Wollo University School of

Veterinary Medicine

Camel Health
Chapter 4. EXAMINATION IN CAMELS

Criteria can be helpful in interpreting

whether an animal is healthy or diseased
Probably 99% of camels are maintained under
primitive management by pastoralists/nomads
mainly in remote areas where regular health
care centers or proper diagnostic facilities are
not available.
Under the circumstances, assessment of an
animal whether it is healthy or diseased simply
on the basis of i ts a p p ea ra n c e m i g h t b e
confusing.
Temporary loss of body weight and condition is
normal in dehydrated animals, in camel bulls
during the rutting season, in lactating females
and in animals which are overworked.
 Cont’d
A gradual but permanent decline in live weight
can be due to old age of the animal.
In young animals a prolonged weight loss is
always an indication of a chronic generalized
disease.

In the process of interpreting signs of disease, it

is essential to develop a proper diagnostic routine.
This should include an evaluation of the animal’s
environment, particularly the supply of forage
and water.

General information on the health history of the

herd and that of the individual animal need to be
ascertained before a general inspection and
clinical examination is undertaken.
 Cont’d
Most part of an animal’s health status is reflected
by general body condition, appearance,
conformation, posture and behaviour.
For example, hollow flanks, a retracted abdomen
and a shrunken hump may indicate a severe
systemic illness, but might also be the result of a
prolonged dehydration, which is quickly reversed
when the animal can drink its fill of 100 to 120
litres of water.
Difficulties which are commonly expected in
deciding what disease a sick camel has

The animal may show only some of the signs of

the disease.
The same disease ma y p ro d u c e s o m ew h a t
different signs in different animals.
Different diseases may produce the same signs.
A camel may be suffering from more than one
disease and the signs may mask or reinforce
each other.
Camels are generally placid animals, they often
do not show much distress, even if seriously ill.
Thus the diagnosis gets complicated, especially if
the camel suffers from a general, systemic illness
that affects its whole body and not one particular
Some of commonly observed disease
signs
Signs of weakness, dullness, tiredness, lack of
appetite, lying down at unusual times, fever and
rapid heart beat can be caused by many different
types of diseases.

When these signs are present, check for other

more specific signs that will help you to determine
the disease and correct treatment.

Experience helps a great deal in arriving at the

correct diagnosis.

Often a major sign is accompanied by several

others; taken together, they give you an idea
about the disease.
 Cont’d
Signs of Fever: High body temperature, fast
pulse, sweating, standing with head down
and still, dull, watery eyes, off rumination.

Signs of Dehydration: Pinch a fold of skin

and let it go; it returns slowly to its normal
position.

Signs of Anaemia (loss or lack of blood):

mucus membrane inside mouth and nose
is pale or whitish, conjunctiva pale.
 Cont’d
Signs of Pain: Neck erect and stiff, sometimes
quickly lowering and raising the neck, watery eyes,
sitting uneasily, shifting body around, grunting
when breathing or ruminating.

Certain signs can be seen in normal animals as well

as indicate diseased conditions e.g. shrunken hump
in females suckling a calf, can also be a sign in
mange, trypanosomiasis, internal parasites, teeth
problems and chronic stomach and gut diseases.

Grinding of teeth and foam in mouth are normal

after eating salt or in male camels during the rut.
Parameters to be considered during
clinical examination of camels
Rectal temperature (morning, evening)
Respiration (Frequency, Quality)
Pulse (Frequency, Quality)
Mucous membranes (pale, pink, red,
haemorrhagic)
Palpable lymph nodes
Stomach motility
Faeces (Consistency, pellets shaped or unshaped,
colour, visible parasites)
Urine (Quantity, Color)
Discharges from Eyes, Nostrils, Mouth and
Vagina (quantity, colour, consistency)
 Restraining Methods in camels
From among the various restraining methods,
which one to use depends on
The type of treatment
The camel’s training and temperament
and
Its relationship with its handler.
Physical methods
A well trained camel needs to be restrained only
by holding its head rope or nose-peg.

Restrain a small camel by holding its upper and

lower lips with both hands and turning its head to
one side.
 Cont’d
If the camel is somewhat trained and the handler
is an experienced person, this should suffice when
giving an injection.

If necessary a second person can hold the camel

by its ears. The same method can be used with a
large camel if it is in a sitting position.

Hold the camel’s lower jaw with a rope running

behind the front teeth. Hold the rope in your
hands; do not tie it to a tree or post, as a sudden
movement can break the camel’s jaw.
 Cont’d
Make the camel stand on three legs by tying one
of its fetlocks to its foreleg with a rope.

To restrain a violent animal, tie a rope around its

neck and have two people hold the ends, one on
each side of the animal.

Make sure the camel does not suffocate.

 Cont’d
If the treatment is painful, make the camel lie
down by tying one of its fetlocks to its foreleg.
Then pull either the other front leg or both hind
legs forward with a rope around the fetlocks.

Tie both front legs together with a rope passing

over its neck. To make the animal completely
immobile, also tie the hind legs together. Bend
the neck to the side by pulling on the head-rope.
It is also possible to immobilize a camel by
injecting it with a sedative
Using muzzles

Camel holder
Camel crush

Restraining camels in
standing position
(forleg ring tie and
foreleg bend tie
Restraining camels in sternal
recumbency                               
Restraining camel in sitting position
 Chemical methods (Anaesthesia)
Types of anaesthesia : There are three types of
anaesthesia
General Anaesthesia:
It makes the animal lose consciousness and stops
it from feeling pain anywhere in the body.
Regional Anaesthesia:
It stops pain in a part of the body, while the
animal stays conscious.
It is used for surgical procedures in the genital
area such as prolapse of the vagina or uterus.
We can do it by injecting a local anaesthetic into
the spinal cord.
Local Anaesthesia:
It stops pain only in the area where it is injected.
It is used for suturing wounds and for minor
operations.
Drugs commonly used and their dosage for
sedating and immobilizing camels

Name Dosage Applic Effect

(mg/kg body ation
weight)

Xylazine 0.25 – 0.50 IM Sedation 30-60

minutes
1.0 – 2.0 IM Anaesthesia 90
minutes
Yohimbine 0.125 – 0.25 IM Antidote
Propionyl- 0.2 – 0.5 IM Sedation 2-4 hours
promazin
Ketamine 5.5 IM Sedation 20
minutes
Thiopentone 10.35 ± 0.64 IM Anaesthesia 30
minutes
 Epidural Anaesthesia:
It is used for surgery in the genital area e.g. for
prolapse of the vagina or uterus.
Move the camel’s tail up and down and feel where
the rigid backbone ends and the tail (which can be
moved) begins. The gap between these bones is
where to give the injection.
Clip the hair, clean and disinfect the skin.
Insert a 20 gauge 4 cm needle at right angle to the
tail. The needle must go between the bones into
the spinal canal.
Slowly inject 2 to 5 ml of lignocaine. This will stop
pain in the genital area for about 2 hours.
Epidural anaesthesia should be given only by an
experienced person.
Local Anaesthesia: Use lignocaine hydrochloride
(Lidocaine)
Normal values for physiological parameters in
resting adult camels

Temperature : 35.5 – 41.0°C

ü Morning : 35.5 – 37.5°C
ü Evening : 39.0 – 41.0°C
Respiration : 5 – 12/min.
Pulse : 35 – 50/min.
Besides pathological conditions a variety of
environmental and host factors including age,
sex, ambient temperature and watering, stress
and physical work out have an effect on these
parameters.
Body Temperature:

