosive decompression. HNBR meets these
needs and is used for a variety of products, including O-
rings, packings, wellhead seals, drill bit seals, blowout
preventors, and drill pipe protectors.
HNBR is used in automotive air conditioning systems where
R134a refrigerant gas has replaced the chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC)-containing R12 refrigerant. HNBR is used in fuel parts
due to its increased resistance to sour gasoline and ozone. It
is used in oil line parts because of its resistance to elevated
temperatures, oil additives, and copper-containing metal
sludge.
HNBR is also finding wider use as an alternative to
fluorocarbon rubber (FKM) in shaft seals. Why the switch?
The hardness of the mineral fillers - primarily calcium sulfate
(CaSO4) and barium sulfite (BaSO3) - used to improve
fluorocarbon’s wear properties can cause grooving of the
metal shaft, eventually providing a leak path that leads to
seal failure. With other materials, carbon black (which is not
as abrasive as the mineral fillers) might be substituted, but
carbon black is not sufficient to give fluorocarbon good
abrasion resistance. On the other hand, HNBR has excellent
abrasion resistance, making it a viable alternative to FKM.
HNBR also has better low temperature properties and tear
resistance than fluorocarbon.


HNBR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Automotive applications (as O-rings, timing belts, fuel
injector seals, fuel hose, shaft seals, diaphragms, and in air
conditioning systems)
• Oil field applications (as O-rings, well-head seals, drill-bit
seals, packers, drill-pipe protectors)
HNBR DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Esters
• Ethers
• Hydrocarbons (chlorinated)
• Ketones

Natural Rubber.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: NR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: AA
TRADE NAMES: Too numerous to list.
RELATIVE COST: Low
“Natural rubber was Polyisoprene vulcanized from the latex of the Hevea
the sole O-ring brasiliensis tree, natural rubber was the sole O-ring polymer
before the development of synthetic elastomers in the
polymer before the
1930s. Though its use has since sharply declined, natural
development of rubber offers many excellent characteristics, including low
synthetic elastomers heat build up, high resilience and elongation, good abrasion
resistance, and low temperature flexibility.
in the 1930s.”
Natural rubber has both high tensile strength and good tear
strength due to its tendency to strain crystallize. It also
undergoes low compression set. Its
NR chief drawback is its poor resistance to
either oils or solvents. The double bond
in its main polymer chain (see Figure
41) also makes natural rubber
susceptible to attack by oxygen, ozone,
and UV light.
NR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Alcohols
• Organic acids
Figure 41: Molecular Structure of Natural Rubber
• and as non-hydraulic seals
NR DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Aromatic, aliphatic, or halogenated hydrocarbons
• Ozone
• Petroleum oils


Nitrile (Buna N).
ASTM D 1418 Designations: NBR, XNBR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: BF, BG, BK, CH
TRADE NAMES:
• Krynac® (Polysar International, USA)
• Nipol® (Zeon Chemicals, L.P.)
• Nysyn® (Copolymer Rubber & Chemical Corp.) “Nitrile rubber is
• Paracril® (Uniroyal, Inc.) the most commonly
RELATIVE COST: Low used elastomer for

O-rings and other
sealing devices.”
Nitrile rubber is the most commonly used elastomer for O-
rings and other sealing devices. Also known as Buna N, nitrile
(see Figure 42) is a copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile
(ACN). The name Buna N is derived from butadiene and
natrium (the Latin name for sodium, the catalyst used in
polymerizing butadiene). The “N” stands for acrylonitrile.
The butadiene segment imparts
elasticity and low temperature NBR
flexibility. It also contains the
unsaturated double bond that is
the site for crosslinking, or
vulcanization. This unsaturated
double bond is also the main
attack site for heat, chemicals, and
oxidation.
The acrylonitrile segment imparts
hardness, tensile strength, and Figure 42: Molecular Structure of Nitrile
abrasion resistance, as well as fuel
and oil resistance. Heat resistance and gas impermeability
are also improved through increased ACN content, which
typically ranges from 18% to 45%. A standard, general-
purpose nitrile compound usually contains 34% ACN.

The relationship between the ACN content, volume swell in
ASTM # 3 oil, and the brittle point of the elastomer is
illustrated in Table 10.
Table 10: Relationship Between ACN content,

Volume Swell in ASTM # 3 Oil, and Brittle Point
General-purpose nitrile compounds with a 34% ACN

content have a recommended temperature range of -40° to
+225° F (-40° to +107° C).The low temperature flexibility can
be improved by reducing the ACN content. Nitrile
compounds with an ACN content of 18% to 20% remain
flexible at temperatures down to -65° F (-54° C).
Unfortunately, compounding ingredients and polymers that
offer the best low temperature properties are usually
adversely affected by high temperatures. A general-purpose
compound is cured with sulfur, but as the ambient
temperature in an application exceeds +225° F, free sulfur in
the compound finds other unsaturated double bonds and
forms additional crosslinks. This results in compression set
and hardening of the compound. To improve high
temperature properties, a peroxide cure system and/or
mineral fillers must be used. Peroxide-cured compounds
have both better high temperature properties (up to +275°
F, +135° C) and improved compression set characteristics,
but they are also more difficult to process and more
expensive than sulfur-cured compounds.


Nitrile compounds outperform most other elastomers due
to high tensile strength, as well as excellent abrasion, tear,
and compression set resistance. Nitriles also have very good
aging properties under severe conditions. Because of the
double bonds present in the polybutadiene parts of the
chemical backbone, nitrile compounds have poor resistance
to ozone, sunlight, and weathering. They should not be
stored near ozone-generating electric motors or equipment.
NBR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Petroleum oils & fuels
• Silicone oils & greases
• Ethylene glycol
• Dilute acids
• Water (below 212° F)
NBR DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylene)
• Automotive brake fluid
• Halogen derivatives (carbon tetrachloride,
trichloroethylene)
• Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol®, Pydraul®)
• Strong acids
Carboxylated nitrile rubber compounds (XNBR) provide
even better strength properties, especially abrasion
resistance. Carboxylated nitriles are produced by the
inclusion of carboxylic acid groups on the polymer during
polymerization. These carboxylic acid groups provide extra
“pseudo” crosslinks, producing harder, tougher compounds
with higher abrasion resistance, modulus, and tensile
strength than standard nitriles. Carboxylated nitriles are,
however, less flexible at low temperatures and less resilient
than non-carboxylated compounds. Also, the “pseudo”
crosslinks (being ionic in nature) are thermally sensitive. As
temperatures increase, the ionic bonds lose strength.
Other nitrile variations are possible, including internally
lubricated compounds with improved friction and wear
properties, as well as Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) formulations for
food and potable water applications (see page 143).

Perfluoroelastomer.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: FFKM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: JK, HK
TRADE NAMES:
• Aegis® (International Seal - FNGP)
• Chemraz® (Greene, Tweed & Company)
“The fully- • Kalrez® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
fluorinated RELATIVE COST: Very High
monomers GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -25° to +575° F
contained in Most commercial perfluoroelastomers are terpolymers of
perfluoroelastomers tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), perfluoromethylvinyl ether
(PMVE), and a cure site monomer (CSM).The fully-fluorinated
are the reason they
monomers contained in perfluoroelastomers are the reason
exhibit superior they exhibit superior chemical resistance (see Figure 43). As
chemical resistance.” with fluorocarbon elastomers, the bonds between carbon
and fluorine atoms are extremely strong, making the
chemical structure virtually unbreakable. Also, polymers
with high levels of fluorine (as opposed to hydrogen) have
proven to be more stable and less chemically reactive.
Pe r f l u o ro e l a s to m e r s
FFKM also enjoy immunity
from chemical attack
due to saturation along
the polymer’s backbone.
There are no double
bonds to be attacked by
degradants such as
oxygen, ozone, UV light,
or harsh chemicals.
Perfluoroelastomers can
trace their lineage back
Figure 43: Molecular Structure of Perfluoroelastomer to the late 1960s, when
chemists at DuPont


pioneered what came to be known as Kalrez®. In so doing,
they combined the chemical resistance of Teflon® and the
elasticity of Viton® into a fully-fluorinated polymer that
could be cross-linked. Differences in perfluoroelastomer
performance are often due to the manner in which the
material is cross-linked. In the early days, perfluoroelastomer
compounds made use of bisphenol cross-links (like those
still seen in current copolymer fluoroelastomers). Bisphenol
curing works fine for fluoroelastomers, but it became clear
that these bisphenol cross-links were causing
perfluoroelastomers to undergo a high degree of
compression set. As a result, in the mid-80s DuPont
developed compound 4079. This new perfluoroelastomer
formulation utilized high temperature triazine cross-links.
Compression set was reduced, and, as an added bonus,
thermal properties were enhanced, allowing the material to
stay resilient even in temperatures approaching 600° F, 316° C
(see Table 11).
Table 11: FFKM’s Thermal Properties Compared to Other Materials
Because of the presence of aggressive chemicals and the

need to exclude microcontaminants, seals used in the
manufacturing of integrated circuits (ICs) must withstand
harsh fluids while resisting extraction. Perfluoroelastomers
like Kalrez (which is resistant to over 1,600 solvents,
chemicals, and plasmas) have found wide use within the
semiconductor industry (see page 144). Kalrez seals are also
common in the oil exploration and refining industries, as
well as in chemical processing and transportation seals. Be
aware that Kalrez’s vulnerability to compression set
generally increases as temperatures go up. Despite its

overall chemical resistance, Kalrez can swell when in contact
with uranium hexafluoride, fully halogenated Freon®, and
some fluorinated solvents. Kalrez should not be exposed to
molten or gaseous alkali metals.
As instrumental as they were to the development and
acceptance of perfluoroelastomer compounds, the DuPont
personnel were not the only ones on the case. At about the
same time that DuPont was finding new success with
triazine cross-links, another company was experimenting
with peroxide cure systems. Greene, Tweed & Company
started producing Chemraz® parts based on an imported
peroxide cross-linked perfluoroelastomer.
Chief among Chemraz’s virtues is its outstanding overall
chemical compatibility. Chemraz compounds are resistant to
almost every chemical compound, including fuels, ketones,
esters, alkalines, alcohols, aldehydes, and both organic and
inorganic acids. Chemraz also has very good resistance to
compression set, and it offers outstanding steam resistance.
Chemraz has an upper temperature limit of about 450° F
(232° C). As with Kalrez, Chemraz has found a place in the
demanding semiconductor industry. Greene, Tweed
prepares Chemraz compounds in a state-of-the-art clean
room to ensure purity from the very beginning.
Not to be outdone, International Seal Company (now known
as International Seal - FNGP) launched a perfluoroelastomer
program in 1996. They developed their compound – known
as Aegis® – with an eye toward providing a cost-competitive
(yet still high performance) alternative to Kalrez and
Chemraz. The 1998 merger of International Seal with
Freudenberg-NOK provided significant improvements in
both the technology and the processing of
perfluoroelastomers. Some of IS-FNGP’s perfluoroelastomer
compounds are cross-linked using peroxide; some are not.
In 1999, IS-FNGP introduced five new Aegis compounds
specifically tailored to the semiconductor industry, and each
of these "SC" perfluoroelastomers is environment-specific.
For example, SC1001 is a low compression set compound
intended primarily for wet chemical applications. SC1011 is
used mainly in dry process, vacuum, and plasma
environments. SC1090 is the cleanest grade and is useful for
both wet chemical and plasma projects. SC1070 is a high
temperature formulation (viable up to 572° F, 300° C)
intended for low-pressure chemical vapor deposition and


furnace applications. With high temperature resistance
comparable to SC1070, SC1071 is suited for aggressive
plasma environments. New Aegis compounds are also being
developed in response to industry needs. As a matter of fact,
IS-FNGP offers a wide range of seal materials (produced in a
class 100/1000 clean room) specifically designed to provide
both the high purity and the extraordinary chemical
resistance demanded by the semiconductor industry.
Aegis seals are also commonly used in chemical and
petroleum processing, analytical instruments, automotive
systems (fuel and oil), and spray painting systems. The main
advantages of Aegis compounds over Kalrez and Chemraz:
less compression set and higher strength at a lower cost.
FFKM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Most chemical & petrochemical situations
FFKM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Uranium hexafluoride
• Fully halogenated Freon®
• Some fluorinated solvents

Polyacrylate.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: ACM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: DF, DH
TRADE NAME:
• HyTemp™ (Zeon Chemicals, L.P.)
“Polyacrylate offers GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: 0° to +350° F
good resistance to Polyacrylate is a copolymer (ethyl acrylate, see Figure 44)
petroleum fuels and which offers good resistance to petroleum fuels and oils.The
auto industry uses polyacrylate O-rings as seals in automatic
oils.”
transmissions and power steering designs. Resistant to flex
cracking, polyacrylate also resists damage from oxygen,
sunlight, and ozone (due to main chain saturation).
Use of a butyl acrylate instead of an ethyl acrylate rubber
ACM can greatly improve low temperature flexibility.
Changing the R group from C1 (methyl) to C8 (octyl) can
shift the brittle point by as much as 60° C. Though it is
marginally more resistant to hot air than nitrile,
polyacrylate falls short in strength and compression set
resistance, as well as in resistance to water and low
temperatures.
ACM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Automatic transmission fluid
• Hot oils
• Type A power steering fluid
ACM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Alcohol
• Alkalies
Figure 44: Molecular Structure

• Brake fluids
of Polyacrylate
• Glycols
• Hydrocarbons (aromatic, chlorinated)

Polyurethane.
ASTM D 1418 Designations: AU, EU
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: BG (Millable)
STANDARD COLOR: Translucent Yellow
TRADE NAMES:
• Adiprene® (Uniroyal, Inc.)
• Estane® (B.F. Goodrich)
• Millthane® (TSE Industries)
• Morthane® (Morton International, Inc.)
“Polyurethane is
• Pellethane® (Dow Chemical)
• Texin® (Bayer Corporation, Plastics Division) the toughest, most
• Vibrathane® (Uniroyal, Inc.) extrusion-resistant,
RELATIVE COST: High and most abrasion-
resistant of all
Polyurethane is the toughest, most extrusion-resistant, and
elastomeric sealing
most abrasion-resistant of all elastomeric sealing materials.
Polyurethane O-rings can withstand pressures up to 5,000 materials.”
psi with a .010” extrusion gap. Polyurethane is also very
resistant to explosive decompression and has excellent
properties over a wide temperature range. Polyurethane O-
rings are used in a wide variety of products, including quick-
disconnect hydraulic fittings,
hydraulic cylinders and valves, AU
pneumatic tools, CO2 firearms, or
for applications requiring extreme
abrasion or extrusion resistance.
There are three primary
components of any polyurethane
mixture.The first is a low molecular
weight (400-6000) hydroxyl- Figure 45: Ester Linkage of Polyurethane
containing molecule with two or
more hydroxyl groups per chain.
Such a molecule is known as a polyol. This polyol has a low
Tg (Glass Transition temperature) and is usually low melting
(less than 70° C), thus lending the polyurethane compound
a degree of rubber-like softness and flexibility.

There are three main polyols in use today, each of which
bestows different properties or levels of resistance on a
polyurethane compound. Polyester polyols are the most
widely used due to their good tear and abrasion resistance,
as well as their resistance to oil and long-term heat.
Polyester-based polyurethanes (designated under ASTM
D1418 as AU, see Figure 45) are, however, highly susceptible
to degradation as a result of contact with the combination
of heat and water (humidity). The ester linkage (with an
oxygen pendent to the polymer backbone) is highly
susceptible to hydrolytic attack, resulting in chain scission
(division of the polymer chain into smaller, weaker
segments). Over time, the polyurethane becomes soft and
cheesy.This deterioration may take two years or more, but in
hot, humid climates the material can degrade in a matter of
weeks. Polyester urethanes are also subject to microbial
(bacterial and fungal) attack in certain environments.
Polycaprolactone polyols, a special sub-group of polyesters,
are the best choice for compounds to be molded into O-
rings and other seals. Polycaprolactones have a reduced
number of ester groups (the moisture attack sites)
compared to the same molecular weight of standard
(adipate) ester polyols. Polycaprolactones thus offer better
water resistance than standard polyesters.They also provide
better oil and thermal resistance than the polyethers.
Polyether-based polyurethanes (designated as EU, see Figure
46) are of two very distinct types: polypropylene ether
polyols (PPG type) and
EU polytetramethylene ether glycol (PTMEG
type). With its oxygen located within the
polymer backbone (rather than pendent
to it as in an ester linkage), the ether
linkage is better protected from
hydrolytic attack. The ether structure is
also more mobile, allowing ether-based
compounds to have better low
temperature properties than polyesters.
Figure 46: Ether Linkage of Polyurethane
Polyethers do not perform well in
petroleum-based oils or solvents, and they are not as good as
polyesters when exposed to long-term heat. The PPG type
polyurethanes have reduced mechanical properties (such as
abrasion resistance), whereas the PTMEG type is very close to
esters in many mechanical properties (particularly in harder
formulations above 80 Shore A). PTMEG-based


polyurethanes have the highest resilience of any common
formulation and are thus preferred where dynamic
properties are paramount. For very soft formulations (less
than 60 Shore A), esters are almost always superior to any
ether in mechanical properties.
The second primary component in any polyurethane is a
diisocyanate, and the thermal properties of polyurethane are
closely tied to the diisocyanate in use.The three diisocyanates
that are most widely used in the production of polyurethane
O-rings are MDI, TODI, and PPDI. MDI (diphenylmethane
diisocyanate) is the workhorse of the polyurethane industry.
As such, it is widely used in thermoplastic polyurethanes
(TPUs). A complex molecule that is environmentally safer
than other diisocyanates, MDI is one of the few diisocyanates
used in formulations meeting NSF, FDA, USDA, and USP
guidelines.
TODI (dimethylbiphenyl diisocyanate) polyurethanes have
outstanding thermal properties (up to 225° F) and
compression set resistance.TODI is rather costly, however, and
difficult to obtain, being sole sourced from Japan.
PPDI (para-phenylene diisocyanate) polyurethanes offer
outstanding dynamic properties, resilience, and heat
resistance (up to 275° F).Unfortunately, PPDI is very expensive
(approximately $30 per pound).
Though other strategies are possible, the most popular
method of polyurethane mixing combines a diisocyanate
with one of the aforementioned polyols. The result is known
as a pre-polymer, and this liquid or waxy solid is then
combined with the third main polyurethane component: a
chain extender.This extender acts much like a cross-linking or
vulcanizing agent used to cure rubber.
In contrast to the polyols, the combination of diisocyanates
and chain extenders have crystalline structures. Their
presence gives the compound a degree of plastic-like
hardness and rigidity. The toughness of polyurethane
elastomers is almost entirely due to phase separation of the
crystalline areas from the polyol segments in the polymer
chain. The softening of the polyurethane as temperature is
raised is dependent on the melting point of these crystalline
hard segments.
Polyurethane O-rings are usually processed in one of three
ways: 1) as a compression-molded millable gum, 2) as a

molded castable thermoset, or 3) as an injection-molded
thermoplastic. Millable gum O-rings have somewhat better
abrasion and extrusion resistance than those made from
standard hydrocarbon elastomers, but compression set can
sometimes be a problem as temperatures increase. The
recommended upper temperature limit for millable gum
polyurethanes is about 200° F. Millable gum polyurethanes
offer good low temperature flexibility, as well as resistance to
sunlight, ozone, hydrocarbon fuels, and petroleum-based oils.
As already noted, these properties will depend on the polyol
and diisocyanate in use.
Processed much like rubber, millable gum polyurethanes
develop hardness and modulus primarily through the
addition of fillers. (Phase separation, while present, is
secondary.) There are limits, however, as to how much both
hardness and modulus can be improved. Millable gums rely
on chemical crosslinks (actually, covalent bonds) to hold the
macromolecular chains together. R.L. Hudson & Company
offers a variety of millable gum
TOUGH TO TOP polyurethanes (both polyether-based
and polyester-based) in 70, 80, and 90
Shore A. These are typically either black
or natural (translucent yellow, see Figure
47), but other colors and hardness levels
can be formulated with the addition of
pigments and fillers.
Cast, thermoset polyurethanes offer the
best balance of properties. In addition to
tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and
extrusion resistance, cast polyurethanes
have heat resistance up to 225° F. Cast
Figure 47: Polyurethane O-Rings
polyurethanes outperform millable gum
polyurethanes in compression set resistance and elongation.
Cast polyurethanes offer strong resistance to aliphatic
solvents, alcohols, ether, petroleum products, and mineral-
based oils. They can also be used around weak acids, weak
bases (ether-types only), and mixtures with less than 80%
aromatic constituents. O-rings molded from cast
polyurethanes cost slightly more than those made from
millable gums.
Rather than through the fillers required by millable gums,
cast polyurethanes gain their hardness and modulus as a
result of phase separation between the hard and soft


segments in the polymer chains. Agglomeration of the hard
segments (diisocyanate and chain extender) provides large
pockets of crystalline particles. These particles act much like
the reinforcing fillers used in rubber or millable gums. The
polymer chains themselves are held together by hydrogen
bonds. Though they are not individually as strong as the
covalent bonds in millable gums, these hydrogen bonds are
present in numbers great enough to become a significant
source of strength and rigidity for the material.
High performance cast, thermoset polyurethanes combine
polycaprolactone and TODI. This beneficial combination
provides excellent heat and compression set resistance.
These compounds also have much better resistance to
hydrolysis (chemical decomposition as a result of contact
with water) than polyester-based polyurethanes. R.L.
Hudson & Company offers two standard polyurethane O-
ring compounds, one at 70 Shore A and the other at 92
Shore A. Both proprietary compounds are recommended for
continuous service up to 200° F and intermittent use up to
250° F. On the low temperature side, they are generally good
in static applications down to -65° F. Instead of using
commercial urethanes, our materials are reacted at the
plant. This allows us to provide a wide variety of specialty
compounds ranging from 60 to 95 Shore A.
Though very widely used, injection-molded polyurethane O-
rings have historically offered the least-favorable properties,
but times are changing. A new PPDI-based compound offers
an excellent combination of dynamic properties, resilience,
heat resistance (up to 275° F), and compression set
resistance. This new material crosses into the property
domain only previously achievable using cast urethanes.
Our PPDI-based compound is available in 92 Shore A. The
only real drawback to injection-molded O-rings: gate marks
left on the seal’s O.D. can become leak paths, but these can
often be adjusted to avoid contact with a mating surface.

Silicone.
ASTM D 1418 Designations: MQ, PMQ, VMQ, PVMQ
ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 Type / Class: FC, FE, GE
STANDARD COLOR: Red
TRADE NAMES:
• Baysilone® (Bayer Corp.)
• KE® (Shincor Silicones)
“Silicones are • Silastic® (Dow Corning Corp.)
primarily based on a • Silplus® (General Electric)

strong sequence of • Tufel® (General Electric)
silicon and oxygen RELATIVE COST: Medium
atoms rather than a GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: -65° to +450° F
long chain of carbon Though carbon and hydrogen are part of their chemistry,
atoms.” silicones are primarily based on a strong sequence of silicon
and oxygen atoms (see Figure 48) rather than a long chain
of carbon atoms (as with many
VMQ hydrocarbons). This silicon-
oxygen backbone is much
stronger than a carbon-based
backbone, making silicones
more resistant to extreme
temperatures (-65° to +450° F,
-54° to +232° C), chemicals, and
shearing stresses.
Due to saturation in the
polymer’s main chain, silicones
are very resistant to oxygen,
ozone, and UV light. Of course,
Figure 48: Molecular Structure of Silicone
this same saturation also
demands that the material be
peroxide cured since it is not possible to sulfur cure a
saturated polymer. In addition to being generally inert (non-
reactive), silicones are odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and


fungus resistant. They also have great flexibility retention
and low compression set.
There are four different silicone formulations in use today.
Standard methyl silicone is known simply as MQ. By
replacing a small number (typically less than 1%) of the
pendent methyl (CH3) groups in MQ with vinyl (CH2CH)
groups, you arrive at what is known as vinyl methyl silicone,
or VMQ (see Figure 48). VMQ compounds tend to have
better cure properties and undergo lower compression set
than standard MQ.
Replacing 5% to 10% of the methyl groups with ringed
phenyl (C6H5) groups results in phenyl methyl silicone, or
PMQ. PMQs have better low temperature properties than
MQ or VMQ. Finally, adding some of the aforementioned
vinyl groups to PMQ results in phenyl vinyl methyl silicone,
or PVMQ.
Silicones are not well suited for dynamic use due to their
high friction characteristics, low abrasion resistance, and
poor tear and tensile strength. Many silicones also suffer
from above average mold shrinkage. Though they can be
utilized in high aniline point oils, silicones are considered
non-resistant to petroleum oils. Silicones swell considerably
in both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fuels unless a
special compound is formulated. Silicones are also very gas
permeable.
SILICONE PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Engine & transmission oils (mineral oils)
• Ozone
• Dry heat
SILICONE DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Steam
• Concentrated acids

Styrene
Butadiene (Buna S).
ASTM D 1418 Designation: SBR
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: AA, BA
TRADE NAMES: Too numerous to list.
RELATIVE COST: Low
“SBR is used in Also known as Buna S, or GRS (Government Rubber Styrene),
styrene butadiene is a copolymer of styrene and butadiene
automobile tire
(see Figure 49). Though SBR’s low strength properties
production and in require the addition of reinforcing agents to make the
assorted molded compound stronger, SBR was widely used as the synthetic
substitute for natural rubber during World War II. Like natural
rubber goods.” rubber, SBR is non oil-resistant.
SBR’s use since WWII has sharply declined, though it is still
used in automobile tire production and in assorted molded
rubber goods. SBR is unsuitable for some applications
because the double bond in the polymer backbone invites
attack by oxygen, ozone, and UV light.
SBR
SBR PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Water
• Alcohol
• Automotive brake systems
SBR DOES NOT PERFORM
WELL IN:
• Strong acids
• Aromatic, aliphatic, or halogenated
hydrocarbons
Figure 49: Molecular Structure of Styrene Butadiene
• Mineral oils

Tetrafluoroethylene.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: FEP
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: None
STANDARD COLOR: White
TRADE NAMES:
• Algoflon® (Ausimont USA, Ltd.)
• Polyflon® (Daikin Industries, Ltd.)
• Teflon® (DuPont) “The inability of
RELATIVE COST: High other materials to
GENERAL TEMP ERATURE RANGE: -300° to +500° F stick to PTFE makes
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a completely fluorinated it perfect for

polymer produced when the monomer tetrafluoroethylene applications
(TFE) undergoes free radical vinyl polymerization. As a
monomer, TFE is made up of a pair of double-bonded requiring a low
carbon atoms, both of which have two fluorine atoms coefficient of
covalently bonded to them. Thus the name: “tetra” means
friction.”
there are four atoms bonded to the carbons,“fluoro” means
those bonded atoms are fluorine, and “ethylene” means the
carbons are joined by a double bond as in the classic
ethylene structure. (Ethylene has hydrogen atoms attached
to the carbons, as in Figure 50, but TFE has fluorine in place
of the hydrogen, as in Figure 51.) When TFE polymerizes into
PTFE, the carbon-to-carbon double bond becomes a single
bond and a long chain of carbon atoms is formed, as in
Figure 52. This chain is the polymer’s backbone.
Figure 50: Ethylene Figure 51: Tetrafluoroethylene Figure 52: Polytetrafluoroethylene

With a ratio of four fluorine atoms to every two carbon
atoms, the backbone is essentially shielded from contact. It’s
almost impossible for any other chemical to gain access to
the carbon atoms. Even if an agent could gain access, the
carbon-to-fluorine bonds have high bond disassociation
energy, so they’re almost unbreakable. This makes PTFE the
most chemically resistant thermoplastic polymer available.
PTFE is inert to almost all chemicals and solvents, allowing
PTFE parts to function well in acids, alcohols, alkalies, esters,
ketones, and hydrocarbons. There are only a few substances
harmful to PTFE, notably fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, and
molten alkali metal solutions at high pressures.
PTFE is also very slippery. By its very nature, the fluorine in
PTFE repels everything. As part of a molecule, fluorine is
decidedly “anti-social.” Anything getting close is repelled,
and repelled molecules can’t stick to the PTFE surface. This
makes PTFE perfect for applications requiring a low
coefficient of friction. The only thing slicker than PTFE is ice!
Because they are essentially self-lubricating, PTFE parts are
ideal for applications in which external lubricants (such as
oils and greases) can’t be used.
PTFE can withstand a wide range of temperatures (-300° to
500° F, -184° to 260° C). Because it’s non-flammable and
doesn’t dissipate heat, PTFE is often used as a thermal
insulator (as in welding equipment). At the other extreme,
PTFE is widely used in very cold environments (such as
space). Other important properties include resistance to
both weathering and water absorption. PTFE can also act as
an electrical insulator.
Because of its chemical inertness, PTFE cannot be cross-
linked like an elastomer. Therefore it has no memory and is
subject to creep (also known as cold flow). Creep is the
increasing deformation of a material under a constant
compressive load.This can be both good and bad. A little bit
of creep allows PTFE seals to conform to mating surfaces
better than most other plastic seals. Too much creep,
however, and the seal is compromised. Compounding fillers
are used to control unwanted creep, as well as to improve
wear, friction, and other properties.
Keep in mind that PTFE fillers don’t act like elastomer fillers,
which become chemically bonded to the elastomer. With
polytetrafluoroethylene, the high shear modulus fillers are
encapsulated and bound by the low shear modulus PTFE.


PTFE FILLERS
1. Glass is the most common filler for PTFE.Widely used in hydraulic piston rings,glass gives good
wear resistance, low creep, and good compressive strength. Glass also has excellent chemical
compatibility.The major disadvantage is that glass-filled PTFE compounds are abrasive to mating
surfaces, especially in rotary applications.
2. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) improves wear resistance and further lowers the coefficient of
friction.“Moly”is typically combined with other fillers (such as glass and bronze).
3. Carbon (powder or fiber) imparts excellent compression (low deformation under load) and
wear resistance, good thermal conductivity (heat dissipation), and low permeability.Carbon-filled
PTFE compounds are not as abrasive as glass-filled compounds, but they are still more abrasive
than polymer-filled compounds. Carbon-filled compounds have excellent wear and friction
properties when combined with graphite.Carbon fiber lends better creep resistance than carbon
powder, but fiber is more expensive.
4. Graphite is a crystal modification of high purity carbon. Its flaky structure gives great lubricity
and decreased wear. Graphite is often combined with other fillers (especially carbon and glass).
5. Bronze (a copper-tin alloy) lends excellent wear resistance and thermal conductivity. Bronze-
filled materials have higher friction than other filled PTFE compounds, but that can be improved
by adding moly or graphite. Bearing and piston ring applications often use compounds
containing 55% bronze - 5% moly.Bronze-filled compounds have poorer chemical resistance than
other PTFE compounds.
6. Stainless steel supplies high wear resistance and load bearing capability, along with better
chemical resistance than bronze-filled PTFE. Stainless steel is especially good in steam service.
7. Wollastonite (calcium silicate) is a mineral filler giving properties similar to glass (minus the
abrasiveness).The FDA has approved it for food service.
8. PPS (polyphenylene sulfide, trade name Ryton®) was the first polymeric material used to
improve PTFE’s wear and abrasion properties. PPS-filled compounds also exhibit excellent
deformation and extrusion resistance, making them good for use in back-up rings.
9. Ekonol® is a thermally stable aromatic polyester. When blended with PTFE, it produces a
composite material with excellent high temperature and wear resistance. Ekonol® will not wear
mating metal surfaces, making it good for rotary applications. Ekonol®-filled materials are also
good for food service.
10. Polyimide is another polymeric filler offering superior wear and abrasion resistance.
Polyimide-filled PTFE compounds have about the lowest friction properties of all filled PTFE
materials, so they’re great in non-lubricated (dry) applications. They will not abrade mating
surfaces (even soft materials like brass, stainless steel, aluminum, and plastic). Polyimide is one of
the most expensive PTFE fillers, however.
Other fillers include calcium fluoride (CaF2), which is specifically used in hydrofluoric acid (HF)
service, and alumina (Al2O3), which can improve the mechanical properties of compounds
destined for high voltage applications. Alumina-filled compounds are very abrasive.
Because it does not possess a good elastic memory at or

below normal temperatures, PTFE may need to be heated to
facilitate installation. PTFE has poor cut resistance, so extra
care must be taken not to damage seals during installation.

Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene.
ASTM D 1418 Designation: FEPM
ASTM D 2000, SAE J200 Type / Class: HK
TRADE NAMES:
• Aflas® (Asahi Glass)
• Dyneon BRF® (Dyneon)
• Viton VTR® (DuPont Dow Elastomers)
“TFE/P provides a
RELATIVE COST: High
unique combination
of chemical, heat, GENERAL TEMPERATURE RANGE: 0° to +400° F
and electrical The FEPM designation was originally directed at copolymers

of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) and propylene (P) such as is
resistance.” shown in Figure 53. TFE/P provides a unique combination of
chemical, heat, and electrical resistance. Chemically, TFE/P
resists both acids and bases, as well as steam, amine-based
corrosion inhibitors, hydraulic fluids, alcohol, and petroleum
fluids. TFE/P is also resistant to ozone and weather. TFE/P
typically retains its remarkable chemical resistance even in
high temperatures (short exposures up to
FEPM 450° F, 232° C), and tests have shown that
electrical resistance actually improves with
heat exposure. Nor do physical properties
suffer; tensile strength typically approaches
2,500 psi.
The first TFE/P compound to be commercially
marketed was Aflas (a product of Asahi
Glass). In a sense, Aflas defined the initial
Figure 53: Molecular Structure of boundaries for base-resistant materials.
Tetrafluoroethylene / Propylene Different grades of Aflas have different
molecular weights. Most molded and
extruded products are made from Aflas 150P, which has a
molecular weight of about 130,000. In comparison, Aflas 100H
has a molecular weight of 200,000 and is typically used where
high pressures are to be sealed, such as in oil field
applications. TFE/P compounds are also widely used in the

chemical processing,automotive,and aerospace industries.As
shown in Table 12, TFE/P compounds are not as good as
standard FKM-A (e.g. Viton A) compounds in terms of
hydrocarbon resistance, but TFE/P surpasses FKM-A in
resistance to strong bases, amines, and polar solvents.
Though it was the first, Aflas is not the only base-resistant
fluoroelastomer on the market.DuPont Dow also offers a wide
range of excellent materials in this area. Despite being
marketed under the same trade name (Viton) as their FKM
“cousins,” these base-resistant types more closely resemble
the FEPM formulations previously discussed. Viton VTR-7480
is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and propylene. Its
chemical and processing properties are analogous to those of
Aflas 150P, making Viton VTR-7480 suitable for both molded
and extruded goods. Viton VTR-7512 is also a TFE/P
copolymer, in this case similar to Aflas 100H. With its higher
molecular weight (relative to Viton VTR-7480),Viton VTR-7512
is more extrusion resistant and good in higher pressures.
FKM-A TFE/P ETP

Hydrocarbons
• Aliphatic Excellent Good Excellent
• Aromatic Good Poor Excellent
Strong bases, amines Moderate Excellent Excellent
Polar solvents
(e.g. acetone, MEK) Poor Moderate Excellent
Table 12: Comparison of Fluorinated Materials

The DuPont engineers continue to expand and refine their
line of fluoroelastomers in response to the needs of industry.
For example, automotive powertrain applications are making
greater demands on seal compounds. Increasingly aggressive
lubricants and higher temperatures are testing even the best
materials.
In response, DuPont developed two new base-resistant Viton
materials. These latest additions were unveiled at the Society
of Automotive Engineers 2000 World Congress in Detroit.The
first of these,Viton TBR-501C, is a terpolymer combining TFE/P
with a low level of vinylidene fluoride (VF2). The “TBR” in the
name refers to its “total base resistance.” It is completely
resistant to highly basic lubricant additives. Viton TBR-501C
also has excellent high temperature resistance and
outstanding processibility.
The other new addition, Viton IBR-401C, is a terpolymer
combining TFE/P with a higher level of VF2 (roughly three

times as much as is in Viton TBR-501C). The “IBR” refers to its
“intermediate base resistance.” It is not as base-resistant as
Viton TBR-501C, but it still offers a good balance of base and
hydrocarbon resistance, as well as excellent processibility.
In both the IBR and the TBR types, presence of the VF2 does
three things. First, it improves the materials’ low temperature
properties. Second, it also improves the materials’ resistance to
swelling in hydrocarbon oils, though this improvement comes
at the expense of base resistance. That’s why Viton IBR-401C
has less base resistance than Viton TBR-501C; the IBR material
has a greater VF2 content. Third, the VF2 allows both these
materials to be bisphenol cured rather than peroxide cured
(the norm for TFE/P copolymers). Bisphenol curing makes for
easier processing and lower scrap rates.
You may encounter instances in which none of the materials
already discussed quite meet the needs of an application,
especially if you require good low temperature properties in
partnership with both base resistance and low swell in
hydrocarbons. Viton specialty type GFLT may work, but you
might also consider Viton ETP (also known as Viton Extreme).
The “ETP” is short for ethylene, tetrafluoroethylene, and
perfluoromethyl vinyl ether (PMVE). The Viton ETP
formulations (such as ETP-500 and ETP-900) offer the most
comprehensive fluids resistance (including resistance to
strong bases, amines, and polar solvents) of all the Viton types.
They also combine outstanding resistance to hydrocarbons
(including fuels) and high temperature resistance (equal to
standard FKM compounds) with good low temperature
flexibility and good processibility. As you can see in Table 12,
Viton ETP surpasses both standard FKM-A and TFE/P in resistance
to hydrocarbons, strong bases, amines, and polar solvents.
FEPM PERFORMS WELL IN:
• Numerous acids & bases
• Amines
• Brake fluids
• Petroleum fluids
• Phosphate esters
• Steam
FEPM DOES NOT PERFORM WELL IN:
• Aromatic fuels
• Ethers
• Ketones
• Toluene

132 SPECIFICATIONS
Military Specifications.
FLUIDS
Specification Polymer Description
MIL-L-2104 Nitrile Oil, Engine

MIL-S-3136 Nitrile Standard Test Fluids, Hydrocarbon
MIL-L-3150 Nitrile Oil, Preservative
MIL-G-3278 Fluorosilicone Aircraft Grease
MIL-O-3503 Nitrile Oil, Preservative
“The military MIL-G-3545 Nitrile Hi-Temperature Grease
MIL-G-4339 Nitrile Soluble Oil
community has
MIL-G-4343 Nitrile Pneumatic System Grease
established a MIL-J-5161 Nitrile Jet Fuel, Reference
MIL-F-5566 Ethylene Propylene Isopropyl Alcohol
number of
MIL-G-5572 Nitrile Fuel, Aircraft Reciprocating Engine,
specifications Grades 80/87, 91/96, 100/130, 115/145
relevant to the Aviation Gas
MIL-H-5606 Nitrile Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base,
sealing
Aircraft and Ordnance
industry.” MIL-T-5624 Nitrile Jet Fuel JP-4, JP-5
MIL-L-6081 Nitrile Jet Engine Oil
MIL-L-6082 Nitrile Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Reciprocating
Piston Engine
MIL-H-6083 Nitrile Hydraulic Fluid, Preservative
MIL-L-6085 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Synthetic Di-ester Base Fluid
MIL-A-6091 Ethylene Propylene Denatured Ethyl Alcohol
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Synthetic Di-ester Base Lubricating Oil
MIL-C-7024 Nitrile Aircraft Calibrating Fluid
MIL-H-7083 Ethylene Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Hydrolube
MIL-G-7118 Nitrile Actuator Grease
MIL-G-7187 Nitrile Grease, Graphite
Table 14: Military Fluid Specifications

SPECIFICATIONS 133

FLUIDS
MLO-7277 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Hi-Temp.
MIL-G-7421 Fluorosilicone Grease, Extreme Low Temp.
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Hi-Temp.
MIL-G-7711 Nitrile Grease, General Purpose
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Turbine Engine,
Propylene Synthetic Di-ester Base
MIL-L-7870 Nitrile Lubricating Oil, Low Temp, General Purpose
MIL-C-8188 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Corrosion Preventive Oil, Synthetic Base
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Hydraulic Fluid, Aircraft and Missile,
Propylene Silicate-Ester Base
MIL-H-8446 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Silicate-ester Base (MLO-8515)
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Silicate-ester Base (MIL-H-8446)
MIL-L-9000 Nitrile Lubricating Oil, Diesel
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Synthetic Lubricating Oil, Turbine
MIL-E-8500 Ethylene Propylene Ethylene Glycol, Technical, Uninhibited
MIL-G-10924 Nitrile Automotive Grease
MIL-H-13910 Ethylene Propylene Hydraulic Fluid, Non-petroleum Auto. Brake
MIL-L-15017 Nitrile Oil, hydraulic

134 SPECIFICATIONS
FLUIDS
MIL-G-15793 Nitrile Grease, Instrument

MIL-F-16884 Nitrile Fuel Oil, Diesel, Marine
MIL-F-17111 Nitrile Power Transmission Fluid
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Lubricating Oil, Non-corrosive,
Propylene Steam Turbine
MIL-H-19457 Ethylene Propylene Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluid
(phosphate-ester base)
MIL-L-21260 Nitrile Lubricating oil, Engine, Preservative
MIL-S-21568 Ethylene Propylene Silicone Fluid, Dimethyl Polysiloxane
MIL-H-22251 Ethylene Propylene Hydrazine Solution, 22%
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Turbine Engine,
Propylene Synthetic Base
MIL-G-23827 Nitrile Grease, Aircraft and Instrument
MIL-G-25013 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Bearing Grease, Extreme High Temp.
MIL-G-25537 Nitrile Aircraft, Helicopter Oscillating
Bearing Grease
MIL-F-25558 Nitrile Fuel, Ram Jet (RJ1)
MIL-C-25576 Nitrile Rocket and Ram Jet Fuel (RP1)
MIL-F-25656 Nitrile Jet Fuel, Grade JP6
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Oil, Moly Disulphide, Silicone Base
Propylene High Temperature
MIL-G-25760 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Bearing Grease, Wide Temp. Range
MIL-P-27402 Ethylene Propylene Propellent, Aerozine-50
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base,
Propylene High Temperature, Flight Vehicle
MIL-L-46167 Nitrile Lubricating Oil, Int. Comb. Engine, Arctic

SPECIFICATIONS 135

FLUIDS
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Hydraulic Fluid, Rust Inhibited, Fire
Propylene Resistant, Synthetic
MIL-F-81912 Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene
Propylene Fuel, Expendable, Turbine Engine
MIL-F-82522 Nitrile Fuel, Ramjet Engine, T-H Dimer Grade RJ-4
MIL-T-83133 Turbine Fuel, Aviation, Kerosene Type, Grade JP-8
MIL-H-83282 Nitrile,
Fluorocarbon,
Perfluoroelastomer,
Tetrafluoroethylene Hydraulic Fluid, Fire Resistant, Synthetic
Propylene Hydrocarbon Base, Aircraft

136 SPECIFICATIONS
RUBBER
Specification Durometer Polymer Temperature Description
(± 5) (° F)
ZZ-R-765E
Classes 1a, 1b,
2a, 2b
Grade 40 40 Silicone -103 to 437 Resists low and high temps,
Low compression set
Classes 1a, 1b,
2a, 2b
Grade 50 50 Silicone -103 to 437 Resists low and high temps,
Low compression set
Classes 1a, 1b
Grade 70 70 Silicone -103 to 437 Resists low temps,
Low compression set
Classes 2a, 2b
Grade 70 70 Silicone -80 to 437 Resists high temps,
Low compression set
Classes 2a, 2b
Grade 80 80 Silicone -80 to 437 Resists high temps,
Low compression set
MIL-G-1149C
Type I, Class 1 50 Chloroprene -20 to 212 Gasket materials, synthetic
Type II, Class 2 70 Styrene Butadiene -20 to 212 Gasket materials, synthetic
MIL-R-3533B
Type I, Grade B 70 Nitrile -20 to 158 Synthetic rubber sheets,
strips, and molded shapes
MIL-P-5315B 70 Nitrile -65 to 160 O-ring; resists hydrocarbon

fuels (jet fuels)
MIL-P-5510C 90 Nitrile -45 to 160 Gasket, Straight thread

tube fitting boss
MIL-R-6855D
Class 1, Grade 60 60 Nitrile -65 to 212 Synthetic rubber sheets,
strips, molded, or extruded;
resists fuel, petroleum oil
Class 2, Type B
Grade 70 70 Chloroprene -65 to 212 Synthetic rubber sheets,
strips, molded, or extruded;
resists petr. oil, weather, ozone
MIL-R-7362D
Types I, II -65 to 275 Sheet, molded, and
extruded; resists
synthetic oil(di-ester
base lubricant)
Table 15: Military Rubber Specifications

SPECIFICATIONS 137

RUBBER
(± 5) (° F)
MIL-G-21569B
Class I 70 Nitrile Room Temp to 194 Gasket, cylinder liner
seal, synthetic
Class II 70 Silicone Room Temp to 194 Gasket, cylinder liner
seal, synthetic
MIL-P-25732C 75 Nitrile -65 to 275 Preformed packing,

resists petr. hydraulic
fluid
MIL-R-25988
Type 1, Class 1
Grade 60 60 Fluorosilicone -90 to 350 Resists oil, fuel, air,
hydraulic fluid
Grade 70 70 Fluorosilicone Resists oil, fuel
Type 1, Class 3
MIL-P-82744 80 Ethylene Propylene -65 to 250 Preformed packing,

otto fuel compatible
MIL-R-83248C
(Type 1) Class 1 75 Fluorocarbon -15 to 400 Resists high temp.
fluids and comp. set
Class 2 90 Fluorocarbon -15 to 400 Resists high temp.
fluids and comp. set
MIL-R-83485
Grade 80 75 Fluorocarbon Improved low temp.
performance
MIL-P-83461B 75 Nitrile -65 to 275 Preformed packing,

resists petr. hydr. fluid
Table 15: Military Rubber Specifications

138 SPECIFICATIONS
AMS & NAS
Specifications.
RUBBER
(± 5) (° F)
AMS3201 40 Nitrile Resists dry heat
AMS3205 50 Nitrile Resists low temps
AMS3208 50 Neoprene Resists weather
AMS3209 70 Neoprene -40 to 225 Resists weather
AMS3212 60 Nitrile Resists aromatic fuels
AMS3238 70 Butyl Resists phosphate esters
AMS...
AMS3240 40 Neoprene Resists weather
Aerospace AMS3301 40 Silicone -85 to 400 General use
Material AMS3302 50 Silicone -85 to 400 General use

AMS3303 60 Silicone -85 to 400 General use
Specification AMS3304 70 Silicone -85 to 400 General use
AMS3305 80 Silicone -85 to 400 General use
AMS3307 70 Silicone Low comp. set,
NAS...
Non oil-resist.
National AMS3325 60 Fluorosilicone Resists fuel, oil
Aerospace AMS3326 60 Fluorosilicone Resists fuel, oil
AMS3337 70 Silicone Resists very low temps
Standard AMS3345 50 Silicone
AMS3357 70 Silicone Resists comp. set and
lubricating oil
AMS7257 75 Perfluoroelas. Resists high temps
AMS7259 90 Fluorocarbon Resists high temp. fluid,
Very low comp. set
AMS7267 75 Silicone Resists high temps,
Low comp. set
AMS7268 70 Silicone Resists high temps,
Low comp. set
AMS7271 65 Nitrile -67 to 300 Resists phosphate esters
AMS7272 70 Resists synth lubricants
AMS7276 75 Fluorocarbon Resists high temp. fluid,
Very low comp. set
NAS1613 80 EPDM O-ring, resists
phosphate esters
Table 16: AMS & NAS Rubber Specifications

SPECIFICATIONS 139

RUBBER
(± 5) (° F)
AMS-P-5315 70 Nitrile O-ring, resists
hydrocarbon fuels
AMS-P-5510 90 Nitrile Gasket, straight thread
tube fitting boss
AMS-R-6855 60, 70 Nitrile, Chloroprene Synth rubber, resists
synth oil
AMS-R-7362 70 Nitrile Rubber, resists synth oil
AMS-P-25732 75 Nitrile Preformed packing,
resists petroleum
hydraulic fluid
AMS-R-25988 55-85 Fluorosilicone Resists oil, fuel
AMS-R-83248 70-95 Fluorocarbon Resists high temp
fluid, comp. set
AMS-P-83461 75 Preformed packing,
resists petroleum
hydraulic fluid
AMS-R-83485 75 Fluorocarbon Resists low temps
Table 16: AMS & NAS Rubber Specifications

140 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Special
Considerations.
T
hough we have already discussed a variety of
general use applications, there are a number of
situations which will require special materials or
quality assurance testing. Careful consideration should
be made in each of these instances to find the most
appropriate compound and/or testing procedure.
FUEL SERVICE
Designing an effective fuel service seal is not easy. Taken
“There are
together, there are literally hundreds of hydrocarbons, trace
literally hundreds metals, and additives (such as oxygenates, corrosion
of hydrocarbons, inhibitors, and detergents) in any given gallon of gasoline.
Variances in crude oil processing and changes in the fuel
trace metals, and during storage further complicate the picture.
additives in any Though the variables are numerous, seal engineers are
given gallon of primarily concerned with two factors. The first is aromatic
content. Aromatic hydrocarbons (those containing ringed
gasoline.”
carbons, such as benzene, toluene, and xylene) are used
along with other additives (such as alkylates) to boost
octane ratings in unleaded fuels. Higher ratings generally
translate to increased engine efficiency. Unfortunately,
aromatic hydrocarbons also cause greater elastomer swell
compared to aliphatic hydrocarbons (those with straight-
chain carbons, such as paraffins, olefins, and acetylenes) or
other fuel constituents.The higher the aromatic content, the
greater the potential swell. Since greater swell is linked to
increased degradation of physical properties in elastomeric
parts, aromatic content is one major concern.
The other major concern is the level of oxygenated additives
(oxygenates), particularly alcohols and ethers. As with
aromatic hydrocarbons, oxygenated additives raise octane
numbers. Gasoline blends containing alcohols and ethers
also extend the fuel supply and cut down on pollutants. The
additional oxygen atoms they provide allow cleaner engine
combustion, thus producing less carbon monoxide (CO). Use
of reformulated fuels containing oxygenated additives has
been ordered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 141

for cities with poor air quality. But oxygenates can be
problematic for the seal designer. The presence of
oxygenated additives in certain concentrations can make
gasoline much more aggressive toward elastomeric
compounds. This heightened aggression dramatically
increases the likelihood that seals will be degraded to the
point of failure.
The composition of fuels can thus have a number of effects
on elastomers. As already noted, substantial volume change
(most commonly elastomer swell) is a primary concern.
Volume change is typically accompanied by changes in
physical properties, including hardness, tensile strength,
modulus, and elongation. Resistance to tearing and to
compression set are also impacted as a result of volume
change. Increasing swell means hardness and these other
physical properties will decrease.
The elastomer’s resistance to fuel permeation is another
major consideration, particularly in sealing applications.
Even if permeability isn’t a problem, the elastomer may face
chemical attack from “sour” fuel. Often seen in fuel-injected
automotive systems, soured fuel results when oxygen
combines with hydrogen to form what are known as
hydroperoxides (O2H groups). These hydroperoxides later
break into free radicals which, because they have at least
one unpaired electron, are “anxious”
to chemically react. A prime target: “SOUR” FUEL EFFECT
the elastomer’s chemical backbone.
Depending on the circumstances, free
radicals can cause the elastomer to
become too soft (due to the breaking
of chemical bonds, known as reversion)
or too brittle (due to unwanted
crosslinking; see Figure 54). Either way, Figure 54: Embrittlement can be caused by
the elastomer is compromised. unwanted crosslinking.
Additionally, compounds used in fuel systems must be able

to withstand temperature extremes. Unless properly
anticipated, high temperatures can contribute to other
effects, especially elastomer swell and compression set. Low
temperatures can be troublesome in dynamic applications.
Because fuel service can have such wide-ranging effects on
elastomers, the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) developed test method D 471 as a way to gauge the
effects of fuels and other liquids on elastomeric samples.

Samples are exposed to a fluid (e.g. Reference Fuel A) for a
specific period of time (e.g. 70 hours) at a set temperature
(e.g. 23° C). After exposure, the sample’s properties (e.g.
hardness, tensile strength, elongation, and volume) are
measured and compared with the properties as recorded
prior to testing. Decisions can then be made as to the
suitability of a particular compound for use with a given fuel.
ASTM Reference Fuels A through K have been specifically
selected to test compounds in contact with gasolines or
diesel fuels. Which tests are called for depends on which
fluid(s) the elastomer will encounter. For example, Reference
Fuel A is a 100% isooctane fluid which mirrors the shrinking
or low-swell effects of gasolines composed primarily of
aliphatic hydrocarbons. If the compound in question will be
used around gasolines with a very high aliphatic content,
then a test using Reference Fuel A is a good idea. Reference
Fuel B is a 70% isooctane-30% toluene mixture. The toluene
content lends the mixture a level of aromaticity, enabling
Reference Fuel B to approximate the swelling effects of
commercial gasolines. The ASTM Reference Fuels are listed
in Table 17.
Peroxide-curable, high fluorine content fluorocarbon rubber
(FKM) is currently the most common choice for fuel service.
High fluorine content fluorocarbons traditionally have poor
low temperature resistance, but Type GFLT fluorocarbons
have improved low temperature properties similar to Type
GLT in combination with fluid resistance analogous to Type
GF. In lieu of fluorocarbon, some nitrile (NBR) compounds
may be suitable, provided they have a high acrylonitrile
(ACN) content to bolster fuel resistance. Epichlorohydrin
rubber (ECO) is also used for fuel service, but it does not
Reference Fuel Type Composition (Volume %)

A Isooctane (100)
B Isooctane (70), Toluene (30)
C Isooctane (50), Toluene (50)
D Isooctane (60), Toluene (40)
E Toluene (100)
F Diesel Fuel, Grade 2 (100)
G Fuel D (85), anhydrous denatured ethanol (15)
H Fuel C (85), anhydrous denatured ethanol (15)
I Fuel C (85), anhydrous methanol (15)
K Fuel C (15), anhydrous methanol (85)
Table 17: ASTM Reference Fuels


perform as well as fluorocarbon or nitrile, especially in sour
fuel hydroperoxides.
FOOD & BEVERAGE USES

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has compiled
a “white list” of materials that it deems acceptable for use in
food and beverage industry seals. This list can be found in
Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Section
177.2600. To meet FDA requirements, materials must be
both non-toxic and non-carcinogenic. Elastomers that
appear most often in white list compounds include silicone,
fluorocarbon, nitrile, ethylene propylene, and chloroprene.
Founded over fifty years ago as the National Sanitation
Foundation, NSF International fosters public safety and
environmental protection by developing standards,
certifying services, and testing products. For example,
rubber compounds designed to come into contact with
potables (such as drinking water) can be submitted to NSF
for water extraction analysis and many other tests. The most
well known tests are NSF 51 for articles contacting food and
NSF 61 for articles contacting water. Materials passing such
tests are certified as meeting NSF standards. NSF does both
stand-alone and component testing, meaning they evaluate
articles by themselves and as parts of larger designs.
R.L. Hudson & Company offers a number of NSF 61-certified
compounds. These include N1030-70 (nitrile), E3030-70
(ethylene propylene), and S5030-70 (silicone).
GAS PERMEATION
Several factors can affect the degree to which a seal is gas
permeable. Use of lubrication decreases permeability, as
does applying greater squeeze. Use of harder compounds
and smaller cross-sections can also help reduce
permeability. Butyl rubber allows the least gas permeation.
Tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), chloroprene, epichlorohydrin,
polyurethane, nitrile, and fluorocarbon are also good
choices. Silicone and fluorosilicone allow the most gas
permeation.
In applications involving pressures of 500 psi or higher,
compressed gases enter through flaw sites on the seal’s
surface and fill the O-ring’s micropores until equilibrium is
reached. During an equilibrium shift (as during
decompression), the gases expand, creating blisters in lower
durometer O-ring compounds and fractures in harder
compounds (see Figure 55). Instances of such “explosive
decompression” can be reduced through careful choice of
materials. Harder, high shear modulus compounds have the
most resistance to explosive decompression because they
have the strength to dissipate the fracture energy as it
propagates through the O-ring. For contact with carbon
dioxide (CO2), such as in air guns, polyurethane is definitely
the best choice. For more on explosive decompression, see
page 258.
PLASTIC SURFACES
Because plastic parts are being used more and more as
alternatives to metal components, you should be aware that
sealing against a plastic surface may present some special
problems. The hardness or chemical makeup of an O-ring
can cause fine surface cracks to form in adjacent plastic
parts. This “crazing” of the plastic is often the result of ester
plasticizers (chemical substances
HIGH PRESSURE DANGER added to increase softness, provide
low temperature flexibility, and
improve processing) in the O-ring
compound and may ultimately cause
the plastic part to fail. Ethylene
propylene, chloroprene (Neoprene®),
nitrile, and silicone have all been used
Figure 55: Failure due to explosive decompression. successfully in conjunction with
plastics such as Noryl® (modified
polyphenylene oxide, or PPO), Cycolac T® (ABS
thermoplastic), and Lexan® (thermoplastic polycarbonate).
SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY
Because of the aggressive chemicals in use and the need to
exclude microcontaminants, the semiconductor industry
offers some real challenges. Seals used in the production of
integrated circuits (ICs) must withstand harsh fluids while
resisting extraction. Several companies have developed
fully-fluorinated compounds for use in wet chemical, dry
chemical, vacuum, and plasma applications. These
companies include DuPont (Kalrez® Ultrapure); Greene,
Tweed (Chemraz®); and International Seal-FNGP (Aegis®).
For example, each of the Aegis “SC” perfluoroelastomers is
environment-specific. SC1001 is a low compression set
compound intended primarily for wet chemical
applications. SC1011 is used mainly in dry process, vacuum,
and plasma environments. SC1090 is the cleanest grade of
Aegis and is intended for both wet chemical and plasma


projects. SC1070 is a high temperature formulation (viable
up to 572° F, 300° C) intended for low-pressure chemical
vapor deposition and furnace applications. With high
temperature resistance comparable to SC1070, SC1071 can
handle aggressive plasma.
Regardless of the manufacturer, it’s important to note that
black, carbon-filled compounds are most susceptible to
having parts of their chemical make-up extracted by system
fluids. This “leaching” of the material leads to seal shrinkage
and may result in seal failure. For this reason, white or clear
compounds making use of other fillers (such as barium
sulfate or PTFE) are typically used in applications where
shrinkage is a big concern. Fluorocarbons (such as Viton®),
fluorosilicones, and ethylene propylene are also used in
semiconductor production. Fluorosilicones and EPDM are
seeing less use, however, because they do not function as
cleanly as either perfluoroelastomers or fluorocarbons.
UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES
The Underwriters Laboratories test and approve a wide
variety of commercial and industrial products submitted by
more than 40,000 manufacturers and product developers
worldwide. The formal submission process begins by
contacting a client advisor, who helps direct the submission
toward an appropriate project engineer. The submission
itself consists of several items, including a product sample,
written description, statement of intended use, list of
possible variations, list of components and materials
(including alternates), diagrams and/or pictures, any
manuals that will accompany the final product, applicant
contact information, desired listing information (pending
approval), and results of any prior testing by either UL or
other testing services.The project engineer uses these items
to oversee both initial testing and follow-up reviews.
Included among the products that Underwriters
Laboratories typically review are elastomeric compounds
formulated for specific uses. The Recognized Component
Directory lists all the compounds tested and approved by
UL. Available for purchase from UL, this annual directory
includes characteristic information (such as hardness, tensile
strength, and elongation) on numerous materials in various
product categories (such as “Gaskets and Seals”). Thanks to
the diversity of our factories, R.L. Hudson & Company can
provide you with a wide variety of UL-approved
compounds.
146 UNDERSTANDING ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200
Understanding
ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200.
H
aving discussed the properties and uses of the
most common elastomer types, the question
then becomes: How can these properties be
succinctly specified when an existing compound is being
selected or when a new compound must be formulated?
In order to provide guidance in the selection of vulcanized
rubber materials, and to provide a method for specifying
these materials by the use of a simple line call-out
“Specifying your specification, the American Society for Testing and Materials
elastomer choice via (ASTM) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
established ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200. Though these
a standardized line standards are virtually identical, J200 finds its widest use
call-out is a good within the automotive industry. D 2000 is the more common
tool among rubber manufacturers. Specifying your
idea because it
elastomer choice via a standardized line call-out is a good
allows the flexibility idea because it allows the flexibility of using different
of using different manufacturers’ compounds while ensuring that the material
quality and performance stay consistent.
manufacturers’
D 2000 is based on the premise that the properties of all
compounds while rubber products can be arranged into characteristic material
ensuring that the designations. These designations are determined by types,
based on resistance to heat aging, and classes, based on
material quality and resistance to swelling. Here is the line call-out, or
performance stay specification, for “N470,” a 70 (Shore A) durometer nitrile:
consistent.”
ASTM D 2000-95 M2BG714 B14 EA14 EF11 EF21 EO14 EO34 Z1 Z2
Additional Suffix Requirements
Tensile Strength (MPA if “M” present; psi if not)

Hardness (Durometer, Shore A)
Class
Type
Grade Number
Indicates units are SI (MPA)
Revision Year

UNDERSTANDING ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 147

This line call-out contains the following:

A. The document name (ASTM D 2000-95). The two-digit
number following the hyphen indicates the revision year (in
this case, 1995).
B. The letter “M” may or may not be present. Since it is
present in our example, the units of measure in the line call-
out (and in any other documentation, such as a test report)
are understood to be stated in SI (metric) units. For example,
tensile strength is in megapascals (MPa). If the “M” was not
present, English units would be in use. For example, tensile
strength would be in pounds per square inch (psi).
C. The Grade Number defines specific added test
requirements which are desirable in cases where the basic
requirements do not always sufficiently ensure an
acceptable material. Grade 1 indicates that only the basic
requirements are compulsory; no suffix requirements are
permitted. All other grades and test requirements are listed
in Table 6 of the D 2000 document. In our example, the
material is Grade 2.
D. The Type is based on changes in tensile strength of not
more than 30%, elongation of not more than -50%, and
hardness of not more than ±15 points after heat aging for 70
hours at a given temperature. The temperatures at which
these materials shall be tested for determining type are
listed in Table 18. In our example, the material is Type B,
which corresponds to a 100° C test temperature.
Type Test Temperature

(° C)
A 70
B 100
C 125
D 150
E 175
F 200
G 225
H 250
J 275
K 300
Table 18: Basic Requirements for
Establishing Type by Temperature
148 UNDERSTANDING ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200
E. The Class is based on the material’s resistance to swelling

in Industry Reference Material (IRM) 903 Oil (now used in lieu
of ASTM Oil # 3, which was discontinued
Class Volume Swell
(Maximum %) due to requirements by the Occupational
A No requirement Safety and Health Administration).
B 140 Testing involves immersion for 70 hours
at the temperature previously
C 125
determined from Table 18 (100° C), after
D 100
which swell is calculated. Limits of
E 80
swelling for each class are shown in Table
F 60 19. In our example, the material is Class G,
G 40 indicating a maximum swell of 40%. Be
H 30 aware that ASTM Oil Number 3 and IRM
J 20 903 Oil are similar but not identical, so
K 10 complete equivalency among results is
not possible. For information on
Table 19: Basic Requirements for
Establishing Class by Volume Swell converting ASTM oil swell values to IRM
values, please refer to ASTM Emergency
Standard ES 27-94. Table 20 below lists
the D 2000 material designations (type and class) and the
elastomers most often used for each.
Material Designation Most-Used Elastomer(s)

AA Natural Rubber
BA Ethylene Propylene
BC Neoprene®
BE Neoprene®
BF Nitrile
BG Nitrile, Polyurethane
BK Nitrile
CA Ethylene Propylene
CH Nitrile
DA Ethylene Propylene
DF Polyacrylate
DH Polyacrylate
EF Vamac®
FC Silicone
FE Silicone
FK Fluorosilicone
GE Silicone
HK Viton®
Table 20: Material Designations & Most-Used Elastomers

UNDERSTANDING ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 149

F. The next three digits (in this case, “714”) specify the
hardness and tensile strength. The first digit indicates Shore
A durometer. For example, 7 for 70 ±5.The next two numbers
indicate the minimum tensile strength, i.e. 14 for 14 MPa.
Remember, this will be in SI units if the letter “M”is in the call-
out, and English units if not.To convert to psi, simply multiply
the MPa number by 145. In this case, 14 MPa would convert
to 2,030 psi.
MPa X 145 = psi

psi / 145 = MPa
G. Suffix letters and suffix numbers follow the hardness and

tensile strength specifications to provide for additional testing
requirements. The meaning of each suffix letter is shown in
Table 21. For example, the “B” of “B14” specifies a compression
set test. Suffix letters are typically followed by two suffix
numbers. The first number always
A Heat Resistance
indicates the test method, and the
B Compression Set
second indicates the test
C Ozone or Weather Resistance
temperature. The suffix numbers
D Compression Deflection Resistance
are covered by Tables 4 and 5 of the
EA Fluid Resistance (Aqueous)
D 2000 document.For example,the
EF Fluid Resistance (Fuels)
“1”specifies a 22-hour compression
EO Fluid Resistance (Oils & Lubricants)
set test as detailed in D 395
F Low Temperature Resistance
(Method B) for solid test specimens,
G Tear Resistance
and the “4” specifies testing at 100°
H Flex Resistance
C. Keep in mind that in some cases,
J Abrasion Resistance
the second suffix number may be
K Adhesion
two digits, which means you might
M Flammability Resistance
see something like “F110.” F110
N Impact Resistance
would indicate a 3-minute low
P Staining Resistance
temperature resistance test as
detailed in ASTM D 2137 (Method R Resilience
A) and conducted at a temperature Z Any Special Requirement (e.g.
“Resistance to Marking”)
of -65° C.
Table 21: The Meaning of Suffix Letters
That’s all there is to understanding
the D 2000 / J200 call-out system. It is one of the most versatile
specifications in the rubber industry. In addition to helping you
specify compounds, familiarity with the system will also help
you make sense of material test reports. Let’s take a closer look
at a sample report next.
150 ANATOMY OF A TEST REPORT
Anatomy of a
Test Report.
M
any manufacturers provide material test
reports (also known as technical reports or
specification sheets) as a service to aid their
customers. These reports show the performance of a
cured rubber compound when subjected to a variety of
standardized ASTM tests. Provided these tests mirror
the anticipated service conditions, you can use them to
make an informed decision regarding the compound’s
suitability for your application.
“Provided these
To help you better understand just how much test reports can
tests mirror the tell you,let’s take a closer look at a sample report (see pages 156
anticipated service & 157) whose subject is the same 70 (Shore A) durometer nitrile
compound that we dealt with in “Understanding ASTM D 2000 /
conditions, you
SAE J200.” As we go through the report line by line, you’ll find
can use them to references to many of the most commonly used ASTM tests.
make an informed Keep in mind, however, that not every report you see will (or
should) cover all of these tests.We’re including them here simply
decision regarding to help you get better acquainted with as many tests as possible.
the compound’s A. This first line tells you the absolute basics:you are looking at a
test report on “N470,” a nitrile compound that has a durometer
suitability for your
hardness of 70 (Shore A).
application.”
B. The next item lists all of the ASTM specifications to which the
N470 material conforms. Each of these are defined individually
during the course of the report, but for now, just recall from
“Understanding ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200”that each line call-out
entry corresponds to a particular test. For example,“EA14” is an
ASTM D 471 70-hour water resistance test conducted at 100° C.
C. “Original properties” are the initial attributes of the material.
Information in this and all subsequent entries is broken into two
columns: the “specification” (what is required to be acceptable)
and the properties (or response) of the “N470” nitrile. There are
six different original properties on this report: 1) Hardness, 2)
Tensile Strength, 3) Elongation, 4) Modulus at 100%, 5) Tear
Resistance, and 6) Specific Gravity. Note that specific gravity
(S.G.) is not specified on the report; rather, it is a reported figure
to be used as a quality control criterion.The S.G.of N470 (1.25) is

ANATOMY OF A TEST REPORT 151

understood relative to water’s S.G. of 1.00. Compound N470 is
25% heavier than water.
D. The first test on this report is “heat resistance” (also
known as heat aging or air aging). Per the line call-out, our
nitrile is a Grade 2 “BG” compound. This would normally
send you to the D 2000 or J200 documents, where you
would turn to the “BG Materials” section of Table 6 and see
data similar to that shown in Table 22 below. You’ll see that
“A14” is the suffix designation for “heat resistance” as
Suffix Requirements Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8
A14 Heat resistance,Test Method D 573,
70 h at 100° C:
• Change in hardness, max, points ±5 +15 +15
• Change in tensile strength, max, % ±15 -20 -20
• Change in ultimate elongation, max, % -15 -40 -40
B14 Compression set,Test Methods D 395, 25 50 50 25 25 25
Method B, max, %, 22 h at 100° C
B34 Compression set,Test Methods D 395, 25 25 25
Method B, max, %, 22 h at 100° C
C12 Resistance to ozone,Test Method * *
D1171, quality retention rating, min, %
EA14 Water resistance,Test Method D 471,
70 h at 100° C:
• Change in hardness, points ±10 ±10
• Change in volume, % ±15 ±15
EF11 Fluid resistance,Test Method D 471,
Reference Fuel A, 70 h at 23° C:
• Change in hardness, points ±10 ±10
• Change in tensile strength, max, % -25 -25
• Change in ultimate elongation, max, % -25 -25
• Change in volume, % -5 to +10 -5 to +10
EF21 Fluid resistance,Test Method D 471,
Reference Fuel B, 70 h at 23° C:
• Change in hardness, points 0 to -30 0 to -30
• Change in tensile strength, max, % -60 -60
• Change in ultimate elongation, max, % -60 -60
• Change in volume, % 0 to +40 0 to +40
EO14 Fluid resistance,Test Method D 471,
No. 1 Oil, 70 h at 100° C:
• Change in hardness, max, points -5 to +10 -7 to +5 -7 to +5 -5 to +15 -5 to +15 -5 to +15
• Change in tensile strength, max, % -25 -20 -20 -25 -25 -25
• Change in ultimate elongation, max, % -45 -40 -40 -45 -45 -45
• Change in volume, % -10 to +5 -5 to +10 -5 to +5 -10 to +5 -10 to +5 -10 to +5
EO34 Fluid resistance,Test Method D 471,
No. 3 Oil, 70 h at 100° C:
• Change in hardness, points -10 to +5 -10 to +5 -10 to +5 0 to -15 0 to -20 -10 to +5
• Change in tensile strength, max, % -45 -35 -35 -45 -45 -45
• Change in ultimate elongation, max, % -45 -40 -40 -45 -45 -45
• Change in volume, % 0 to +25 +16 to +35 0 to +6 0 to +35 0 to +35 0 to +25
F16 Low-temperature brittleness,Test pass
Methods D 2137, Method A, 9.3.2,
nonbrittle after 3 min at -35° C
F17 Low-temperature brittleness,Test pass pass
Methods D 2137, Method A, 9.3.2,
nonbrittle after 3 min at -40° C
F19 Low-temperature brittleness,Test Methods pass pass pass
D 2137, Method A, 9.3.2, nonbrittle after 3
min at -55° C * Values not yet established.
Table 22: Sample suffix and grade requirements.

gauged by ASTM D 573, a 70-hour test conducted at 100° C.
Why, then, is A14 not listed among the additional suffix
requirements in this material’s line call-out? It is omitted
from the call-out because there are no A14 specifications
for Grade 2 BG compounds. In Table 22, the Grade 2 column
across from row A14 is empty, so the heat resistance
specifications column in our sample report is blank. When
there are no specifications, a material cannot be said to
“conform” to a given test, and the corresponding suffix
designation is not listed in the call-out. We’ve chosen to
include heat resistance on this report because it is a
common test used to gauge resistance to oxidation and
thermal attack over time. You’ll no doubt see it regularly on
test reports, and it will likely be specified in three
properties: 1) Hardness Change, 2) Tensile Change, and 3)
Elongation Change.
E. The second test is “compression set” (B14 in the line call-
out) as determined by ASTM D 395, a
IN THE LAB 22-hour test conducted at 100° C. This
report lists one property specification
related to compression set: Percent of
original deflection, which is specified
at a 25% maximum. In this instance,
the N470 test specimen takes a 14%
set. Be aware that a number of factors
other than the compound itself can
greatly affect compression set results,
including the test temperature and
the sample thickness.
Figure 56: Testing is the best way to predict performance.
F. The third test is “water resistance”
(EA14 in the line call-out) as determined by ASTM D 471, a
70-hour test conducted at 100° C. This report lists two
property specifications related to water immersion: 1)
Hardness Change and 2) Volume Change.
G. The next four tests gauge fuel and oil resistance (EF11,
EF21, EO14, and EO34 in the line call-out). In each case, there
are four property specifications: 1) Hardness Change, 2)
Tensile Change, 3) Elongation Change, and 4) Volume
Change. Per J200 / D 2000, EF 11 is the suffix designation for
ASTM D 471, a 70-hour test conducted at 23° C using
Reference Fuel A. That’s good to know, but you’re probably
wondering what EF11 and the other fluid resistance tests
can really tell you about a compound.


