Self-Determination Theory and the

Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation,

Social Development, and Well-Being

Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci

University of Rochester

Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide
passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our
conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts
research guided by se(/l determination theory has focused on the catalyze both and tween-person differences in motivation and
social—contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated,
natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and
development. Specifically, factors have been examined that cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster
enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical
and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three import and practical significance because it can contribute not
innate psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but
relatedness—which when satisfied yield enhanced self- also to the design of social environments that optimize people's
motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by
diminished mo- self-determination theory ('SDT) has had an ongoing concern
with precisely these issues (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan,
tivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of 1995).
these psychological needs and processes within domains such as
health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. Self-Determination Theory
SDT is an approach to human motivation and personality that
uses traditional empirical methods while employing an
he fullest representations of humanity show people to be organismic metatheory that highlights the importance of humans'
curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are evolved inner resources for personality develop. ment and
agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997). Thus, its
themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents arena is the investigation of people's inherent growth tendencies
responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and innate psychological needs that are the basis for their self-
and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more motivation and personality integration, as well as for the
normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and conditions that foster those positive processes. Inductively, using
persistent features of human nature. the empirical process, we have identified three such needs—the
Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished needs for competence (Harter, 1978; White, 1963), relatedness
or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Reis, 1994), and autonomy
responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, (deCharms, 1968; Deci, appear to be essential for
examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, facilitating optimal functioning of the natural propensities for
alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal growth and integration, as well as for constructive social
human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological development and personal well-being.
clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit
passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of
their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go This work was supported in part by research Grant MH-53385 from the National
Institute of Mental Health. We thank all of the members of the Human Motivation
about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive
Research Group at the University of Rochester who have contributed to these
tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. ideas and research, and to Jennifer LaGuardia, Charles Couchman, and Phyllis
The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can Joe for their specific help with this article. Correspondence concerning this article
be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests should be addressed to either Richard M. Ryan or Edward L. Deci, Department of
more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester,