Camels show a marked diurnal fluctuation of

body temperature.
High temperatures during the morning are
indicative of fever.
Accompanying symptoms are hyperlacrimation,
increased respiratory and pulse rate, loss of
appetite, dull and depressed appearance,
decreased urine production and later rapid
weight loss.
 Pulse Rate:
Intermittent irregular pulse is not uncommon in
camels and is not always a sign of illness.
In adult camels pulse rate can be best checked in
sternal position.
Several arteries including the posterior tibial,
middle sacral and the femoral artery are equally
accessible.
Matted hair and dirt crusts on the hind legs make
pulse detection difficult when using the posterior
tibial artery.
Attempting to use the femoral artery requires
patience since the animal might object to the
presence of a hand there.
In young and immature camels the tail artery is
the most convenient.
Respiration Rate:
Camels are obligate nasal breathers of a
pronounced abdominal respiratory type.
Respiratory rate is best established by watching
flank movements from a distance or by thoracic or
tracheal auscultation using a stethoscope.
Laboured breathing, coughing and snoring are
always indicative of respiratory diseases.
Coughing occurs more often during the night or
after resting when the animal rises.
Nasal and/or ocular discharge is frequently seen in
the case of fever, local irritation and inflammation
due to parasite infestation, frontal sinus infection,
ocular diseases and upper respiratory diseases.
some clue about the systemic infection
i n t h e c a m e l
Palpation of peripheral lymph nodes can lead to
the detection of infection in camel.
Temporary swelling of peripheral lymph nodes
is most commonly due to localized or systemic
infections.
The site of infection and peripheral lymph node
reaction correspond. In systemic diseases all
lymph nodes may be affected. The swollen
lymph nodes may be tender to touch, hot and
the overlying skin oedematous and reddened.
Increased sensitivity to touch and warmth is
indicative of active infection.
In the process of healing, large lymph nodes do regress
Abdominal examination and rectal
palpation
Abdominal Examination:
Stomach motility in camels is different from that of true
ruminants, consisting of a total of 12 contractions per
cycle.
About 2 to 3 audible contractions per minute can be
noted when auscultated on the left flank.

Rectal Palpation:
Rectal palpation should be done in sternal recumbency.
I n c a m e l s t h e re c t u m i s q u i t e t i g h t a n d f r a g i l e .
Preferably the examiner should have small hands and
use sufficient lubrication to reduce risk of rectal
perforation.
Bladder, large intestines, left kidney and the female
genital tract can be palpated.
Reliable pregnancy confirmation is possible from the
late second month of pregnancy onwards.
Salivation, urination and defaecation,
guidance for the process of diagnosis
Salivation:
Excessive salivation in camels is unusual. Increase
in salivation is suggestive of plant poisoning, snake
bite, facial paralysis and central nervous disorders
such as rabies.
Urination:
Camels frequently urinate and defecate especially
after rising.
Daily output of urine ranges between 0.5 to 5.0
littres, depending to a large extent on the camel’s
status of hydration or dehydration.
The colour is usually light yellow but can turn dark
yellow during dehydration.
In bull camels during rutting season, excessive
salivation is an essential part of the mating
Faeces:
Faeces are usually well-formed pellets of light
to dark brown colour.

In the early rainy season, faeces may take a

light green colour, become less well formed or
even take a liquid consistency, depending on
the water content of the available forage.

During prolonged water deprivation, faecal

water content may drop to approximately 30%.
Faeces are best sampled by free catch, which is
not too cumbersome since camels tend to drop
some pellets every few minutes. Grab sampling
from the rectum is also easy.
 Cont’d
Urine collection likewise is best attempted by free catch.
Female camels can be catheterized, but their urethral
opening is small and a suburethral diverticulum just in
front of urethral opening makes insertion of a catheter
quite difficult.
Male camels cannot be catheterized due to the
presence of a urethral recess at the ischiatic arch.
Clinical Aspect:
Body fluids and excretions such as saliva, urine and
faeces can change in colour, volume, frequency of
excretion, consistency and smell, which often points to
specific disorders.
 Cont’d
A dark reddish to dark brown discoloration of urine
i n d i c a t e s t h e p re s e n c e o f b l o o d , m y o g l o b i n o r
haemoglobin. This is a serious clinical finding, just like a
black and tarry appearance of the faeces caused by
cloted blood.

The claim by many East African pastoralists that they

can diagnose acute phases of trypanosomiasis by the
smell of the animal’s urine, was found fairly accurate by
the scientists working in that area.
Blood collection from the camel
Usual convenient sites for blood collection from camel
are the jugular vein, the medial metacarpal vein and
the dorsal metatarsal vein.

Veins are either raised by digital pressure or using a

tourniquet.

Camels have large oval shaped erythrocytes. These

may rupture when blood is transferred from a syringe
into a vacuum sampling container too rapidly with too
m u c h p re s s u re o n p l u n g e r , t h u s g i v i n g a f a u l t y
diagnosis.
 Cont’d
Measurement of haematocrit values in camels is not as
valid an indicator of the health status since the normal
range is very large.

Haematocrit values ranging from 18 to 42 have been

measured in the same animals within a time span of 10
days at various stages of mild dehydration.
Various methods and modes of administering
drugs to camels
Oral application of drugs is done by drenching,
through bolus or medicated feed.
Drenching and bolus administration are best
accomplished with the animals seated, the head is then
immobilized and tilted slightly backwards and the liquid
medication poured onto the back of the tongue.
For subcutaneous injection the preferred site is just
in front of the shoulder. This is one of the few sites on
the camel’s body with the skin loose enough to be
grasped and lifted.
 Cont’d
For intramuscular injection, the usual sites
are the neck and gluteal muscles.
A needle without syringe attached is inserted,
which should be easily moveable underneath.
In suction no blood should appear in the hub of
the needle.

If accidentally a blood vessel is hit, the needle

needs to be repositioned.

The needle should be placed firmly and deeply

into the muscles. The syringe is then attached
and the drug injected.
After injection the needle still attached to the
 Cont’d
For intravenous injections, jugular vein is considered
the most common and convenient site.

Camels have a very large jugular vein, which can be

easily raised by palm pressure in the cervical groove.
For raising the vein, a tourniquet can be applied near
the base of the neck.

When the needle has been inserted, the pressure is

released or the tourniquet loosened and the drug is
injected slowly and steadily.
 Cont’d
Caution is advised for restraining rutting bulls
for blood sampling or intravenous drug
administration, since there is a high risk that
they injure their dulaa by biting on it.

Simple digital pressure for a short period of

time or the application of an antiseptic
adhesive tape in case of blood leakage from the
puncture will stop the bleeding.

Treatment
Generally dosing in camels is done by extrapolating the
dose recommended for large animals.
But the adverse effects will be high and the withdrawal
period will be long.
 Chapter6: Skin Diseases
6.1. Camel pox
Camel pox is one of the most important viral
diseases in East Africa.
It is caused by Orthopox cameli.
Its outbreaks mostly occur during early to middle
periods of the rainy season.
The disease is highly contagious, from one animal
to another, but scabs, contaminated tools, cloth,
grazing areas and human beings also serve as
fomites.
 Cont’d
C a m e l p ox i s re p o r t e d m o s t o ft e n i n y o u n g a n d
immature camels.
The main clinical symptoms are characteristic skin
lesions, papules appear around nostrils and lips.
These papules later on take the form of vesicles, which
eventually rupture.
There is fever and anorexia; mandibular lymph nodes
are often enlarged. Facial oedema is quite common at
this stage.
 Cont’d
Affected animals show high temperature,
severe depression and anorexia. Vesicles
develop all over the body.

The pox scabs become covered with a thick

brown crust after some time.

