Electronic measurement and

Instrumentation

• TRANSDUCERS
• STRAIN GUAGE
 Transducer
 A transducer is a device that converts one type of
energy to another.
 The input transducer is called the sensor.
 The output transducer is called the actuator.

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 Input and Output
Transducers

Basic requirements of a transducers

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The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed.

 RUGGEDNESS (Capability of withstanding overload)

 LINEARITY (input – output characteristics should be linear)
 REPEATABILITY (should reproduce same output signal when the same input
signal is applied again and again)
 HIGH OUTPUT SIGNAL QUALITY (quality of output signal should be good)
 HIGH RELIABILITY & STABILITY
 GOOD DYNAMIC RESPONSE (output should be faithful to input when taken as
a function of time)
 NO HYSTERESIS (should not give any hysteresis during measurement)
 RESIDUAL DEFORMATION (should be no deformation on removal of local
after long period of application)

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 CLASSIFICATON OF TRANSDUCERS

PRIMARY AND ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ANALOG AND TRANSDUCERS

SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS DIGITAL AND INVERSE
TRANSDUCERS
TRANSDUCERS TRANSDUCERS
(An inverse transducer is
a device which that
converts an electrical
quantity into a
nonelectrical quantity)

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ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

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 Active and Passive Transducers
• Active Transducers: The output energy of Active
Transducers is supplied entirety or almost
entirety by its input signal.
• Passive Transducers: Have an auxiliary source of
power. This power source is necessary for the
operation of passive transducers.

Thermocouple (Active Transducer) Mic (Passive Transducer)

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 Primary Sensing Element
• sometimes called pickup, sensor, or transducer.
• It detects the physical variable to be measured,e.g. pressure,
temperature, rate of flow, etc. and converts the signal into amore
usable form.
• In practice the physical variable is usually transformed into a
mechanical or an electrical signal.

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Analog and Digital

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Resistive Transducer ( Potentiometer)

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 Wiper Contact

Translatory ( Displacement)

Helipot

Angular

Vo =
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Rotational Displacement R1R+2R2 VT

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 Resistive Transducer Fluid Level
Sensor With A
Float

The voltage V across the wiper of a linear pot is proportional to the displacement d

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 V= E (d/D)
Where D is the full-scale displacement and
E is the voltage across the pot

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 Resistance Pressure Transducer

Sensitive Diaphragm Moves

Resistance Pressure Transducer
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Bellows and Diaphragm

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Resistive Transducer

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Resistance Pressure Transducer

Construction Typical Method

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Wiper Contact

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 Strain Gauges
1. Wire Strain Gauges  Resistance Wire
 i. Unbounded ii. Bounded
 Wire Types
 i. Grid ii. Rossette ii. Torque iv. Helical
2. Foil Strain Gauges
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauges

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 Stress and Strain
Stress is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area. It
is a measure of the intensity of the total internal forces acting within a body
across imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction to external applied forces and
body forces.
In general, stress is expressed as σ is the average stress,

also called nominal stress and F is the force acting over the area A.
 Strain is the geometrical expression of deformation caused by the action
of stress on a physical body. Strain is calculated by first assuming a change
between two body states: the beginning state and the final state. Then the
difference in placement of two points in this body in those two states expresses
the numerical value of strain. Strain therefore expresses itself as a change in
size and/or shape.
The strain is defined as the fractional change in length
Strain is thus a unit less quantity strain =
l
l

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Stress and Strain

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Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge

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Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge

l
R=
A
Resistance

R
GF ( K ) = R
l
l
Guage Factor ( K)

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Strain Gauge In Bridge Arrangement

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 Types of Strain Gauges

Grid Type Strain Gauge Rossette Gauge

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 Types of Strain Gauges

Torque Type Gauges Helical Gauge

120 Ω, 350 Ω & 1000 Ω

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Foil Strain Gauges

Better for higher operating temperature

ranges

0.2mm thick

50 & 1000 Ω

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 Semiconductor Strain Gauges

For Very high Gauge Factor (+130)