January 2000 • American Psychologist

Copyright 2000 by the Atnerican Psychological Association, Inc.
vol. 55, No. l, 68-78 DOI: It). 1037//0003-066X.55-L68
NY 14627. Electronic mail social values and extrinsic contingencies and progressively
may be sent to either transform them into personal values and self-motivations. In that
discussion, we outline different forms of internalized motivation,
addressing their behavioral and experiential correlates and the
conditions that are likely to promote these different motivations.
Third, we focus on studies that have directly examined the
impact of psychological need fulfillment on health and well-
being. The Nature of Motivation
Motivation concerns energy, direction, persistence and
equifinality—all aspects of activation and intention. Motivation
has been a central and perennial issue in the field of psychology.
for it is at the core of biological, cognitive, and social regulation.
Perhaps more important, in the real world, motivation is highly
valued because of its consequences: Motivation produces. It is
therefore of preeminent concern to those in roles such as
manager, teacher, religious leader, coach, health care provider,
and parent that involve mobilizing others to act.
Although motivation is often treated as a singular construct,
[email protected] or [email protected].
even superficial reflection suggests that people are moved to act
Richard M. by very different types of factors, with highly varied experiences
Ryan and consequences. People can be motivated because they value
Photo by Joe Gawlowicz, an activity or because there is strong external coercion. They can
University of Rochester be urged into action by an abiding interest or by a bribe. They
can behave from a sense of personal commitment to excel or
from fear of being surveilled. These contrasts between cases of
having internal motivation versus being externally pressured are
Much of the research guided by SDT has also examined surely familiar to everyone. The issue of whether people stand
environmental factors that hinder or undermine selfmotivation, behind a behavior out of their interests and values, or do it for
social functioning, and personal well-being. Although many reasons external to the self, is a matter of significance in every
specific deleterious effects have been explored, the research culture (e.g., Johnson, 1993) and represents a basic dimension by
suggests that these detriments can be most parsimoniously which people make sense of their own and others' behavior
described in terms of thwarting the three basic psychological (deCharms, 1968; Heider, 1958; Ryan & Connell, 1989).
needs. Thus, SDT is concerned not only with the specific nature Comparisons between people whose motivation is authentic
of positive developmental tendencies, but it also examines social (literally, self-authored or endorsed) and those who are merely
environments that are antagonistic toward these tendencies. externally controlled for an action typically reveal that the
The empirical methods used in much of the SDT research former, relative to the latter, have more interest, excitement, and
have been in the Baconian tradition, in that social contextual confidence, which in turn is manifest both as enhanced
variables have been directly manipulated to examine their effects performance, persistence, and creativity (Deci & Ryan, 1991;
on both internal processes and behavioral manifestations. The Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne, & Ilardi, 1997) and as heightened
use of experimental paradigms has allowed us to specify the vitality (Nix, Ryan, Manly, & Deci, 1999), self-esteem (Deci &
conditions under which people's natural activity and Ryan, 1995), and general well-being (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick,
constructiveness will flourish, as well as those that promote a 1995). This is so even when the people have the same level of
lack of self-motivation and social integration. In this way, we perceived competence or self-efficacy for the activity.
have used experimental methods without accepting the Because of the functional and experiential differences
mechanistic or efficient causal meta-theories that have typically between self-motivation and external regulation, a major focus of
been associated with those methods. SI)T has been to supply a more differentiated approach to
In this article we review work guided by SDT, addressing its motivation, by asking what kind of motivation is being exhibited
implications for three important outcomes. We begin with an at any given time. By considering the perceived forces that move
examination of intrinsic motivation, the prototypic manifestation a person to act, SDT has been able to identify several distinct
of the human tendency toward learning and creativity, and we types of motivation, each of which has specifiable consequences
consider research specifying conditions that facilitate versus for learning, performance, personal experience, and well-being.
forestall this special type of motivation. Second, we present an Also, by articulating a set of principles concerning how each type
analysis of self-regulation, which concerns how people take in of motivation is developed and sustained, or forestalled and
undermined.
SDT at once
recognizes a
200()
positive