Septicaemia, reduced feed intake and resultant

general weakness can precipitate death of
these animals.

Mortality in calves and immature camels is very

high, especially under poor management
conditions, but the effects of morbidity may be
equally important because they cause heavy
production losses, particularly in weight gain.
 Cont’d
Severe secondary infections are common.
In dry climates the disease cures itself. In
wetter areas, the disease can be severe.
The Lister strain of vaccinia virus applied by
skin scarification has been successfully used
to control a severe outbreak in Bahrain.
A l o n g w i t h a v a c c i n a t i o n p ro g r a m m e ,
improved management strategies could
diminish the prevalence of the diseases.
Recovered animals show a stable and lifelong
immunity, but there is no cross protection
with other types of pox virus, includin g
contagious ecthyma being clinically similar.
6.2. Contagious skin necrosis
Contagious skin necrosis and streptothricosis are
identical.
Its associated with staphylococcus,
corynebacteria spp. Or dietary salt deficiency.
Moderate spread of disease occurs in crowding,
watering points etc.
The disease is characterized by single, flat
ulcerative lesion.
Most commonly affected sites are the head, neck
and shoulder region.
Painful swelling of small skin area mark the
beginning of the disease.
Skin necrosis starts at the center and spreads out
wards.
 Cont’d
High humidity and the behavior of the female
dromedaries during urination leading to chronic
wetness of the hindquarters have been implicated in
the spread of skin necrosis.
Due to secondary bacterial complication we will see
purulent discharges from the site.
Due to intensive rubbing and scratching behavior
fences, trees and holding pens become contaminated
and facilitate the spread among the herd.
Healing is usually slow and takes 3-4 weeks
Treatment is usually by injecting of broad spectrum
antibiotic systematically.
 6.3. Dermatophilosis
Dermatophilosis is divided into a winter and
summer type.

As in the horse, there are distinct differences

between infections involving short or long hair.

Long hairs in the vicinity of the exudate become

matted yielding the characteristic "paint-brush”
affect.

The matted hair tufts can be easily detached

leaving a wettish pink, hyperemic wound surface,
these areas become covered with a
suppurative exudate in cases of severe
infection.
• Dermatophilosis of short-haired areas occurring
on almost all areas of the body.
• The lesions ranged from nodules to thickened,
raised areas covered with thick scabs.
• Upon removal of the scabs, a raw area with a
serosanguinous exudate is exposed
Diagnosis
• The bacterium is comparatively easy to culture
and grows well on sheep and ox blood agar.
• The plates should be incubated at 37°C for up to 5
days in a CO2 atmosphere.
• Gram-stained smears of scab material show
Gram-positive microorganisms arranged in
rouleaux form.
 Treatment and Control

Successful treatment of dermatophilosis with

terramycin or procaine penicillin and
streptomycin has been reported.
Infected dromedaries are treated twice with
Terramycin LA intravenously.
The scabs are removed and the areas cleansed
daily with an iodine solution for 7 days. The
lesions should be fully healed within 4 weeks.
Shearing of badly affected areas with long hair
is often an important additional method of
further reducing the development of lesions.
Isolating clinically affected animals and
controlling ectoparasites are methods used to
break the infective cycle.
 6.4. Contagious Ecthyma
Contagious ecthyma is caused by the parapox
virus.
Both the one-humped and two-humped camels
are prone to this disease.
Pox-like lesions are produced by the affected
animals.
Modes of transmission are similar to those
described under camel pox.
The virus is morphologically different from
orthopox virus and can easily be identified by
electron microscopy.
Clinical symptoms are similar to those caused
by the orthopox virus, but a diagnosis based on
these lesions can only be presumptive.
 Cont’d
The main practical differences between camel pox
and ecthyma are that the former disease is more
severe and affects camels of all ages.
In immature camels the lesions are mainly found
around the mouth and nostrils and occasionally on
the eyelids.
The mandibular lymph nodes are enlarged.
Due to intensive pruritus animals spend a lot of
time scratching and rubbing the affected area,
resulting in haemorrhages and skin excoriations.
Both localized and generalized skin lesions have
been observed.
Whether recovered animals have a lasting
immunity is not clear, but according to field
observations, recovered animals were not affected
during new disease outbreaks.
 6.5. Camel papillomatosis (wart)
Simultaneous outbreaks of contagious ecthyma
and papillomatosis have been reported in camel
herds mainly during rainy season.

Caused by papilloma virion.

Definite modes of transmission of the disease are
inconclusive.
Morbidity rate is quite high.
Mortality in adult animals is nearly nil, but among
affected calves mainly 6 to 18 months old under
poor management and inclement weather,
mortality rate might be high.
 Cont’d
Recovered animals were not affected during new
outbreak.

The zoonotic potential of the disease for human beings

or other livestock is not clear.

I n a d u l t a n i m a l s , t h e d i s e a s e re s e m b l e s b o v i n e
papillomatosis. Nodules are found mainly around head,
neck, shoulder and udder.

These become persistent and may require surgical

removal.
 Cont’d
Proliferative localized or generalized skin lesions
develop in immature animals.

These lesions are very itchy and affected animals resort

to intensive scratching and rubbing, resulting into
haemorrhages.

A high incidence of conjunctivitis with severe secondary

bacterial infection has also been noticed. Other clinical
findings include marked oedema of the head and
swelling of the mandibular lymphnodes.
Chapter5. Systemic Diseases

5.1. Pasturellosis
• Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) also called
pasteurellosis is a disease of bacterial origin.
Etiology
• The Pasteurella are small, Gram- negative rods
or coccobacilli.
• They are non- motile, non-sporing and
facultative anaerobes.
• They are oxidase-positive and catalase-positive.
• Pasteurella multocida is the usual causative
agent.
Epidemiology and Clinical Signs

It is prevalent in buffaloes, cattle and camel.

Its outbreaks occur mainly during the rainy
season and are commonly seen in low lying
areas that have seasonal floods.

The disease is usually seen in adult animals,

but all age groups can be affected.

Mortality can reach 50-80% among affected

animals.

Mode of infection is believed to be by ingestion

of contaminated feedstuff.
 Cont’d
The bacteria are not particularly resistant and do
not survive longer than 24 hours on pasture.
Clinical characteristics include high fever over 40°C,
increased respiration and pulse rates and general
depression.
In camels, localization chiefly to subcutaneous
tissue results in hot painful swellings around the
neck.
The mandibular lymph nodes and/or cervical lymph
nodes are usually enlarged.
Necropsied dromedaries revealed hydrothorax,
pneumonia, emphysema, hydropericardium and
fibrinous pericarditis.
Signs of respiratory dispnoea such as dilated
nostrils or open mouth breathing and cyanotic
mucous membranes are seen.
In the majority of cases, haemorrhagic enteritis is
present characterized by obvious clinical signs of
acute abdominal pain and tarry faeces and coffee
coloured urine.
Affected animals seldom recover and
usually die in the next 24 to 48 hours.
On post-mortem the most obvious
findings are generalized internal
petechiation under the serosa of the
intestines, the heart and the lymph nodes.
Haemorrhagic enteritis and lesions of
early pneumonia may be present.
Differentiation from anthrax, blackleg and
septicaemic salmonellasis is usually done
by bacteriological examination.
Disease onset is acute.
The absence of bloody discha rg e f ro m th e
natural body orifices and a normal appearing
spleen on post-mortem can help differentiate HS
from anthrax.
Since HS is an acute and quite often fatal disease,
early treatment is essential.
Treat with a n ti b i o ti c s s u c h a s a m ox y c i l l i n ,
tetracyclines or sulphonamides.
Give 110 mg/kg body weight of sulphadimidine
by mouth each day for up to 4 days.
 5.2. Brucellosis
Etiology
• Brucellosis is a contagious disease caused by
the bacteria of the genus Brucella.
• Brucella bacteria are Gram-negative coccobacilli,
which are non-motile and non-spore-forming.
Epidemiology and Clinical Signs
• Brucellosis is characterized by abortion, and to
a lesser extent by orchitis and infection of the
accessory sex glands in males.
• The disease has a worldwide distribution and
affects cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, camelids, dogs,
and occasionally horses.
 Cont’d
In humans, the disease referred to as undulant
fever or Malta fever.