Put simply, fluid resistance tests give you an indication of
how the compound will react when brought in contact with
fuels and oils. In most cases, the primary concern is swelling,
though compound degradation is also common. Recall that
volume changes (either swell or shrinkage) are typically
accompanied by changes in physical properties, including
hardness, tensile strength, modulus, elongation, tear
resistance, and compression set.
Reference Fuel Type Composition (Volume %)
A Isooctane (100)
B Isooctane (70), Toluene (30)
C Isooctane (50), Toluene (50)
D Isooctane (60), Toluene (40)
E Toluene (100)
F Diesel Fuel, Grade 2 (100)
G Fuel D (85), anhydrous denatured ethanol (15)
H Fuel C (85), anhydrous denatured ethanol (15)
I Fuel C (85), anhydrous methanol (15)
K Fuel C (15), anhydrous methanol (85)
Table 23: ASTM Reference Fuels

ASTM Reference Fuels A through K (see Table 23) have been
specifically selected to test compounds in contact with
gasolines or diesel fuels. Which tests are called for depends
on which fluid(s) the seal will encounter. For example,
Reference Fuel A (used in the EF11 test) is a 100% isooctane
fluid which mirrors the shrinking or low-swell effects of
gasolines composed primarily of straight-chain aliphatic
(rather than ringed aromatic) hydrocarbons. If the
compound in question will be used around gasolines with a
very high aliphatic content, then an EF11 test is a good idea.
Reference Fuel B (used in the EF21 test) is a 70% isooctane-
30% toluene mixture.The toluene content lends the mixture
a level of aromaticity, enabling Reference Fuel B to more
closely approximate the swelling effects of commercial
gasolines.
The other two fluid resistance tests on this report are based
on shrinking or swelling in lubricating oils rather than fuels.
EO14 is the suffix designation for another ASTM D 471 test,
this one lasting 70 hours and conducted at 100° C using
Number 1 Oil. EO14 is commonly used to gauge elastomer
shrinkage.The time and temperature requirements for EO34

are identical to EO14, with the exception that Industry
Reference Material (IRM) 903 is used rather than Number 1
Oil. EO34 is a common tool for gauging elastomer swell. As
with the Reference Fuels, the choice of oils in testing is not
arbitrary. Rather, Number 1 Oil and IRM 903 are used because
they have an aniline point similar to the aniline point of a
fluid to be found in service.
The aniline point is the lowest temperature at which equal
volumes of aniline (an oily, colorless, and poisonous organic
liquid derived from benzene) and the oil will completely
dissolve in one another. The aniline point is actually a good
measure of the aromatic content, or the amount of
unsaturated hydrocarbons present in the oil. The higher the
level of unsaturants, the more easily the organic aniline can
“step in” to combine with the oil, and thus the aniline point
will be low. A low aniline point is important because it
translates to a higher potential for swelling certain rubber
compounds.
Number 1 Oil has the highest aniline point (124° C ± 1°) of
the ASTM test oils, meaning it typically causes the least
amount of rubber swell. As is clear by looking at the EO14
volume change specification (-10% to +5%), Number 1 Oil
actually has the potential to cause more shrinkage than
swell. Testing with Number 1 Oil is thus a common tool for
gauging oil-induced shrinkage due to plasticizer extraction.
IRM 903, on the other hand, has the lowest aniline point (70°
C ± 1°) among the test oils and typically causes the greatest
swell. Be aware that IRM 903 is used in lieu of the now-
obsolete Number 3 Oil for EO34 testing.
DATA ON DEMAND
Figure 57: R.L. Hudson & Company is happy to provide test reports upon request.


H. The eighth test is “impact brittleness” (also known as low-
temperature brittleness; Z1 in the line call-out). Note that
this is a three-minute test conducted at -25° C. Per ASTM D
2137 (Method A), low temperature tests are normally
conducted at -35° C, -40° C, or -55° C. For example, if this test
had been conducted at -40° C, F17 would have been noted
in the line call-out. Because this test was conducted at a non-
standard temperature (-25° C), it is noted in the line call-out
using a special “Z” suffix. (Per D 2000 / J200, special suffix
requirements begin with a “Z” and must be specified in
detail, including test methods.) Our report has one
specification related to Z1, which is conducted on a pass-fail
basis only: No cracks in the material after it is struck once.
N470 passes this test.
On some reports, you may also see a “temperature
retraction” TR-10 listing. Though TR-10 is not covered by a D
2000 suffix, ASTM D 1329 does detail TR-10 as a way to
gauge a compound’s crystallization and visco-elastic
properties at low temperatures. In this case, specification is
for the material to remain viable at -25° C. N470 passes this
test. For more on TR-10 testing, see “Low Temperature
Effects” on page 87.
I. The ninth test is another special stipulation required by the
user of the material (Z2 in the line call-out). In our example,
“Z2” is “resistance to marking.” There is one specification
related to this test, which is conducted on a pass-fail basis
only: Non-marking by the material. That is, the compound
should not leave any mark when wiped on white paper with
a 0.03 MPa contact pressure. N470 passes this test.
In some instances, a Z suffix may be used for something as
basic as a hardness reading, as with the specification for a 75
(Shore A) durometer fluorocarbon. Because the line call-out
system only allows three digits for both durometer and
tensile strength (as with “714” indicating a 70 durometer
material with a tensile strength of 14 MPa), it is not possible
to specify a 75 durometer material in this way. A special Z
suffix would be needed.

TEST REPORT
A. Compound: N470 Nitrile 70 Durometer
B. Conformance to: ASTM D 2000-95, M2BG714, B14, EA14,
EF11, EF21, EO14, EO34, Z1, Z2
C. ORIGINAL PROPERTIES SPECIFICATION N470

Hardness, Durometer A 70 ± 5 70
Tensile Strength, MPa 14 min 15.9
Elongation, % 250 min 370
Modulus @ 100%, MPa 11 min 12.1
Tear Resistance, kN/m 20 min 35
Specific Gravity - 1.25
D. A14 - HEAT RESISTANCE - 70 hrs @ 100° C

Hardness Change, Points - +2
Tensile Change, % - +14
Elongation Change, % - -11
E. B14 - COMPRESSION SET - 22 hrs @ 100° C

% of Original Deflection 25 max 14
F. EA14 - WATER RESISTANCE - 70 hrs @ 100° C

Hardness Change, Points ± 10 -2
Volume Change, % ± 15 +3
G. EF11 - ASTM FUEL A - 70 hrs @ 23° C

Hardness Change, Points ± 10 -2
Tensile Change, % -25 max -10
Elongation Change, % -25 max -10
Volume Change, % -5 to +10 +1


SPECIFICATION N470
EF21 - ASTM FUEL B - 70 hrs @ 23° C G.
Hardness Change, Points 0 to -30 -10
Tensile Change, % -60 max -56
Volume Change, % 0 to +40 +26
EO14 - ASTM OIL # 1 - 70 hrs @ 100° C

Hardness Change, Points -5 to +10 +2
Tensile Change, % -25 max +21
Volume Change, % -10 to +5 -5
EO34 - IRM903 OIL - 70 hrs @ 100° C

Hardness Change, Points -10 to +5 -4
Tensile Change, % -45 max +7
Volume Change, % 0 to +25 +7
Z1 - LOW TEMPERATURE - 3 mins @ -25°

H.
Impact Brittleness No cracks Pass
TR-10 -25° C -25° C
Z2 - RESISTANCE TO MARKING I.
Marking by the material on
white paper when wiped at
0.03 MPa contact pressure Non-marking Pass

158 BATCH TESTING & CURE DATE
Batch Testing
& Cure Date.
W
hen one of our suppliers mixes or buys a
batch of rubber, a batch number is
automatically assigned. But before it can be
molded into usable parts (such as O-rings), the batch
must be tested to make sure it is a “good batch,” i.e. that
its physical properties meet specifications. Batch testing
is vital in ensuring consistency among finished parts.
To test a batch of rubber’s physical properties, a sample of
“Batch testing is the material is molded into 6” x 6” x .070” slabs. These slabs
are then cut into the various shapes needed to test for
vital in ensuring
hardness, tensile strength, modulus, elongation, and
consistency compression set. All of these tests are described in the
among finished Physical Properties section of “Selecting the Material.”
parts.” Specific gravity is also often measured, though more as a

check on compounding consistency than as a physical test.
Per ASTM D 792, specific gravity (or relative density)
compares the weight of a molded sample to the weight of
an equal volume of water. Specific gravity (SG) is noted
without units. If a material is twice as heavy as water, its
specific gravity is 2. Using the specific gravities of previously-
molded compounds for comparison (e.g. a material may
have an SG of 0.86, or less than that of water), a
manufacturer can see if a sample is consistent with prior
batches.
If the tested physical properties of a batch of rubber meet all
specifications, the batch is approved for production of O-
rings or other articles. If the properties are not satisfactory,
the batch must either be reworked (broken down and
reformulated) or scrapped. Scrapping an entire batch of
rubber and starting over can be very costly and is thus a last
resort. But even if the compound’s physical properties are
acceptable, it must still meet processing requirements in
order to be ready for use in a specific molding facility.
TOOLS FOR TESTING

At one time, the Mooney Viscometer was the most common
tool used to determine the processing characteristics for a
BATCH TESTING & CURE DATE 159

given batch of rubber. Many compounders still use the
Mooney to verify viscosity (which is indicative of molecular
weight) when obtaining raw polymer stock. This works
because a compound’s resistance to being moved by the
Mooney’s internal rotor is directly linked to its viscosity. The
viscometer’s previous role as the chief indicator of
processing traits, however, has now been usurped by the
rheometer.
There are two main types of rheometers currently in use: the
ODR and the MDR. The older of these, the Oscillating Disk
Rheometer (ODR, see Figure 58), builds on the Mooney
Viscometer’s rotor-based design. An ODR gauges the
amount of torque (twisting force in pounds per inch, lb./in,
or decinewtons per meter, dN/m) needed to oscillate a rotor
within the rubber sample. Whereas a viscometer rotor relies
on full rotation, the ODR rotor only moves back and forth
across a small arc. This oscillation is less
degrading to the material than in the ODR
viscometer, where destruction of the
sample is typical.
ODR test results are also more reflective of
actual cure conditions because constant
high pressure and the desired
vulcanization temperature are maintained
on the sample. As testing progresses, the
sample begins to behave in predictable
ways. Viscosity briefly drops as the sample
first heats up, but the chemical reaction
soon starts. The rubber becomes more
viscous due to crosslinking of the
macromolecular chains. As a result, the
amount of torque that is required to
internally shear (deform) the sample
increases. Using this increasing torque as a
gauge, the ODR plots a cure curve (see
Table 24, next page) illustrating the state
of cure for a given time and temperature. Figure 58: Oscillating Disk Rheometer
Though the Monsanto ODR was for many years the most-
used rheometer, a more recent development is the Moving
Die Rheometer (MDR). Whereas the ODR uses an embedded
rotor to torque the rubber sample, an MDR holds the sample
between a pair of heated dies (metal plates forming a
cavity). As one of the dies moves across a small arc, the other
die gauges the reaction torque generated in the sample.This
160 BATCH TESTING & CURE DATE
again results in a cure curve that can show the optimum
cure time for the desired blend of properties. Since the MDR
does not insert a rotor into the sample, many molders feel
the MDR is less intrusive to the curing process and thus
more objective and accurate than the ODR.
DETERMINING CURE TIMES

Whether generated by an ODR or an MDR, a cure curve is
essentially “torque versus time (at a given temperature).”The
torque value is a direct indication of the sample’s shear
modulus (resistance to shearing deformation). A number of
processing characteristics can also be read, including the
minimum pressure needed to make the material flow
properly into the mold cavity, scorch time (prior to
vulcanization), optimum cure time (typically 85 to 95% of
maximum cure), and maximum cure (prior to over cure).
Keeping the initial cure slightly below the maximum helps
avoid over cure by allowing leeway for any necessary post
cure (controlled continuation of vulcanization to finish cure,
drive off byproducts, and stabilize) or inadvertent after cure
(uncontrolled continuation of vulcanization after heat is
removed).
Though specific vulcanization questions can be answered
via a cure curve, rheometers also help molders address more
general concerns about processibility and consistency. No
matter what the cure curve says, “optimum” cure time is
Table 24: ODR-Plotted Cure Curve

BATCH TESTING & CURE DATE 161

largely a matter of economics. There is no “universal” cure
time for a compound. A batch of rubber may have different
cure times if given to different molders, depending on their
capabilities.
The old adage about time being money is especially true
when it comes to cycle time (the time between a given point
in one molding cycle and the same point in the next cycle;
e.g. loading of raw stock, through molding and unloading of
finished parts, then to reloading; see Figure 59). Generally
speaking, the longer the cycle time, the more expensive the
process and the more costly the part. As a cost-cutting
measure, manufacturers may increase mold temperature to
decrease cure time. A 20° F boost can cut cure time in half,
but this is not always advantageous. Sometimes the ratio of
the time the mold is open (for unloading and reloading) to
the time the mold is closed and in the press allows the mold
temperature to dip below what is needed for full
vulcanization. Partially-vulcanized, unusable parts can result.
Again, consistency among different
batches of the same material is always GOING TO PRESS
a concern. The cure curve can serve as
a “fingerprint” for a given batch of
rubber. By comparing cure curves, it is
possible to see if the properties present
in one batch are present in another.
Because wasted processing can be
costly in terms of both time and money,
compounding errors are much more
economically spotted in batch testing
than in subsequent stages of quality
control, such as vulcanizate testing.
Figure 59: Multiple cavity mold in use.
ASSIGNING CURE DATES
Quality control is aided by the batch number that was
initially assigned to the rubber. This number follows the
batch as it makes its way through the manufacturing
process. When the batch (or a portion of it) is molded, a cure
date is also assigned. This cure date consists of the quarter
and year in which the parts are molded. For example, all
parts molded in January, February, or March of 2001 have a
cure date of 1Q01. Parts molded in October, November, or
December of 2000 have a cure date of 4Q00. Both the batch
number and cure date stay with the part through to the end
user, thus assuring that complete traceability is maintained.

162 QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality Assurance.
W
e are proud to say that R.L. Hudson &
Company is a preferred supplier of fluid
sealing devices and custom-molded rubber,
plastic, and polyurethane products for a diverse group
of manufacturers. As such, we have attained a worldwide
reputation with commercial establishments as an
organization committed to customer satisfaction.
Recognizing that quality is not only conformance to
“Our objective is to established acceptance standards, R.L. Hudson & Company is
seek out continuous dedicated to being responsive to the ever-changing needs
of our customers. Additionally, one of our prime objectives is
improvement so as to seek out continuous improvement so as to cost
to cost effectively effectively provide our customers with a product line of the
highest available quality.
provide our
In accordance with global Quality Assurance’s movement
customers with a
toward one unified International Standard, it is our policy to
product line of the assure process integrity by operating to a Quality System
defined by ISO 9001.
highest available
As part of this system, we established our own in-house
quality.”
Quality Assurance department (see Figure 60) whose sole
purpose is to oversee the
ATTENTION TO DETAIL inspection of the products we
offer, including O-ring seals. We
feel strongly that having our own
Quality Assurance department is
a wise investment in the ultimate
success of our customers’
applications.
What follows is an overview of
the ten most common types of
O-ring surface imperfections,
along with the maximum
acceptable measurements (both
military and industrial) in each
Figure 60: A Voyager 1000 video imaging system is just case.
part of our Quality Assurance capabilities.

QUALITY ASSURANCE 163

Backrind.
B
ackrind is typified by a longitudinal recess
(shaped like a wide-angle “U” or “W”) found at the
parting lines on the seal’s OD and/or ID (see
Figure 61).This recess may sometimes exist on the entire
circumference of the O-ring. Backrind can result from the
thermal expansion of material over a sharp mold edge. It
can also be caused by premature curing of the material.
“Backrind is
BACKRIND
typified by a
longitudinal
recess found at
the parting lines.”
Figure 61: Found on the OD and/or ID.
AS568A O-Ring Width Military (per MIL-STD 413C) Industrial (per RMA)
Series Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters
000 < .100 < 2.54 .000 .000 .005 wide .127 wide
.003 deep .076 deep
100 .100-.134 2.54-3.42 .005 wide .127 wide .007 wide .178 wide
.003 deep .076 deep .003 deep .076 deep
200 & .135-.268 3.43-6.81 .006 wide .152 wide .008 wide .203 wide
300 .004 deep .102 deep .004 deep .102 deep
Table 25: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Backrind

Excessive
Trimming (Buffing).
E
xcessive trimming is typified by a flattened area
on the seal’s OD and/or ID (see Figure 62). This
flattening results in an out-of-tolerance (ID to OD
measurement) condition. Keep in mind that problems
can result even if “excessive” trimming is avoided.
Imperfect trimming or buffing to remove flash can result
in a much coarser seal surface. Both excessive trimming
and buffing are the result of improper removal of flash.
“Excessive
trimming is EXCESSIVE TRIMMING
typified by a
flattened area on
the seal’s OD
and/or ID.”
Figure 62: On the OD and/or ID.
AS568A Minimum Cross-Section

Series Inches Millimeters
000 .067 1,70
100 .100 2,54
200 .135 3,43
300 .205 5,20
400 .269 6,84
(Note: The “maximum amount of acceptable trimming” is defined as

the minimum allowable cross-section for each O-ring series. It is the
same for both military and industrial applications.)
Table 26: Minimum Cross-Sections


Flow Marks.
F
low marks are shallow, thread-like recesses in the
surface of the seal (see Figure 63). Flow marks are
typically curved and have rounded edges. Flow
marks result from improper flowing and premature
curing of the material in the mold.
FLOW MARKS
“Flow marks
are shallow,
thread-like
recesses in the
surface of the
Figure 63: Typically curved, with round edges. seal.”
AS568A O-Ring Width Military (per MIL-STD 413C) Industrial

000 < .100 < 2.54 .002 deep .05 deep

.060 long 1.52 long
100 .100-.134 2.54-3.42 .002 deep .05 deep

.060 long 1.52 long
NOT
AVAILABLE
200 .135-.204 3.43-5.20 .002 deep .05 deep
.180 long 4.57 long
300 .205-.268 5.21-6.81 .002 deep .05 deep

.180 long 4.57 long
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .002 deep .05 deep

.180 long 4.57 long
Table 27: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Flow Marks

Foreign Material.
F
oreign material may be any superfluous material
(such as dirt, grit, and particulate matter)
embedded in the seal (see Figure 64). Foreign
material also refers to any residual indentation in the
seal resulting from the removal of such unwanted
matter. Contamination of the material, either prior to or
during molding, is the cause.
“Foreign material
FOREIGN MATERIAL
may be any
superfluous
material
embedded in the
seal.”
Figure 64: Embedded in the seal.
000 < .100 < 2.54 Non Non .005 wide .127 wide
Visible Visible .003 deep .076 deep
Table 28: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Foreign Material


Mismatch.
M
ismatch is an inequality between the cross-
sectional radius of one half of the O-ring and
the radius of the other half (see Figure 65).
Mismatch is caused by dimensional differences in the
mold halves.
MISMATCH
“Mismatch is an
inequality
between one half
of the O-ring and
the other half.”
Figure 65: Unequal radii.
000 < .100 < 2.54 .003 .076 .003 .076
100 .100-.134 2.54-3.42 .004 .102 .004 .102
200 .135-.204 3.43-5.20 .005 .127 .005 .127
300 .205-.268 5.21-6.81 .006 .152 .006 .152
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .006 .152 .006 .152
Table 29: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Mismatch

Mold Deposit
Indentations.
M
old deposit indentations are irregularly-
shaped depressions with a rough texture
found on the seal’s surface (see Figure 66).
Mold deposit indentations are caused by an
accumulation of hardened deposits on the inner surface
of the mold cavity.
MOLD DEPOSIT INDENTATIONS

“Mold deposit
indentations are
irregularly-shaped
depressions with a
rough texture.”
Figure 66: Visible on the seal’s surface.
000 < .100 < 2.54 .010 wide .254 wide .015 wide .381 wide
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .030 wide .762 wide .040 wide 1.016 wide
Table 30: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Mold Deposit Indentation


Non-Fill.
N
on-fill is a random and irregular surface
indentation with a coarser texture than the
unaffected portions of the O-ring surface (see
Figure 67). Non-fill results from imperfect flow of the
seal material within the mold, and/or incomplete filling
of the mold, and/or air trapped in the mold.
NON-FILL
“Non-fill is a
random and
irregular surface
indentation.”
Figure 67: Random surface indentations.
000 < .100 < 2.54 None None None None
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .040 wide 1.016 wide .050 wide 1.270 wide
Table 31: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Non-Fill

Off-Register.
O
ff-register results in an obvious misalignment of
the O-ring “halves” (see Figure 68). Off-register
results from a lateral shift of one of the mold
cavity plates in relation to its mating plate.
OFF-REGISTER
“Off-register
results in an
obvious
misalignment of
the O-ring Figure 68: Misaligned “halves.”
‘halves.’”
000 < .100 < 2.54 .003 .076 .003 .076
100 .100-.134 2.54-3.42 .004 .102 .004 .102
200 .135-.204 3.43-5.20 .005 .127 .005 .127
300 .205-.268 5.21-6.81 .006 .152 .006 .152
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .006 .152 .006 .152
Table 32: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Off-Register


Parting Line
Indentations.
P
arting line indentations are shallow recesses
(typically shaped like a saucer, though sometimes
triangular) found at the seal’s parting line on the
OD and/or ID (see Figure 69). The parting line usually
divides the indentation in half. Parting line indentations
are the result of a deformity in the edge of the mold at
the parting line.
“Parting line
PARTING LINE INDENTATIONS
indentations are
shallow recesses
found at the seal’s
parting line.”
000 < .100 < 2.54 .010 wide .254 wide .015 wide .381 wide
Table 33: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Parting Line Indentation

Parting Line
Projection.
P
arting line projection is a continuous ridge of
material found at the seal’s parting line on the OD
and/or ID (see Figure 70). Excessive flash is a thin,
film-like formation extending beyond the parting line
projection. Parting line projection can result when mold
wear results in enlarged corner radii. Excessive flash can
result from separation of the mold plates or improper
(inadequate) trimming of the seal following removal
from its mold cavity.
“Parting line
projection is a
continuous ridge PARTING LINE PROJECTION
of material found
at the seal’s
parting line.”
Series Inches Millimeters High Max High Max High Max High Max
Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters
000 < .100 < 2.54 .003 .076 .003 .076
100 .100-.134 2.54-3.42 .003 .076 .004 .102
200 .135-.204 3.43-5.20 .004 .102 .005 .127
300 .205-.268 5.21-6.81 .005 .127 .006 .152
400 .269-.281 6.82-7.14 .006 .152 .007 .178
Table 34: Maximum Amount of Acceptable Parting Line Projection

AGING & SHELF LIFE 173

Aging & Shelf Life.
A
s they age, O-rings and other rubber products
can undergo changes in physical properties.
They may even become unusable due to
excessive hardening, softening, cracking, crazing, or
other surface degradations. These changes may be the
result of a single factor or a combination of factors, such
as the action of oxygen, ozone, light, heat, humidity, oils,
water, or other solvents. Detrimental effects can be
minimized, however, by proper storage conditions.
“Detrimental
TEMPERATURE
effects can be
The optimum storage temperature is between 40° F and 80°
F. High temperatures accelerate the deterioration of rubber minimized by
products. Heat sources should be arranged so that the proper storage
temperature of stored items never exceeds 120° F. Low
conditions.”
temperature effects are neither as damaging nor as
permanent, but rubber articles will stiffen. Care should be
taken to avoid distorting them at temperatures below 30° F.
HUMIDITY
Expressed as a percentage, relative humidity is OUR WAREHOUSE
the ratio of the amount of water vapor present in
the air to the greatest amount that could be
present at a given temperature. Ideally, the relative
humidity in the storage area should be below
75%. Very moist or very dry conditions must be
avoided. Where ventilation is necessary, keep it to
a minimum. Condensation cannot be allowed to
occur. Some materials, such as polyester-based
polyurethanes, are hygroscopic (they absorb
moisture from the air). This moisture attacks the
polymer’s chemical backbone, resulting in chain
Figure 71: Proper storage conditions
scission (division of the polymer chain into smaller,
prolong the lives of molded products.
weaker segments). Over time, the material
becomes soft and cheesy. In humid environments, this can
occur in a matter of weeks unless precautions are taken.
LIGHT
O-rings and other rubber products should always be
174 AGING & SHELF LIFE
protected from light, especially natural sunlight. Strong
artificial light with a high ultraviolet (UV) content is also
dangerous. Regardless of the source, UV rays can cause chain
scission. Use of polyethylene bags stored inside large
cardboard containers is recommended. Alternatively,
polyethylene-lined craft bags also offer good protection.
OXYGEN AND OZONE

Oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are very damaging to rubber
products. Whenever possible, O-rings and other molded
articles should be stored in hermetic (airtight) containers to
protect them from circulating air. Oxygen (especially in
combination with heat) causes rubber articles to form
additional cross-links, leading to unwanted hardening of the
seal. As with water and UV light, ozone is capable of causing
chain scission. Rubber products should be kept away from
ozone generators such as electric motors, mercury vapor
lamps, and high voltage electrical equipment.
DEFORMATION
Rubber products should be stored in a relaxed condition,
free from tension, compression, or other deformation which
can lead to cracking or permanent shape change. Large O-
rings and seals should not be stored on pegs.
Type ASTM Desig. Shelf Life SHELF LIFE
Nitrile (Buna N) NBR 3 to 5 years In normal warehouse
Styrene Butadiene (Buna S) SBR 3 to 5 years conditions, the shelf life of
Polybutadiene BR 3 to 5 years even relatively age-sensitive
Polyisoprene NR, IR 3 to 5 years elastomers is considerable.
This is largely due to advances
Hypalon® CSM 5 to 10 years
in compounding. Table 35
Ethylene Propylene EPDM, EPM 5 to 10 years
lists some of the generally
Neoprene® CR 5 to 10 years
recommended limitations of
Polyurethane (polyether) EU 5 to 10 years many compounds. Taken from
Epichlorohydrin CO, ECO 5 to 10 years Military Handbook 695, this
Fluorocarbon (Viton®) FKM up to 20 years table is quite conservative.
Perfluoroelastomer FFKM up to 20 years
STORAGE AND CODING
Silicone Q up to 20 years
All O-rings inventoried and
Fluorosilicone FVMQ up to 20 years shipped by R.L. Hudson &
Polyacrylate ACM, ANM up to 20 years Company are stored in either
Polysulfide T up to 20 years zip lock or heat-sealed plastic
Table 35: Shelf Life of Common Elastomers bags. These bags feature bar-
coded labels indicating both the contents’
cure date and batch number.

DIMENSIONS 177
designing the seal

Dimensions.
H
aving selected the most appropriate material
for your O-ring seal, now is the time to consider
a number of other factors that will undoubtedly
impact your application. The dimensions of the O-ring
itself always play a huge role in the success or failure of
a seal. There are three main O-ring dimensions to
consider: its initial size, the amount of stretch it
undergoes, and the amount of squeeze necessary to
complete the seal. “The dimensions
SIZE
of the O-ring itself
O-ring size is typically specified according to AS 568A, the
Aerospace Standard Uniform Dash Numbering System always play a
developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). huge role in the
Per AS 568A, the size of each O-ring can be noted in terms of
success or failure
its inside diameter (I.D.) and width (W). (Width is also
referred to as cross-section, or CS.) Each figure also includes of a seal.”
a tolerance, or allowable deviation (plus and minus).
Measurements are often given in both inches and
millimeters.
Size listings may include two sets of figures: actual size and
nominal size. The actual size is the exact size of the O-ring in
decimal dimensions (inches or millimeters), including
tolerances. The nominal size is
the approximate size of the O- DEFINING THE SEAL
ring in fractional dimensions
(inches, e.g. 1 1/8”) and is
generally included strictly for
reference purposes. In addition
to the inside diameter and
width figures, a nominal listing
may also include an outside
diameter (O.D.) listing. Keep in
mind that the width of an O-
ring is one-half the difference
between its O.D. and I.D. (see Figure 72: O-Ring Dimensions
Figure 72).

178 DIMENSIONS
designing the seal
The O-ring size that is best suited for a particular project
depends on the needs of the seal. Keep in mind that cross-
section determines sealability. Larger cross-sections typically
provide more stability and allow more tolerance, but they also
create more seal friction. Smaller sections generate less
friction but are less stable and allow less tolerance. Regardless
of the application, it is imperative that the cross-section be
greater than the height of the gland into which it will be
installed. Squeeze applied to the seal will compress the O-
ring. The combination of compression and system pressure
will cause the O-ring to block the diametral clearance gap and
prevent leakage. The effects of variances in cross-section size
are shown in Table 36.
LARGER CROSS-SECTIONS SMALLER CROSS-SECTIONS

Reciprocating Seals
Increased friction Decreased friction
Increased stability Decreased stability
All Seals
Less compression set* More compression set*
(*esp. in fluorocarbons and nitriles; not in silicones and ethylene propylenes)
Less swell in fluid More swell in fluid
Less resistant to explosive decompression More resistant to explosive decompression
Allows larger tolerances Requires smaller tolerances
Less susceptible to dirt and damage More susceptible to dirt and damage
Decreased physical properties** Increased physical properties**
(**elongation in fluorocarbons; tensile and elongation in nitriles)
Requires larger (heavier) design Allows smaller (lighter) design
Table 36: Effects of Variances in Cross-Section Size
STRETCH
Measured as a percentage increase in the I.D. of an O-ring,
stretch results in a reduction and flattening of the seal’s cross-
section (width). There are two “types” or “phases” of stretch:
installation stretch (as the seal is being placed in the groove)
and assembled stretch (once the seal is seated). Because
installation stretch is temporary (or even momentary), an O-
ring can generally undergo a high degree of it, sometimes as
much as 100% or more if the installation is particularly tricky.
An O-ring may have to be stretched in unusual ways or at odd
angles in order to safely navigate an intricate design.
Assembled stretch, on the other hand, is permanent and must
therefore be minimized if the seal itself is to have a long life.