January • American Psychologist
 thrust to human inherent, will be catalyzed when individuals are in conditions
nature and that conduce toward its expression. In other words, it will
provides an flourish if circumstances permit. Put in this way, the study of
account of conditions that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation is
passivity, an important first step in understanding sources of both alienation
alienation, and and liberation of the positive aspects of human nature.
CET, which focuses on the fundamental needs for
competence and autonomy, was formulated to integrate results
from initial laboratory experiments on the effects of rewards,
feedback, and other external events on intrinsic motivation, and
was subsequently tested and extended by field studies in various
settings. The theory argues, first, that social—contextual events
(e.g., feedback, communications, rewards) that conduce toward
feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic
motivation for that action. Accordingly, optimal challenges,
effectance-promoting feedback, and freedom from demeaning
evaluations were all found to facilitate intrinsic motivation. For
example, early studies showed that positive performance
psychopathology.
feedback enhanced intrinsic motivation, whereas negative
Edward L. performance feedback diminished it (Deci, 1975), and research
Deci by Vallerand and Reid (1984) showed that these effects were
Photo by Joe Gawlowicz, mediated by perceived competence.
University of Rochester CET further specifies, and studies have shown (Fisher,
1978; Ryan, 1982), that feelings of competence will not enhance
intrinsic motivation unless accompanied by a sense of autonomy
or, in attributional terms, by an internal perceived locus of
Intrinsic Motivation causality (deCharms, 1968). Thus, according to CET, people
must not only experience competence or efficacy, they must also
Perhaps no single phenomenon reflects the positive potential of
experience their behavior as self-determined for intrinsic
human nature as much as intrinsic motivation, the inherent
motivation to be in evidence. This requires either immediate
tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and
contextual supports for autonomy and competence or abiding
exercise one's capacities, to explore, and to learn.
inner resources (Reeve, 1996) that are typically the result of prior
Developmentalists acknowledge that from the time of birth,
developmental supports for perceived autonomy and competence.
children, in their healthiest states, are active, inquisitive, curious,
In fact, most of the research on the effects of environmental
and playful, even in the absence of specific rewards (e.g., Harter,
events in intrinsic motivation has focused on the issue of
1978). The construct of intrinsic motivation describes this natural
autonomy versus control rather than that of competence.
inclination toward assimilation, mastery, spontaneous interest,
Research on this issue has been considerably more controversial.
and exploration that is so essential to cognitive and social
It began with the repeated demonstration that extrinsic rewards
development and that represents a principal source of enjoyment
can undermine intrinsic motivation. Deci (1975) interpreted these
and vitality throughout life (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993;
results in terms of rewards facilitating a more external perceived
Ryan, 1995).
locus of causality (i.e., diminished autonomy). Although the
Yet, despite the fact that humans are liberally endowed with
issue of reward effects has been hotly debated, a recent,
intrinsic motivational tendencies, the evidence is now clear that
comprehensive meta-analysis (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999)
the maintenance and enhancement of this inherent propensity
confirmed, in spite of claims to the contrary by Eisenberger and
requires supportive conditions, as it can be fairly readily
Cameron (1 996), that all expected tangible rewards made
disrupted by various nonsupportive conditions. Thus, our theory
contingent on task performance do reliably undermine intrinsic
of intrinsic motivation does not concern what causes intrinsic
motivation.
motivation (which we view as an evolved propensity; Ryan et al.,
Also, research revealed that not only tangible rewards but
1997); rather, it examines the conditions that elicit and sustain,
also threats, deadlines, directives, pressured evaluations, and
versus subdue and diminish, this innate propensity.
imposed goals diminish intrinsic motivation because, like
Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) was presented by Deci
tangible rewards, they conduce toward an external perceived
and Ryan (1985) as a subtheory within SDT that had the aim of
locus of causality. In contrast, choice, acknowledgment of
specifying factors that explain variability in intrinsic motivation.
feelings, and opportunities for selfdirection were found to
CET is framed in terms of social and environmental factors that
enhance intrinsic motivation because they allow people a greater
facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation, using language
feeling of autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Field studies have
that reflects the assumption that intrinsic motivation, being
further shown that