Inflammation of the uterus lining with reddening,

edema and necrotic foci in the uterus epithelium,
as well as fibrosis of the endometrium and
a tro p h y o f t h e u t e r i n e g l a n d s a re c o m m o n
findings.

The infection occurs via the mucous membranes

or skin or by ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs,
whereby the causative agent then enters via the
upper gastrointestinal tract.
 Cont’d
Infections through the mucosa of the respiratory tract
or the eyes are also possible.
The spread of brucella during sexual activity plays a
subordinate role.
Theoretically, all three known Brucella species can
cause infection in camels. However, it is surmised that
B . melitensis is widespread in Africa and the Middle
East and B. abortus is widespread in the former USSR.
According to various researchers, brucellosis in
breeding camelids occurs in all of the known forms,
whereby abortion is its most obvious manifestation.
 Cont’d
• Infections may also cause still born calves, retained
placenta and reduced milk yield as is common in
cattle and sheep.
Diagnosis
• Brucellosis is usually diagnosed in the laboratory by
culture of blood, milk or tissue or detection of
antibodies in sera.
• Brucella organisms can be recovered from the placenta,
but more conveniently in pure culture from the stomach
and lungs of aborted fetuses.
• Many authors regard the CFT as being the most
sensitive and specific test for brucellosis. This is true
for both acute and chronic infections.
 Treatment and Control

For the eradication of brucellosis in animals, the

"test and slaughter" and "vaccination" policy
is recommended.

This method should be implemented when the

disease is serologically and bacteriologically
confirmed.

Seropositive animals should be slaughtered and

the entire herd tested until all reactors are
eliminated.
In Camelidae, as in other animals, this will be
achieved when two to three successive tests are
 Cont’d
After this procedure, a vaccination program
may then be implemented to protect the entire
herd from re-infection.
The greatest danger comes from replacement
animals.
Infected vaccinated animals remain a severe
hazard to public health.
Both inactivated and attenuated Brucella
vaccines have been used successfully in camels.

Dromedaries can be vaccinated with B. abortus

strain Buck 19 and with B. melitensis strain Rev
1.
 5.3. Anthrax
• Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax in man and
animals.
• Throughout the world there is a single uniform
antigenic type, even though there are
differences between local specific strains.
• Under natural conditions, the animals most
frequently affected are the cow, sheep, goat,
buffalo, horse, reindeer and elephant.
• Anthrax is an acute, septicemic disease, which
can also affect camelids.
• Epidemics of anthrax tend to occur in
association with marked climatic or ecological
changes, such as heavy rainfall, flooding or
drought.
Etiology
B. anthracis is an aerobic sporulating bacterium,
which is a Gram-positive, non-motile, cylindrical
rod.
Inside the host it forms a capsule, which can be
demonstrated by special stains.
In organ smears the bacilli lie either singly or in
short chains forming a so-called bamboo-stick
form.
Spores develop only in the presence of oxygen at
temperatures above 12°C.
B. anthracis grows on ordinary solid media and no
hemolysis is produced on blood agar.
Under low magnification the colonies give the
appearance of a Medusa-like head or a woman’s
curly hair.
Epidemiology and Clinical Signs
• Anthrax is a peracute disease characterized by
septicemia and sudden death.

• The anthrax endospores can survive for years in

the soil.
• Masses of vegetative bacilli are discharged from
the body in the final stages of the disease and
sporulate in and on the ground at temperatures of
20 - 32°C .

• Soil can be contaminated for years by buried

cadavers, which then serve as sources of infection,
especially when the grazing animals bite off the
pasture grass at ground level during periods of
food scarcity.
 Cont’d
The clinical signs of anthrax in dromedaries are
similar to those in the cow i.e.
• Fever up to 420C,
• Extravasation of tar-like blood from the body
orifices,
• Diarrhea
• Colic
• Bloat and severe cardiovascular and
pulmonary disturbances.
• Some dromedaries develop painful swellings
on the throat and neck.
 Pathology
The principal lesions in septicemic anthrax in
animals are hemorrhages, edema and necrosis.
In dromedaries, there is evidence of rapid post
mortem decomposition of the carcass with
oozing of bloodstained fluid from nose, mouth
and anus.
Darkred, poorly clotted blood, petechiae and
e c c h y m o s e s a re o b s e r v e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e
carcass.
An enlarged pulpy spleen, which is the most
characteristic feature at necropsy in ruminants,
has also been described in camelids.
There is no rigor mortis and the blood fails to
clot.
Spleenomegaly with black tarry pulp, generalized
congestion and lung edema were also observed.
 Diagnosis
B . anthracis is easily cultured from blood and
tissues.
However, if anthrax is suspected one should
avoid a necropsy to avoid contamination of the
soil with spores.

A small quantity of blood is sufficient for the

diagnosis.
A smear or a culture as well as a fluorescent
antibody test (FAT) will confirm the diagnosis.
 Prevention and Control

To prevent sporulation of B. anthracis, carcasses

should not be opened.
They should be incinerated with the
contaminated bedding.
After contact, equipment must be properly
disinfected.
Anthrax vaccine has been used worldwide with
great economic value to the livestock industry
and to wildlife.
A single inoculation provides effective immunity
for 9 months, but annual booster vaccinations
are recommended.
 6.4. Mastitis
• Inflammation of the udder occurs less frequently
in the camelids than in other domesticated
animals.
• There might be several reasons why mastitis is
more uncommon in camelids than in other
d o m es ti c a ted a n i m a l s p ec i es u s e d f o r m i l k
production.

• The mammary glands of camels possess four

quarters and one teat per quarter.