DIMENSIONS 179
designing the seal

But though it should be kept to a minimum, assembled
stretch should not be eliminated altogether. A small degree of
assembled stretch ensures the seal will fit snugly against the
piston (or rod) and not sag and buckle in the groove.
Assembled stretch is possible when the I.D. of an O-ring is
slightly smaller than the groove diameter. This difference
between the diameters ensures the O-ring will be subjected
to some degree of stretch during both installation and use.
For most situations, assembled stretch should be at least 1%
but not more than 5%. Care must be taken to avoid an
assembled stretch greater than 5% so as not to exacerbate
stresses and reduce the seal’s overall life expectancy. This is
especially true when using a nitrile compound.
Fluorocarbons, polyurethanes, chloroprene, and ethylene
propylene typically last longer under a higher degree of
assembled stretch.
Keep in mind that higher amounts of assembled stretch may
need to be compensated for by use of a smaller gland,
especially if the stretch exceeds 2% or 3%. Reducing the gland
depth helps maintain the required amount of squeeze on the
O-ring’s reduced and flattened cross-section (see Table 37).
Table 37: Reduction of Cross-Section Due to Stretch

180 DIMENSIONS
designing the seal
SQUEEZE
Expressed as both a decimal measurement (in inches and/or
millimeters) and as a percentage of the original O-ring cross-
section (width), squeeze is compression of the O-ring’s cross-
section between mating surfaces. For example, an O-ring
with an original cross-section of .040” (1.02 mm) that is
squeezed .007” (.18 mm) has been compressed
approximately 16%. Likewise, a .275” (7 mm) O-ring that is
squeezed .035” (.89 mm) has been compressed
approximately 13%.
There are two main types of squeeze for static O-ring seals:
radial and axial. Radial compression occurs on an O-ring’s
O.D. and I.D., as with cap and plug type configurations (see
Figure 73). Axial compression occurs on the top and bottom
surfaces of the O-ring, as with face (flange) type designs (see
Figure 74).
Because of the nature of their installation and movement,
dynamic seals (either reciprocating, rotary, or oscillating)
almost always employ only radial squeeze, though there
might be rare instances (as with a face seal involving rotary
motion) in which axial squeeze is used.
RADIAL SQUEEZE AXIAL SQUEEZE
Figure 73: Applied to I.D. and O.D. Figure 74: Applied to Top and Bottom
Squeeze depends on three variables: the amount of

compressive force applied to a seal (as measured in pounds
per linear inch, or pli), the hardness of the seal (its resistance
to compression, as typified by a durometer reading), and the
cross-section of the seal. As previously noted, the cross-
section is reduced and flattened when the O-ring is
stretched. A seal under a high degree of stretch will typically
require a greater amount of squeeze (or, alternatively, a
gland with less depth) in order to maintain the proper
amount of contact between the seal and the mating surface.
DIMENSIONS 181
designing the seal

As might be guessed, the proper amount of O-ring squeeze
differs from application to application. Most static seals
should never be squeezed more than 30%. Because of
friction and wear considerations, the maximum
recommended squeeze for most dynamic seals is only 16%.
These percentages may vary, however, depending on factors
such as the size of the O-ring and the temperatures to which
the seal will be exposed. For example, a smaller O-ring or an
O-ring that won’t have to withstand higher temperatures
can function effectively under greater squeeze. The
necessary amount of O-ring squeeze can also fluctuate
within a given application if O-rings made of differing
compounds (with varying hardnesses) or having different
inside diameters are used interchangeably. No matter what
the size or amount of stretch, all O-rings must be squeezed
at least 0.007” before the adequacy of the seal can be
accurately determined.
Keep in mind that the amount of squeeze being employed
affects a seal’s susceptibility to gas permeation. As squeeze
increases, permeability decreases. This is true for a couple of
reasons. First, more squeeze translates to less groove depth,
meaning less area available for gas to enter initially. Second,
an O-ring under increased squeeze is wider, meaning gas
must travel further (i.e. through a greater length of material)
before reaching the low pressure side to escape.

182 ENVIRONMENT
designing the seal
Environment.
A
nother important design consideration is the
environment in which any seals must function.
The ability to withstand its environment is
critical to a seal’s success. Environmental issues include
temperature, pressure, the possible use of anti-extrusion
devices, friction, and the need for lubrication.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature extremes can lead to seal failure by changing
“The ability to an O-ring’s size and consistency. Extreme heat can cause the
withstand its seal to expand and harden, permanently deforming it. Very
low temperatures may cause the shrinking seal to lose
environment is flexibility and become brittle. Knowing what range of
critical to a seal’s temperatures a seal must withstand is essential to the
design process. In some cases, designing a larger gland for
success.”
high-temperature seals or a smaller gland for low-
Table 38: Comparison of Material Temperature Ranges

ENVIRONMENT 183
designing the seal

temperature seals may help. Table 38 shows the typical
temperature ranges for the most common sealing materials.
PRESSURE & EXTRUSION
Pressure is a double-edged sword. In most O-ring sealing
applications, a moderate amount of system pressure is
desirable because it aids in effecting the seal. Since the
rubbery O-ring is essentially a highly viscous fluid, moderate
pressure forces this thick material firmly against the mating
surfaces, and a positive seal is created. If an inadequate
amount of squeeze is employed, or if the seal material has
poor compressive modulus, low pressure (below 100 psi)
may not be enough to help ensure adequate contact
between the O-ring and the mating surfaces. A leak path
may remain and failure can result.
High pressure can be even more problematic. Pressure
increases may expand the mating components, often
enlarging the clearance gap between parts. The larger the
gap, the greater the likelihood that part of the O-ring will be
forced (extruded) into it. Extrusion becomes most likely as
pressure approaches or exceeds 1,500 psi. Constant high
pressure will cause the surface of
the extruded seal to rupture. EFFECT OF HIGH PRESSURE
Even if pressure occasionally
drops (as during cycling or system
fluctuations), the extruded portion
of the seal is still vulnerable.The O-
ring’s elastic memory enables it to
regain its original shape, but it may
not recede out of the retracting
gap quickly enough. A small chunk
Figure 75: Extrusion Figure 76: Failure
of its material may be torn
(nibbled) away. Both extrusion and nibbling ultimately
create a leak path, and seal failure inevitably results (see
Figures 75 and 76).
The amount of extrusion to be expected in a given
application thus depends on three main factors: 1) the
pressure imposed on the seal, 2) the amount of clearance
between mating surfaces, and 3) the resistance of the seal
material to deformation. The first two factors are not easy to
adjust. The inherent needs of the application often dictate
that system pressure cannot be lowered. Reducing the
clearance gap is possible but can often be very expensive.
Due to other variables (such as wear and misalignment of
mating parts), a redesigned gap still may not adequately
184 ENVIRONMENT
designing the seal
prevent extrusion. This leaves the third factor, resistance of
the seal to deformation, as the most viable avenue for
reducing extrusion concerns.
Hardness and Young’s Modulus (modulus of elasticity, or
stiffness) chiefly determine an O-ring’s resistance to
deformation. Materials with both high modulus and
hardness tend to have fewer extrusion problems.
Temperature-induced changes in modulus and stress
relaxation behaviors (such as creep / cold flow) can,
however, put even the most stalwart O-ring in danger. For
more on extrusion, see also “Extrusion & Nibbling” on page
259.
BACK-UP RINGS
Back-up rings are one way to protect the O-ring and prevent
extrusion in both static and dynamic applications. A back-up
ring is a relatively hard, high shear modulus material placed
in a seal groove between the O-ring and the clearance gap
(i.e. on the seal’s low-pressure side). The back-up acts as a
support or buttress for the O-ring even as it blocks the gap
into which the pressurized seal might otherwise extrude. As
an added bonus, the back-up ring also reduces friction and
wear by trapping lubricant in the vicinity of the seal.
In some cases, 90-durometer O-rings are used to resist
extrusion. Be aware, however, that
A CLEAR ADVANTAGE sealability often suffers even as friction
and wear increase with use of such a hard
WITHOUT WITH
BACK-UP RING BACK-UP RING material. A resilient 70-durometer nitrile
seal with a 90-durometer or harder back-
ZERO
up ring is preferable. Bi-directional
PRESSURE
pressure will necessitate back-ups on both
sides of the O-ring. Use of two back-ups
500
PSI (even if pressure is acting from only one
PRESSURE
side) also eliminates the possibility of
1000 installing a single back-up on the wrong
PSI side of the O-ring. Performance
PRESSURE
differences for seals with and without a

1500 back-up ring are shown in Figure 77. As
PSI
PRESSURE you can see, use of a back-up ring has clear
advantages.
3000
PSI
PRESSURE
Table 39 is included here as a general
guide to help you determine if back-ups
Figure 77: The Benefit of a Back-Up are necessary in a given application. Using
the fluid pressure in your system (scaled

ENVIRONMENT 185
designing the seal

Table 39: Extrusion Curves
along the left of the graph in psi and along the right in MPa)
and the diametral clearance of your design (scaled along the
bottom in inches / millimeters), you can plot a point on the
graph field. Using the line that corresponds to the
durometer of your O-ring (e.g. 70 Shore A) as a reference
point, you then note on which side of this durometer line the
plotted point falls. If it falls to the left of the line, extrusion is
not anticipated and no back-ups are necessary. If the point
falls to the right, however, extrusion will likely be a problem
and back-ups are recommended.
Though the information in Table 39 is useful, there are a
number of things to keep in mind when consulting this data.
First, these are general curves based on medium shear
modulus hydrocarbons (such as nitrile and EPDM). Higher
shear modulus materials (such as polyurethane) will offer
increased extrusion resistance, thus shifting the curve
upward (as indicated by the yellow shading).

186 ENVIRONMENT
designing the seal
For example, a 70-durometer polyurethane can withstand
much higher pressures than a lower shear modulus 70-
durometer nitrile. Also, these curves are not applicable for
silicone, fluorosilicone, and other low shear modulus
materials. Second, these curves assume a moderate system
temperature (160° F). As temperature increases, the
tendency of most elastomers is to soften and thus be more
easily extruded. Third, these curves also assume that the
total diametral gap is concentric. If eccentricity occurs (due
to severe side-loading or misalignment), the gap on one side
will become larger, making extrusion on that side more
likely.
Again, it is always a good idea to use back-ups with O-rings
(or other seals) in pressures exceeding 1,500 psi or in
designs featuring large clearance gaps. The additional cost
of back-ups is small in comparison with the cost of tighter
machining tolerances, and back-ups easily pay for
themselves by both improving seal performance and
prolonging seal life.
R.L. Hudson & Company offers back-up rings in a wide array
of materials, including contoured hard rubber (nitrile or
fluorocarbon/ Viton®), polyurethane, Hytrel®, PTFE (Teflon®),
and engineering plastics. Polyurethane’s inherent
toughness, ability to withstand high pressure, and resistance
to extrusion make it an excellent material for back-ups.
Hytrel® is a thermoplastic elastomer combining toughness,
resilience, and chemical resistance.
As shown in Figures 78 through 80, Teflon® back-up rings
come in three basic types: solid (uncut), single turn (also
known as scarf cut, or split), and multi-turn (spiral cut). In
addition to PTFE, back-ups are also available in PEEK
(another high performance plastic) and in nylon (an
engineering plastic).
TEFLON® BACK-UPS
Figure 78: Solid (Uncut) Figure 79: Single turn Figure 80: Multi-turn
(Scarf Cut, or Split) (Spiral Cut)

ENVIRONMENT 187
designing the seal

FRICTION
Simply defined, friction is the resistance to motion that
develops when two objects are in contact. Friction must be
minimized in order to reduce O-ring wear and prolong seal
life. There are two main types of friction to be considered:
break-out friction and running friction.
Also known as static friction or stiction, break-out friction is
the static frictional force which must be overcome to initiate
movement either at startup or after a period of inactivity.
The amount or degree of break-out friction depends largely
on how long the seal and the gland have been in contact.
The longer the contact, the more of an opportunity the seal
has had to flow into the gland’s metallic micropores. A
magnified view of what this interface between an O-ring
and a mating surface might look like can be seen in Figure
81. A combination of rubber-to-metal adhesion and the
shearing force generated by the micropore irregularities
must then be overcome before movement can begin.
POINT OF CONTACT
METAL SURFACE
O-RING SURFACE
Figure 81: Interface Between O-Ring and Mating Surface
Running friction is the dynamic frictional force which must

be overcome to maintain movement. Running friction is
perhaps most problematic when soft metals (such as
aluminum, copper, or brass) are in use. Other factors that
affect both break-out and running friction include the
hardness of the O-ring, the gland’s surface finish, the amount
of O-ring squeeze, the fluid temperature and pressure, and
the amount and type of lubrication.

188 ENVIRONMENT
designing the seal
EXTERNAL LUBRICATION
One other environmental element that must always be
addressed is the need for proper lubrication. As simple as it
sounds, this really cannot be stressed enough. In almost any
type of O-ring application, use of a proper lubricant — one
that is chemically compatible with the seal, all system fluids,
and all mating surfaces — is instrumental.This is true during
both installation of the O-ring and its subsequent operation
as a seal.
During installation, presence of a lubricant (such as oil or
grease) simply helps ease the O-ring into place. You save
both time and frustation. The chances of inadvertantly
damaging the seal are also minimized. If you don’t have to
wrestle the O-ring into place, you’re less likely to accidentally
nick or cut the seal’s surface. Lubrication helps seat static
seals, and automated assembly would be impossible
without the aid of some form of lubrication. But which form
is best?
There are a variety of options.You can coat the outside of the
O-ring with baked-on PTFE; this makes the seal super-slick.
Or you can apply graphite, or even some molybdenum
disulfide (MoS2). But while such external treatments
definitely help during installation, they don’t last much
beyond that point.“Moly” coatings rub off, and the baked-on
PTFE soon flakes away.
Liquid lubricants are still another possibility. For example,
International Products Corporation markets P-80, an
emulsion formulated to provide temporary lubrication.
Applied as a thin film on the surface of a rubber or plastic
part, P-80 stays wet just long enough to allow the part to
be installed.
But once the seal is successfully installed and the gland
assembled, operational concerns take over. Break-out
(startup) and running (dynamic) friction become the main
concerns, especially in pneumatic equipment, plumbing
devices, hydraulic valves and cylinders, or any application
requiring manual operation. As during installation, surface
treatments can help.
The most permanent surface treatment is chlorination, in
which the O-ring elastomer (typically nitrile) is subjected to
concentrated amounts of chlorine gas. This gas chemically
attacks the seal’s surface, simultaneously making it both
harder (by a few durometer points) and more slippery.
ENVIRONMENT 189
designing the seal

Beneath the surface, the O-ring remains soft and resilient.
As a side effect of chlorination, the O-ring surface also
develops numerous minute cracks. Because they are very
small, however, these cracks will not impair the O-ring’s
sealability. These tiny cracks are actually advantageous in
that they can act as reservoirs for secondary external
lubricants, such as oils and greases.
While chlorination is particularly helpful in reducing running
friction, the additional step of treating the seal’s surface with
oil or grease also facilitates installation and helps reduce
break-out friction (otherwise known as static friction, or
stiction). In addition, lubricants help protect the seal from
oxygen and ozone damage. In vacuum applications,
lubrication helps reduce the leak rate by filling in metal
surface defects and O-ring micropores.
COMMON EXTERNAL LUBRICANTS

1. Hydrocarbon-based materials, such as petrolatum. As a
clear to yellowish semisolid, petrolatum is better known as
petroleum jelly (Vaseline®), but it is also available in liquid
form. Petrolatum is typically suitable for use with nitrile (in
hydraulic oils and fuels), chloroprene (in hydraulic oils and
Freon®), polyurethane (in oils and fuels), silicone (general
usage), fluorosilicone (in oils and fuels), and fluorocarbon (in
hydraulic applications).
2. Silicone-based greases, such as Dow Corning DC-55, a
general-purpose grease. Dow Corning offers a wide variety of
silicone-based lubricants for use in vacuum and pneumatic
applications, including DC-976, which is specially formulated
for high vacuum applications.
3. Barium-based greases, which are intended for high
temperature applications and/or applications requiring
increased chemical compatibility. Barium greases are typically
suitable for use with nitrile (in extreme conditions) and
polyurethane (in heavy duty applications).
4. Other formulations, such as Celvacene® grease from
Inland Vacuum Industries. Celvacene contains no silicone and
is available in light, medium, and heavy viscosities. Specifically
engineered for use in high vacuum pump applications,
Celvacene is typically suitable for use with nitrile, chloroprene,
and butyl.

190 ENVIRONMENT
designing the seal
INTERNAL LUBRICATION
Friction can also be reduced through use of internal
lubricants. Internally-lubricated compounds have a friction-
reducing agent homogeneously dispersed directly into their
chemical structure. This dispersion of the lubricant is made
at the time the elastomeric compound is initially mixed.
Though the added lubricant does alter the compound, the
elastomer’s basic properties remain largely unchanged. An
internally-lubricated nitrile is still nitrile; it is simply a special
formulation of nitrile designed to minimize friction.
It may help you to think of internal lubrication as the end
result of a planned incompatibility. By design, the added
friction-reducing agent will not be chemically compatible
with the base elastomer. This means that the agent will
separate itself out and “bloom” up onto the O-ring’s surface,
as illustrated in Figure 82. This continual blooming of the
agent keeps the seal’s exterior coated with lubricant, making
the O-ring slippery and less inclined to stick during startup.
IN BLOOM
Figure 82: “Blooming” of the Internal Lubricant
It’s also worth noting that lubrication can be either organic

or inorganic. Widely used organic lubricants include amides
(in both flake and pellet form), waxes, esters, powdered PTFE,
and mineral oils. Inorganic agents include graphite
(powdered and flake) and MoS2. Whether organic or
inorganic, the lubricant in use must be compatible with
system fluids to avoid leaching (removal) of the agent, which
can lead to dangerous degrees of seal shrinkage. The
lubricant must also be compatible with all adjacent surfaces
to avoid structural damage, such as graphite pitting of
stainless steel.
Table 40 shows the results of abrasion and friction tests
conducted on hydrogenated nitrile (HNBR) containing a
number of widely used organic and inorganic lubricants. As
shown, internal lubrication using organic oleamides offers
ENVIRONMENT 191
designing the seal

Table 40: Abrasion & Friction Testing Results for Lubricated HNBR
an outstanding blend of abrasion and friction properties.

R.L. Hudson & Company is pleased to offer a series of
internally-lubricated compounds utilizing oleamides (as
well as compounds featuring MoS2, graphite, waxes, and
powdered PTFE). These compounds are available in a wide
variety of products, including O-rings, U-cups, piston seals,
and valve seats.
Once all the major environmental factors have been taken
into consideration, due attention must still be paid to the
actual physical space in which the O-ring will reside. With
that in mind, let’s take a closer look at the importance of
proper gland construction next.

192 CONSTRUCTION
designing the seal
Construction.
A
ny seal design project must give due attention to
the space in which the O-ring will reside, and
here’s where an important distinction should be
made. Though sometimes used interchangeably when
speaking of seal design, the terms “groove” and “gland”
are not synonymous (see Figure 83). “Groove” refers
specifically to the machined recess within a gland into
which an O-ring is fitted.“Gland” is a more general term
for the machined cavity which includes both the groove
“Any seal
and the mating surface to be sealed.That said, choices as
design project to the metal, surface finish, and shape of the gland and
must give due its groove must be made. It is also important to maintain
cleanliness within the gland and not to damage the O-
attention to the ring during installation or assembly.
space in which METAL
the O-ring will The metal(s) in use must be hard enough to hold up under
service conditions, especially in dynamic seals. Bronze,
reside.”
aluminum, brass, and other soft metals are not well suited
for glandular use. Steel and cast iron are much better
choices. Hard chrome plate, burnished,
“GROOVE” VS.“GLAND” or honed surfaces are best. Though
circumferential (crosswise) scratches on
GLAND a cylinder or bore may not be
problematic, surfaces must not have
longitudinal (lengthwise) scratches.
SURFACE FINISH
More than a singular concept, surface
GROOVE finish is really a function of four distinct
factors. The most important factor is
Figure 83: A “groove” is a machined recess roughness, or the closely-spaced surface
within the “gland” cavity. irregularities that result from
manufacturing and/or cutting (as by
tools or abrasive materials, see Figure 84). These
irregularities are typically measured in microinches
(millionths of an inch) or micrometers (millionths of a
meter). To make a topographic analogy, roughness is akin to

CONSTRUCTION 193
designing the seal

a plowed field where the churned dirt forms countless small
pockets in the topsoil.
The second factor is lay, or the direction of the primary
roughness pattern (again, see Figure 84). In other words, the
way in which the surface irregularities are oriented. In terms
of our analogy, lay would denote the particular pattern left
in the dirt after it has been churned.
The third factor is waviness, or surface irregularities with
considerably longer wavelengths than those referenced as
roughness (see Figure 85). Waviness irregularities can be
caused by, among other things, machinery vibrations or
material warping. If roughness is analogous to a plowed
field, waviness can be thought of as a slowly rolling hill.
Flaws are the fourth factor that should be considered. Flaws
are surface imperfections that occur only infrequently, i.e.
not in a pattern (see Figure 86). Flaws may be caused by
inconsistencies within the metal itself, or through impact or
abrasion after processing, as with scratches, cracks, etc.
Depending on the severity, a single flaw may be enough to
compromise the functionality of the surface. A flaw is like an
isolated sinkhole or fissure in an otherwise unmarred plain.
THE FINISH LINE
Figure 84: Roughness & Lay Figure 85: Waviness
Figure 86: Flaws Figure 87: All Four Factors
The superimposition of these four factors onto one another

determines the characteristics of a given surface (see Figure
87). Roughness, lay, waviness, and flaws must all be
measured to get a complete picture of the surface. The
question then becomes: how best to reflect these
measurements?

194 CONSTRUCTION
designing the seal
For many years, surface finish has been noted in terms of
RMS, or Root Mean Square. As a mathematical concept, RMS
is the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual
surface irregularity readings taken over a given sampling
distance. More simply, RMS reflects the average depth of the
irregularities a seal may encounter across a gland surface.
That is, the higher the RMS number, the greater the depth of
these irregularities and the greater the likelihood that they
will impede or damage the seal.
For example, break-out friction (also known as static friction
or stiction) results when seal material flows into these tiny
metallic irregularities during a period of no relative motion.
The more time that the seal and the gland are in contact, the
greater the interface between them, and the greater the
break-out friction. A time-lapse look at the seal’s progressive
flow into the irregularities can be seen in Figure 88. A
combination of rubber-to-metal adhesion and the shearing
force generated by the irregularities must be overcome
before movement can begin. Smaller surface irregularities
(as denoted by a lower
GOING WITH THE FLOW RMS number) will allow
for less interface with
the seal material and
thus decrease break-
out friction, running
friction, and wear.
A word of caution is in
order here, however:
RMS measurements are
good as far as they go,
but be aware that they
deal solely in depth,
INSTANTLY 1 HOUR 1 WEEK ignoring both shape
Figure 88: Progressive Flow of Seal into Surface Irregularities and direction. It is
entirely possible to
have a number of different types of surface irregularities
that would all result in the same RMS measurement but
would affect seal material in vastly different ways. Some
examples of this can be seen in Figure 89.
With this in mind, the optimal surface finish still depends on
the application. Because they undergo no motion, most
static seal surfaces need not be finished better than 32
microinches RMS. Some projects (e.g. low-pressure
applications) may allow for surfaces as rough as 64 or even
CONSTRUCTION 195
designing the seal

128 microinches RMS. Due to increased friction and wear
concerns, dynamic seals should have much smoother
surfaces. Finishes of 8 to 16 microinches RMS are common
for dynamic seals. As you might expect, smoother surfaces
take longer to machine (and are more expensive) than
rougher surfaces.
Keep in mind that there is not a fixed relationship between
RMS measurements. In other words, a surface finish of 80
microinches is definitely rougher than a finish of 40
microinches, though not necessarily twice as rough. You
should also be aware that, contrary to popular opinion, it is
possible to have too much of a good thing; gland surfaces
can be too smooth.The surface irregularities that contribute
to frictional build-up are the same irregularities that entrap
lubricating fluids. A finish of less than five microinches will
essentially eliminate these metallic
micropores, making the metal too ON THE SURFACE
smooth to hold on to lubrication.
Friction will increase and the entire
process will be for naught.
Experience has shown that traditional
RMS measurements are not completely
indicative of surface irregularities, so
many manufacturers now use
profilometers geared to generate “Ra”
(roughness average) measurements. Ra
is the sum of the absolute values of the
peaks (above a median surface
baseline) and the absolute values of the
valleys (below this baseline) divided by
the length of the sample (see Figure
90). For example, let’s say the peaks
have a total absolute value of 23 Figure 89: Differences in Surface Irregularities
microinches; the valleys have a total
absolute value of 27 microinches. The “Ra” MEASUREMENT
sum of these values (50 microinches)
divided by the sample length (we’ll say Ra
two inches) yields an Ra value of 25
microinches. Since Ra measurements
take into account both the peaks and
the valleys in a given sample, many
designers consider Ra results to be
more indicative of surface irregularities
Figure 90: Roughness Average
than simple RMS figures.

196 CONSTRUCTION
designing the seal
SHAPE
The shape of the gland may be modified to suit the project’s
requirements, but typical rectangular grooves with straight
sides help prevent O-ring extrusion and nibbling. Provided
the seal pressure will not exceed 1,500 psi, a five-degree
slope may be added to the sides of the groove to facilitate
the machining process. Radiusing (rounding off ) the internal
recesses and top corners of the groove will eliminate sharp
edges and further reduce the chances of damaging the O-
ring during installation of the seal, assembly of the gland, or
actual service (see Figure 91).
Bear in mind that the O-ring will likely undergo changes
(such as swell) during the course of its service life. For this
reason, the minimum volume of the groove should exceed
the maximum expected volume of the O-ring by at least
10%.This builds in a safety factor so the O-
GETTING IN SHAPE ring doesn’t ever overfill the groove.
BREAK CORNERS CLEANLINESS
.005-.010 RAD MAXIMUM
Because any foreign bodies within a gland
can potentially damage the O-ring or
otherwise hamper the effectiveness of the
seal, it is extremely important that you
clean each of the elements before
16 32 attempting assembly. Metal shavings,
(DYNAMIC) (STATIC)
stray fibers, wire, dirt, grit, sand, dust, or
63 RADIUS other particulate matter must be
63
32 completely removed from the groove and
all other surfaces within the gland before
the O-ring is installed. Use of a cleaning
Figure 91: Surface Finish & Shape Suggestions agent (which is, of course, chemically
compatible with all of the seal elements)
may prove helpful. Failure to thoroughly clean the seal
environment prior to O-ring installation can quickly negate
all the time and energy put into design and construction.
The O-ring itself should also be free from any and all
contaminants. The “better safe than sorry” rule applies here.
You should always avoid using seals that have fallen on a
dirty surface (such as the floor or a countertop) or been in
contact with unclean articles (such as used shop rags or
dusty storage bins). In addition, the system fluid(s) should be
filtered prior to use if you suspect any possible
contamination. Continuous careful monitoring of the seal
and all aspects of its environment will pay dividends by

CONSTRUCTION 197
designing the seal

preventing unexpected shutdowns and costly delays.
Cleanliness is perhaps most important when using a seal
material (such as silicone or Teflon®) that has inherently poor
tear resistance. An undetected piece of metal or wire can
nick or cut the O-ring surface during installation. For
materials lacking in tear resistance, relatively minor surface
damage can quickly become a major tear during service.
O-RING INSTALLATION & GLAND ASSEMBLY
Even if the edges of the groove have been radiused and the
gland thoroughly cleaned, other dangers still exist. The O-
ring may have to move across threads, slots, burrs, or other
hazards while being installed. In such cases you should place
a sleeve, piece of tape, or other buffer between the O-ring
and the abrasive surface(s). Beveled-edge chamfers built
into the gland design can also assist O-ring placement.
If installation tools are used, care must be taken to avoid
damaging the O-ring and prematurely dooming the seal. As
a rule, hard and/or sharp instruments should not be used, as
they are much more likely to nick or puncture the seal. A
common type of damage is “skiving,” or slicing of a seal’s
surface (see Figure 92). This can be done by either tools or
gland edges and may not become apparent until operation
begins. (For more on installation
damage, see page 262.) Don’t forget SEAL “SKIVING”
that lubrication is also an essential
installation “tool.” Lubrication may be
added separately or built into the seal,
either as an external treatment or an
internal lubricant. Any lubrication
must be compatible with all other seal
elements. Figure 92: Installation Damage
As a general rule, the O-ring’s I.D. should not be stretched

more than 100% during installation. If smaller seals require
more than 100% stretch, they should be allowed time to
regain their normal size before the gland is shut. Twisting or
folding the O-ring may also contribute to spiral failure and
should be kept to a minimum. Recall that final resting
(service) I.D. stretch should not exceed 5% so as not to
compromise the seal’s longevity. The gland itself should be
closed with a simple longitudinal motion, without any
unnecessary oscillation or rotation that could roll or pinch
the seal.You must also exercise due caution during post-use
O-ring extraction if the seal is to be reused.

198 STATIC SEALS
designing the seal
Static Seals.
A
fter considering the factors that generally affect
all O-ring seals, you must also think about your
specific type of application. O-ring seals fall into
two main application categories: static and dynamic.
Static seals exist where there is no relative motion
between the mating surfaces being sealed. Both static
and dynamic seals engender their own unique concerns.
Relatively-speaking, however, static seals are easier to
design because they can handle wider tolerances,
“Static seals exist
rougher surface finishes, and higher pressure limits.
where there is no There are four major types of static seals:
relative motion STATIC RADIAL SEALS
between the Static radial seals are formed when squeeze (compression) is
applied to the inside diameter (I.D.) and outside diameter
mating surfaces (O.D.) of the O-ring. Cap and plug type configurations
being sealed.” commonly utilize radial seals. An example of a static radial O-
ring seal for a male gland is shown in Figure 93. A static
radial O-ring seal for a female gland is shown in Figure 94.
RADIAL
O.D.
O.D. I.D.
I.D.
Figure 93: Static radial seal, Figure 94: Static radial seal,
male gland. female gland.

STATIC SEALS 199
designing the seal

STATIC AXIAL (FACE) SEALS
Static axial seals (also known as face seals) are formed when
squeeze is applied to the top and bottom surfaces of the O-
ring. Axial seals are most often used in face (flange) type
designs where an O-ring seats against the groove’s low-
pressure side. A static axial O-ring seal (internal pressure) is
shown in Figure 95. A static axial O-ring seal (external
pressure) is shown in Figure 96.
AXIAL
O-RING TOP
O-RING
BOTTOM
P
Figure 95: Static axial seal, internal pressure.
O-RING TOP
P P
O-RING
BOTTOM
Figure 96: Static axial seal, external pressure.
STATIC SEALS WITH “DOVETAIL” GROOVES

Dovetails are face type
designs that have been DOVETAIL
customized to form static seals
by structurally immobilizing
the O-ring within the gland.
Dovetails are more expensive
and difficult to design and
install than the other types of
static seals. A dovetail seal is
shown in Figure 97. Figure 97: Dovetail Seal

200 STATIC SEALS
designing the seal
STATIC CRUSH SEALS
Static crush seals use a male cover with a machined 45°
angle to “crush” an O-ring into the corner of a triangular
gland. Because the resulting distortion to the O-ring is
permanent, it cannot be reused later. An example of a static
crush seal is shown in Figure 98.
CRUSH
45 o
Figure 98: Static Crush Seal

232 DYNAMIC SEALS
designing the seal
Dynamic Seals.
I
n contrast to static seals, dynamic seals exist where
there is relative motion between the mating surfaces
being sealed. In most instances, the dimensional
variations inherent in dynamic seals make them more
difficult to design and more expensive to construct than
static seals. Nevertheless, dynamic O-ring seals are
indispensable to a wide variety of applications. Here’s a
closer look at the major types of dynamic seals:
“Dynamic seals RECIPROCATING SEALS
exist where there Reciprocating seals involve relative reciprocating motion
along the shaft axis between the inner and outer elements.
is relative motion In reciprocating seal applications, the O-ring slides or rocks
between the back and forth within its gland with the reciprocating
motion.
mating surfaces
Reciprocating seals are most often seen in cylinders and
being sealed.”
linear actuators. Some examples of reciprocating O-ring
seals are shown in Figures 113 and 114.
RECIPROCATING
Figures 113 and 114: Reciprocating O-Ring Seals
FLOATING PNEUMATIC PISTON SEALS

Floating pneumatic piston seals are reciprocating in nature,
but the way in which the seals are effected is unique. Normal
reciprocating designs rely on the O-ring being stretched
over a piston and then squeezed radially (on the inside
DYNAMIC SEALS 233
designing the seal

diameter, or I.D., and the outside diameter, or O.D.).
In floating O-ring designs, however, there is no radial
squeeze on the seal’s cross-section.The O-ring’s O.D. is larger
than the cylinder bore diameter. Peripheral squeeze is
applied to the O.D. as the O-ring is installed into the bore.
Incoming air pressure forces the O-ring against the groove
wall, and a seal is effected as shown in Figure 115.
Floating designs offer a number of advantages, including
greatly reduced breakout friction and longer seal life.
Floating pneumatic piston seals are suited for applications
in which the air pressure does not exceed 200 psi (or in
hydraulic designs where a small amount of leakage is
permissible). Floating O-rings are NOT suitable as rod
seals. Please note that there is a separate design table
(Table 50) and dimensional table (Table 51) for floating
pneumatic applications.
FLOATING PNEUMATIC
SEAL EFFECTED HERE

(PERIPHERAL SQUEEZE)
SEAL EFFECTED HERE
NO POSITIVE
SEAL INTERFERENCE
Figure 115: Floating Pneumatic Piston Seal
ROTARY SEALS
Rotary seals involve motion between a shaft and a housing.
Typical rotary seals include motor shafts and wheels on a
fixed axle. Installation of a rotary O-ring seal is shown in
Figure 116.
R.L. Hudson & Company recommends lip type shaft seals for
most rotary applications. There are applications, however,
where an O-ring will provide an effective rotary seal.
O-ring seals are NOT recommended for rotary applications
under the following conditions:
234 DYNAMIC SEALS
designing the seal
• Pressures exceeding 800 psi.
• Temperatures lower than -40° C (-40° F) or higher than 107°
C (225° F).
• Surface speeds exceeding 600 feet per minute (fpm).
Note: Feet per minute = .2618 X shaft diameter (inches) X
rpm
When an elastomer is stretched and heated, it will contract.
This is called the Gough-Joule effect (see page 88).This is an
important design consideration in a rotary application
because if an O-ring is installed in a stretched condition,
frictional heat will cause the O-ring to contract onto the
shaft.This may cause the O-ring to seize the rotating shaft so
that the dynamic interface becomes the O-ring O.D. and the
groove I.D. The contraction will also cause more frictional
heat, further exacerbating the situation and causing
premature failure of the O-ring.
ROTARY
O-ring in free state O-ring installed in O-ring installed in

relative to shaft & housing without housing with shaft
housing. shaft installed. installed.
Figure 116: Installation of a Rotary Seal
We designed our rotary O-ring seals so that the free O-ring

I.D. is larger than the shaft onto which it fits. The gland I.D. is
smaller than the free O-ring O.D. so that when it is placed
into the gland, the O-ring is peripherally squeezed, and the
I.D. is reduced so that a positive interference exists between
the O-ring I.D. and the shaft. Because the O-ring is not in a
stretched condition, it will not build up heat, seize the shaft,
and rotate in the groove.