• American Psychologist 70
2()()()

January • American Psychologist

teachers who are autonomy supportive (in contrast to understand the motivation for those activities, we need to
controlling) catalyze in their students greater intrinsic look more deeply into the nature and dynamics of extrinsic
motivation, curiosity, and desire for challenge (e.g., Deci, motivation.
Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Flink, Boggiano, & Barrett,
1990; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). Students taught with a
Self-Regulation of Extrinsic
more controlling approach not only lose initiative but learn Motivation
less effectively, especially when learning requires
Although intrinsic motivation is an important type of
conceptual, creative processing (Amabile, 1996; Grolnick
motivation, it is not the only type or even the only type of
& Ryan, 1987; Utman, 1997). Similarly, studies showed
self-determined motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Indeed,
that autonomy-supportive parents, relative to controlling
much of what people do is not, strictly speaking,
parents, have children who are more intrinsically
intrinsically motivated, especially after early childhood
motivated (Grolnick, Deci, & Ryan, 1997). Such findings
when the freedom to be intrinsically motivated is
generalized to other domains such as sport and music in
increasingly curtailed by social pressures to do activities
which supports for autonomy and competence by parents
that are not interesting and to assume a variety of new
and mentors incite more intrinsic motivation (e.g.,
responsibilities (Ryan & La Guardia, in press).
Frederick & Ryan, 1995).
The real question concerning nonintrinsically
Although autonomy and competence supports are
motivated practices is how individuals acquire the
highly salient for producing variability in intrinsic
motivation to carry them out and how this motivation
motivation, a third factor, relatedness, also bears on its
affects ongoing persistence, behavioral quality, and well-
expression. In infancy, intrinsic motivation is readily
being. Whenever a person (be it a parent, teacher, boss,
observable as exploratory behavior and, as suggested by
coach, or therapist) attempts to foster certain behaviors in
attachment theorists (e.g., Bowlby, 1979), it is more
others, the others' motivation for the behavior can range
evident when the infant is securely attached to a parent.
from amotivation or unwillingness, to passive compliance,
Studies of mothers and infants have, indeed, shown that
to active personal commitment. According to SDT, these
both security and maternal autonomy support predict more
different motivations reflect differing degrees to which the
exploratory behavior in the infants (e.g., Frodi, Bridges, &
value and regulation of the requested behavior have been
Grolnick, 1985). SDT hypothesizes that a similar dynamic
internalized and integrated. Internalization refers to
occurs in interpersonal settings over the life span, with
people's "taking in" a value or regulation, and integration
intrinsic motivation more likely to flourish in contexts
refers to the further transformation of that regulation into
characterized by a sense of security and relatedness. For
their own so that, subsequently, it will emanate from their
example, Anderson, Manoogian, and Reznick (1976)
sense of self.
found that when children worked on an interesting task in
Internalization and integration are clearly central
the presence of an adult stranger who ignored them and
issues in childhood socialization, but they are also
failed to respond to their initiations, a very low level of
continually relevant for the regulation of behavior across
intrinsic motivation resulted, and Ryan and Grolnick
the life span. In nearly every setting people enter, certain
(1986) observed lower intrinsic motivation in students
behaviors and val ues are prescribed, behaviors that are not
who experienced their teachers as cold and uncaring. Of
interesting and values that are not spontaneously adopted.
course, many intrinsically motivated behaviors are happily
Accordingly, SDT has addressed the issues of (a) the
performed in isolation, suggesting that proximal relational
processes through which such nonintrinsically motivated
supports may not be necessary for intrinsic motivation, but
behaviors can become truly self-determined, and (b) the
a secure relational base does seem to be important for the
ways in which the social environment influences those
expression of intrinsic motivation to be in evidence.
processes.
To summarize, the CET framework suggests that
The term extrinsic motivation refers to the
social environments can facilitate or forestall intrinsic
performance of an activity in order to attain some
motivation by supporting versus thwarting people's innate
separable outcome and, thus, contrasts with intrinsic
psychological needs. Strong links between intrinsic
motivation, which refers to doing an activity for the
motivation and satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and
inherent satisfaction of the activity itself. Unlike some
competence have been clearly demonstrated, and some
perspectives that view extrinsically motivated behavior as
work suggests that satisfaction of the need for relatedness,
invariantly nonautonomous, SDT proposes that extrinsic
at least in a distal sense, may also be important for
motivation can vary greatly in its relative autonomy (Ryan
intrinsic motivation. It is critical to remember, however,
& Connell, 1989; Vallerand, 1997). For example, students
that people will be intrinsically motivated only for
who do their homework because they personally grasp its
activities that hold intrinsic interest for them, activities that
value for their chosen career are extrinsically motivated, as
have the appeal of novelty, challenge, or aesthetic value.
are those who do the work only because they are adhering
For activities that do not hold such appeal, the principles
to their parents' control. Both examples involve
of CET do not apply, because the activities will not be
instrumentalities rather than enjoyment of the work itself,
experienced as intrinsically motivated to begin with. To
January 2()()() • American Psychologist 72
yet the former case of extrinsic motivation entails personal for its inherent satisfactions. It is highly autonomous and
endorsement and a feeling of choice, whereas the latter represents the prototypic instance of self-determination.
involves compliance with an external regulation. Both Extrinsically motivated behaviors, by contrast, cover the
represent intentional behavior (Heider, 1958), but they continuum between amotivation and intrinsic motivation,
vary in their relative autonomy. 'The former, of course, is varying in the extent to which their regulation is
the type of extrinsic motivation that is sought by astute autonomous.
socializing agents regardless of the applied domain. The extrinsically motivated behaviors that are least

Figure 1
The Self-Determination Continuum Showing Types of Motivation With Their Regulatory Styles, Loci of Causality, and
Corresponding Processes
Behavior Nonself-Determined Self-Determined

Motivation

Regulatory
Styles
Perceived Impersonal Extemal Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal
Locus of External Internal
Causality

Relevant Nonintentional, Compliance, Self-control, Personal Congmence, Interest,

Regulatory Nonvaluing, External Ego-Involvement, Importance, Awareness, Enjoyment,
Processes Incompetence, Rewards and Internal Rewards Conscious Synthesis Inherent
Lack of Control Punishments and Punishments Valuing With Self Satisfaction