• Each teat has two streak canals that enter into

separate teat and gland cisterns. Each teat is
associated with a non-communicating double
 Cont’d
The streak canals are very narrow and a 1 mm
tomcat catheter is required for penetration. This
twin duct anatomy with its narrow streak canals
might in some way protect against infection.
Milking camels are often fitted with udder covers
to restrict suckling. These covers might reduce
injuries to the teats and the udder and protect
against gross contamination.
However, the more likely explanation why udder
infections in camelids are less frequent lies in the
milk itself. Several scientists have found
substances in camel milk that inhibit the growth of
pathogenic bacteria.
These inhibitors are proteins and have been
described as lysozyme, immunoglobulins,
lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase, which are already
well characterized. These proteins have been
shown to have higher concentrations or higher
 Etiology
• There are divergent opinions as to which bacteria
are potentially the primary causal organisms of
infectious mastitis in the camel.
• Streptococcus , Staphylococcus , Micrococcus ,
Aerobacter and E . coli to be the main bacterial
species causing mastitis.
• The following bacteria were considered
secondary agents,
v Actinomyces spp.,
v Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
v Klebsiella pneumoniae,
v Bacteroides spp.,
v C. perfringens
 Pathology
Peracute, subacute and gangrenous mastitis with
lymph node enlargement have been described in
the camel.
Ve r y l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l
alterations occurring during infection of the
mammary gland.
The affected udders are often swollen, hard,
reddened and painful to the animal on palpation.
In chronic mastitis, necrosis and abscessation
might be observed with discharge of greenish pus.
In acute cases, the mammary secretions are
watery, yellowish or blood tinged.
 Treatment
When mastitis occurs, prompt attention is
n e c e s s a r y t o a v o i d s e v e re d a m a g e t o t h e
mammary gland or even loss of the animal.
Mastitis treatment should be based on culture
and sensitivity and the treating person must be
fully aware of the anatomical particularities of
the camelid’s mammary gland.
Camelids should be restrained and then rolled on
their sides with the hind legs roped back.
Ampiclox@, Orbenin L A@ and Mastalone@,
w h i c h s h o u l d b e i n f u s e d a c c o rd i n g t o t h e
manufacturers' recommendations.
6.5. Paratuberculosis
• This disease is characterized by persistent and
progressive diarrhea, weight loss, debilitation and
eventually death.
• The disease produces a chronic, contagious enteritis
and affects cattle, sheep, goats, camels, farmed deer
and other domestic and wild ruminants.
Etiology
• Mycobacterium avium spp. paratuberculosis is a non-
motile, non-sporing,
• Aerobic and oxidative bacterium which does not take
up dyes of the Gram stain because the cell wall is rich
in lipids and mycotic acid.
• M . avium spp . Paratuberculosis is acid-fast and the
best stain is Ziehl Neelsen.
• The disease can be diagnosed by the demonstration
of the bacteria and by serological and allergic tests.
Epidemiology and Clinical Signs
M. avium spp. paratuberculosis is shed in feaces
and the organisms are found within
macrophages of the intestinal mucosa and
adjacent lymph nodes.
A cell-mediated immune response appears to be
involved in the pathogenesis of this disease.
Not all infected animals become clinical cases,
but they remain excretors of M . avium spp .
paratuberculosis.
Fo l l o w i n g o r a l i n f e c t i o n , M . a v i u m s p p .
paratuberculosis enters the lymphatics through
the tonsils and the intestinal mucosa.
Peyer’s patches take up the microorganisms
from the intestinal lumen and transport them
through the intestinal mucosa.
The incubation period is generally 18 to 24
Pathology
Paratuberculosis causes more
pathological changes in Bactrian camels
than in cattle.
Lesions have been observed in the ileum,
cecum and colon, although additionally
inflammation of the liver, spleen and
lymph nodes has also been reported.
Infected animals die within 4 to 6 weeks
after the initial occurrence of diarrhea.
At necropsy, severe intestinal thickening
and enlargement of the regional
mesocolic lymph nodes.
Histologically the lesions are
characterized by a marked accumulation
of macrophages in the mucosal layer that
were laden with acid-fast bacilli.
 Diagnosis
Paratuberculosis can be diagnosed by culture,
allergic and serological tests.
Bacteriological culturing of feces is the most
sensitive and specific test for M . avium spp .
paratuberculosis, but it can require up to 16
weeks to obtain the results.
Biopsy specimens of intestinal mucosa and
fecal smears stained by the ZN-stain usually
yield characteristic clumps of M . avium spp .
paratuberculosis organisms.
However, examination of feces will detect only
about 25% of subclinical excretors.
Treatment and Control
• No satisfactory treatment of paratuberculosis is
known.
• Control requires good sanitation and
management.
• Suggested methods of eradication includes:

1. Clinically suspected camels should be isolated

until the disease is confirmed. All infected
camels should be slaughtered and carcasses
properly disposed.

2. Where possible, camelid calves should be

removed from their dams at birth and reared in
a paratuberculosis free environment.
 Cont’d
3. Appropriate sanitary measures should be applied
to prevent contamination of food, water and soil;
and ponds and ditches should be fenced off.
4. Newly purchased camels should be examined for
paratuberculosis.
5. Vaccination should be considered.
• In many countries, vaccines are used in cattle,
sheep and goats. The available vaccines are
prepared from either a live or heat-killed strain of
M. avium spp. paratuberculosis
 6.6.Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is a chronic contagious disease
caused by mycobacteria, which affects many
vertebrate animals and particularly manifests
itself in lungs and lymph nodes.
The lesions are granulomas known as tubercles.
The lesions differ greatly according to the animal
species infected and the species of mycobacteria
involved.
The widespread outbreaks of M. tuberculosis are
of considerable concern to public health officials,
conservation agencies and veterinarians
responsible for the health status of animals in
zoos, animal parks and private herds.
Many strains have become resistant to
medication.
The two most important members of the genus
Mycobacterium are M. tuberculosis and M. bovis.
Both have been isolated from camel.
Etiology
• The genus Mycobacterium of the family Mycobacteriaceae are
acid-fast rods of various lengths, non-motile and non-
sporulating.
• The genus Mycobacterium contains multiple species (about
50) with different pathogenicity.
• The atypical mycobacteria are widespread in pastures, soil and
water. Some of them may infect animals.
• The most important mycobacterial species causing disease in
livestock are:
v M. bovis - occurs in many animal species including man
v M. avium complex occur in poultry, wild birds, pigs, horses;
v M. avium spp. paratuberculosis
v M. farcinogenes which causes bovine farcy.
Epidemiology and Clinical Signs
• There are different modes of spread of
tuberculosis between camelid herds.
• One is the introduction of an infected animal into
a non-infected herd.
• The mode of transmission of tuberculosis is
unknown in camelids, but it is presumed similar to
that in cattle.
• In cattle it is mainly horizontal. It is believed that
camelids suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis
infect healthy animals via aerosols.
• The alimentary, congenital, venereal and
cutaneous routes that may occur in cattle have
not been described in camelids.
 Cont’d
• Tuberculosis is rare among camels kept under nomadic
conditions.
• The disease occurs more frequently when camels are kept
in close quarters with other camels or in close contact with
cattle.
Diagnosis
• The diagnosis of camelid tuberculosis in living animals
faces many difficulties.
• None of the tests available can diagnose tuberculosis with
certainty.
• Intradermal tuberculin testing, which is the classical
diagnostic test, often gives non specific reactions in
camelids.
• A definitive diagnosis of tuberculosis requires the culturing
and specification of the organism.
Pathology
• The organs most frequently affected in the
dromedary are the lungs, bronchial and
mediastinal lymph nodes, pleura and liver. The
trachea, kidney and spleen can also be affected.
• Miliary nodes on the surface of the lung and deep
in the tissue have been observed. Tubercle bacilli
have been isolated from these lesions.
• Histopathological lesions are pyogranulomas with
dense centers containing caseous remnants of
neutrophils surrounded by epitheloid
macrophages with few giant cells.
 Treatment and Control
In many countries tuberculosis is a reportable
disease.
Positive animals must be slaughtered.
Permission was sometimes granted to treat
valuable zoo camelids with isoniazid at a dose of
2.4mg/kg of pelleted feed, which was given
adlibitum to Bactrian camels.
However, most probably due to an overdose,
several camels died, exhibiting severe leukopenia
and thrombocytopenia.
Infected properties, surfaces and utensils are
disinfected with 3% formalin, 2% Lysol and 2.5%
phenol.
Chapter 7. Parasitic Diseases

Parasitic infections may significantly limit the

productivity of camelids and other livestock by
causing a substantial reduction in the provision
of milk, meat, wool and fibers, as well as
transport.

Many conditions are of a subclinical nature.

Protozoal Infections
Trypanosomosis
The most important protozoal disease of camels is
trypanosomosis (named surra), caused by Trypanosoma
evansi.
The parasite is widespread throughout tropical and
subtropical areas.
Clinical Pathology
The anemia is macrocytic and hemolytic.