DYNAMIC SEALS 235
designing the seal

Rotary seals (such as the one shown in Figure 117) do not
dissipate heat as well as reciprocating seals do, so provisions
must be made to keep heat build-up to a minimum.
• The housing I.D. should not be used as a bearing surface.
• Bearings should be provided to ensure that the shaft
runout does not exceed .002”T.I.R.
• The O-ring groove should be located away from the
bearing and close to the lubricating fluid.
• The housing length should be 8 to 10 times the O-ring
cross-section to provide for better heat transfer.
To prevent extrusion of the O-ring, we recommend the
clearance gap (extrusion gap) to be no more than .005” per
side. If pressures greater than 800 psi are encountered, it is
recommended that an 80 durometer O-ring be used.
The minimum hardness for the section of shaft that comes
into contact with the O-rings is Rockwell C30. To prevent
excessive wear, scratches, nicks, and handling damage, a
hardness of Rockwell C45 is recommended. A shaft finish of
10-20 micro-inches is recommended, and plunge grinding
with no machine lead is the preferred finishing method. The
shaft ends should be chamfered with a 15/30° chamfer to
prevent installation damage.
ROTARY
Figure 117: Rotary O-Ring Seal

236 DYNAMIC SEALS
designing the seal
OSCILLATING SEALS
Oscillating seals are commonly used in faucet valves. In
oscillating applications, the shaft or housing rotates back
and forth through a limited number of turns around the axis
of the shaft. An oscillating O-ring seal is shown in Figure
118.
Because the surface speed in oscillating seals is so slow,
reciprocating design charts are used.
OSCILLATING
Figure 118: Oscillating O-Ring Seal

COMMON CAUSES 253
diagnosing o-ring failure

Common Causes.
A
s should be clear by now, designing a seal and
selecting a material that will function well in its
environment are far from simple tasks. Even
experienced seal engineers are often met with unusual
service requirements that test both their ingenuity and
the capabilities of the seal. Whether your sealing needs
are simple or complex, the factors to be considered are
numerous enough to guarantee that not every seal will
be successful in every application.
“Whether your
When O-rings do fail, the cause can generally be traced back
sealing needs are
to a handful of usual suspects. These include use of an
incorrect O-ring size, non-compatibility between the seal simple or complex,
and its environment, installation error, and lack of proper
the factors to be
lubrication. All of these dangers were discussed in previous
sections of this design guide. considered are
A fifth common culprit is improper gland design. Since the numerous enough
correct amount of O-ring squeeze is vital to a seal’s to guarantee that
longevity, a design that allows for either not enough
compression or too much compression is problematic. A not every seal will
gland that does not provide enough room for the seal to be successful in
undergo normal expansion is equally troublesome. Since
every application.”
the various elements of any seal design each carry their own
tolerances, these potential deviations must be incorporated
into the design calculations.
An improper design can often be spotted by calculating the
tolerance stack-up (also known as tolerance build-up, see
Table 54). Let’s say, for example, that an O-ring cross-section
has a tolerance of ± 0.003”. This means that the cross-section
may actually be either 0.003” larger or 0.003” smaller than
the stated measurement, thus creating a 0.006” tolerance
range. In the same design, the groove diameter has its own
tolerance of ± 0.001” (a 0.002” range), and the bore diameter
also has a tolerance of ± 0.001” (again, a 0.002” range). The
sum total of these three tolerance ranges (in this case, 0.006”
plus 0.002” plus 0.002”, or 0.010”) is the total tolerance stack-
up for this particular seal.

254 COMMON CAUSES
Keep in mind that there is no “magic number”when it comes
to tolerance stack-up. While 0.010” might be an acceptable
stack-up tolerance for one application, this same total in a
different design may result in either too little or too much O-
ring compression, and, ultimately, seal failure. It is also
important to realize that as the overall size of a seal
decreases, the importance of even the slightest tolerances
increases. In other words, the smaller the space in question,
the less “elbow room” you have.
Table 54: Tolerance Stack-Up
Many times there is not just a single cause for seal failure.
Rather, a combination of factors often act in unison to
damage the O-ring and doom the seal. These causes should
be looked at individually, however, before any interaction
among factors can be fully understood. With that in mind,
what follows are separate discussions of the most common
causes of O-ring failure.

COMMON CAUSES 255

Abrasion.
F
ailure due to abrasion is most likely to occur in
dynamic seals. The surface of the O-ring in
dynamic contact with the mating part gradually
becomes worn and flattened. Wear lines parallel to the
direction of movement are often visible within this
flattened area. While flattening on one side of an O-
ring’s cross-section is indicative of abrasion failure,
flattening on both sides is an indication of compression
set. For more information on compression set, see page
“The surface of the
256.
O-ring in dynamic
Directly or indirectly, improperly finished metal surfaces
usually contribute to abrasion failure. Surfaces that are too contact with the
rough (generally greater than 32 microinches RMS for static mating part
seals or 16 microinches RMS for dynamic seals) directly
abrade the seal material. Surfaces that are too smooth (less gradually becomes
than 5 microinches RMS) lack the necessary pockets or worn and
cavities that act as reservoirs for lubrication. Either way, the
flattened.”
O-ring suffers. Figure 128 is an illustration of O-ring failure
due to abrasion.
Even if the surface finish is correct, failure to keep the seal
properly lubricated will lead to abrasion problems.
Lubrication concerns can often be alleviated through the
use of either internally lubricated or surface-treated O-rings.
For more information on O-ring
lubrication, see page 188. ABRASION
Also keep in mind that abrasive
contaminants in the system fluid(s)
can damage seals and should be
excluded and/or filtered out.
Polyurethane, carboxylated nitrile,
and hydrogenated nitrile all offer
Figure 128: Failure Due to Abrasion
increased abrasion resistance.

256 COMMON CAUSES
Compression Set.
F
ailure due to compression set occurs in both static
and dynamic seals. Compression set failure looks
similar to abrasion failure, in which there is a
flattening on one side of the O-ring’s cross-section. With
compression set, this permanent flattening of the cross-
section can be seen on both sides of the O-ring at the
original points of compression. The seal usually hardens
and assumes the shape of the gland. In some instances,
surface cracks may also be visible.
“This permanent
At the most basic level, use of an elastomer with inherently
flattening of the poor compression set properties or a compound that has
cross-section can not been properly cured can doom a seal. Even if materials
are initially acceptable, the aforementioned O-ring
be seen on both
hardening (and an accompanying loss of elasticity) can be
sides of the O-ring caused by temperature increases during service. These
thermal increases can be frictional (i.e. as a result of the
at the original
buildup of friction-generated heat), environmental (as a
points of result of external elements), and/or systemic (as a result of
compression.” system fluids).
A limited degree of fluid-induced volume swell may help
offset the effects of compression set. On the other hand,
some fluids may cause excessive swell, which can exacerbate
compression set. The excessive squeeze generated by
improperly designed glands or adjustable glands that are
overtightened can also be problematic. Figure 129 is an
illustration of O-ring failure due to compression set.
Materials offering improved
COMPRESSION SET compression set properties include
peroxide-cured nitrile, peroxide-cured
EPDM, hydrogenated nitrile, ethylene
acrylic (Vamac®), fluorocarbon
(Viton®), fluorosilicone, silicone, and
natural rubber.
Figure 129: Failure Due to Compression Set

COMMON CAUSES 257

Dieseling.
F
ailure due to dieseling can occur in hydraulic
systems. Dieseling occurs when air becomes
trapped in the hydraulic fluid. Problems arise
during high pressure situations when the gas becomes
compressed, with a resulting increase in temperature.
If the hydraulic fluid (or lubricating fluid) is flammable, the
increasing temperature can reach the combustion point,
setting off a series of miniature explosions. As a result of
these explosions, the seal is burned, leaving it with a black, “The seal is
charred appearance and burned surface pits. Figure 130 is
burned, leaving it
an illustration of O-ring failure due to dieseling.
with a black,
charred
appearance.”
DIESELING
Figure 130: Failure Due to Dieseling

258 COMMON CAUSES
Explosive
Decompression.
A
lso known as gas expansion rupture or O-ring
embolism, explosive decompression is a major
risk for any seal operating in a high-pressure gas
environment. Gas can get trapped inside the seal’s
micropores. If the seal faces an equilibrium shift (as with
rapid decompression), this trapped gas rapidly expands
in an effort to match external pressure.
The amount of structural damage done to the O-ring as a
“Explosive result of this internal expansion depends on the volume of
the trapped gas and the hardness of the seal.Smaller volumes
decompression is a (especially in soft compounds) may only cause surface blisters
major risk for any which can disappear as pressure equalizes. Larger volumes
(particularly in hard compounds) can cause deep cross-
seal operating in a
section ruptures or even total O-ring disintegration. Higher
high-pressure gas temperatures further aggravate this phenomenon. Figure
environment.” 131 is an example of O-ring failure due to explosive
decompression.
One way to prevent explosive decompression is to allow for
longer decompression periods. Trapped gas can exit the
elastomer more slowly, minimizing the chances for damage.
Use of seal materials in excess of 80 Shore A may also be
helpful. Harder, high shear modulus seals have the strength to
dissipate fracture energy as it propagates through the O-ring.
Smaller cross-sections offer less space in which gas can
become trapped.
Generally speaking, carbon dioxide
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION
(CO2) is more likely to cause elastomer
swell and rupture than nitrogen. For
CO2 contact, as in air guns,
polyurethane is by far the best choice.
For seals facing nitrogen and other
pressurized gases, high-ACN content
nitrile may be a solution. In some
Figure 131: Failure Due to Explosive Decompression
cases, you might consider soaking the
seal in specific oils (such as MIL-H-5606) prior to use. The oil
fills the spaces that might otherwise be filled by gas.

COMMON CAUSES 259

Extrusion
& Nibbling.
E
levated system pressure can sometimes forcibly
extend, or extrude, part of an O-ring into the
gland’s diametral clearance gap. The extruded
portion of the seal is susceptible to being chewed away
to the point of failure. Even if permanent extrusion is
avoided, small bits may still be “nibbled” away from the
low-pressure side of the seal.
This nibbling is the result of pressure fluctuations within the
system.Increasing pressure expands metal components,often “The extruded
enlarging the clearance gap.The larger the gap, the easier it is
for the O-ring to flow into it. When pressure later returns to portion of the seal
normal, the O-ring’s memory allows it to regain its original is susceptible to
shape, but it does not evacuate the retracting gap before a
being chewed
small chunk is torn away. Repeated instances of this nibbling
can lead to seal failure. Though extrusion and nibbling are away to the point
most often seen in dynamic rod or piston seals, static seals of failure.”
facing high pressure pulsations may also suffer. Figure 132 is
an example of O-ring failure due to extrusion and nibbling.
No matter what the application,excessive system pressure will
obviously increase the likelihood of seal extrusion,especially if
no back-up rings or other anti-extrusion devices are
employed. Even if they don’t increase under pressure,
clearance gaps that are inherently too large or irregularly
shaped are dangerous.O-rings that are too soft or too large for
the gland (either initially or after swelling in system fluid) are
to be avoided. Temperature
increases can also soften O-rings EXTRUSION & NIBBLING
and make them more susceptible
to extrusion. Sharp edges within
the gland will be problematic and
should be radiused to .001”to .002”.
Use of polyurethane O-rings
and/or back-up rings is suggested
to avoid both extrusion and
nibbling. Figure 132: Failure Due to Extrusion & Nibbling

260 COMMON CAUSES
Hardening
& Embrittlement.
O
ccurring in both static and dynamic seals, O-ring
hardening is chiefly caused by exposure to high
temperatures. Hardening results when
exposure extends for a period sufficient to 1) cause
additional cross-linking among the material’s
macromolecular chains, 2) evaporate plasticizers in the
compound, and 3) promote oxidation. Hardening of an
O-ring in service dramatically reduces its resilience, and,
as a result, severely limits its ability to act as an effective
“Hardening of an seal.
O-ring in service Unwanted cross-linking of the rubber can also be caused by
dramatically chemical attack. For example, sulfur-containing compounds
can cause nitrile rubber to cross-link. Amine exposure will
reduces its
lead to cross-linking and hardening in fluorocarbon
resilience, and, as a elastomers.
result, severely Progressive hardening of the seal has two phases: surface
cracking and/or pitting, followed by hardening of the entire
limits its ability to
cross-section. Compressed seals will also undergo high
act as an effective degrees of compression set as they harden. Figure 133 is an
seal.” example of O-ring failure due to hardening.
Lowering the system’s operating temperature will help
avoid or correct this problem. Use of materials that can
withstand higher temperatures and that are resistant to
chemical attack will also be beneficial.
HARDENING
Figure 133: Failure Due to Hardening

COMMON CAUSES 261

Hole Crossing
Damage.
A
problem seen in dynamic seals, hole crossing
damage is a clipping, or shearing away, of part of
the pressurized O-ring’s exterior where it crosses
a hole or pressure port in a mating surface. It can be
caused when the edges of the hole are sharp and / or
when differential pressure has unseated the O-ring from
its groove, allowing the edge of the hole to clip the O-
ring as it crosses. Regardless of the cause, the shearing of
the seal compromises the O-ring and leads to immediate
failure. “The shearing of
Ideally, the design should be such that the pressurized seal the seal
does not have to pass over a groove, port, or hole during compromises the
service. Barring that, hole crossing damage can generally be
O-ring and leads
avoided by chamfering the edges of the hole in advance.
Use of chamfering and correct radiusing will help ensure the to immediate
O-ring is correctly guided back into its normal squeeze
failure.”
mode as it finishes crossing the hole.
Tough, cut-resistant polyurethane seals should be
considered for applications where hole crossing damage
may occur. Reducing or eliminating differential pressure will
also help lessen hole crossing damage. Concave back-up
rings can help restrain the O-ring in its groove to prevent
hole crossing damage. Composite rubber-bonded-to-metal
seals also prevent the rubber
from flowing into the hole as HOLE CROSSING DAMAGE
the seal passes by. Figure 134 is
an example of O-ring failure due
to hole crossing damage.
Figure 134: Failure Due to Hole Crossing Damage

262 COMMON CAUSES
Installation Damage.
A
s should be clear, care must be taken during the
installation of each and every O-ring in order to
avoid damaging the seal and limiting its
effectiveness. All of the care taken in selecting the most
effective O-ring material or designing the most efficient
seal can be negated by careless installation practices.
Admittedly, however, some environments are more
inherently hostile to O-rings than others. Situations most
“All of the care conducive to installation damage include either static or
dynamic seals in which the squeeze is between the O-ring’s
taken in selecting inside diameter (I.D.) and outside diameter (O.D.), as well as
the most effective seals in which the O-ring must fit over tube ends or threads.
O-ring material or Installation damage can be seen in the form of surface

“skiving,” clean cuts made by metal components. Damage
designing the most
may also involve twisting or puncturing the seal. Figure 135
efficient seal can is an example of O-ring failure due to installation damage.
be negated by Though it sounds simplistic, consistently careful use of
correctly-sized and adequately-lubricated O-rings can
careless
eliminate many installation errors. Beyond that, all sharp
installation gland edges should be radiused prior to installation.Threads
practices.” should be covered with tape or other buffer elements
during installation. A 15° to 20° lead-in chamfer is also
advisable. Cleanliness of the installation area will reduce the
chances of particulate damage. Proper use of any necessary
installation tool(s) will save
INSTALLATION DAMAGE both time and money.
Figure 135: Failure Due to Installation Damage

COMMON CAUSES 263

Plasticizer
Extraction (Shrinkage).
P
lasticizer extraction can affect all seals, especially
those used in fuel systems. Plasticizer is initially
added to an O-ring compound in order to
augment its flexibility and resilience. If plasticizer is
extracted (chemically removed) by system fluids, the
seal’s flexibility and resilience both suffer. The O-ring
hardens, small cracks start to appear in the stressed area
of the cross-section, and the seal’s overall volume
decreases.
“If plasticizer is
This loss of volume (shrinkage), coupled with the
extracted
aforementioned hardening, is typically accompanied by a
loss in retained sealing force, i.e. the seal will leak. The best (chemically
available solution is to use a seal material that is still
removed) by
compatible with all elements of the system but that contains
little or no extractable plasticizer. Figure 136 is an example system fluids, the
of O-ring failure due to plasticizer extraction. seal’s flexibility
and resilience
both suffer.”
SHRINKAGE
Figure 136: Failure Due to Plasticizer Extraction

264 COMMON CAUSES
Spiral Failure.
A
s the name implies, spiral failure results when
the O-ring develops spiral surface cuts. These
cuts typically recur at regular intervals along the
seal’s exterior. At its most basic level, spiral failure results
from instability of the seal, which is unable to
adequately hold its intended position within the gland.
Generally seen in long-stroke hydraulic or pneumatic
(piston and rod) seals, spiral failure is most likely to
occur in O-rings with a large inside diameter (I.D.) to
“Spiral failure
cross-section (W) ratio.
results from This is because the O-ring doesn’t have enough strength to
instability of the resist the twisting forces that naturally develop during
dynamic movement. Part of the O-ring rolls as part of it
seal, which is
slides, and this spiraling motion causes the cross-section to
unable to be twisted and cuts to develop on the seal’s surface.
adequately hold Other factors that may also contribute to spiral failure
its intended include uneven surface finishes, lack of proper lubrication,
and installation error. Figure 137 is an example of O-ring
position within the failure due to spiraling.
gland.” Possible solutions to spiral failure include using 1) as large a
seal cross-section as possible, 2) harder compounds, 3)
smoother surface finishes, and 4) lubrication. In some cases,
it may be preferable to use an alternate seal cross-section
that will be more stable within the gland. For more
information on O-ring alternatives,
SPIRAL FAILURE see “Exploring Other Options”
beginning on page 267.
Figure 137: Failure Due to Spiraling

COMMON CAUSES 265

Weather &
Ozone Cracking.
E
xposure to ozone (O3) and other atmospheric
contaminants can cause tiny cracks to form on the
O-ring’s surface. Running perpendicular to the
direction of stress, these cracks are visible evidence of
the fact that ozone weakens the O-ring compound by
attacking unsaturated (double) bonds and breaking
apart the polymer chains. This breakage is known as
chain scission.
Cracking (also known as crazing) may be prevented (or at “Ozone weakens
least limited) by using materials with fully-saturated bonds
that are less susceptible to chemical attack. Weather- and the O-ring
ozone-resistant elastomers such as silicone, fluorocarbon compound by
(Viton®), EPDM, polyurethane, polyacrylate, fluorosilicone,
attacking
ethylene acrylic, and epichlorohydrin are all good choices. In
some instances, an elastomer whose ozone resistance is unsaturated
inherently poor can be supplemented with antiozonant
(double) bonds
additives.
and breaking
Keep in mind that stretching an O-ring more than 5%
increases its exposure to chemical attack. Storage around apart the polymer
ozone-generating equipment (such as electric motors), chains.”
especially in a stretched (installed) condition, will lead to
rapid deterioration of the elastomeric compound, often in as
little as a few days. Figure
138 is an example of O-ring WEATHER & OZONE CRACKING
failure due to weather and
ozone cracking.
Figure 138: Failure Due to Weather & Ozone Cracking

EXAMPLES 267
exploring other options

Exploring
Other Options.
T
he savvy seal designer recognizes both the
possible uses and inherent limitations of a given
product. Though O-rings are ideal for a wide
variety of applications, they are not the best solution to
every design problem. Since trying to force an O-ring to
perform beyond its capabilities can only lead to failure,
you will probably be faced from time to time with
difficult or unusual situations that require you to
consider other seal cross-sections.
“Though O-rings
What follows is information on a handful of alternate seals
that can retrofit directly into standard O-ring glands without are ideal for a
the need for either redesign or remachining. Of course, each wide variety of
cross-section has both advantages and disadvantages, so
applications, they
the specific needs of your application will always dictate
which one is best for you. Familiarity with your options, are not the best
however, should make the choice somewhat easier.
solution to every
LOBED SEALS
design problem.”
Also known as X-rings or Quad-Ring® seals, four-lobed seals
double the number of sealing surfaces found on traditional
O-rings. Used primarily in dynamic applications, lobed seals
require less squeeze than O-rings and thus generate less
friction.
Thanks to their unique design, lobed seals also provide
improved sealability and
are more resistant to FOUR-LOBED SEAL
the twisting stresses that
can lead to spiral failure.
Be aware, however, that
lobed seals are more
expensive than O-rings.
Figure 139 illustrates the
cross-section of a four-
lobed seal. Figure 139: More sealing surfaces than an O-ring.

268 EXAMPLES
SQUARE RINGS
Also known as Tetraseals® or lathe-cut rings, square rings are
circular sealing devices that utilize square rather than round
cross-sections. Available in many elastomeric compounds,
square rings are used primarily in static applications. In
larger diameters (above 2”), square rings often cost less than
O-rings. Keep in mind, however, that O-rings generally
provide a more positive seal because the circular cross-
sections allow for more concentrated unit loading. Figure
140 illustrates the cross-section of a square ring.
SQUARE RING
Figure 140: Square cross-section for static uses.
U-CUPS
U-cups (usually made of rubber or polyurethane) are used in
dynamic applications. Because they are pressure-actuated
lip type seals (rather than squeeze seals), they operate with
lower break-out and running friction.They can also maintain
smoother, steadier movement. U-cups are unidirectional,
however, so two seals will be required for bidirectional
sealing. U-cups are more expensive than O-rings. Figure 141
illustrates the cross-section of a U-cup.
U-CUP
Figure 141: Creates less friction than squeeze seals.

EXAMPLES 269

PTFE CAPPED SEALS
Made of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, better known as
Teflon®), capped seals (also called slipper seals) are used in
combination with standard O-rings. Because the PTFE cap
drastically reduces break-out friction, capped seals are often
used in applications where machinery undergoes
prolonged idle periods. As added benefits, PTFE capped
seals have outstanding chemical resistance and can operate
across a wide temperature range (-300° to +450° F). Capped
seals are available in two configurations: one which seals on
the I.D. (the “kin” configuration) and one which seals on the
O.D. (the “kex” configuration, see Figure 142).
PTFE CAPPED SEAL
Figure 142: “Kex” - sealing on the OD.
T-SEALS
Also known as T-rings, T-seals (see Figure 143) are used with
pressure-energized backup rings (typically made of nylon or PTFE)
on both sides, making them ideal for dynamic sealing. Harder
(higher shear modulus) back-ups can be used than with O-rings,
and the forcing of these back-ups into the clearance gap makes T-
seals very extrusion-resistant. The T-shaped cross-section adds
stability,so T-seals are more resistant to spiral failure than O-rings.
Chief downsides:T-seals require installation of three parts (the seal
and two backups),and they cost much more than O-rings.
T-SEAL
Figure 143: The T-shape means added stability.

270 EXAMPLES
CROWN SEALS TM
Typically made of Hytrel® or polyurethane, crown seals (see
Figure 144) are dynamic seals energized by an O-ring. The
tough outer “crown” imparts wear and anti-extrusion
properties even as the resilient inner O-ring enables the seal
to handle low temperature and low pressure applications.
The narrowness of the contact line and the shape of the
cross-section also help crown seals resist spiral failure.
Though rod configurations are available, crown seals are
mainly used in piston designs. Crown seals cost much more
than O-rings.
CROWN SEAL
Figure 144: Great wear in combination with good resilience.
FLUOROPLASTIC-ENCAPSULATED O-RINGS
Unlike the other options highlighted in this section,
fluoroplastic-encapsulated O-rings retain the same circular
cross-section as standard O-rings (see Figure 145). They
feature a fluoroplastic jacket around a core material (such as
Viton® or silicone). These expensive alternatives to
elastomeric O-rings are used as static seals in environments
featuring harsh chemicals and high temperatures.
FLUOROPLASTIC-ENCAPSULATED O-RING
Figure 145: Fluoroplastic jacket around a silicone core.

EXAMPLES 271

SPRING-ENERGIZED PTFE SEALS
Offering the highest performance among O-ring
alternatives, spring-energized seals feature a PTFE (Teflon®)
jacket uniformly energized by a spring made of stainless
steel or Elgiloy®, as shown in Figure 146. In addition to being
chemically inert (making it resistant to harsh environments),
the PTFE jacket minimizes both break-out and running
friction. The jacket’s high shear modulus resists extrusion,
and the stable cross-section resists spiraling. PTFE seals can
also function across a wide temperature range. Spring-
energized PTFE seals are the most expensive of the
alternatives outlined in this section.
SPRING-ENERGIZED PTFE SEAL
Figure 146: PTFE jacket around a spring.

ORDERING MADE EASY 273
ordering information
Ordering
Made Easy.
O
-rings are amazingly simple devices. Shouldn’t
ordering them be just as simple? We’ve made
ordering O-rings as easy as specifying two
characteristics: the size of the seal, and the seal material
(or compound). Here’s how it works:
SIZE
Standard imperial (inch) sizes are specified using the three-
digit “dash numbers” defined in Aerospace Standard (AS)
568A (see page 274). Published by the Society of “We’ve made
Automotive Engineers (SAE), AS 568A supersedes and
ordering O-rings as
cancels both AS 568 and Aerospace Recommended Practice
(ARP) 568. When ordering standard sizes, all you need to easy as specifying
specify is an AS 568A dash number (for example, AS 568A- two characteristics:
011). Or, if you prefer, simply request an OR-011 seal.The “OR”
is our designation for an O-ring. the size of the seal,
For non-standard imperial sizes, please specify both the and the seal
inside diameter (ID) and cross-section (W) in the following material (or
format: OR-ID x W. For example, OR-1.250 x .125 for a seal
compound).”
with a 1.250” ID and a .125”W.
For metric sizes, please specify using the following format:
OR-IDmm x Wmm. For example, OR-25mm x 3mm.
COMPOUND
Compound information includes both the base polymer and
the hardness. You may specify these in any of three ways:
1) Simply identify the compound using either its full name
or its ASTM D 1418 designation (for example, nitrile or NBR)
and the desired hardness (for example, 70 Shore A). NBR-70
is a 70 (Shore A) durometer nitrile. Figure 147: O-Ring Dimensions
2) Give us a compound number (if known) which notes both

polymer and hardness. For example, N470 is a standard 70
(Shore A) durometer nitrile.
3) Provide an ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 line call-out for the
Questions? Please feel free to call
compound (see page 146). us at 1-800-722-6766 for more
information.
Other than the quantity you want, that’s all we need!

274 SIZE TABLES
O-Ring Size Tables.

AS568A Nominal Reference Actual Dimensions (inches) Actual Dimensions (mm)
No. I.D. O.D. Width I.D. Tol Width Tol I.D. Tol Width Tol
-001 1/32 3/32 1/32 .029 ±.004 .040 ±.003 0.74 ±.10 1.02 ±.08
-001 1/2 1/16 1/8 1/32 .070 ±.004 .040 ±.003 1.78 ±.10 1.02 ±.08
-002 3/64 9/64 3/64 .042 ±.004 .050 ±.003 1.07 ±.10 1.27 ±.08
-003 1/16 3/16 1/16 .056 ±.004 .060 ±.003 1.42 ±.10 1.52 ±.08
-004 5/64 13/64 1/16 .070 ±.005 .070 ±.003 1.78 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-005 3/32 7/32 1/16 .101 ±.005 .070 ±.003 2.57 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-006 1/8 1/4 1/16 .114 ±.005 .070 ±.003 2.90 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-007 5/32 9/32 1/16 .145 ±.005 .070 ±.003 3.68 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-008 3/16 9/16 1/16 .176 ±.005 .070 ±.003 4.47 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-009 7/32 11/32 1/16 .208 ±.005 .070 ±.003 5.28 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-010 1/4 3/8 1/16 .239 ±.005 .070 ±.003 6.07 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-011 5/16 3/16 1/16 .301 ±.005 .070 ±.003 7.65 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-012 3/8 1/2 1/16 .364 ±.005 .070 ±.003 9.25 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-013 7/16 9/16 1/16 .426 ±.005 .070 ±.003 10.82 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-014 1/2 3/8 1/16 .489 ±.005 .070 ±.003 12.42 ±.13 1.78 ±.08
-015 9/16 11/16 1/16 .551 ±.007 .070 ±.003 14.00 ±.18 1.78 ±.08
-016 5/8 3/4 1/16 .614 ±.009 .070 ±.003 15.60 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-017 11/16 13/16 1/16 .676 ±.009 .070 ±.003 17.17 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-018 3/4 7/8 1/16 .739 ±.009 .070 ±.003 18.77 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-019 13/16 15/16 1/16 .801 ±.009 .070 ±.003 20.35 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-020 7/8 1 1/16 .864 ±.009 .070 ±.003 21.95 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-021 15/16 1 1/16 1/16 .926 ±.009 .070 ±.003 23.52 ±.23 1.78 ±.08
-022 1 1 1/8 1/16 .989 ±.010 .070 ±.003 25.12 ±.25 1.78 ±.08
-023 1 1/16 1 3/16 1/16 1.051 ±.010 .070 ±.003 26.70 ±.25 1.78 ±.08
-024 1 1/8 1 1/4 1/16 1.114 ±.010 .070 ±.003 28.30 ±.25 1.78 ±.08
-025 1 3/16 1 5/16 1/16 1.176 ±.011 .070 ±.003 29.87 ±.28 1.78 ±.08
-026 1 1/4 1 3/8 1/16 1.239 ±.011 .070 ±.003 31.47 ±.28 1.78 ±.08
-027 1 5/16 1 7/16 1/16 1.301 ±.011 .070 ±.003 33.05 ±.28 1.78 ±.08
-028 1 3/8 1 1/2 1/16 1.364 ±.013 .070 ±.003 34.65 ±.33 1.78 ±.08
-029 1 1/2 1 5/8 1/16 1.489 ±.013 .070 ±.003 37.82 ±.33 1.78 ±.08
-030 1 5/8 1 3/4 1/16 1.614 ±.013 .070 ±.003 41.00 ±.33 1.78 ±.08
-031 1 3/4 1 7/8 1/16 1.739 ±.015 .070 ±.003 44.17 ±.38 1.78 ±.08
-032 1 7/8 2 1/16 1.864 ±.015 .070 ±.003 47.35 ±.38 1.78 ±.08
-033 2 2 1/8 1/16 1.989 ±.018 .070 ±.003 50.52 ±.46 1.78 ±.08
-034 2 1/8 2 1/4 1/16 2.114 ±.018 .070 ±.003 53.70 ±.46 1.78 ±.08
-035 2 1/4 2 3/8 1/16 2.239 ±.018 .070 ±.003 56.87 ±.46 1.78 ±.08
-036 2 3/8 2 1/2 1/16 2.364 ±.018 .070 ±.003 60.05 ±.46 1.78 ±.08
-037 2 1/2 2 5/8 1/16 2.489 ±.018 .070 ±.003 63.22 ±.46 1.78 ±.08
-038 2 5/8 2 3/4 1/16 2.614 ±.020 .070 ±.003 66.40 ±.51 1.78 ±.08
-039 2 3/4 2 7/8 1/16 2.739 ±.020 .070 ±.003 69.57 ±.51 1.78 ±.08
-040 2 7/8 3 1/16 2.864 ±.020 .070 ±.003 72.75 ±.51 1.78 ±.08
-041 3 3 1/8 1/16 2.989 ±.024 .070 ±.003 75.92 ±.61 1.78 ±.08
-042 3 1/4 3 3/8 1/16 3.329 ±.024 .070 ±.003 82.27 ±.61 1.78 ±.08
-043 3 1/2 3 5/8 1/16 3.489 ±.024 .070 ±.003 88.62 ±.61 1.78 ±.08
-044 3 3/4 3 7/8 1/16 3.739 ±.027 .070 ±.003 94.97 ±.69 1.78 ±.08
-045 4 4 1/8 1/16 3.989 ±.027 .070 ±.003 101.32 ±.69 1.78 ±.08
-046 4 1/4 4 3/8 1/16 4.239 ±.030 .070 ±.003 107.67 ±.76 1.78 ±.08
-047 4 1/2 4 5/8 1/16 4.489 ±.030 .070 ±.003 114.02 ±.76 1.78 ±.08
-048 4 3/4 4 7/8 1/16 4.739 ±.030 .070 ±.003 120.37 ±.76 1.78 ±.08
-049 5 5 1/8 1/16 4.989 ±.037 .070 ±.003 126.72 ±.94 1.78 ±.08
-050 5 1/4 5 3/8 1/16 5.239 ±.037 .070 ±.003 133.07 ±.94 1.78 ±.08
Table 55: Standard O-Ring Sizes