0.7 – 7.0 mm

Resistances as Wired Types

Temperature
Measurement
The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) defines six primary fixed
points for reference temperatures in terms of:  The triple point of equilibrium
hydrogen 259.34 C
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 The boiling point of oxygen 182.962 C
 The boiling point of water 100.0 C
 The freezing point of zinc 419.58 C
 The freezing point of silver 961.93 C
 The freezing point of gold 1064.43 C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
The freezing points of certain other metals are also used as secondary fixed points to
provide additional reference points during calibration procedures.
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate
classes according to the physical principle on which they operate. The
main principles used are:
 The thermoelectric effect
 Resistance change
 Sensitivity of semiconductor device
 Radiative heat emission
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  Thermography
 Thermal expansion
 Resonant frequency change
 Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
 Acoustic thermometry  Colour change

 Change of state of material.

Variable Inductance type Transducer

Inductive transducers: Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit where
a change in the current flowing through that circuit induces an electromotive
force (EMF) that opposes the change in current.
In electrical circuits, any electric current i produces a magnetic field and hence
generates a total magnetic flux Φ acting on the circuit. This magnetic flux,
according to Lenz's law tends to oppose changes in the flux by generating a
voltage (a counter emf) that tends to oppose the rate of change in the current.
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The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the self-inductance which
is usually simply referred to as the inductance of the circuit
Mutual Inductance: When the varying flux field from one coil or circuit
element induces an emf in a neighboring coil or circuit element, the effect is
called Mutual Inductance.
Magnetic reluctance or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an
electrical circuit. In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current
to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to
follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. Permeance is the reciprocal of
reluctance

Variation of Self Inductance

When a single coil is used as a transducer element, the mechanical input
changes the permeance of the flux path generated by the coil, thereby changing
its inductance. This change can be measured by a suitable circuit, indicating
the value of the input. As shown in fig. below, the flux path may

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 Variation of Self Inductance
The Two Coil arrangement, is a single coil with a center tap. Movement of
the core alters the relative inductance of the two coils. These transducers are
incorporated in inductive bridge circuit in which variation in inductance ratio

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between the two coils provides the output. This is used as a secondary
transducer for pressure measurement.

Variable Permeability
Inductive Transducers Variable self inductance -Two Coil (Single coil with center tap)

Variation of Mutual Inductance

In this type, the flux from a power coil is coupled to a pickup coil, which
supplies the output. Input information in the form of armature displacement,
changes the coupling between the coils. The air gap between the core and the
armature govern the degree of coupling.
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 Variable Reluctance Transducer
A Variable reluctance Transducers are used for dynamic applications,
where the flux lines supplied by a permanent magnet are cut by the turns of the
coil. Some means of providing relative motion is included into the device.
The fig shows a simple type of reluctance pickup consisting of a coil
wound on a permanent magnetic core. Any variation of the permeance of the

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magnetic circuit causes a change in the flux, which is brought about by a serrated
surface subjected to movement. As the flux field expands or collapses,

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Three Coil mutual inductance device (LVDT)

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Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
A RVDT is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring Angular
Displacement .

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 The RVDT construction is similar in construction to LVDT, except that a cam-
shaped core replaces the core in the LVDT as shown below.

Capacitive Transducers
The principle of these type is that variations in capacitance are used to produce
measurement of many physical phenomenon such as dynamic pressure,

displacement, force, humidity, etc. 0.088KA(N−1)

An equation for capacitance is C= d Pico farads

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Where K= dielectric constant (for air K=1),
A= area of one side of one plate,
N= Number of plates, d= Separation of plate surfaces (cm)

Capacitance is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge.

Capacitance is also a measure of the amount of electric charge stored for a given
electric potential. A common form of charge storage device is a two-plate
capacitor. If the charges on the plates are +Q and −Q, and V gives the voltage
between the plates, then the capacitance is given by C=(Q/V) The SI
unit of capacitance is the farad; 1 farad = 1 coulomb per volt

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 Capacitive
Transducer
Capacitance Pickup to
measure liquid level (Changing
dielectric constant)

Opening

The above fig. shows a device used for the measurement of liquid level in a
container. The capacitance between the central electrode and the surrounding
hollow tube varies with changing dielectric constant brought about by changing
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liquid level. Thus the capacitance between the electrodes is a direct indication of
the liquid level. Variation in dielectric constant can also be utilized for
measurements of thickness, density, etc.