There is a decrease in erythrocytes and an increase in

lymphocytes, eosinophils and monocytes.

The infection is also accompanied by progressive

changes i n th e s eru m p ro tei n c o n c en tra ti o n s , a
decrease in albumin, an increase in γ-globulins and a
five-fold increase of IgM levels during the course of the
infection.
Transmission
T. evansi is transmitted mechanically by blood-sucking
flies.
Several biting or blood-sucking insects may serve as
vectors.
Mechanical transmission by contaminated hypodermic
needles is also a potential means of transmission.
The main vectors involved are tabanids and
Stomoxys.

Other insects may also transmit the parasite, the

efficacy of transmission depends on the interrupted
feeding behavior of tabanids, i.e. on the interval
between a fly feeding on an infected host and moving
to a clean host.
 Cont’d
• Other domesticated species like sheep and goats,
which have only mild, subclinical infections and which
often coexist with camels, might act as reservoirs.
• Surra has a marked seasonal pattern in some areas in
association with wet conditions, e.g. the development
of the biting fly populations after rain.
Clinical Signs
• Surra may be acute, subacute or chronic, with a
mortality of up to 90%.
• Acute cases often show signs of recurrent fever
accompanied by progressive anemia and poor general
condition. Edema and paralysis may also develop.
 Cont’d
Subacute infections occur with fever, edema,
emaciation and high mortality.
The edema varies from plaques on the neck and flanks
to edema of the muzzle, chest wall, sheath and scrotum
and on the legs up to the knees and hocks.
Death may take a few days or months.
The chronic form of the disease leading to wasting and
anemia is more common in camels.
It can cause abortion, premature birth and reduced milk
production.
Treatment and Control
Only a few drugs, e.g. Cymelaman@, melarsomine,
Triquin@ quinapyramine sulfate, quinapyramine
chloride and isometamidium chloride.

As there are only very limited pharmacokinetic data

available on camelids, drugs should be used with great
caution.

This also applies to the use of vaccines.

They should undergo testing by regulatory agencies for
safety and efficacy before they are used on camelids.
Coccidiosis
• They are important within the Eimeriidae and
Sarcocystidae families.

• The Eimeriidae are mainly intracellular gut-dwelling

parasites (gut-dwelling coccidia) of the intestinal
epithelium where they undergo both asexual
(schizogony) and sexual (gametogony) multiplication.

• They complete their life cycle (LC) in a single host, in

contrast to the Sarcocystidae (tissue cyst-forming
coccidia), which have a two-host LC and which form
tissue cysts in the intermediate hosts.
 Cont’d
The LC stages in both families ultimately result in the
formation of oocysts, which are environmentally
re s i s t a n t f o rm s t h a t f o l l o w i n g s p o r u l a t i o n m a y
eventually infect susceptible new hosts.
Disease outbreaks characterized by enteritis are mostly
associated with young animals living in crowded and
wet conditions, after or during the rains.
When the infective stage, the oocyst, is ingested by a
host following excystation the sporozoites are released
usually penetrating the epithelial cells of the mucosa in
the small intestine.
Clinical Signs
Young animals suffer from hemorrhagic enteritis and
diarrhea.
The feces may be stained with blood and mucus.
Animals with severe infections show signs of
inappetence, dehydration, and progressive weight loss.
Their coat is rough and hair loss may occur.
Anemia is often seen and respiration may be rapid.
Secondary bacterial infections may severely aggravate
the disease and cause mortalities in young camels.
Pathology

Development stages of the parasites are found in the

mucosa and laminapropria of the jejunum and ileum.

Histological sections show destruction and organization

o f t h e m u c o s a t o g e t h e r w i t h h e m o rrh a g e s a n d
infiltration of inflammatory cells (mainly eosinophils
and macrophages).
Diagnosis
• Young animals are particularly prone to infection of
coccidiae.
• Is based on clinical signs of diarrhea, dysentery and
often the demonstration of very large numbers of
oocysts in the feces (microscopic examination following
flotation with e.g. salt or sugar solutions).

• Verification of suspected cases of coccidiosis depends

on the demonstration of unsporulated oocysts either in
smears prepared from fresh feces or by concentration
methods involving flotation in saturated salt solutions.

• Identification is done by the morphology of the freshly

excreted oocysts as well as the sporulated oocysts.
 Cont’d
It is often necessary to sporulate the oocysts
for species differentiation.
A direct smear of diarrheic feces examined
u n d e r a m i c ro s c o p e m a y re v e a l o o c y s t s .
However, peracute and acute diseases may be
exhibited before oocysts are excreted.
The morphology of the sporocysts are helpful in
the diagnosis of species.
At necropsy, lesions in the intestine may be
recognized and asexual stages may be seen in
scrapings of the intestinal mucosa and on
histological sections.
Treatment

Coccidiosis is a self-limiting disease. Following the

multiplication stages in the intestine, recovery is often
spontaneous and occurs without any specific treatment.

W i t h re g a r d t o O W C t re a t m e n t ; s u l f a d i m i d i n e ,
sulfadimethoxin 50mg/kg i.m. for 3 to 5 days is found to
be effective.
Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis is caused by the cyst-forming coccidial
parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an important worldwide
zoonotic pathogen.
It is an intestinal coccidial parasite of cats, which
become infected by ingesting toxoplasma infected
animals, containing cysts of the organism.
The parasite in the intermediate hosts (which can be
almost any mammalian species including man) may
cause a severe disease.
G e n e r a l l y , Toxo p l a s m a i n f e c t i o n s a re
subclinical, although in pregnant individuals
the infection may cause abortion or
congenital disease in the offspring.
 Cont’d
T. gondii is one of the most common cat zoonoses.
Two separate stages of multiplication of T . gondii may
be recognized.
The sexual cycle is only completed in the intestinal
epithelium of felines (entero-epithelial phase).
This results in the development of oocysts, excreted in
cat feces.
The oocysts are highly resistant when sporulated and
can stay infective for a year or longer.
 Cont’d
• As the infection proceeds, cysts within cells are
formed containing hundreds of organisms
named bradyzoites.
• These cyst formations are characteristic of the
chronic infection.
Transmission
• Camels contract the infection by ingesting feed
contaminated with oocysts.
• Cats given camel meat excreted oocysts of
Cystoisospora felis, C. rivoltu and T. gondii.
• C. felis and C. rivoltu are coccidia of cats.
 Cont’d
Housed camels had a much higher prevalence due to
exposure to the final hosts (cats) than camels in the
desert.

T h e p re s e n c e o f a n t i b o d i e s s h o w n i n c a m e l s i s
indicative of past or present infections with T. gondii.

Public Health Concern

• C o n s u m p t i o n o f u n d e rc o o ke d c a m e l m e a t m a y
constitute a risk of infection to humans and should
therefore be of public health concern.
Treatment and Control
The antimalarial drug pyrimethamine in combination
with sulphadiazine is effective against tachyzoites.
In livestock, treatment of ovine toxoplasmosis with a
combination of sulfamezathine and pyrimethamine
proved successful.
There is no reported treatment of toxoplasmosis in
camelids.
However, if the infection is diagnosed in a herd of
camels, control measures should be employed.
Infestations with Ectoparasites
Camelids like other livestock are exposed to and
affected by a range of ectoparasites, which may
directly or indirectly cause a great diversity of health
problems.

Some ectoparasites play a significant role in many

disorders. For example, some biting insects are vectors
of disease agents such as T . evansi, and the mite
Sarcoptes scabiei is the cause of sarcoptic mange.