Within SDT, Deci and Ryan (1985) introduced a autonomous are referred to as externally regulated. Such
second subtheory, called organismic integration theory behaviors are performed to satisfy an external demand or
(01T), to detail the different forms of extrinsic motivation reward contingency. Individuals typically experience
and the contextual factors that either promote or hinder externally regulated behavior as controlled or alienated,
internalization and integration of the regulation for these and their actions have an external perceived locus of
behaviors. Figure I illustrates the OIT taxonomy of causality (deCharms, 1968). External regulation is the type
motivational types, arranged from left to right in terms of of motivation focused on by operant theorists (e.g.,
the degree to which the motivations emanate from the self Skinner, 1953), and it is external regulation that was
(i.e., are self-determined). typically contrasted with intrinsic motivation in early
At the far left of the self-determination continuum is laboratory and field studies.
amotivation, the state of lacking the intention to act. When A second type of extrinsic motivation is labeled
amotivated, people either do not act at all or act without introjected regulation. Introjection involves taking in a
intent—they just go through the motions. Amotivation regulation but not fully accepting it as one's own. It is a
results from not valuing an activity (Ryan, 1995), not relatively controlled form of regulation in which behaviors
feeling competent to do it (Bandura, 1986), or not are performed to avoid guilt or anxiety or to attain ego
expecting it to yield a desired outcome (Seligman, 1975). enhancements such as pride. Put differently, introjection
To the right of amotivation in Figure I are five represents regulation by contingent self-esteem (Deci &
classifications of motivated behavior. Although many Ryan, 1995). A classic form of introjection is ego
theorists have treated motivation as a unitary concept, each involvement (deCharms, 1968; Nicholls, 1984; Ryan,
of the categories identified within ()IT describes 1982), in which people arc motivated to demonstrate
theoretically, experientially, and functionally distinct types ability (or avoid failure) in order to maintain feelings of
of motivation. At the far right of the continuum is the worth. Although internally driven, introjected behaviors
classic state of intrinsic motivation, the doing of an activity still have an external perceived locus of causality and are
73 January • American Psychologist
not really experienced as part of the self. Thus, in some to expending more effort, but it was also related to feeling
studies, external regulation (being interpersonally more anxiety and coping more poorly with failures. In
controlled) and intrqjected regulation (being contrast, identified regulation was associated with more
intrapersonally controlled) have been combined to form a interest and enjoyment of school and with more positive
controlled motivation composite (e.g.. Williams, Grow, coping styles, as well as with expending more effort.
Freedman, Ryan, & Deci, 1996). Other studies in education extended these findings,
A more autonomous, or self-determined, form ol' showing that more autonomous extrinsic motivation was
extrinsic motivation is regulation through identification. associated with more engagement (Connell & Wellborn,
Identification reflects a conscious valuing of a behavioral 1991), better performance (Miserandino, 1996), lower
goal or regulation, such that the action is accepted or dropout (Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992), higher quality
owned as personally important. Finally, the most learning (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987), and better teacher
autonomous form of extrinsic motivation is integrated ratings (Hayamizu, 1997), among other outcomes.

20()()
regulation. Integration occurs when identified regulations In the realm of health care, greater internalization has
are fully assimilated to the self, which means they have been associated with greater adherence to medications
been eval uated and brought into congruence with one's among people with chronic illnesses (Williams, Rodin,
other values and needs. Actions characterized by Ryan, Grolnick, & Deci, 1998), better long-term
integrated motivation share many qualities with intrinsic maintenance or weight loss among morbidly obese patients
motivation, although they are still considered extrinsic (Williams et al., 1996), improved glucose control among
because they are done to attain separable outcomes rather diabetics (Williams, Freedman, & Deci, 1998), and greater
than for their inherent enjoyment. In some studies, attendance and involvement in an addiction-treatment
identified, integrated, and intrinsic forms of regulation program (Ryan, Plant, & O'Malley, 1995).
have been combined to form an autonomous motivation Demonstrations of positive outcomes being
composite. associated with more internalized motivation have also
As people internalize regulations and assimilate them emerged in other diverse domains, including religion
to the self, they experience greater autonomy in action. (Ryan, Rigby, & King, 1993), physical exercise
This process may occur in stages, over time, but we are not (Chatzisarantis, Biddle, & Meek, 1997), political activity
suggesting that it is a developmental continuum in the (Koestner, Losier, V allerand, & Carducci, 1996),
sense that people must progress through each stage of environmental activism (GreenDemers, Pelletier, &
internalization with respect to a particular regulation. Menard, 1997), and intimate relationships (Blais,
Rather, they can relatively readily internalize a new Sabourin, Boucher, & Vallerand, 1990), among others.
behavioral regulation at any point along this continuum The advantages of greater internalization appear,
depending on both prior experiences and current then, to be manifold (Ryan et al., 1997), including more
situational factors (Ryan, 1995). Nonetheless, the range of behavioral effectiveness, greater volitional persistence,
behaviors that can be assimilated to the self increases over enhanced subjective well-being, and better assimilation of
time with increased cognitive capacities and ego the individual within his or her social group.
development (Loevinger & Blasi, 1991), and there is
evidence that children's general regulatory style does tend Facilitating Integration of Extrinsic
to become more internalized or self-regulated over time Motivation
(e.g., Chandler & Connell, 1987). Given the significance of internalization for personal
Ryan and Connell (1989) tested the formulation that experience and behavioral outcomes, the critical issue
these different types of motivation, with their distinct becomes how to promote autonomous regulation for
properties, lie along a continuum of relative autonomy. extrinsically motivated behaviors. That is, what are the
They investigated achievement behaviors among school social conditions that nurture versus inhibit internalization
children and found that external, introjected, identified, and integration?
and intrinsic regulatory styles were intercorrelated Because extrinsically motivated behaviors are not
according to a quasisimplex pattern, thus providing typically interesting, the primary reason people initially
evidence for an underlying continuum. Furthermore, perform such actions is because the behaviors are
differences in the type of extrinsic motivation were prompted, modeled, or valued by significant others to
associated with different experiences and outcomes. For whom they feel (or want to feel) attached or related. This
example, the more students were externally regulated the suggests that relatedness, the need to feel belongingess and
less they showed interest, value, and effort toward connectedness with others, is centrally important for
achievement and the more they tended to disown internalization. Thus, OIT proposes that internalization is
responsibility for negative outcomes, blaming others such more likely to be in evidence when there are ambient
as the teacher. Introjected regulation was positively related