SIZE TABLES 275
-102 1/16 1/4 3/32 .049 ±.005 .103 ±.003 1.24 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-103 3/32 9/32 3/32 .081 ±.005 .103 ±.003 2.06 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-104 1/8 5/16 3/32 .112 ±.005 .103 ±.003 2.84 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-105 5/32 11/32 3/32 .143 ±.005 .103 ±.003 3.63 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-106 3/16 3/8 3/32 .174 ±.005 .103 ±.003 4.42 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-107 7/32 13/32 3/32 .206 ±.005 .103 ±.003 5.23 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-108 1/4 7/16 3/32 .237 ±.005 .103 ±.003 6.02 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-109 5/16 1/2 3/32 .299 ±.005 .103 ±.003 7.59 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-110 3/8 9/16 3/32 .362 ±.005 .103 ±.003 9.19 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-111 7/16 5/8 3/32 .424 ±.005 .103 ±.003 10.77 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-112 1/2 11/16 3/32 .487 ±.005 .103 ±.003 12.37 ±.13 2.62 ±.08
-113 9/16 3/4 3/32 .549 ±.005 .103 ±.003 13.94 ±.18 2.62 ±.08
-114 5/8 13/16 3/32 .612 ±.009 .103 ±.003 15.54 ±.23 2.62 ±.08
-115 11/16 7/8 3/32 .674 ±.009 .103 ±.003 17.12 ±.23 2.62 ±.08
-116 3/4 15/16 3/32 .737 ±.009 .103 ±.003 18.72 ±.23 2.62 ±.08
-117 13/16 1 3/32 .799 ±.010 .103 ±.003 20.30 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-118 7/8 1 1/16 3/32 .862 ±.010 .103 ±.003 21.89 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-119 15/16 1 1/8 3/32 .924 ±.010 .103 ±.003 23.47 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-120 1 1 3/16 3/32 .987 ±.010 .103 ±.003 25.07 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-121 1 1/16 1 1/4 3/32 1.049 ±.010 .103 ±.003 26.64 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-122 1 1/8 1 5/16 3/32 1.112 ±.010 .103 ±.003 28.24 ±.25 2.62 ±.08
-123 1 3/16 1 3/8 3/32 1.174 ±.012 .103 ±.003 29.82 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-124 1 1/4 1 7/16 3/32 1.237 ±.012 .103 ±.003 31.42 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-125 1 5/16 1 1/2 3/32 1.299 ±.012 .103 ±.003 32.99 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-126 1 3/8 1 9/16 3/32 1.362 ±.012 .103 ±.003 34.59 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-127 1 7/16 1 5/8 3/32 1.424 ±.012 .103 ±.003 36.17 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-128 1 1/2 1 11/16 3/32 1.487 ±.012 .103 ±.003 37.77 ±.30 2.62 ±.08
-129 1 9/16 1 3/4 3/32 1.549 ±.015 .103 ±.003 39.34 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-130 1 5/8 1 13/16 3/32 1.612 ±.015 .103 ±.003 40.94 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-131 1 11/16 1 7/8 3/32 1.674 ±.015 .103 ±.003 42.52 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-132 1 3/4 1 15/16 3/32 1.737 ±.015 .103 ±.003 44.12 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-133 1 13/16 2 3/32 1.799 ±.015 .103 ±.003 45.69 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-134 1 7/8 2 1/16 3/32 1.862 ±.015 .103 ±.003 47.29 ±.38 2.62 ±.08
-135 1 15/16 2 1/8 3/32 1.925 ±.017 .103 ±.003 48.90 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-136 2 2 3/16 3/32 1.987 ±.017 .103 ±.003 50.47 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-137 2 1/16 2 1/4 3/32 2.050 ±.017 .103 ±.003 52.07 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-138 2 1/8 2 5/16 3/32 2.112 ±.017 .103 ±.003 53.64 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-139 2 3/16 2 3/8 3/32 2.175 ±.017 .103 ±.003 55.25 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-140 2 1/4 2 7/16 3/32 2.237 ±.017 .103 ±.003 56.82 ±.43 2.62 ±.08
-141 2 5/16 2 1/2 3/32 2.300 ±.020 .103 ±.003 58.42 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-142 2 3/8 2 9/16 3/32 2.362 ±.020 .103 ±.003 59.99 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-143 2 7/16 2 5/8 3/32 2.425 ±.020 .103 ±.003 61.60 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-144 2 1/2 2 11/16 3/32 2.487 ±.020 .103 ±.003 63.17 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-145 2 9/16 2 3/4 3/32 2.550 ±.020 .103 ±.003 64.77 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-146 2 5/8 2 13/16 3/32 2.612 ±.020 .103 ±.003 66.34 ±.51 2.62 ±.08
-147 2 11/16 2 7/8 3/32 2.675 ±.022 .103 ±.003 67.95 ±.56 2.62 ±.08
-148 2 3/4 2 15/16 3/32 2.737 ±.022 .103 ±.003 69.52 ±.56 2.62 ±.08
-149 2 15/16 3 3/32 2.800 ±.022 .103 ±.003 71.12 ±.56 2.62 ±.08
-150 2 7/8 3 1/16 3/32 2.862 ±.022 .103 ±.003 72.69 ±.56 2.62 ±.08
-151 3 3 3/16 3/32 2.987 ±.024 .103 ±.003 75.87 ±.61 2.62 ±.08
-152 3 1/4 3 7/16 3/32 3.237 ±.024 .103 ±.003 82.22 ±.61 2.62 ±.08
-153 3 1/2 3 11/16 3/32 3.487 ±.024 .103 ±.003 88.57 ±.61 2.62 ±.08
-154 3 3/4 3 15/16 3/32 3.737 ±.028 .103 ±.003 94.92 ±.71 2.62 ±.08
-155 4 4 3/16 3/32 3.987 ±.028 .103 ±.003 101.27 ±.71 2.62 ±.08
-156 4 1/4 4 7/16 3/32 4.237 ±.030 .103 ±.003 107.62 ±.76 2.62 ±.08
-157 4 1/2 4 11/16 3/32 4.487 ±.030 .103 ±.003 113.97 ±.76 2.62 ±.08
-158 4 3/4 4 15/16 3/32 4.737 ±.030 .103 ±.003 120.32 ±.76 2.62 ±.08
-159 5 5 3/16 3/32 4.987 ±.035 .103 ±.003 126.67 ±.89 2.62 ±.08
-160 5 1/4 5 7/16 3/32 5.237 ±.035 .103 ±.003 133.02 ±.89 2.62 ±.08
-161 5 1/2 5 11/16 3/32 5.487 ±.035 .103 ±.003 139.37 ±.89 2.62 ±.08

276 SIZE TABLES
-162 5 3/4 5 15/16 3/32 5.737 ±.035 .103 ±.003 145.72 ±.89 2.62 ±.08
-163 6 6 3/16 3/32 5.987 ±.035 .103 ±.003 152.07 ±.89 2.62 ±.08
-164 6 1/4 6 7/16 3/32 6.237 ±.040 .103 ±.003 158.42 ±1.02 2.62 ±.08
-165 6 1/2 6 11/16 3/32 6.487 ±.040 .103 ±.003 164.77 ±1.02 2.62 ±.08
-166 6 3/4 6 15/16 3/32 6.737 ±.040 .103 ±.003 171.12 ±1.02 2.62 ±.08
-167 7 7 3/16 3/32 6.987 ±.040 .103 ±.003 177.47 ±1.02 2.62 ±.08
-168 7 1/4 7 7/16 3/32 7.237 ±.045 .103 ±.003 183.82 ±1.14 2.62 ±.08
-169 7 1/2 7 11/16 3/32 7.487 ±.045 .103 ±.003 190.17 ±1.14 2.62 ±.08
-170 7 3/4 7 15/16 3/32 7.737 ±.045 .103 ±.003 196.52 ±1.14 2.62 ±.08
-171 8 8 3/16 3/32 7.987 ±.045 .103 ±.003 202.87 ±1.14 2.62 ±.08
-172 8 1/4 8 7/16 3/32 8.237 ±.050 .103 ±.003 209.22 ±1.27 2.62 ±.08
-173 8 1/2 8 11/16 3/32 8.487 ±.050 .103 ±.003 215.57 ±1.27 2.62 ±.08
-174 8 3/4 8 15/16 3/32 8.737 ±.050 .103 ±.003 221.92 ±1.27 2.62 ±.08
-175 9 9 3/16 3/32 8.987 ±.050 .103 ±.003 228.27 ±1.27 2.62 ±.08
-176 9 1/4 9 7/16 3/32 9.237 ±.055 .103 ±.003 234.62 ±1.40 2.62 ±.08
-177 9 1/2 9 11/16 3/32 9.487 ±.055 .103 ±.003 240.97 ±1.40 2.62 ±.08
-178 9 3/4 9 15/16 3/32 9.737 ±.055 .103 ±.003 247.32 ±1.40 2.62 ±.08
-201 3/16 7/16 1/8 .171 ±.005 .139 ±.004 4.34 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-202 1/4 1/2 1/8 .234 ±.005 .139 ±.004 5.94 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-203 5/16 9/16 1/8 .296 ±.005 .139 ±.004 7.52 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-204 3/8 5/8 1/8 .359 ±.005 .139 ±.004 9.12 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-205 7/16 11/16 1/8 .421 ±.005 .139 ±.004 10.69 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-206 1/2 3/4 1/8 .484 ±.005 .139 ±.004 12.29 ±.13 3.53 ±.10
-207 9/16 13/16 1/8 .546 ±.007 .139 ±.004 13.87 ±.18 3.53 ±.10
-208 5/8 7/8 1/8 .609 ±.009 .139 ±.004 15.47 ±.23 3.53 ±.10
-209 11/16 15/16 1/8 .671 ±.009 .139 ±.004 17.04 ±.23 3.53 ±.10
-210 3/4 1 1/8 .734 ±.010 .139 ±.004 18.64 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-211 13/16 1 1/16 1/8 .796 ±.010 .139 ±.004 20.22 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-212 7/8 1 1/8 1/8 .859 ±.010 .139 ±.004 21.82 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-213 15/16 1 1/16 1/8 .921 ±.010 .139 ±.004 23.39 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-214 1 1 1/4 1/8 .984 ±.010 .139 ±.004 24.99 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-215 1 1/16 1 5/16 1/8 1.046 ±.010 .139 ±.004 26.57 ±.25 3.53 ±.10
-216 1 1/8 1 3/8 1/8 1.109 ±.012 .139 ±.004 28.17 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-217 1 3/16 1 7/16 1/8 1.171 ±.012 .139 ±.004 29.74 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-218 1 1/4 1 1/2 1/8 1.234 ±.012 .139 ±.004 31.34 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-219 1 5/16 1 9/16 1/8 1.296 ±.012 .139 ±.004 32.92 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-220 1 3/8 1 5/8 1/8 1.359 ±.012 .139 ±.004 34.52 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-221 1 7/16 1 11/16 1/8 1.421 ±.012 .139 ±.004 36.09 ±.30 3.53 ±.10
-222 1 1/2 1 3/4 1/8 1.484 ±.015 .139 ±.004 37.69 ±.38 3.53 ±.10
-223 1 5/8 1 7/8 1/8 1.609 ±.015 .139 ±.004 40.87 ±.38 3.53 ±.10
-224 1 3/4 2 1/8 1.734 ±.015 .139 ±.004 44.04 ±.38 3.53 ±.10
-225 1 7/8 2 1/8 1/8 1.859 ±.018 .139 ±.004 47.22 ±.46 3.53 ±.10
-226 2 2 1/4 1/8 1.984 ±.018 .139 ±.004 50.39 ±.46 3.53 ±.10
-227 2 1/8 2 3/8 1/8 2.109 ±.018 .139 ±.004 53.57 ±.46 3.53 ±.10
-228 2 1/4 2 1/2 1/8 2.234 ±.020 .139 ±.004 56.74 ±.51 3.53 ±.10
-229 2 3/8 2 5/8 1/8 2.359 ±.020 .139 ±.004 59.92 ±.51 3.53 ±.10
-230 2 1/2 2 3/4 1/8 2.484 ±.020 .139 ±.004 63.09 ±.51 3.53 ±.10
-231 2 5/8 2 7/8 1/8 2.609 ±.020 .139 ±.004 66.27 ±.51 3.53 ±.10
-232 2 3/4 3 1/8 2.734 ±.024 .139 ±.004 69.44 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-233 2 7/8 3 1/8 1/8 2.859 ±.024 .139 ±.004 72.62 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-234 3 3 1/4 1/8 2.984 ±.024 .139 ±.004 75.79 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-235 3 1/8 3 3/8 1/8 3.109 ±.024 .139 ±.004 78.97 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-236 3 1/4 3 1/2 1/8 3.234 ±.024 .139 ±.004 82.14 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-237 3 3/8 3 5/8 1/8 3.359 ±.024 .139 ±.004 85.32 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-238 3 1/2 3 3/4 1/8 3.484 ±.024 .139 ±.004 88.49 ±.61 3.53 ±.10
-239 3 5/8 3 7/8 1/8 3.609 ±.028 .139 ±.004 91.67 ±.71 3.53 ±.10
-240 3 3/4 4 1/8 3.734 ±.028 .139 ±.004 94.84 ±.71 3.53 ±.10
-241 3 7/8 4 1/8 1/8 3.859 ±.028 .139 ±.004 98.02 ±.71 3.53 ±.10
-242 4 4 1/4 1/8 3.984 ±.028 .139 ±.004 101.19 ±.71 3.53 ±.10
-243 4 1/8 4 3/8 1/8 4.109 ±.028 .139 ±.004 104.37 ±.71 3.53 ±.10

SIZE TABLES 277
-244 4 1/4 4 1/2 1/8 4.234 ±.030 .139 ±.004 107.54 ±.76 3.53 ±.10
-245 4 3/8 4 5/8 1/8 4.359 ±.030 .139 ±.004 110.72 ±.76 3.53 ±.10
-246 4 1/2 4 3/4 1/8 4.484 ±.030 .139 ±.004 113.89 ±.76 3.53 ±.10
-247 4 5/8 4 7/8 1/8 4.609 ±.030 .139 ±.004 117.07 ±.76 3.53 ±.10
-248 4 3/4 5 1/8 4.734 ±.030 .139 ±.004 120.24 ±.76 3.53 ±.10
-249 4 7/8 5 1/8 1/8 4.859 ±.035 .139 ±.004 123.42 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-250 5 5 1/4 1/8 4.984 ±.035 .139 ±.004 126.59 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-251 5 1/8 5 3/8 1/8 5.109 ±.035 .139 ±.004 129.77 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-252 5 1/4 5 1/2 1/8 5.234 ±.035 .139 ±.004 132.94 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-253 5 3/8 5 5/8 1/8 5.359 ±.035 .139 ±.004 136.12 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-254 5 1/2 5 3/4 1/8 5.484 ±.035 .139 ±.004 139.29 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-255 5 5/8 5 7/8 1/8 5.609 ±.035 .139 ±.004 142.47 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-256 5 3/4 6 1/8 5.734 ±.035 .139 ±.004 145.64 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-257 5 7/8 6 1/8 1/8 5.859 ±.035 .139 ±.004 148.82 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-258 6 6 1/4 1/8 5.984 ±.035 .139 ±.004 151.99 ±.89 3.53 ±.10
-259 6 1/4 6 1/2 1/8 6.234 ±.040 .139 ±.004 158.34 ±1.02 3.53 ±.10
-260 6 1/2 6 3/4 1/8 6.484 ±.040 .139 ±.004 164.69 ±1.02 3.53 ±.10
-261 6 3/4 7 1/8 6.734 ±.040 .139 ±.004 171.04 ±1.02 3.53 ±.10
-262 7 7 1/4 1/8 6.984 ±.040 .139 ±.004 177.39 ±1.02 3.53 ±.10
-263 7 1/4 7 1/2 1/8 7.234 ±.045 .139 ±.004 183.74 ±1.14 3.53 ±.10
-264 7 1/2 7 3/4 1/8 7.484 ±.045 .139 ±.004 190.09 ±1.14 3.53 ±.10
-265 7 3/4 8 1/8 7.734 ±.045 .139 ±.004 196.44 ±1.14 3.53 ±.10
-266 8 8 1/4 1/8 7.984 ±.045 .139 ±.004 202.79 ±1.14 3.53 ±.10
-267 8 1/4 8 1/2 1/8 8.234 ±.050 .139 ±.004 209.14 ±1.27 3.53 ±.10
-268 8 1/2 8 3/4 1/8 8.484 ±.050 .139 ±.004 215.49 ±1.27 3.53 ±.10
-269 8 3/4 9 1/8 8.734 ±.050 .139 ±.004 221.84 ±1.27 3.53 ±.10
-270 9 9 1/4 1/8 8.984 ±.050 .139 ±.004 228.19 ±1.27 3.53 ±.10
-271 9 1/4 9 1/2 1/8 9.234 ±.055 .139 ±.004 234.54 ±1.40 3.53 ±.10
-272 9 1/2 9 3/4 1/8 9.484 ±.055 .139 ±.004 240.89 ±1.40 3.53 ±.10
-273 9 3/4 10 1/8 9.734 ±.055 .139 ±.004 247.24 ±1.40 3.53 ±.10
-274 10 10 1/4 1/8 9.984 ±.055 .139 ±.004 253.59 ±1.40 3.53 ±.10
-275 10 1/2 10 3/4 1/8 10.484 ±.055 .139 ±.004 266.29 ±1.40 3.53 ±.10
-276 11 11 1/4 1/8 10.984 ±.065 .139 ±.004 278.99 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-277 11 1/2 11 3/4 1/8 11.484 ±.065 .139 ±.004 291.69 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-278 12 12 1/4 1/8 11.984 ±.065 .139 ±.004 304.39 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-279 13 13 1/4 1/8 12.984 ±.065 .139 ±.004 329.79 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-280 14 14 1/4 1/8 13.984 ±.065 .139 ±.004 355.19 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-281 15 15 1/4 1/8 14.984 ±.065 .139 ±.004 380.59 ±1.65 3.53 ±.10
-282 16 16 1/4 1/8 15.955 ±.075 .139 ±.004 405.26 ±1.91 3.53 ±.10
-283 17 17 1/4 1/8 16.955 ±.080 .139 ±.004 430.66 ±2.03 3.53 ±.10
-284 18 18 1/4 1/8 17.955 ±.085 .139 ±.004 456.06 ±2.16 3.53 ±.10
-309 7/16 13/16 3/16 .412 ±.005 .210 ±.005 10.46 ±.13 5.33 ±.13
-310 1/2 7/8 3/16 .475 ±.005 .210 ±.005 12.07 ±.13 5.33 ±.13
-311 9/16 15/16 3/16 .537 ±.007 .210 ±.005 13.64 ±.18 5.33 ±.13
-312 3/8 1 3/16 .600 ±.009 .210 ±.005 15.24 ±.23 5.33 ±.13
-313 11/16 1 1/16 3/16 .662 ±.009 .210 ±.005 16.81 ±.23 5.33 ±.13
-314 3/4 1 1/8 3/16 .725 ±.010 .210 ±.005 18.42 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-315 13/16 1 3/16 3/16 .787 ±.010 .210 ±.005 19.99 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-316 7/8 1 1/4 3/16 .850 ±.010 .210 ±.005 21.59 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-317 15/16 1 5/16 3/16 .912 ±.010 .210 ±.005 23.16 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-318 1 1 3/8 3/16 .975 ±.010 .210 ±.005 24.77 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-319 1 1/16 1 7/16 3/16 1.037 ±.010 .210 ±.005 26.34 ±.25 5.33 ±.13
-320 1 1/8 1 1/2 3/16 1.100 ±.012 .210 ±.005 27.94 ±.30 5.33 ±.13
-321 1 3/16 1 9/16 3/16 1.162 ±.012 .210 ±.005 29.51 ±.30 5.33 ±.13
-322 1 1/4 1 5/8 3/16 1.225 ±.012 .210 ±.005 31.12 ±.30 5.33 ±.13
-323 1 5/16 1 11/16 3/16 1.287 ±.012 .210 ±.005 32.69 ±.30 5.33 ±.13
-324 1 3/8 1 3/4 3/16 1.350 ±.012 .210 ±.005 34.29 ±.30 5.33 ±.13
-325 1 1/2 1 7/8 3/16 1.475 ±.015 .210 ±.005 37.47 ±.38 5.33 ±.13
-326 1 5/8 2 3/16 1.600 ±.015 .210 ±.005 40.64 ±.38 5.33 ±.13
-327 1 3/4 2 1/8 3/16 1.725 ±.015 .210 ±.005 43.82 ±.38 5.33 ±.13

278 SIZE TABLES
-328 1 7/8 2 1/4 3/16 1.850 ±.015 .210 ±.005 46.99 ±.38 5.33 ±.13
-329 2 2 3/8 3/16 1.975 ±.018 .210 ±.005 50.17 ±.46 5.33 ±.13
-330 2 1/8 2 1/2 3/16 2.100 ±.018 .210 ±.005 53.34 ±.46 5.33 ±.13
-331 2 1/4 2 5/8 3/16 2.225 ±.018 .210 ±.005 56.52 ±.46 5.33 ±.13
-332 2 3/8 2 3/4 3/16 2.350 ±.018 .210 ±.005 59.69 ±.46 5.33 ±.13
-333 2 1/2 2 7/8 3/16 2.475 ±.020 .210 ±.005 62.87 ±.51 5.33 ±.13
-334 2 5/8 3 3/16 2.600 ±.020 .210 ±.005 66.04 ±.51 5.33 ±.13
-335 2 3/4 3 1/8 3/16 2.725 ±.020 .210 ±.005 69.22 ±.51 5.33 ±.13
-336 2 7/8 3 1/4 3/16 2.850 ±.020 .210 ±.005 72.39 ±.51 5.33 ±.13
-337 3 3 3/8 3/16 2.975 ±.024 .210 ±.005 75.57 ±.61 5.33 ±.13
-338 3 1/8 3 1/2 3/16 3.100 ±.024 .210 ±.005 78.74 ±.61 5.33 ±.13
-339 3 1/4 3 5/8 3/16 3.225 ±.024 .210 ±.005 81.92 ±.61 5.33 ±.13
-340 3 3/8 3 3/4 3/16 3.350 ±.024 .210 ±.005 85.09 ±.61 5.33 ±.13
-341 3 1/2 3 7/8 3/16 3.475 ±.024 .210 ±.005 88.27 ±.61 5.33 ±.13
-342 3 5/8 4 3/16 3.600 ±.028 .210 ±.005 91.44 ±.71 5.33 ±.13
-343 3 3/4 4 1/8 3/16 3.725 ±.028 .210 ±.005 94.62 ±.71 5.33 ±.13
-344 3 7/8 4 1/4 3/16 3.850 ±.028 .210 ±.005 97.79 ±.71 5.33 ±.13
-345 4 4 3/8 3/16 3.975 ±.028 .210 ±.005 100.97 ±.71 5.33 ±.13
-346 4 1/8 4 1/2 3/16 4.100 ±.028 .210 ±.005 104.14 ±.71 5.33 ±.13
-347 4 1/4 4 5/8 3/16 4.225 ±.030 .210 ±.005 107.32 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-348 4 3/8 4 3/4 3/16 4.350 ±.030 .210 ±.005 110.49 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-349 4 1/2 4 7/8 3/16 4.475 ±.030 .210 ±.005 113.67 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-350 4 5/8 5 3/16 4.600 ±.030 .210 ±.005 116.84 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-351 4 3/4 5 1/8 3/16 4.725 ±.030 .210 ±.005 120.02 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-352 4 7/8 5 1/4 3/16 4.850 ±.030 .210 ±.005 123.19 ±.76 5.33 ±.13
-353 5 5 3/8 3/16 4.975 ±.037 .210 ±.005 126.37 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-354 5 1/8 5 1/2 3/16 5.100 ±.037 .210 ±.005 129.54 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-355 5 1/4 5 5/8 3/16 5.225 ±.037 .210 ±.005 132.72 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-356 5 3/8 5 3/4 3/16 5.350 ±.037 .210 ±.005 135.89 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-357 5 1/2 5 7/8 3/16 5.475 ±.037 .210 ±.005 139.07 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-358 5 5/8 6 3/16 5.600 ±.037 .210 ±.005 142.24 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-359 5 3/4 6 1/8 3/16 5.725 ±.037 .210 ±.005 145.42 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-360 5 7/8 6 1/4 3/16 5.850 ±.037 .210 ±.005 148.59 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-361 6 6 3/8 3/16 5.975 ±.037 .210 ±.005 151.77 ±.94 5.33 ±.13
-362 6 1/4 6 5/8 3/16 6.225 ±.040 .210 ±.005 158.12 ±1.02 5.33 ±.13
-363 6 1/2 6 7/8 3/16 6.475 ±.040 .210 ±.005 164.47 ±1.02 5.33 ±.13
-364 6 3/4 7 1/8 3/16 6.725 ±.040 .210 ±.005 170.82 ±1.02 5.33 ±.13
-365 7 7 3/8 3/16 6.975 ±.040 .210 ±.005 177.17 ±1.02 5.33 ±.13
-366 7 1/4 7 5/8 3/16 7.225 ±.045 .210 ±.005 183.52 ±1.14 5.33 ±.13
-367 7 1/2 7 7/8 3/16 7.475 ±.045 .210 ±.005 189.87 ±1.14 5.33 ±.13
-368 7 3/4 8 1/8 3/16 7.725 ±.045 .210 ±.005 196.22 ±1.14 5.33 ±.13
-369 8 8 3/8 3/16 7.975 ±.045 .210 ±.005 202.57 ±1.14 5.33 ±.13
-370 8 1/4 8 5/8 3/16 8.225 ±.050 .210 ±.005 208.92 ±1.27 5.33 ±.13
-371 8 1/2 8 7/8 3/16 8.475 ±.050 .210 ±.005 215.27 ±1.27 5.33 ±.13
-372 8 3/4 9 1/8 3/16 8.725 ±.050 .210 ±.005 221.62 ±1.27 5.33 ±.13
-373 9 9 3/8 3/16 8.975 ±.050 .210 ±.005 227.97 ±1.27 5.33 ±.13
-374 9 1/4 9 5/8 3/16 9.225 ±.055 .210 ±.005 234.32 ±1.40 5.33 ±.13
-375 9 1/2 9 7/8 3/16 9.475 ±.055 .210 ±.005 240.67 ±1.40 5.33 ±.13
-376 9 3/4 10 1/8 3/16 9.725 ±.055 .210 ±.005 247.02 ±1.40 5.33 ±.13
-377 10 10 3/8 3/16 9.975 ±.055 .210 ±.005 253.37 ±1.40 5.33 ±.13
-378 10 1/2 10 7/8 3/16 10.475 ±.060 .210 ±.005 266.07 ±1.52 5.33 ±.13
-379 11 11 3/8 3/16 10.975 ±.060 .210 ±.005 278.77 ±1.52 5.33 ±.13
-380 11 1/2 11 7/8 3/16 11.475 ±.065 .210 ±.005 291.47 ±1.65 5.33 ±.13
-381 12 12 3/8 3/16 11.975 ±.065 .210 ±.005 304.17 ±1.65 5.33 ±.13
-382 13 13 3/8 3/16 12.975 ±.065 .210 ±.005 329.57 ±1.65 5.33 ±.13
-383 14 14 3/8 3/16 13.975 ±.070 .210 ±.005 354.97 ±1.78 5.33 ±.13
-384 15 15 3/8 3/16 14.975 ±.070 .210 ±.005 380.37 ±1.78 5.33 ±.13
-385 16 16 3/8 3/16 15.955 ±.075 .210 ±.005 405.26 ±1.91 5.33 ±.13
-386 17 17 3/8 3/16 16.955 ±.080 .210 ±.005 430.66 ±2.03 5.33 ±.13
-387 18 18 3/8 3/16 17.955 ±.085 .210 ±.005 456.06 ±2.16 5.33 ±.13

SIZE TABLES 279
-388 19 19 3/8 3/16 18.955 ±.090 .210 ±.005 481.41 ±2.29 5.33 ±.13
-389 20 20 3/8 3/16 19.955 ±.095 .210 ±.005 506.81 ±2.41 5.33 ±.13
-390 21 21 3/8 3/16 20.955 ±.095 .210 ±.005 532.21 ±2.41 5.33 ±.13
-391 22 22 3/8 3/16 21.955 ±.100 .210 ±.005 557.61 ±2.54 5.33 ±.13
-392 23 23 3/8 3/16 22.940 ±.105 .210 ±.005 582.68 ±2.67 5.33 ±.13
-393 24 24 3/8 3/16 23.940 ±.110 .210 ±.005 608.08 ±2.79 5.33 ±.13
-394 25 25 3/8 3/16 24.940 ±.115 .210 ±.005 633.48 ±2.92 5.33 ±.13
-395 26 26 3/8 3/16 25.940 ±.120 .210 ±.005 658.88 ±3.05 5.33 ±.13
-425 4 1/2 5 1/4 4.475 ±.033 .275 ±.006 113.67 ±.84 6.99 ±.15
-426 4 5/8 5 1/8 1/4 4.600 ±.033 .275 ±.006 116.84 ±.84 6.99 ±.15
-427 4 3/4 5 1/4 1/4 4.725 ±.033 .275 ±.006 120.02 ±.84 6.99 ±.15
-428 4 7/8 5 3/8 1/4 4.850 ±.033 .275 ±.006 123.19 ±.84 6.99 ±.15
-429 5 5 1/2 1/4 4.975 ±.037 .275 ±.006 126.37 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-430 5 1/8 5 5/8 1/4 5.100 ±.037 .275 ±.006 129.54 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-431 5 1/4 5 3/4 1/4 5.225 ±.037 .275 ±.006 132.72 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-432 5 3/8 5 7/8 1/4 5.350 ±.037 .275 ±.006 135.89 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-433 5 1/2 6 1/4 5.475 ±.037 .275 ±.006 139.07 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-434 5 5/8 6 1/8 1/4 5.600 ±.037 .275 ±.006 142.24 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-435 5 3/4 6 1/4 1/4 5.725 ±.037 .275 ±.006 145.42 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-436 5 7/8 6 3/8 1/4 5.850 ±.037 .275 ±.006 148.59 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-437 6 6 1/2 1/4 5.975 ±.037 .275 ±.006 151.77 ±.94 6.99 ±.15
-438 6 1/4 6 3/4 1/4 6.225 ±.040 .275 ±.006 158.12 ±1.02 6.99 ±.15
-439 6 1/2 7 1/4 6.475 ±.040 .275 ±.006 164.47 ±1.02 6.99 ±.15
-440 6 3/4 7 1/4 1/4 6.725 ±.040 .275 ±.006 170.82 ±1.02 6.99 ±.15
-441 7 7 1/2 1/4 6.975 ±.040 .275 ±.006 177.17 ±1.02 6.99 ±.15
-442 7 1/4 7 3/4 1/4 7.225 ±.045 .275 ±.006 183.52 ±1.14 6.99 ±.15
-443 7 1/2 8 1/4 7.475 ±.045 .275 ±.006 189.87 ±1.14 6.99 ±.15
-444 7 3/4 8 1/4 1/4 7.725 ±.045 .275 ±.006 196.22 ±1.14 6.99 ±.15
-445 8 8 1/2 1/4 7.975 ±.045 .275 ±.006 202.57 ±1.14 6.99 ±.15
-446 8 1/2 9 1/4 8.475 ±.055 .275 ±.006 215.27 ±1.40 6.99 ±.15
-447 9 9 1/2 1/4 8.975 ±.055 .275 ±.006 227.97 ±1.40 6.99 ±.15
-448 9 1/2 10 1/4 9.475 ±.055 .275 ±.006 240.67 ±1.40 6.99 ±.15
-449 10 10 1/2 1/4 9.975 ±.055 .275 ±.006 253.37 ±1.40 6.99 ±.15
-450 10 1/2 11 1/4 10.475 ±.060 .275 ±.006 266.07 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-451 11 11 1/2 1/4 10.975 ±.060 .275 ±.006 278.77 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-452 11 1/2 12 1/4 11.475 ±.060 .275 ±.006 291.47 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-453 12 12 1/2 1/4 11.975 ±.060 .275 ±.006 304.17 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-454 12 1/2 13 1/4 12.475 ±.060 .275 ±.006 316.87 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-455 13 13 1/2 1/4 12.975 ±.060 .275 ±.006 329.57 ±1.52 6.99 ±.15
-456 13 1/2 14 1/4 13.475 ±.070 .275 ±.006 342.27 ±1.78 6.99 ±.15
-457 14 14 1/2 1/4 13.975 ±.070 .275 ±.006 354.97 ±1.78 6.99 ±.15
-458 14 1/2 15 1/4 14.475 ±.070 .275 ±.006 367.67 ±1.78 6.99 ±.15
-459 15 15 1/2 1/4 14.975 ±.070 .275 ±.006 380.37 ±1.78 6.99 ±.15
-460 15 1/2 16 1/4 15.475 ±.070 .275 ±.006 393.07 ±1.78 6.99 ±.15
-461 16 16 1/2 1/4 15.955 ±.075 .275 ±.006 405.26 ±1.91 6.99 ±.15
-462 16 1/2 17 1/4 16.455 ±.075 .275 ±.006 417.96 ±1.91 6.99 ±.15
-463 17 17 1/2 1/4 16.955 ±.080 .275 ±.006 430.66 ±2.03 6.99 ±.15
-464 17 1/2 18 1/4 17.455 ±.085 .275 ±.006 443.36 ±2.16 6.99 ±.15
-465 18 18 1/2 1/4 17.955 ±.085 .275 ±.006 456.06 ±2.16 6.99 ±.15
-466 18 1/2 19 1/4 18.455 ±.085 .275 ±.006 468.76 ±2.16 6.99 ±.15
-467 19 19 1/2 1/4 18.955 ±.090 .275 ±.006 481.46 ±2.29 6.99 ±.15
-468 19 1/2 20 1/4 19.455 ±.090 .275 ±.006 494.16 ±2.29 6.99 ±.15
-469 20 20 1/2 1/4 19.955 ±.090 .275 ±.006 506.86 ±2.41 6.99 ±.15
-470 21 21 1/2 1/4 20.955 ±.090 .275 ±.006 532.26 ±2.41 6.99 ±.15
-471 22 22 1/2 1/4 21.955 ±.100 .275 ±.006 557.66 ±2.54 6.99 ±.15
-472 23 23 1/2 1/4 22.940 ±.105 .275 ±.006 582.68 ±2.67 6.99 ±.15
-473 24 24 1/2 1/4 23.940 ±.110 .275 ±.006 608.08 ±2.79 6.99 ±.15
-474 25 25 1/2 1/4 24.940 ±.115 .275 ±.006 633.48 ±2.92 6.99 ±.15
-475 26 26 1/2 1/4 25.940 ±.120 .275 ±.006 658.88 ±3.05 6.99 ±.15