Both are regarded as the two most economically

important diseases in camelids.
Sarcoptic Mange
• Sarcoptic mange occurs in more than 100 species of
mammals including humans.
• The causative mite is Sarcoptes scabiei.
• The mite is thought to have a number of subspecies or
variants, each designated according to which host it
has been isolated from S . scabiei var. hominis, S .
scabiei var cameli etc.
• However, the host-specificity is not complete and
transmission from one host species to another may
occur.
• The different isolates or subspecies are morphologically
indistinguishable.
Morphology
• Sarcoptes scabiei belongs to the burrowing mites.
• It has an oval, ventrally flattened and dorsally convex
tortoise-like body
Life Cycle
• The developmental cycle of S. scabiei consists of egg,
larval, protonymphal and tritonymphal stages.
• The sarcoptic mites differ from most other mange
mites; they inhabit the epidermis of the skin excavating
tunnels in the outer cell layers.
• The mites burrow in the stratum corneum through the
dead cell layers until they reach living cells in the
stratum granulosum and stratum spinosum. Due to the
continual outgrowth of the epidermis the burrows
containing the mites and eggs are mostly found in the
comeum.
• The mites are rarely found beneath the stratum
germinativum.
• The fertilized female lays her eggs in tunnels. Her
lifespan is about four weeks and the development time
from egg to adult is about 12 to 16 days.
• The eggs are produced at a rate of three to four daily.
• The eggs hatch in 3-5 days and larvae with three pairs
Epidemiology and Transmission
Infection is mainly through direct contact.
All three developmental stages (including the
adults) are capable of migrating on the skin
surface.
However, infection occurs when the mites
become dislodged by their host scratching or
rolling on the ground, whereby infection may
take place indirectly.
Fomites also play an important part in the
transmission of the mites. Sarcoptic
 Cont’d
Mites can survive outside their host for several
days and remain infective if the microclimate is
sufficiently moist and cool.

During the dry season in the tropics, the mites

most likely do not survive for long off the host.

S . scubiei of camels remained viable away from

their host for 4 days.
S . scubiei isolated from naturally infected sheep
and goats have been successfully transferred to
domedaries.

The infection is regarded as highly contagious and

 Cont’d
Sarcoptic Mange in Camelids is regarded as one of the
most prevalent and serious camel diseases .
It is often ranked second in importance to all the
disorders in dromedary camels , and second only to
trypanosomosis.
It can generally be regarded as a chronic debilitating
condition with high morbidity and low mortality.
T h e d i s e a s e " s a r n a s a rc o p t i c a " w a s p re v i o u s l y
widespread in North American captive camelids where
it appears to be decreasing, probably through routine
deworming with ivermectin .
 Cont’d
Any camelid regardless of sex and age may
be affected by S . scabiei . However, some
reports state that the infection is more
prevalent in younger animals .
It is often cited that animals in poor
condition are more prone to infection.
However, this is controversial as others
report that animals in very good condition
can also become infected.
There are conflicting opinions regarding the
seasonality of the disease.
Some authors describe a quiescent phase
usually coinciding with winter, others finding
a higher incidence in the winter.
 Cont’d
• The disease also occurs worldwide in a wide
range of wildlife species.
Clinical Signs
• The first signs of infection are small hyperemic
papules often appearing on the medial aspect
of the thighs or inguinal region, the head and
neck, medial areas of the flanks, udder, and
shoulder.
• In severe cases any part of the body may be
affected.
• The lesions are often accompanied by intense
p r u r i t u s w i t h exc o r i a t i o n a n d s e c o n d a r y
infections. The itching and rubbing causes
alopecia.
• Hairless areas with serous exudation forming scabs
follow the first acute signs and itching may increase,
seriously disturbing the animals.
• The lesions spread and aggravate excoriation, alopecia,
and crusting, resulting in more scabs.
• The latter may be rubbed away revealing a "red raw
surface", erosions and wounds.
• Within a few weeks, the acute disease may develop to
the chronic stage, which is the stage most often
encountered in the field.
• Hyperkeratosis and proliferation of the dermis leads to
the skin becoming thicker, fissured, and corrugated
appearing like a dried cracked field of clay.
• The incubation period is believed to be around 2 to 3
weeks.
The earliest lesions are often unnoticed. Apart from the
characteristic clinical signs of pruritus, alopecia and
hyperkeratosis, demonstration of the mite is possible
by taking deep skin scrapings from several affected
areas.
proper and adequate numbers of skin scrapings from
the individual mangy animal.
Care should be taken to scrape at least 1 cm2 area of
the mangy skin. In chronic lesions where the skin is
thickened and corrugated, scrapings should be made in
the "valley" areas .
The scrapings should be done by parallel strokes of a
sharp scalpel blade at the margins of the mange lesions.
This is to be followed by taking deeper scrapings until
capillary oozing occurs on the whole scraped surface.
All scrapings, keratinous and epidermal material are
collected and placed into a broad mouthed centrifuge
tube.
The chances of making a correct diagnosis by skin
biopsies are less likely because S . scubiei mites are
rarely seen in biopsies.
In mange, varying degrees of superficial dermatitis,
epidermal spongiosis, hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis
may be observed.
Epidermal erosions and crusting are often seen due to
self-trauma.
The scrapings should first be examined with a
stereomicroscope or a magnifying glass to search
for living mites that are stimulated into movement
when the environmental temperature is above 18°C.
If no mites are observed, 100% potassium
hydroxide (KOH) solution is added to each tube
containing the skin scrapings, which are placed into
a water bath of 37°C for a few hours until the
material has disintegrated.
Adding 20mL of KOH solution to the skin material
and placing the tube into boiling water for 30
minutes.
The sample is then centrifuged at 1500 rpm for 5
minutes.
The supernatant is discarded and one to two drops
of glycerin are added to the sediment, which is
 Cont’d
• The lesions of mange are most probably caused by
hypersensitivity reactions, as has been shown in
sarcoptic mange of humans and pigs.
• Only a few sarcoptic mites burrowing into the skin of
the animal can provoke a generalized hypersensitivity
reaction leading to the typical acute signs of mange in
the host.
• Differential Diagnosis Several skin diseases may mimic
sarcoptic mange. These are:
1. Ringworm;
2. Dermatophilus congolensis
3. Infestations with other ectoparasites
4. Staphylococcus aureus dermatitis;
5. Endocrinal dermatopathy;
6. Inhalant or food allergies ;
7. Irritant dermatitis associated with contact with
abrasive surfaces when lying down
Zoonotic Potential
In Humans occasionally become infected with S. scabiei
from camel, horse, pig, goat, sheep, chamois, ferret, fox
and llama.
Direct transmission between the herders and their
animals is most likely during milking, riding, and
handling of animals.
Cross-infections by S. scabiei from animals to humans
are called pseudoscabies, distinguished from true
human scabies.
Humans infected by the itch mite S . scabiei from
camels exhibit signs similar to those of classical
scabies: pronounced intensive itching during the night.
Treatment and Control
• There are severala1 effective acaricides available today,
organochlorines, organophosphorous compounds and
synthetic pyrethrins.
• More recent drugs are applied parenterally as well as
topically. Also effective against nematode infections are
avermectins .
• When using acaricides as dip wash or sprays, it is
essential that the whole animal be covered with the
solution.
• Before acaricides are applied, such areas should
preferably be washed with lukewarm water and soap to
soften the scabs and keratinized material.
• In addition, the application of a 15% solution of salicylic
acid, a keratolytic agent, is recommended.
• The salicylic acid solution is applied a few times at an
interval of 2-3 days followed a day or two later by
 Cont’d
The animals should be treated 3 times within
an interval of 7 to 10 days, but sometimes 4 or
more applications are needed until a cure is
reached.
The topical application of acaricides is very
laborious and difficult to carry out under
nomadic conditions, but may more easily be
applied in sedentary herds. The injectible
ivermectin, doramectin have made the
treatment of sarcoptic mange much easier.
The recommended ivermectin dose is 200
mg/kg given subcutaneously and repeated after
15 days. pruritus completely ceases after one
week to 10 days following the second injection.
Four weeks after th e s e c o n d i n j e c ti o n al l
previously alopectic areas are covered with
Psoroptic Mange
• Psoroptic mange mites spend their entire life on the
skin, feeding superficially.
• They reportedly infest camelids, but are less commonly
found on camelids than S. scubiei.
Morphology
• Some of the features that distinguish Psoroptes from
the other common non-burrowing mite. Chorioptes are
the pointed mouthparts, the male’s rounded abdominal
tubercles, and the three jointed pedicels bearing
funnel-shaped suckers on most of the legs.
• The female’s third pair of legs end in bristles instead of
suckers.
Cont’d
Clinical Signs
• Common lesions consist of dry flakes in the
ears. The ears may occasionally be filled with
p u r u l e n t d i s c h a rg e re s p o n s i b l e f o r h e a d
shaking and poor coordination.
• Mites were also found in the perineum, nares,
axillae, groin, neck and legs . The piercing and
chewing mouthparts of the mite can severely
damage the skin. This stimulates a local
inflammatory reaction that exudes serous
exudate. The exu- date coagulates forming a
crust or scab.
Diagnosis
• Skin scrapings reveal the mites.
• A mite may be found in the center of the first
Chorioptic Mange
The mange mite Chorioptes commonly infests cattle,
sheep, goats and equines and, unlike S. scubiei, lives on
the skin. Unlike Psoroptes sp., its mouthparts allow the
mite to feed on scales and other skin debris.
Chorioptes sp. closely resembles Psoroptes sp., but has
rounder mouthparts and tarsal cup-shaped suckers on
short unsegmented pedicels.
Chorioptes sp. causes pruritic mange mostly seen on
the neck, tail, udder and legs in cattle and on horses’
legs below the knees and hocks.
Infestation with Chorioptes is most probably rare in
camels.
Treatment