Capacitive Transducer
(Torque meter)

Capacitance changes depending on the change in effective area. This principle

is used in the secondary transducing element of a Torque meter. This device

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uses a sleeve with serrations cut axially and a matching internal member with
similar serrations as shown in the above fig.
Torque carried by an elastic member causes a shift in the relative positions of
the serrations, thereby changing the effective area. The resulting capacitance
change may be calibrated to read the torque directly.

Capacitive Transducer
(Capacitive Type Pressure Transducer)
The capacitance varies inversely as the distance between the plates. The fig
shows a capacitive type pressure transducer where the pressure applied to the
diaphragms changes the distance between the diaphragm & the fixed electrode
which can be taken as a measure of pressure.

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 Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
(1) Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive
(2) They have good frequency response and hence useful for
dynamic measurements.
(3) High resolution can be obtained.

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 (4) They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5) These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless.

Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers

(1) Metallic parts must be properly insulated and the frames must be earthed.
(2) They show nonlinear behaviour due to edge effects and guard rings must be
used to eliminate this effect.
(3) They are sensitive to temperature affecting their performance.
(4) The instrumentation circuitry used with these transducers are complex.
(5) Capacitance of these transducers may change with presence of dust particles
& moisture.

Piezo-Electric Transducers
Certain materials can produce an electrical potential when subjected to
mechanical strain or conversely, can change dimensions when subjected to
voltage. This effect is called ‘Piezoelectric effect'.
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 F

P i e z o e le c t r i c
c ry s ta l O u t p u t v o lt a g e
E = g tp

The fig shows a piezoelectric crystal placed between two plate electrodes and
when a force ‘F’ is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in the crystal
and a corresponding deformation. The induced charge Q=d × F where ‘d’ is the
piezoelectric constant.
The output voltage E=g × t × p where ‘t’ is crystal thickness, ‘p’ is the impressed
pressure & ‘g’ is called voltage sensitivity given by g=(d/e), e being the strain.

Piezo-Electric Materials
The common piezoelectric materials are quartz, Rochelle salt (Potassium
sodium tartrate), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and ordinary sugar.

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The desirable properties are stability, high output, insensitivity to
temperature and humidity and ability to be formed into desired shape.
Quartz is most suitable and is used in electronic oscillators. Its output
is low but stable.
Rochelle salt provides highest output, but requires protection from
moisture in air & cannot be used above 45oC.
Barium titanate is polycrystalline, thus it can be formed into a variety
of sizes & shapes.

Piezoelectrictransducersareusedtomeasuresurfaceroughness,
strain,force&torque,Pressure,motion&noise.
Photoelectric Transducers
A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. As shown
in the fig, light strikes the photo emissive cathode and releases electrons, which are
attracted towards the anode, thereby producing an electric current in the circuit. The

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 cathode & the anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope, which is either
evacuated or filled with an inert gas. The photo electric sensitivity is given by
I=s × f
Where I=Photoelectric current, s=sensitivity, f=illumination of the cathode.
The response of the photoelectric tube to different wavelengths is influenced by
(i)The transmission characteristics of the glass tube envelope and (ii)
Photo emissive characteristics of the cathode material.

Photoelectrictubesareusefulfor
countingpurposesthroughperiodic
interruptionofalightsource

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 Photoconductive Transducers
The principle of these transducers is when light strikes a semiconductor
material, its resistance decreases, there by producing an increase in the current.
The fig shows a cadmium sulphide semiconductor material to which a voltage
is applied and when light strikes, an increase in current is indicated by the meter.
Photoconductive transducers are used to measure radiation at all wavelengths.
But extreme experimental difficulties are encountered when operating with long
wavelength radiations.

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 Light Ammeter

- +
E
Semiconductor
material

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Digital Transducers

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