280 SIZE TABLES
Note: The following sizes are intended for use with internal straight thread fluid connection
bosses and tube fittings.
AS568A Tube O.D. Actual Dimensions (inches) Actual Dimensions (mm)

No. (Reference) I.D. Tol Width Tol I.D. Tol Width Tol
-901 3/32 .185 ±.005 .056 ±.003 4.70 ±.13 1.42 ±.08
-902 1/8 .239 ±.005 .064 ±.003 6.07 ±.13 1.63 ±.08
-903 3/16 .301 ±.005 .064 ±.003 7.65 ±.13 1.63 ±.08
-904 1/4 .351 ±.005 .072 ±.003 8.92 ±.13 1.83 ±.08
-905 5/16 .414 ±.005 .072 ±.003 10.52 ±.13 1.83 ±.08
-906 3/8 .468 ±.005 .078 ±.003 11.89 ±.13 1.98 ±.08
-907 7/16 .530 ±.007 .082 ±.003 13.46 ±.18 2.08 ±.08
-908 1/2 .644 ±.009 .087 ±.003 16.36 ±.23 2.21 ±.08
-909 9/16 .706 ±.009 .097 ±.003 17.93 ±.23 2.46 ±.08
-910 5/8 .755 ±.009 .097 ±.003 19.18 ±.23 2.46 ±.08
-911 11/16 .863 ±.009 .116 ±.004 21.92 ±.23 2.95 ±.10
-912 3/4 .924 ±.009 .116 ±.004 23.47 ±.23 2.95 ±.10
-913 13/16 .986 ±.010 .116 ±.004 25.04 ±.26 2.95 ±.10
-914 7/8 1.047 ±.010 .116 ±.004 26.59 ±.26 2.95 ±.10
-916 1 1.171 ±.010 .116 ±.004 29.74 ±.26 2.95 ±.10
-918 1 1/8 1.355 ±.012 .116 ±.004 34.42 ±.30 2.95 ±.10
-920 1 1/4 1.475 ±.014 .118 ±.004 37.47 ±.36 3.00 ±.10
-924 1 1/2 1.720 ±.014 .118 ±.004 43.69 ±.36 3.00 ±.10
-928 1 3/4 2.090 ±.018 .118 ±.004 53.09 ±.46 3.00 ±.10
-932 2 2.337 ±.018 .118 ±.004 59.36 ±.46 3.00 ±.10

GLOSSARY 283
glossary & abbreviations

Glossary.
A
ABRASION - progressive wearing away of a surface in
service by mechanical action such as scraping, rubbing, or
erosion.
ABRASION RESISTANCE - resistance of a rubber
compound to wearing away when in dynamic contact with
an abrasive surface. “This glossary
ABSORPTION - physical mechanism by which one contains a wide
substance attracts and takes up another substance (liquid,
variety of terms
gas, or vapor) into its interior.
ACCELERATED LIFE TEST - any set of test conditions frequently used
designed to reproduce in a short time the deterioration within the sealing
obtained under normal service conditions.
industry.
ACCELERATED SERVICE TEST - bench or service test
in which a particular service condition, such as speed, Familiarity with
temperature, or continuity of operation, is exaggerated so as these terms will be
to obtain a more rapid result.
beneficial as you
ACCELERATOR - chemical which speeds the
vulcanization of an elastomer, so that it takes place in a design O-ring
shorter time or at a lower temperature. Picking up where an seals.”
activator leaves off, an accelerator is often used in
conjunction with a catalyst, hardener, or curing agent.
ACID RESISTANT - able to withstand the degrading
effects of acids.
ACTIVATOR - chemical which initiates the vulcanization
of an elastomer.
ACTUAL SIZE - exact size of an O-ring or seal in decimal
dimensions (inches or millimeters), including tolerances.
ADDITIVE - material added to an elastomeric compound
to alter its properties, e.g. a reinforcing agent to improve
strength or a plasticizer to aid flexibility and processibility.
ADHERE - (a) to cling or stick together; or (b) to cause two
surfaces to stick together.
284 GLOSSARY
ADHESION - tendency of rubber or other material to
stick to a contact surface; may result from chemical or
physical interlocking.
ADHESIVE - substance used to hold materials together.
ADSORPTION - physical mechanism by which one
substance attracts another substance (either solid, liquid,
gas, or vapor) to its surface.
AERATION - air (or gas) bubbles built up within a liquid.
AFTER CURE - uncontrolled continuation of
vulcanization after the desired cure has been effected and
the heat source removed; not the same as post cure.
AGING - change in rubber characteristics over time
brought about by environmental factors such as heat and
light.
AIR CHECKS / TRAPS - surface marks or depressions
on a molded rubber product resulting from air getting
trapped between the material being cured and the mold
surface.
AIR CURING - vulcanization of rubber in air as opposed
to steam or press vulcanization.
ALCOHOLS - organic compounds containing the
hydroxyl (-OH) group; used as starting points in the
production of synthetic resins, synthetic rubbers, and
plasticizers.
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS - organic compounds
recognizable by their straight chains of carbon atoms. Three
subgroups comprise aliphatic hydrocarbons: paraffins
(alkanes), olefins (alkenes), and acetylenes (alkynes).
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - temperature of the
environment surrounding a component; not necessarily the
same as atmospheric temperature.
AMINE - chemical used as a curing agent for
fluoroelastomers; also a film-forming inhibitor used to
prevent corrosion in oil-field tubular goods.
AMORPHOUS - non-crystalline in structure; may be used
in reference to polymers whose molecular chains are
irregular and that therefore do not fit closely together.
ANILINE POINT - lowest temperature at which equal
volumes of aniline and a petroleum fluid will completely
dissolve in one another. The aniline point of oil is a measure
of the aromatic content or the amount of unsaturated
hydrocarbons present. The lower the aniline point, the
GLOSSARY 285

higher the level of unsaturants, and the higher the potential
for swelling certain rubber compounds.
ANTI-DEGRADANT - chemical added to an
elastomeric compound to shield against the degrading
effects of environmental elements like oxygen or ozone.
ANTI-EXTRUSION RING (DEVICE) - relatively hard,
high modulus ring (or similar device) placed in the gland
between the O-ring and the groove side walls, to prevent
extrusion of the seal into the clearance gap; also known as a
back-up ring.
ANTIOXIDANT - chemical added to a rubber compound
to resist oxidation.
ANTIOZONANT - chemical added to a rubber
compound to resist ozone (O3) degradation.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS - organic compounds
recognizable by their rings of carbon atoms. Benzene, for
example, is a six carbon ring with three double bonds. Other
aromatic hydrocarbons include toluene and xylene (see
Figure 148).
AS 568A - Aerospace Standard AROMATIC HYDROCARBON
Uniform Dash Numbering System;
specifies O-ring sizes based on their
inside diameter (I.D.) and cross-section
(W); supersedes and cancels AS 568 and
ARP 568.
ATMOSPHERIC CRACKING -
cracking and degradation of the
physical properties of a rubber product
exposed to atmospheric conditions; also
known as weathering.
ATOM - smallest unit of an element
that (a) still retains all the properties of
that element; and (b) is capable of Figure 148: Benzene Ring
entering into a chemical reaction.
ATOMIC NUMBER - the number of protons within the
nucleus of an atom. For example, carbon has six protons and
its atomic number is 6. Elements are listed in order of their
increasing atomic numbers in the Periodic Table.
ATOMIC WEIGHT - sum of the masses of the protons
and neutrons within the nucleus of a given atom. Because
their weight is negligible, electrons are not included in this
total; also known as atomic mass.

286 GLOSSARY
AXIAL SEAL - an O-ring that seals on a plane
perpendicular to its axis instead of on its outside diameter
(O.D.) or inside diameter (I.D.); also known as a face seal.
B
BACKRIND - ragged indentation at the parting line of a
finished rubber product resulting from molding stresses.
BACK-UP RING - relatively hard, high modulus ring
placed in the gland between the O-ring and the groove side
walls, to prevent extrusion of the seal into the clearance gap;
also known as an anti-extrusion ring or device.
BANBURY MIXER - specific type of internal mixer in
which rubber compounds are blended.
BI-DIRECTIONAL SEAL - seal which provides fluid
sealing on both sides (see Figure 149).
BLEEDING - migration of plasticizers,
BI-DIRECTIONAL SEAL
waxes, or other compound ingredients to the
surface of a molded rubber product; also
known as blooming.
BLEMISH - mark or deformity on the
surface of a molded product.
BLISTER - raised area on the surface of a
molded product caused by the pressure of
internal gases.
BLOOM - creamy or dusty deposit
appearing on the surface of a molded rubber
product; caused by the migration of certain
compound ingredients to the rubber’s
surface after molding and storage.
BLOOMING - migration of plasticizers,
waxes, or other compound ingredients to the
surface of a molded rubber product; also
known as bleeding.
BOND - (a) to unite two materials; or (b) the
Figure 149: Sealing on both sides. mechanical, chemical, or adhesive force
which binds an elastomer to another object.
Mechanical bonds use interlocking design characteristics to
ensure continued physical contact. Chemical bonds are
based on internal cross-linking. Adhesive bonds rely on
cements or other external adhesives.

GLOSSARY 287

BREAK-OUT FRICTION - static frictional force which
must be overcome to initiate movement; also known as
static friction or stiction.
BRITTLENESS - tendency to crack upon deformation.
BRITTLE POINT - temperature at which an elastomer
becomes brittle.
BUNA N - copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile; also
known as NBR or nitrile rubber.
BUNA S - copolymer of butadiene and styrene; also
known as SBR or styrene butadiene rubber.
BUTT JOINT - joining two seal ends such that the
junction is perpendicular to the mold parting line.
BUTYL - copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene.
C
C (° C) - degrees Centigrade (Celsius).
CATALYST - chemical that causes or accelerates the cure
of a rubber compound, but that does not usually become a
chemical component of the end product.
CAVITY - hollow space within the mold in which uncured
rubber is shaped and vulcanized; also known as mold cavity.
CHAIN EXTENDER - chemical combined with a
polyurethane pre-polymer; acts much like a cross-linking or
vulcanizing agent used to cure rubber.
CHAIN SCISSION - breaking of molecular bonds within
the backbone of a polymer due to chemical or thermal
attack that divides the polymer chains into smaller
segments, with a resulting loss in physical properties; also
known simply as scission.
CHAMFER - beveled edge in a component to facilitate
assembly of a seal onto a rod or shaft, or into a cylinder or
housing; also known as a lead-in chamfer.
CHECKING - cracking or crazing of an elastomer’s surface
due to the action of sunlight; also known as sun checking.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS - organic
compounds having chlorine and hydrogen atoms in their
chemical structure. Examples include trichloroethylene,
methylene chloride, and methyl chloroform.
CHLORINATION - surface treatment using chlorine gas

288 GLOSSARY
that reduces break-out and running friction in molded
rubber seals.
CLEARANCE - the gap between two mating surfaces.
CLEAVAGE - breaking of any chemical bond; most
commonly refers to the breaking of crosslink bonds
between polymer chains or sidegroups that are pendent to
the polymer backbone.
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION - may
be linear or volumetric: (a) the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion is the change in length per unit of length for a
one degree rise in temperature; and (b) the coefficient of
volumetric thermal expansion is the change in volume
divided by the product of the original volume and the
change in temperature. The coefficient of volumetric
thermal expansion is three times the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion for a solid material.
COLD FLEXIBILITY - ability of an elastomeric product
to resist cracking or breaking when flexed or bent at low
temperatures; also known as low temperature flexibility.
COLD FLOW - increasing deformation of a rubber
material under a constant compressive load; also known as
creep.
COLD RESISTANT - able to function in low temperature
applications.
COMMERCIALLY SMOOTH - surface smoothness
that is acceptable for use.
COMPOSITE SEAL - seal composed of two (or more)
separate materials, such as rubber and metal, generally
bonded together.
COMPOUND - (a) molecules made up of differing atoms;
and (b) a mixture of polymers and other ingredients to
produce an elastomeric material.
COMPRESSION MODULUS - ratio of compression
stress (force in psi) to resulting compression strain (noted as
a percentage of the original specimen thickness).
COMPRESSION MOLDING - thermoset molding
technique (see Figure 150) in which the uncured rubber
compound is put in a heated, open mold cavity and the
mold is closed under pressure (often in a hydraulic press).
The material flows to completely fill the cavity. Pressure is
maintained until curing is complete.

GLOSSARY 289

COMPRESSION MOLDING
Figure 150: Compression molding relies on pressure and material flow.
COMPRESSION SEAL - seal effected by compressing a

rubbery material between mating surfaces.
COMPRESSION SET - the amount, expressed as a
percentage of deflection, by which a rubber specimen does
not return to its original thickness following release of a
compressive load.
CONDUCTIVE RUBBER - rubber material that is
capable of conducting electricity, usually static electricity. To
be classified as conductive, an elastomer must have a direct
current resistivity of less than 105 ohm/cm.
COPOLYMER - polymer composed of two different
monomers, chemically combined. For example, Buna N is a
copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile.
CORROSION - progressive wearing away of a surface in
service by chemical action.
CORROSIVE - material property that promotes corrosion
of a mating sealing surface.
COVALENT BOND - bond between atoms consisting of
a pair of shared electrons.
CRACKING - sharp breaks or fissures in a rubber surface
caused by excessive strain and/or exposure to detrimental
environmental conditions, such as ozone, weather, or
ultraviolet (UV) light; also known as crazing.
CREEP - increasing deformation of a rubber material
under a constant compressive load; also known as cold flow.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE (Tc) - (a) regarding gases,
the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied,
regardless of the amount of pressure applied to it; and (b)
regarding rubber compounds, the temperature above which
a rubber can no longer strain crystallize.

290 GLOSSARY
CROSS-SECTION - (a) view of a seal, cut at right angles
to the mold parting line, exposing the seal’s internal
structure; and (b) one-half the difference between the
outside diameter (O.D.) and inside diameter (I.D.) of a seal;
also known as width (W).
CRYOGENIC - pertaining to very low temperatures. Some
molded articles are deflashed in cryogenic chambers.
CRYSTALLINE - containing crystals; may be used in
reference to polymers whose molecular chains are very
regular and that therefore fit closely together into a rigid
pattern.
CURE - heat-induced process whereby the long chains of
the rubber molecules become crosslinked by a vulcanizing
agent to form three-dimensional elastic structures. This
reaction transforms soft, weak, non-cross-linked materials
into strong elastic products; also known as vulcanization.
CURE DATE - the quarter and year indicating the
molding date of a rubber part. For example,“1Q00” denotes
a cure date in the first quarter (January, February, or March)
of 2000.
CURING TEMPERATURE - temperature at which a
rubber product is vulcanized.
CYCLE TIME - the time that elapses between a given
point in one molding cycle and the same point in the next
cycle (for example, loading of raw stock, through molding
and unloading of finished parts, then back to reloading
again). Generally speaking, the longer the cycle time, the
more the process costs and the more expensive the finished
part will be.
CYLINDER - chamber in which a piston, ram, rod, or shaft
operates.
DDAMPER - device capable of minimizing motion or

dissipating energy, such as a shock absorber. Because an
elastomer has a viscous phase, it can be thought of as a
damper, i.e. the elastomer resists motion (deformation),
making it an effective seal material.
DASH NUMBER - three-digit number preceded by a
dash as specified by SAE Aerospace Standard 568A to

GLOSSARY 291

indicate the O-ring size based on its inside diameter (I.D.)
and cross-section (W); also known as size number.
DEFLASH - process of removing excess material (flash)
from the parting line of a molded rubber product.
DEFLECTION - change in the shape of a seal as a result of
compression; also known as deformation.
DEGASSING - the intentional, controlled evaporation of
volatile substances out of a rubber material.
DEGRADATION - breakdown in chemical structure
and/or loss of physical properties after exposure to harmful
agents (such as heat, sunlight, oxygen, ozone, or weather).
DIAMETRAL CLEARANCE GAP - the difference in
diameters between two mating surfaces to be sealed.
DIENE RUBBER - rubber containing a double bond in
the main chain; such double bonds are vulnerable to attack
(such as by oxygen, ozone, and UV light).
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - difference in the amount
of force being exerted on the high-pressure side of a seal
(the side facing system pressure) relative to the low-pressure
side (the side facing away from system pressure). Differential
pressure is responsible for forcing a seal toward the low
pressure side of a gland (see Figure 151).
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
High Pressure Side Low Pressure Side

(1500 psi) (1000 psi)
Differential pressure = 500 psi
Figure 151: The two sides of a seal.
DIISOCYANATE - hard segment in the polyurethane

backbone; imparts toughness and heat resistance.
DOUBLE-ACTING SEAL - dynamic reciprocating seal
capable of sealing in both directions of movement.
292 GLOSSARY
DOUBLE BOND - covalent bond consisting of two pairs
of shared electrons. A double bond occurring between two
carbon atoms (such as is found in the butadiene segment of
nitrile rubber) is inherently more chemically reactive and is a
site for both crosslinking and chemical attack (see Figure
152).
DOUBLE BOND
Figure 152: Site for crosslinking and attack.
DRY RUNNING - absence of liquid or lubrication in a

dynamic sealing application.
DUROMETER - (a) an instrument that measures the
hardness of rubber by its resistance to surface penetration
of an indentor point; and (b) the numerical scale indicating
the hardness of rubber. See also “Shore A Durometer” and
“Shore D Durometer.”
DYNAMIC - describes an application in which the mating
surfaces to be sealed are in relative motion to each other.
DYNAMIC FRICTION - friction resulting from relative
motion between two contacting surfaces.
DYNAMIC SEAL - seal functioning in an environment in
which there is relative motion (e.g. reciprocating, rotary, or
oscillating) between the mating surfaces being sealed.
EELASTICITY - an elastomer’s inherent ability to readily

regain its original size and shape after being released from a
deforming load.
ELASTOMER - any natural or synthetic material meeting
the following requirements: (a) it must not break when
stretched 100%; and (b) after being held at 100% stretch for
five minutes then released, it must return to within 10% of its
original length within five minutes.

GLOSSARY 293

ELECTRON - small, negatively-charged particle orbiting
the nucleus of an atom; for electrically-neutral atoms, the
number of electrons equals the number of positively-
charged protons within the nucleus.
ELEMENT - term referring to a single type of atom making
up a substance.
ELONGATION - percentage increase in original length
(strain) of a specimen produced by a tensile force (stress)
applied to the specimen. “Ultimate elongation” is the
elongation at the moment the specimen breaks.
ENCAPSULATION - enclosure or jacket surrounding
another material; for example, a Teflon® encapsulation over
an O-ring core molded from a different material.
ENDOTHERMIC - absorbing heat.
EVAPORATION - direct conversion of a fluid from liquid
to vapor.
EXOTHERMIC - giving off heat, as during a chemical
reaction.
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION - phenomenon
occurring in rubber seals after exposure to high-pressure
gas. This gas permeates into the elastomer through flaw
sites present in all molded rubber products. During an
equilibrium shift (lowered pressure), the gas then expands
within the seal, causing internal ruptures in high shear
modulus (hard) materials and surface blisters in low shear
modulus (soft) materials. Explosive decompression can be
likened to “getting the bends.”
EXTEND - add fillers or other low-cost materials to an
elastomeric mixture in an effort to reduce costs and to
increase the amount of compound that is available for use,
i.e.“extend” its usage.
EXTENDER - relatively inexpensive and inert material
added to an elastomeric compound to reinforce or modify
properties (e.g. physical, mechanical, electrical, thermal),
impart certain processing properties, or reduce costs; also
known as a filler.
EXTRACTION - removal from a material, as when fuel or
other system fluids chemically remove a compound’s
plasticizer, leading to seal shrinkage.
EXTRUSION - pressure-induced distortion or extension
of part of a seal into the clearance gap between mating seal
surfaces.

294 GLOSSARY
FF ( ° F) - degrees Fahrenheit.
FACE - front surface of a seal; in an O-ring, the two surfaces
that are perpendicular to its axis.
FACE SEAL - an O-ring that seals on a plane
perpendicular to its axis instead of on its outside diameter
(O.D.) or inside diameter (I.D.); also known as an axial seal.
FATIGUE RESISTANCE - capable of withstanding
fatigue caused by repeated bending, extension, or
compression; also known as flex resistance.
FILLER - relatively inexpensive and inert material added to
an elastomer to reinforce or modify properties (e.g. physical,
mechanical, electrical, thermal), impart certain processing
properties, or reduce cost; also known as an extender.
FLASH - excess rubber remaining on the
FLASH
parting line of a molded rubber product (see
Figure 153).
FLAWS - surface imperfections that occur
infrequently (i.e. not in a pattern), as with an
isolated scratch or crack in the metal of a gland.
FLEX CRACKING - surface cracks caused by
Figure 153: Excess rubber on the OD repeated flexural cycling.
and ID.
FLEX RESISTANCE - capable of withstanding
fatigue caused by repeated bending, extension, or
compression; also known as fatigue resistance.
FLOW LINES - imperfections in a molded rubber product
caused by imperfect flow of the material during molding;
also known as flow cracks.
FLUID - a liquid or a gas.
FLUOROCARBON - carbon backbone, organic
compound having fluorine atoms in its chemical structure.
Presence of the fluorine provides increased chemical and
high temperature resistance.
FRICTION - motion resistance resulting from contact
between mating surfaces, usually accompanied by
liberation of heat energy.
FRICTION (BREAK-OUT) - static frictional force which
must be overcome to initiate movement; also known as
static friction or stiction.

GLOSSARY 295

FRICTION (RUNNING) - dynamic frictional force which
must be overcome to maintain movement.
FUEL (AROMATIC) - fuel containing aromatic (ringed)
hydrocarbons (such as benzene, toluene, and xylene).
Aromatic fuels cause high swell of rubber.
FUEL (NON-AROMATIC) - fuel containing aliphatic
(straight chain) hydrocarbons (such as octane). Non-
aromatic fuels cause less rubber swell than aromatic fuels.
G
GASKET - static seal effected when a deformable material
is sandwiched and compressed between two mating
surfaces.
GATE MARK - raised spot or small depression seen on an
injection or transfer molded product; caused when the
finished molded part is removed from the injection nozzle
(gate or sprue) through which the material is injected into
the mold cavity; also known as a sprue mark.
GLAND - machined cavity into which an O-ring or other
seal is fitted; includes the groove and the mating surface to
be sealed.
GLASS TRANSITION (Tg) - temperature at which a
viscous polymer loses all ability to flow or store energy,
becoming hard and brittle (like glass).
GOUGH-JOULE EFFECT - tendency of a stretched
rubber specimen to retract when heated.
GROOVE - machined recess within a gland into which an
O-ring or other seal is fitted.
H
HARDNESS - measure of rubber’s relative resistance to
an indentor point on a testing device. Shore A durometers
gauge soft to medium-hard rubber. Shore D durometers are
more accurate on samples harder than 90 Shore A.
HEAT AGING - loss of physical properties as a result of
exposure to heat.
HEAT BUILD-UP - temperature rise in a molded rubber
product due to hysteresis during repeated deformations.
296 GLOSSARY
HEAT RESISTANCE - rubber compound’s capacity to
undergo exposure to some specified level of elevated
temperature and retain a high level of its original properties.
HERMETIC SEAL - an airtight seal.
HETEROPOLYMER - polymer composed of differing
monomers.
HOMOGENEOUS - used to describe a rubber material
of uniform composition, with no fabric or metal
reinforcement.
HOMOPOLYMER - polymer composed of identical
monomers.
HYDROCARBONS - organic compounds with both
hydrogen and carbon in their chemistry. Many organic
compounds are hydrocarbons. Aliphatic hydrocarbons, such
as butane, have a straight-chain structure. Aromatic
hydrocarbons, such as benzene, are ringed structures.
HYDROGENATION - addition of hydrogen atoms to an
organic compound to reduce the number of carbon-to-
carbon double bonds that would otherwise be weak links in
the polymer chain. For example, the hydrogenation of nitrile
produces a great compound (HNBR) with both high
strength and superior oxidation resistance.
HYDROGEN BOND - an electrostatic attraction between
a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a small
electronegative atom (like fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen) in
an adjoining molecule. Though not nearly as strong as
covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds are present in such
numbers in hydrocarbon polymers that they are an
important source of polymer strength.
HYDROLYSIS - chemical decomposition as a result of
contact with water.
HYGROSCOPIC - capable of absorbing moisture,
especially from the air.
HYSTERESIS - percent of energy lost per cycle of
deformation, or 100% minus the resilience percentage.
Hysteresis is the result of internal friction and is evident by
the conversion of mechanical energy into heat.
II.D. - inside diameter of a seal or component.

GLOSSARY 297

IDENTIFICATION - colored stripes or dots on seals to
differentiate among rubber compounds.
IMMERSION - putting an article into a fluid so that it is
totally covered.
IMMISCIBLE - not capable of being mixed. With
elastomers, “immiscible” is generally analogous to
“insoluble” and refers to a substance (such as a seal) that
cannot be dissolved in a fluid (such as the fluid being
sealed). In order to have long seal life, it is important to
maximize immiscibility.
IMPACT - forceful contact between two bodies, at least
one of which is in motion.
INERT - inactive or non-reactive; often used to describe a
material (like Teflon®) that is impervious to many chemicals.
INHIBITOR - chemical added to an elastomeric
compound to ensure vulcanization does not proceed too
quickly.
INJECTION MOLDING - process in which preheated
rubber is injected under pressure from the heating chamber
through a series of runners and sprues and into a closed,
heated mold cavity, then vulcanized. Injection molding is
ideal for high-volume production of molded rubber parts
(see Figure 154).
INJECTION MOLDING SPRUE
EJECTOR PIN
HEATING CHAMBER
FEED CAVITY
RUNNER
SCREW GATE
NOZZLE
Figure 154: Injection molding forces rubber into a closed mold.
INORGANIC - containing chemical structures not based

on the carbon atom.
INSOLUBLE - not susceptible to being dissolved in a
fluid.

298 GLOSSARY
ION - atom with an electrical charge (either positive or
negative) due to unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
An ion with more protons than electrons will have a positive
charge, whereas an ion with more electrons than protons
will have a negative charge.
IONIC BOND - strong electrical attraction between
oppositely charged atoms (ions).
ISO - International Organization for Standardization, a non-
governmental organization whose primary aim is to develop
guidelines on what constitutes an effective quality
management system.
ISOTOPE - one of two or more distinct forms of a given
element. Isotopes have the same atomic number (due to
identical numbers of protons) but different atomic masses
(due to unlike numbers of neutrons).
K
K ( ° K) - degrees Kelvin. 0° K (also known as Absolute Zero)
is equal to -273° C.
L
LAY - direction of the primary roughness pattern on a
gland surface.
LEACHING - removal of soluble components, as when
system fluids remove a compound’s
LEAD-IN plasticizer, leading to seal shrinkage.
LEAD-IN (CHAMFER) - beveled edge
in a component to facilitate assembly of a
seal onto a rod or shaft, or into a cylinder or
housing (see Figure 155).
LEAK RATE - rate at which a fluid (liquid
or gas) passes a seal or barrier.
LIFE TEST - laboratory test used to
determine the length of a product’s life in a
defined set of service conditions.
Lead - In (Chamfer) 10o to 20o LOAD - actual pressure at a sealing face;
Figure 155: Beveled edge smooths assembly. normally the sum of the interference load
and the fluid pressure at work on the seal.

GLOSSARY 299

LOGY - term used to describe a material with poor visco-
elastic properties.
LOW TEMPERATURE FLEXIBILITY - ability of an
elastomeric product to resist cracking or breaking when
flexed or bent at low temperatures.
M
MACROMOLECULE - large chainlike molecule, formed
during a process called “polymerization,” in which small
molecules (monomers) form chemical bonds between one
another; also known as a polymer.
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE - highest temperature a
rubber compound can withstand prior to undergoing a
physical or chemical change.
MEMORY - an elastomer’s ability to regain its original size
and shape following deformation.
MICROPORES - very tiny pores on the surfaces of a
gland.The presence of micropores, even on finely-machined
metal surfaces, contributes to break-out friction. However,
these pores also help hold lubricants, so their total
elimination is not advantageous.
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE - lowest temperature a
rubber compound can withstand prior to losing rubbery
properties.
MISCIBLE - capable of being mixed. In the case of
elastomers,“miscible” is generally analogous to “soluble” and
refers to a substance (such as an elastomeric seal) that can
be dissolved in a fluid (such as the fluid being sealed). In
order to have long seal life, it is important to minimize
miscibility.
MISMATCH - asymmetrical seal cross section caused by
dimensional or mating differences in mold sections.
MODULUS - the force in psi (stress) required to produce a
certain elongation (strain), usually 100%; a good indication
of toughness and resistance to extrusion; also known as
tensile modulus or tensile stress.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - ratio of the stress (force
in psi) to the strain (percent increase in original length) as
measured on a rubber specimen; also known as Young’s
modulus (E); not the same as tensile modulus.

300 GLOSSARY
MOISTURE RESISTANCE - able to resist absorbing
moisture from the air or during water immersion.
MOLD - (a) to shape or process a material into a usable
form; and (b) metal tools, usually steel or aluminum,
machined and assembled so as to create openable cavities
for the purpose of shaping and vulcanizing rubber.
MOLD CAVITY - hollow space within the mold in which
uncured rubber is shaped and vulcanized; also known
simply as a cavity.
MOLD FINISH - surface finish of the mold; determines
the surface finish of any product taken from that mold.
MOLD LUBRICANT - coating used in the mold cavity to
prevent a molded rubber product from sticking to the cavity
during removal; also known as mold release.
MOLD MARKS - imperfections in a molded rubber
product replicating surface defects on the mold itself.
MOLD REGISTER - accuracy of alignment of mold
plates and cavities. An improperly aligned mold is said to be
off-register and will produce mismatched parts.
MOLD RELEASE - coating used in the mold cavity to
prevent a molded rubber product from sticking to the cavity
during removal; also known as mold lubricant.
MOLD SHRINKAGE - dimensional loss in a molded
rubber product that occurs during cooling after it has been
removed from the mold.
MOLD STORAGE
Figure 156: Individual mold plates are organized for easy retrieval.
MOLD STORAGE - holding area in which removable

mold plates are stored when not in use (see Figure 156).
MOLECULE - an electrically neutral aggregate of
chemically bonded atoms.
GLOSSARY 301

MOLECULAR WEIGHT - sum of the atomic masses of
the elements forming a molecule.
MONOMER - small molecule capable of reacting with
other molecules to form large chainlike molecules
(macromolecules) called polymers.
MOONEY VISCOMETER - shearing disk device used to
gauge the viscosity of a rubber sample under heat and
pressure. Named for developer Melvin Mooney, this was
once the standard tool for determining processing
characteristics but has now largely been replaced by the
rheometer.
MULTIPLE CAVITY MOLD - mold in which more than
one article can be made at a time.
N
NEUTRON - non-charged particle within the nucleus of
an atom; hydrogen is the only atom which contains no
neutrons.
NIBBLING - progressive mode of seal failure that occurs
NIBBLING
when excessive pressure forces a portion of an O-ring or
other rubber seal into a clearance gap. Expansion and
contraction of the gap (breathing) caused by pressure
cycling traps extruded portions of the seal in the gap,
resulting in bite-like portions (nibbles) being removed from
the seal (see Figure 157).
NITRILE (BUNA-N) - copolymer of butadiene and
acrylonitrile widely used in O-rings and other seals.
Figure 157: Small bits of the
NOMINAL SIZE - approximate size of an O-ring or seal in seal are torn off.
fractional dimensions (inches); typically given solely for
reference purposes; also known as nominal dimension.
NON-FILL - defect in a finished molded part caused by
the rubber failing to completely fill the mold cavity.
O
OCCLUSION - (a) mechanical process by which vapors,
gases, liquids, or solids are entrapped within the folds of a
given substance during working or solidification; and (b) the
materials entrapped by this process.