It has been shown that pourons may be used. Bayticol,

Pour-on 1% (flumethrin), 1 mL/10 kg applied on Bactrian
camels with psoroptic mange proved to be effective.

Five days after the single topical treatment was applied,

no more living mites were found and the healing
process of the skin lesions began a few days later.
Demodectic Mange
The preferred site of the burrowing mite of the genus
Demodex is at the hair follicles and sebaceous glands
of the skin.
It is a cigar-shaped, elongated 0.2 mm long mite.
The thorax has four pairs of short stumpy legs.
The LC is only partially known. It includes eggs (70-
90pm x 19-25pm), one larval stage and two nymphal
stages, and lasts 3 weeks.
The mite is most probably transmitted from the dam to
the offspring during nursing.
Cont’d
 Cont’d
Most of the species are named after their hosts, i.e. D.
canis, D. bovis etc.
These follicular mites mainly live as commensals in the
skin.
In some animals, these mites may cause mange, of
particular severity in dogs. In bovines, the most
significant sequela to infestation is the damage to the
hide, causing economic loss.
There was no evidence of any secondary bacterial
infection in the investigated camels, nor were there any
significant histological changes other than distention of
the hair follicles.
Tick infestation
Tick infestation is a common finding throughout the
year.
Ticks commonly found on camels belong to the family
Ixodidae, so called true ticks.

Female ticks deposit their eggs in sheltered spots. The

newly hatched larvae, called seed ticks, wait on
vegetation such as grass and scrubs for a suitable host.

After attachment they feed on blood and or lymph until

they are fully engorged.
 Cont’d
They detach after having engorged. Male ticks usually
remain on the host Ionger than females.
Commonly found ticks on dromedaries are Hyalomma
ssp, Rhipicephalus ssp and Amblyomma ssp.
These are two or three host ticks.
In three host ticks each developmental stage (larvae,
nymph and imago) requires a new host after feeding.

These ticks are adapted to warm climate and their

process of development is greatly influenced by
ambient temperature.
 Cont’d
Inclement weather has a negative influence on
hatching and moulting time.
Immediately after the rainy season there is a marked
seasonal decrease in tick burdens on camels.
Apart from very heavy infestations average tick burden
in dromedaries kept under nomadic conditions is
around 50- 100 ticks per animal during the dry season.
Long Iasting grazing periods in areas heavily infested
with seed ticks and temporary crowding at watering
wells will facilitate spread and increase infestation rate.
 Cont’d
Ticks from the genus Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma are
known to be important disease vectors for domestic
livestock.

The importance of tick transmitted pathogenic agents

for dromedaries has not been thoroughly investigated.
However, outbreaks of hemorrhagic septicemia appear
to be related to heavy Hyalomma dromedarii
infestations.

The main harm caused by ticks and their

developmental stages, especially nymphs, is through
blood sucking.
 Cont’d
An adult female tick can remove 2 ml of blood, in
heavily infested calves with nymphs the blood loss
therefore can be marked and Iead to anaemia.
Ti c k b i t e s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a t t a c h m e n t p ro d u c e
skin irritation and a localized allergic or inflmmatory
skin response.
Secondary bacterial infection of these micro lesions is
possible.
Heavily infested animals show general loss of
productivity and body weight.
Amblyomma ssp. causes severe skin lesions due to
very long mouthparts
Treatment and control:
Tick infestation can be easily appreciated but nymphs
commonly hide in body regions with Ionger hair, like
the withers, neck, shoulders, hump and ribs.

A thorough examination is necessary to diagnose tick

infestation.

Heavily infested animals should be treated with pour-on

acaricides or sprayed.

In adult animals, regular application of tick grease to

common sites is recommended.
 Cont’d
Immature animals especially suckling calves should be
regularly treated in the first few months with pour on
acaricide to reduce preweaning mortality due to heavy
nymph infestation.

Altering management strategies by avoiding heavily

tick infested grazing areas, overcrowding at watering
holes and holding sites will also help to control tick
infestations
Fly infestation
Fly infestation can present several problems in camel
management.
According to their genus flies can cause myaisis,
transmit diseases, or produce simple disturbance
and irritation resulting in handling difficulties and
significant loss of productivity.
Hippobosca camelina, a biting fly belonging to the
group of camel flies is commonly found in the presence
of camels.
They are not easily disturbed and cluster in the
abdominal and inguinal region.
 Cont’d
They can serve as a disease vector, the importance as
a tryps vector is not fully assessed, but the significance
as a disease vector is thought to be negligible, since it
has been observed that the fly stays in close proximity
to the camel and rarely leaves its chosen host.
Cephalopina titillator, a myiasis producing fly, is
rarely observed, being rather short lived.
However the extremely common larval stages causing
nasal myiasis demonstrate their continuous presence
The female deposits egg clusters on the nostrils, later
the emerging larva migrate to the naso-pharynx and
attach.
 Cont’d
After completing their development the larvae are
usually removed by sneezing.
Characteristic clinical findings in affected animals are
occasionally bleeding from the nose, usually presence
of nasal discharge due to swelling and infection of the
upper respiratory tract and respiratory distress.
If larvae penetrate the ethmoturbinate bones fatalities
may ensue.
Diagnosis is based on presence of neurological signs.
Rabies should be kept in mind as a differential
diagnosis.
Drug treatment is seldom applied, but if
necessary several injectable antiparasitic drugs
seem to be effective.
Thank you