302 GLOSSARY
O.D. - outside diameter of a seal or component.
OFF-REGISTER - mismatched O-ring cross-section
caused by misalignment of mold cavities.
OIL RESISTANT - ability of vulcanized rubber to resist
swelling and deterioration due to oil exposure.
OIL SWELL - increase in volume of a rubber product as a
result of oil absorption.
OPTIMUM CURE - vulcanization state yielding the most
desirable properties.
ORGANIC - containing chemical structures based on the
carbon atom.
O-RING - solid elastomer ring seal of circular cross-section;
technically, a torus.
OSCILLATING SEAL - rotary seal with limited, reversing
travel; as in an on/off valve.
OUTGASSING - phenomenon occurring in vacuums
where the volatile materials in a rubber compound are
vaporized and released into the environment.
OVER CURE - longer than optimum vulcanization
causing some properties to be degraded. Over-cure can be
of two types. In the first type, the material continues to
harden, the modulus rises, and both tensile strength and
elongation fall. In the second type, the rubber begins to
break down. The material softens, and the modulus, tensile
strength, and elongation all decrease.
OXIDATION - reaction of oxygen with a rubber
compound, usually resulting in surface cracking and/or
changes in the physical properties of the material.
OZONE (O3) - unstable form of oxygen (usually
generated by electricity) that can cause surface cracking in
some elastomers.
OZONE RESISTANCE - ability of a rubber material to
withstand exposure to ozone without cracking or otherwise
deteriorating.
PPACKING - generic name for a compression-type dynamic

seal housed within a gland.
PERIPHERAL SQUEEZE - compression applied to the

GLOSSARY 303

O.D. of a seal when installed in a bore that is smaller than the
O.D. of the seal.
PERMANENT SET - amount of deformation in a rubber
part after a distorting load has been removed.
PERMEABILITY - measure of the ease with which a
liquid or gas can pass through a rubber material (see Figure
158).
PIT OR POCK MARK - small surface void in a molded
rubber product caused by mechanical erosion (wear) or
chemical action.
PLASTICIZER - chemical substance added to a rubber
compound to soften the elastomer, provide flexibility at low
temperatures, and improve processing; also known as a
softener.
POISSON’S RATIO - ratio of the change in width per
unit of width to the change in length per unit of length. For
most rubber materials, Poisson’s ratio is
essentially equal to 0.5. PERMEABILITY
POLARITY - imbalance in electrical charge
(dipole moment) caused by covalent bonds
occurring between two dissimilar atoms. The
difference in electrical charges of each atom
creates a slight negative charge on one atom and
a slight positive charge on the other atom. Since
hydrocarbon oils are usually non-polar, they are
repelled by polymers that have polarity, resulting
Figure 158: Just passing through.
in increased oil resistance and other properties
not found in elastomers containing only carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
POLYMER - large chainlike molecules (macromolecules)
made up of small repeating units (monomers). When two
different monomers are chemically combined, the resulting
product is called a copolymer. When three different
monomers are involved, the result is a terpolymer.
POLYMERIZE - to chemically unite two or more
monomers or polymers to form a molecule with a higher
molecular weight.
POLYOL - soft segment in the polyurethane backbone;
imparts rubber-like softness and flexibility.
POROSITY - quality or state of having pores or holes in a
material.
POST CURE - controlled continuation of vulcanization,

304 GLOSSARY
usually in an oven, to complete the curing process, drive off
residual byproducts, and provide stabilization of parts; not
the same as after cure.
POTABLE - (a) drinkable; and (b) a liquid that is safe or
suitable for drinking.
PRE-POLYMER - polyurethane polyol and diisocyanate
mixture prior to combination with a chain extender.
PROFILOMETER - an instrument used to gauge surface
roughness, i.e. to determine the “profile” of a given surface.
PROTON - positively-charged particle within the nucleus
of an atom; for electrically-neutral atoms, the number of
protons exactly equals the number of negatively-charged
electrons orbiting the nucleus. The number of protons in an
atom is also said to be that element’s atomic number, e.g.
carbon has six protons, so its atomic number is 6.
QQUAD RING - solid elastomeric ring seal with a four-

lobed cross-section.
QPL - Military Qualified Products List; listing of commercial
products shown in pretesting to meet the demands of a
specification, particularly a federal specification.
QS 9000 - Quality System developed by the automotive
industry to supplement the ISO 9000 standard.
RRADIAL SEAL - O-ring or seal having compression

applied to its outside diameter (O.D.) and inside diameter
(I.D.).
RADIUS - (a) the distance from the center of a circle to the
edge, or one-half the diameter; and (b) to round off a sharp
corner, as in the “radiusing” of a gland’s top edges to prevent
them from nicking or cutting an O-ring during installation.
RECIPROCATING SEAL - dynamic seal used to seal
pistons or rods that are in linear motion.
REINFORCING AGENT - material added to an
elastomer to improve physical properties such as tensile
strength, tensile modulus, and compression modulus.
GLOSSARY 305

RELATIVE HUMIDITY - ratio of the amount of water
vapor present in the air to the greatest amount that could be
present at a given temperature; expressed as a percentage.
RELAXATION - decrease in the force exerted against a
mating part by a rubber component that has been under a
constant load for a period of time.
REPEATABILITY - consistency of test results taken
within a single lab. For example, the similarity (or lack
thereof ) of multiple durometer readings taken on a single
sample with the same tester.
REPRODUCIBILITY - consistency of test results taken
among several different labs. For example, the similarity (or
lack thereof ) of multiple durometer readings taken on a
single sample with a series of different testers.
RESILIENT - able to rapidly regain original size and shape
following deformation.
REVERSION - condition in an elastomer caused by
thermal or chemical attack whereby chemical bonds are
broken with a resulting loss in physical properties.
RHEOMETER - cure meter which determines and plots a
cure curve illustrating the state of cure for a given time and
temperature; typically either an Oscillating Disk Rheometer
(ODR) or a Moving Die Rheometer (MDR).
RMS - Root Mean Square, or the square root of the sum of
the squares of deviation from true flat; a measure of surface
roughness (as with glands or shafts) generally noted in
microinches.
ROTARY SEAL - seal capable of sealing between a
rotating shaft and an outer surface, such as a groove or
ROUGHNESS
housing bore.
ROUGHNESS - closely-spaced irregularities on a gland’s
surface that are the result of manufacturing and/or cutting
(as by tools or abrasive materials, see Figure 159).
RUBBER - natural or synthetic elastomeric substance. Figure 159: Surface irregularities.
RUNNING FRICTION - dynamic frictional force which
must be overcome in order to maintain movement. Running
friction generally necessitates the use of some form of
lubrication.
RUNOUT (SHAFT) - phenomenon which occurs when
the shaft’s axis and the axis of rotation are different, causing
the shaft to wobble or gyrate; expressed in inches followed
by the abbreviation “TIR” (Total Indicator Reading).

306 GLOSSARY
SSATURATED BONDS - single bonds between carbon

atoms and other atoms (such as hydrogen) that are less
reactive and less prone to chemical attack than carbon-to-
carbon double or triple bonds. The carbon atoms in the
backbone of an organic polymer are each capable of
forming four individual and separate single covalent bonds.
SATURATION - (a) addition of atoms to a compound to
occupy the otherwise “open” or unbonded sites on a
polymer chain; results in a more stable, less reactive
compound. For example, a highly-saturated organic
compound has almost every carbon atom already bonded
to a hydrogen atom and therefore has a dramatically
reduced ability to interact with other compounds and an
increased resistance to chemical attack. Saturation using
hydrogen atoms is also known as hydrogenation; and (b)
state in which most of the carbon atoms in an organic
polymer’s backbone have formed four individual and
separate covalent bonds, resulting in increased chemical
resistance as there are fewer double bonds that are
susceptible to chemical attack (see Figure 160).
SCISSION - breaking of molecular
SATURATION bonds within the backbone of a
polymer due to chemical or thermal
attack that divides the polymer
chains into smaller segments, with a
resulting loss in physical properties;
also known as chain scission.
Figure 160: Saturated compounds like HNBR are more stable. SCORCHING - premature curing
of rubber during storage or
processing, usually caused by excessive heat.
SEAL - device that prevents fluid flow.
SEAL WIDTH (W) - axial dimension of a seal. In an O-
ring, this is the same as the cross-section.
SERVICE - operating conditions, such as temperature,
pressure, chemical environment, and surface speeds, under
which a seal must perform.
SERVICE TEMPERATURE - range of temperatures to
which a rubber compound will be subjected in a given
application.

GLOSSARY 307

SHAFT - rotating or reciprocating component that
operates within a cylinder or housing.
SHEAR MODULUS (G) - measure of stiffness or
resistance to deformation taken in shear rather than in
tension; technically, the ratio of a shearing stress (force in psi)
to shearing strain (amount of linear deflection divided by
the specimen thickness). In rubber materials, shear modulus
is one-third of Young’s modulus (E); not the same as tensile
modulus.
SHELF-AGING - degradation of a rubber material’s
properties that occurs in storage over time.
SHELF LIFE - length of time a molded rubber compound
can be stored without suffering significant loss of physical
properties.
SHORE A DUROMETER - instrument used to gauge
soft to medium hard rubber based on resistance to a
frustum (truncated) cone indentor point; most accurate for
materials below 90 Shore A.
SHORE D DUROMETER - instrument used to gauge
hard rubber based on resistance to a sharp, 30° angle
indentor point; most accurate for materials at or above 90
Shore A.
SHRINKAGE - (a) after vulcanization, dimensional loss in
a molded rubber product that occurs after it has been
removed from the mold and allowed to cool; and (b) in seal
service, a decrease in seal volume due to extraction of
soluble components from the rubber compound by
environmental fluids.
SILICONE RUBBER - silicon-oxygen backbone
elastomer with excellent high temperature and low
temperature properties.
SINGLE-ACTING SEAL - dynamic reciprocating seal
capable of sealing in only one direction of movement.
SIZE - actual size refers to the actual dimensions of an O-
ring or seal, including tolerances. Nominal size refers to the
approximate size in fractional dimensions.
SIZE NUMBER - three-digit number preceded by a dash
as specified by SAE Aerospace Standard 568A to indicate the
O-ring size based on its inside diameter (I.D.) and cross-
section (W); also known as dash number.
SKIVING - slicing of a seal’s surface, as by gland edges
during installation.

308 GLOSSARY
SOLUBLE - susceptible to being dissolved in a fluid.
SOLVENT - any substance, typically a liquid, capable of
dissolving other substances.
SOUR CRUDE - petroleum oil contaminated with
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
SOUR GAS - natural gas contaminated with hydrogen
sulfide (H2S).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY - ratio of the weight of a given
substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at a
specified temperature. Specific gravity is often used to
identify rubber compounds.
SPIRAL FAILURE - type of O-ring failure occurring when
one portion of the ring tends to roll while another portion
slides in the gland, causing twisting and seal failure.
SPRUE MARK - raised spot or small depression seen on
an injection or transfer molded product; caused when the
finished molded part is removed from the injection nozzle
(sprue or gate) through which the material is injected into
the mold cavity; also known as a gate mark.
SQUEEZE - compression of an O-ring’s cross-section
between mating surfaces; noted as both a decimal
measurement (in inches and/or millimeters) and as a
percentage of the original cross-section (width). Radial
compression occurs on the outside diameter
STATIC FRICTION (O.D.) and inside diameter (I.D.). Axial compression
occurs on the top and bottom surfaces.
STATIC - describes an application in which there
is no relative motion between the mating
surfaces to be sealed.
STATIC FRICTION - initial frictional force
which must be overcome to initiate movement;
also known as break-out friction or stiction (see
Figure 161).
STATIC SEAL - seal functioning in an
environment in which there is no relative motion
between the mating surfaces being sealed.
STICK-SLIP - irregular or jerky seal motion
caused by varying amounts of static and dynamic
Figure 161: Flow of the seal friction.
into surface pores.
STICTION - initial frictional force which must
be overcome to initiate movement; also known as static
friction or break-out friction (see Figure 161).

GLOSSARY 309

STOICHIOMETRY, PERCENT - level of curative (chain
extender) used on a given pre-polymer. Percentages used
have varying effects on the physical properties of the
finished elastomer.
STRAIN - amount of deflection, expressed as a percentage
of original length, due to an applied force (stress).
STRAIN CRYSTALLIZATION - partial crystallization of
an elastomer that temporarily results when a stretching
force causes the tangled macromolecular chains to untangle
and align to form crystals; the chains revert to their normal
state of entanglement when the force is removed. Most
elastomers do not strain crystallize, but natural rubber,
chloroprene (Neoprene®), and hydrogenated nitrile will.
STRESS - an applied force (in psi) resulting in material
deflection (strain).
STRESS RELAXATION - steady decline in sealing force
when an elastomer is compressed over a period of time. In
terms of the life of a seal, stress relaxation is like dying,
whereas compression set is like death.
STRETCH - measured as a percentage increase in the
inside diameter (I.D.) of an O-ring, stretch results in a
reduction and flattening of the seal’s cross-section.There are
two types of stretch: installation stretch (as the seal is being
placed in the groove) and assembled stretch (once the seal
is seated).
SUBLIMATION - direct conversion of a substance from a
solid state to a vapor state, and from a vapor back to a solid.
The substance does not become liquid during either
transition.
SUN CHECKING - cracking or crazing of an elastomer’s
surface due to the action of sunlight; also known simply as
checking.
SURFACE FINISH - average value of exterior roughness,
often expressed in microinches RMS (Root Mean Square) or
Ra (roughness average).
SWELL - volumetric increase of an elastomeric material
when in contact with a fluid.
T
TEAR RESISTANCE - resistance to the growth of a nick

310 GLOSSARY
or cut in a rubber specimen when tension is applied.
TEMPERATURE (MAXIMUM) - highest temperature
a rubber compound can withstand prior to undergoing a
physical or chemical change.
TEMPERATURE (MINIMUM) - lowest temperature a
rubber compound can withstand prior to losing rubbery
properties.
TEMPERATURE RANGE - minimum and maximum
temperature limits within which a rubber material will
effectively perform.
TEMPERATURE (SERVICE) - range of temperatures
to which a rubber compound will be subjected in a given
application.
TENSILE MODULUS - the force in psi (stress) required
to produce a certain elongation (strain), usually 100%; a
good indication of toughness and resistance to extrusion;
also known as modulus or tensile stress.
TENSILE STRENGTH - force in pounds per square inch
(psi) required to break a rubber specimen.
TENSILE STRESS - the force in psi (stress) required to
produce a certain elongation (strain), usually 100%; a good
indication of toughness and resistance to extrusion; also
known as modulus or tensile modulus.
TENSION SET - increase in the length of an elastomeric
specimen following initial stretching and release.
TERPOLYMER - polymer composed of three different
monomers chemically combined (see Figure 162).
TERPOLYMER
Figure 162: EPDM is a terpolymer.

GLOSSARY 311

TETRAPOLYMER - polymer composed of four different
monomers chemically combined.
THERMAL EXPANSION - linear or volumetric
expansion of a material due to a temperature increase.
THERMOPLASTIC - an ionically-bonded polymeric
material capable of being softened and formed when
heated and injected into a cool mold. Upon cooling in the
mold, a thermoplastic material will harden (freeze) and
regain its original properties. A thermoplastic material can
be reprocessed many times.
THERMOSET - polymeric material that forms permanent
covalent bonds in an irreversible chemical reaction known
as crosslinking, curing, or vulcanizing. Although the cured
part can later be softened by heat, it cannot be remelted or
reprocessed without extensive chemical treatment.
TIR - Total Indicator Reading; a measurement of shaft
eccentricity that results when the shaft centerline is
different from its axis of rotation.
TOLERANCE - allowable deviation (plus and minus) from
a specified dimension.
TOLERANCE BUILD-UP - sum of the tolerances of all
of the elements in a sealing system (e.g. I.D., cross-section,
gland dimension); also known as tolerance stack-up.
TOOL - alternative name for a mold.
TORQUE - turning or twisting force that produces, or
tends to produce, rotation of a shaft.
TORSIONAL STRENGTH - ability of a material to resist
twisting and its damaging effects.
TORUS - donut-shaped ring; another name for an O-ring.
TPE - thermoplastic elastomer with rubber-like properties
that is processed by injection molding, blow molding,
extrusion, etc.
TPU - thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer that is
processed by injection molding, blow molding, or extrusion.
TRANSFER CHAMBER - area within a transfer mold in
which the elastomeric compound is heated prior to being
squeezed down through a sprue, a runner, and a gate
leading into a closed mold cavity to be shaped and
vulcanized; also known as a pot.
TRANSFER MOLDING - method of molding
thermosetting materials (see Figure 163). The elastomeric
compound is placed in a transfer chamber (pot) which is
312 GLOSSARY
part of the mold, heated, then squeezed down through a
sprue, a runner, and a gate leading into a closed mold cavity
to be shaped and vulcanized. The advantages of transfer
molding are that vulcanization is faster, so the process is
more efficient, and the part is formed with little or no flash.
TRANSFER MOLDING
RAM
POT
SPRUE GATE
CAVITY
Figure 163: Transfer molding utilizes a closed mold accessed through a gate.
TRIM - removal of excess material from a molded rubber

product.
TRIM CUT - damage done to a molded rubber product by
excessive trimming.
U
ULTIMATE ELONGATION - amount, expressed as a
percentage of original length, that a specimen has stretched
at the time of breakage.
UNDER-CURE - degree of incomplete vulcanization
resulting in undeveloped physical properties and tackiness.
UNI-DIRECTIONAL SEAL - seal which provides fluid
sealing on only one side.
UNSATURATED BONDS - double or triple bonds
between carbon atoms creating sites that can undergo
numerous chemical reactions, including addition of
hydrogen atoms (hydrogenation), crosslinking, or chemical
deterioration such as oxidation.
V
VACUUM - condition in which the pressure in a chamber
GLOSSARY 313

is less than atmospheric pressure.
VALENCE - ability of an atom to form one or more energy
bonds with neighboring atoms.
VAN DER WAALS FORCES - weak electrostatic
attractions between polymer chains that are adjacent but
that have not yet been cross-linked. These intermolecular
forces are at their peak when a material is cool. Heating the
material weakens the forces and “loosens” the chains, thus
increasing pliability and making molding possible.
VAPOR - a gas, whose temperature is below its critical
temperature (tc), that normally exists as a liquid under
atmospheric conditions.
VAPOR PRESSURE - pressure exerted by a heated
liquid or solid in a closed container.
VENT - (a) to give off excess air or pressure so as to avoid
build-up and possible rupture; and (b) a shallow hole or
channel designed into a mold to facilitate the escape of air
as it is displaced by incoming materials to be molded.
VESTIGE - remnants of a runner system visible on the
surface of a molded article.
VISCO-ELASTIC - describes rubber-like materials having
both a viscous phase (like a damper) and an elastic phase
(like a spring).
VISCOMETER - shearing disk device used to gauge the
viscosity of a rubber sample under heat and pressure. Often
referred to as the Mooney Viscometer, this device was once
the most common tool for determining processing
characteristics but has now largely been replaced by the
rheometer.
VISCOSITY - resistance to flow; the thicker the substance
(such as a liquid), the more viscous it is, i.e. the less it flows.
VOID - unintended empty space, such as a pit or air pocket.
VOLATILE - readily vaporizable at a relatively low
temperature.
VOLUME CHANGE - increase (swell) or decrease
(shrinkage) in the volume of a specimen which has been
immersed in a fluid, noted as a percentage of original
volume.
VOLUME SHRINKAGE - volumetric decrease of an
elastomeric material when in contact with a fluid; also
known simply as shrinkage.
VOLUME SWELL - volumetric increase of an elastomeric
314 GLOSSARY
material when in contact with a fluid; also known simply as
swell.
VULCANIZATE - cured rubber compound.
VULCANIZATION - heat-induced process whereby the
long chains of the rubber molecules become cross-linked by
a vulcanizing agent to form three-dimensional elastic
structures. This reaction transforms soft, weak, non-cross-
linked materials into strong elastic products; also known as
cure.
VULCANIZING AGENT - material added to an uncured
batch of rubber that causes the polymer chains to crosslink
to one another (vulcanize), forming a three-dimensional
elastic structure.
W
WAVINESS - irregularities on a gland’s surface with
considerably longer wavelengths than those referenced as
roughness. Waviness may be caused by machinery
vibrations or material warping.
WEATHERING - cracking and degradation of the
physical properties of a rubber product exposed to
atmospheric conditions; also known as atmospheric
cracking.
WEEPAGE - seal leakage of less than one drop per
minute; not necessarily an indication of seal failure.
WIDTH (W) - another term for the cross-section of an O-
ring.
WIPER - flexible ring used to remove dirt, dust, mud, and
other contaminants from a rod or a shaft in order to prevent
them from entering a hydraulic, pneumatic, or mechanical
system; also known as a wiper ring.
YYOUNG’S MODULUS (E) - a measure of material

stiffness; defined as the ratio of the stress (force in psi) to the
strain (percentage increase in original length) as measured
on a rubber specimen; also known as modulus of elasticity;
not the same as tensile modulus.

ABBREVIATIONS 315

Abbreviations.
ACM - polyacrylate rubber
ACN - acrylonitrile; component in nitrile rubber
AEM - ethylene-acrylic rubber; copolymer of ethylene and
methyl acrylate
AMS - Aerospace Material Specification
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
AQL - Acceptable Quality Level
ARP - Aerospace Recommended Practice
“This list includes
AS - Aerospace Standard
the abbreviations
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
you will encounter
AU - polyester-based polyurethane rubber
BR - polybutadiene rubber most often in the
CC - cubic centimeter sealing industry.
CO - homopolymer of epichlorohydrin Familiarity with
CR - polychloroprene rubber (Neoprene®) them will save time
CSM - chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber (Hypalon®)
as you design O-
DIA - diameter
ring seals.”
DIN - German standardization organization
ECO - copolymer of epichlorohydrin and ethylene oxide
EP, EPM, EPDM - ethylene-propylene rubber
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
EU - polyether-based polyurethane rubber
FDA - Food and Drug Administration
FEPM - tetrafluoroethylene-propylene rubber
FFKM - perfluoroelastomer
FKM - fluorocarbon elastomers
FMQ - fluoromethyl silicone rubber (fluorosilicone)
FPM - feet per minute; fpm = [shaft dia (in) x rpm x 3.1416]
divided by 12
FSA - Fluid Sealing Association
FVMQ - fluoro vinyl methyl silicone rubber (fluorosilicone)

316 ABBREVIATIONS
GRS - Government Rubber Styrene; now SBR
HNBR - hydrogenated nitrile rubber
HSN - highly saturated nitrile; alternative name for HNBR
IIR - butyl rubber; copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene
IN. - inch
IR - isoprene rubber
IRHD - International Rubber Hardness degrees
IRM - Industry Reference Material, as in IRM 903 oil
ISO - International Organization for Standardization
JIC - Joint Industrial Conference on Hydraulic Standards for
Industrial Equipment
KN/M - kilonewton per meter; SI equivalent of pli;
sometimes a unit of measure in ASTM D 2000 line call-outs
MAX - maximum
MIL - Military (specification)
MIL STD - Military Standard
MIN - minimum
MPA - megapascal; SI equivalent of psi; sometimes a unit of
measure in ASTM D 2000 line call-outs
MQ - methyl silicone rubber
MS - Military Standard
NAS - National Aerospace Standard
NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NBR - nitrile butadiene rubber (Buna N); copolymer of
acrylonitrile and butadiene
NBS - National Bureau of Standards
NR - natural rubber; polyisoprene
NSF - National Sanitation Foundation
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PLI - pounds per linear inch
PMQ - phenyl methyl silicone rubber
PSI - pounds per square inch
PVMQ - phenyl vinyl methyl silicone rubber
RMA - Rubber Manufacturers Association
RPM - revolutions per minute
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
SBR - styrene butadiene rubber (Buna S); copolymer of
styrene and butadiene

ABBREVIATIONS 317

SG - specific gravity
SI - denotes The International System of Units (the modern
metric system); taken from the French, “Le Système
International d’Unités”
SPEC - specification
TC - critical temperature
TFE - tetrafluoroethylene; a fluoroplastic
Tg - glass transition
TIR - Total Indicator Reading
UL - Underwriters Laboratories
UV - ultraviolet light
VMQ - vinyl methyl silicone rubber
XNBR - carboxylated nitrile rubber

318 CONVERSION FACTORS
Temperature Scales.
° CENTIGRADE ° FAHRENHEIT
(CELSIUS)
100 212 (Boiling Point of Water)
95 203
90 194
85 185
80 176
75 167
70 158
“To convert 65 149
60 140
Centigrade to
55 131
Fahrenheit, multiply 50 122
45 113
by 9/5 (1.8), then
40 104
add 32.” 35 95
30 86
25 77
“To convert 20 68
Fahrenheit to 15 59
10 50
Centigrade, subtract 5 41
32, then multiply by 0 32 (Freezing Point of Water)
-10 14
5/9 (0.555).”
-20 -4
-30 -22
-40 -40
-50 -58
-100 -148
-150 -238
-200 -328
-250 -418
-273.1 -459.6 (Absolute Zero*)
*Absolute zero is, in theory, the lowest possible temperature. It is considered to be the
point at which all molecular motion stops.
Table 56: Temperature Scales

320 INDEX
Index.
A
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315-317
Abrasion (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Abrasion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25-26
After Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
ALTERNATIVES TO STANDARD O-RINGS
Crown Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Fluoroplastic-Encapsulated O-Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Lobed Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
PTFE Capped Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Spring-Energized PTFE Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
“No book of this Square Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
T-Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
scope would be U-Cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
complete without Amorphous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Aniline Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
a comprehensive Anti-Degradants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Aromatic Hydrocarbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
index to help you ASTM D 2000 / SAE J200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146-149
Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
quickly locate key Atomic Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
AXIAL (FACE) SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
terms and Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Gland Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216-227
concepts.”
B
Back-Up Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184-186
Backrind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Batch Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158-161
Bi-Directional Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
Bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Brittleness Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Buffing (Excessive Trimming) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Butyl Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
C
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Carboxylated Nitrile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Chain Scission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Chemical Compatibility Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Chloroprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91-92
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93-94
Clearance Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Coding (For Storage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Cold Flow (Creep) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30-31
Compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
INDEX 321

Compression Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289
COMPRESSION SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26-27
Failure Due To . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
CONVERSION FACTORS
Centigrade - Fahrenheit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
English - Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Creep (Cold Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Crown Seals (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
CRUSH SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Crystalline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Cure Activators & Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Cure Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159-161
Cure Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Cure Time (Optimum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Cycle Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
D
Dieseling (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Differential Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
Diisocyanates (In Polyurethane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Double Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
DOVETAIL SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Durometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18-21
DYNAMIC SEALS
Floating Pneumatic Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232-233
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Gland Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244-248
Oscillating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Reciprocating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Rotary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233-235
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
E
Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Elastomeric Compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Epichlorohydrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95-96
Ethylene Acrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Ethylene Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98-99
Excessive Flash (Parting Line Projection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Excessive Trimming (Buffing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Explosive Decompression (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
External Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188-189
EXTRUSION & NIBBLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183-186
Failure Due To . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
F
FACE (AXIAL) SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
FAILURE (OF O-RING SEALS)
Common Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253-254

322 INDEX
Due To Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Due To Compression Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Due To Dieseling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Due To Explosive Decompression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Due To Extrusion & Nibbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Due To Hardening & Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Due To Hole Crossing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Due To Installation Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Due To Plasticizer Extraction (Shrinkage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
Due To Spiraling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
Due To Weather & Ozone Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 127
FLASH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Excessive (Parting Line Projection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Flaws (Surface Finish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
FLOATING PNEUMATIC PISTON SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232-233
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Flow Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
FLUOROCARBON (FLUOROELASTOMER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100-103
Viton A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Viton B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Viton GF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Viton GFLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Fluoroplastic-Encapsulated O-Rings (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . .270
Fluorosilicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Food & Beverage Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Foreign Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
Fuel Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140-143
G
Gas Permeation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143-144
Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 192
Gland Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196-197
Gland Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283-314
Gough-Joule Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88, 234
Groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 192
H
Hardening & Embrittlement (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18-21
High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86-87
Hole Crossing Damage (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Humidity (In Storage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Hydrogenated Nitrile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105-107
Hydrogenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105-106
I
INDUSTRIAL STRAIGHT THREAD TUBE FITTING SEALS
Boss Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
Inorganic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Damage (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Internal Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190-191
International Rubber Hardness Degrees (IRHD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

INDEX 323

L
Lay (Surface Finish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Lead-In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Lobed Seals (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87-88
LUBRICATION
External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188-189
Internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190-191
M
Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Mating Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Maximum Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
Mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
Mold Deposit Indentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Molecular Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Monomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Mooney Viscometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158-159
Moving Die Rheometer (MDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159-160
N
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Natural Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Neutrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Nibbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
NITRILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109-111
Carboxylated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Non-Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
O
Off-Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Optimum Cure Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Oscillating Disk Rheometer (ODR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159-160
Oscillating Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
P
Parting Line Indentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Parting Line Projection (Excessive Flash) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Perfluoroelastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112-115
Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
Pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Piston Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Plastic Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
PLASTICIZER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 144
Extraction (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
Polyacrylate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Polyols (In Polyurethane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117-119
POLYURETHANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117-121

324 INDEX
Diisocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Polyols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117-119
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119-121
Post Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
Protons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
PTFE Capped Seals (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Q
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
R
RADIAL SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
RECIPROCATING SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Reversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
RHEOMETERS
Moving Die Rheometer (MDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159-160
Oscillating Disk Rheometer (ODR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159-160
Rod Gland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Root Mean Square (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194-195
ROTARY SEALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233-235
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192-193
Roughness Average (Ra) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
S
Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105, 306
Scorch Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
SEALS, DYNAMIC
Floating Pneumatic Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232-233
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Oscillating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Reciprocating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Rotary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233-235
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
SEALS, STATIC
Axial (Face) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Crush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Dovetails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Industrial Straight Thread Tube Fitting
Boss Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Radial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
Semiconductor Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144-145
Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31-32

INDEX 325

Silicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122-123
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177-178
Size Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274-281
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132-139
Spiraling (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
Spring-Energized PTFE Seals (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
Square Rings (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Squeeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180-181
Static Friction (Stiction, Break-Out Friction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187, 194, 308
STATIC SEALS
Axial (Face) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Crush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
Dovetails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Industrial Straight Thread Tube Fitting
Boss Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
Radial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Gland Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
STORAGE
Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173-174
Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Shelf Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Strain Crystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178-179
Styrene Butadiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
SURFACE FINISH
Flaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Root Mean Square (RMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194-195
Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192-193
Roughness Average (Ra) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Waviness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Swell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30-31
T
Tear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24-25
TR-10 (Temperature Retraction Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87-88, 155
TEMPERATURES
High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86-87
Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87-88
Material Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22-23
Terpolymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Test Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150-157
Tetrafluoroethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125-127
Tetrafluoroethylene Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Tolerance Stack-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253-254
Transfer Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312

326 INDEX
T-Seals (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
U
U-Cups (As O-Ring Alternatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Underwriters Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
V
Valence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12, 105
Van der Waals Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Visco-Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
VITON® (BRAND OF FLUOROCARBON)
Viton A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
Viton B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Viton GF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Viton GFLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Volume Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31-32
Vulcanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
W
Waviness (Surface Finish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Weather & Ozone Cracking (Failure Due To) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Y
Young’s Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Z
Z Suffix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
TRADEMARK INFORMATION
The names listed on the left of each column are registered trademarks of the companies listed to the right.
Adiprene®…Uniroyal, Inc. Fyrquel®…Akzo Nobel Royalene®…Uniroyal, Inc.
Aegis®…International Seal - FNGP Hydrin®…Zeon Chemicals, L.P. Ryton®…Chevron Phillips Chemical
Aflas®…Asahi Glass Hypalon®…DuPont Dow Elastomers Company, L.P.
Algoflon®…Ausimont USA, Ltd. Hytemp®…Zeon Chemicals, L.P. Silastic®…Dow Corning Corp.
Aurum®…Mitsui Toatsu Hytrel®…DuPont Silplus®…General Electric
Baypren®…Bayer Corp. Kalrez®…DuPont Dow Elastomers Skydrol®…Solutia Inc.
Baysilone®…Bayer Corp. KE®…Shincor Silicones Tecnoflon®…Ausimont USA, Inc.
Buna EP®…Bayer Corp. Keltan®…DSM Copolymer, Inc. Teflon®…DuPont
Celcon®…Hoechst Celanese Krynac®…Polysar International, USA Tetraseal®…Parker Hannifin Corp.
Celvacene®…Inland Vacuum Industries Lexan®…GE Plastics Texin®…Bayer Corp., Plastics Division
Chemraz®…Greene, Tweed & Company Millthane®…TSE Industries Therban®…Bayer Corp.
Crown Seal™…Macrotech/Polyseal Morthane®…Morton International, Inc. Thiokol®…Cordant Technologies Inc.
Cycolac T®…General Electric Company Neoprene®…DuPont Dow Elastomers Torlon®…Amoco Performance Products
DAI-EL®…Daikin Industries Nipol®…Zeon Chemicals, L.P. Tufel®…General Electric
Deep-Z Seal™…Macrotech/Polyseal Nordel®…DuPont Dow Elastomers Type B Poly Seal™…Macrotech/Polyseal
Delrin®…DuPont Noryl®…GE Plastics Ultem®…GE Plastics
Dyneon®…Dyneon Nysyn®…Copolymer Rubber & Chemical Vamac®…DuPont Dow Elastomers
Ekonol®…Norton Performance Plastics Corp. Vaseline®…Chesebrough-Ponds, Inc.
Elgiloy®…Elgiloy Limited Partnership Paracril®…Uniroyal, Inc. Vespel®…DuPont
Estane®…B.F. Goodrich Pellethane®…Dow Chemical Vibrathane®…Uniroyal, Inc.
Exxon Butyl®…Exxon Chemicals Polyflon®…Daikin Industries, Ltd. Vistalon®…Exxon Chemicals
FE®…Shincor Silicones Polysar®…Bayer Corp. Viton®…DuPont Dow Elastomers
Freon®…DuPont Pydraul®…Monsanto Zetpol®…Zeon Chemicals, L.P.
FSE®…General Electric Quad-Ring®…Minnesota Rubber

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2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SELECTING THE MATERIAL

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

DESIGNING THE SEAL

Common Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253

EXPLORING OTHER OPTIONS

GLOSSARY & ABBREVIATIONS

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

3. Review the material profiles beginning on page 89.

Before you begin, however, you may find it helpful to quickly

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

ROD & PISTON GLANDS

Figure 1: Components of a Rod Gland & a Piston Gland

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

ROD & PISTON SEALS

Figure 2: Rod & Piston O-Rings Installed

SEALING YOUR FATE

Figure 3: Installed Figure 4: Pressurized

Figure 5: Extruded Figure 6: Failed

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

ELEMENT ATOMIC WT VALENCE

Table 1: Atomic Elements Most Commonly Used as

chlorine (Cl). The atomic weights and valences of each of

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

COMMON NAME CHEMICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR WT STATE (RM TEMP)

Methane CH4 16 Gas

Table 2: Changes in Physical Properties as a Result of Polymerization

elements, carbon and hydrogen, and is configured the same

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

which each of these HARDNESS

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

Table 3: Guide to Durometer Scale Selection

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

Table 4: Conversions for Durometer Hardness Scales

Though most standard O-rings are either 70 or 90 Shore A,

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

The other widely-used test, International Rubber Hardness,

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY | O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

NBS ABRADER Generally speaking, hydrocarbon-

O-RING DESIGN & MATERIALS GUIDE | R.L. HUDSON & COMPANY

selecting the material

Figure 24: Effects of Compression Set on an O-Ring’s Cross-Section

After removal from the compression device and a 30-minute

CONSTANT FORCE CONSTANT DEFLECTION

Figure 25: Compression Figure 26: Compression