January 2()()() • American Psychologist 74

supports for feelings of relatedness. For example, Ryan, regulations. When that occurs, people feel not only
Stiller, and Lynch (1994) showed that the children who competent and related but also autonomous as they carry
had more fully internalized the regulation for positive out culturally valued activities.
school-related behaviors were those who felt securely One further point needs to be made regarding the
connected to, and cared for by, their parents and teachers. controversial issue of human autonomy. The concept of
The relative internalization of extrinsically motivated autonomy has often been portrayed as being antagonistic
activities is also a function of perceived competence. to relatedness or community. In fact, some theories equate
People are more likely to adopt activities that relevant autonomy with concepts such as individualism and
social groups value when they feel efficacious with respect independence (e.g., Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986), which
to those activities. As is the case with all intentional do indeed imply low relatedness. But, within SDT,
action, ()IT suggests that supports for competence should autonomy refers not to being independent, detached, or
facilitate internalization (Vallerand, 1997). Thus, for selfish but rather to the feeling of volition that can
example, children who are directed to perform behaviors accompany any act, whether dependent or independent,
before they are developmentally ready to master them or collectivist or individualist. In fact, recent research in
understand their rationale would be predicted, at best, only Korean and U.S. samples has found a more positive
to partially internalize the regulations, remaining either relation between autonomy and collectivistic attitudes than
externally regulated or intrqjected. between autonomy and individualistic attitudes (Kim,
Finally, the experience of autonomy facilitates Butzel, & Ryan, 1998). Furthermore, research has shown
internalization and, in particular, is a critical element for a positive, rather than negative, links between relatedness to
regulation to be integrated. Contexts can yield external parents and autonomy in teenagers (Ryan & Lynch, 1989;
regulation if there are salient rewards or threats and the Ryan et al., 1994). Clearly, then, we do not equate
person feels competent enough to comply; contexts can autonomy with independence or individualism.
yield introjected regulation if a relevant reference group
endorses the activity and the person feels competent and Alienation and Its Prevention
related; but contexts can yield autonomous regulation only SDT aims to specify factors that nurture the innate human
if they are autonomy supportive, thus allowing the person potentials entailed in growth, integration, and well-being,
to feel competent, related, and autonomous. To integrate a and to explore the processes and conditions that foster the
regulation, people must grasp its meaning and synthesize healthy development and effective runctioning of
that meaning with respect to their other goals and values. inclividuals, groups, and communities. But a positive
Such deep, holistic processing (Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) approach cannot ignore pathology or close its eyes to the
is facilitated by a sense of choice, volition, and freedom alienation and inauthenticity that are prevalent in our
from excessive external pressure toward behaving or society and in others. Accordingly, we investigate
thinking a certain way. In this sense, support for autonomy nonoptimal (as well as optimal) developmental
allows individuals to actively transform values into their trajectories, much as is done in the field of developmental
own. psychopathology (e.g., Cicchetti, 1991 ). We now turn to a
Again, research results have supported this reasoning. brief consideration of that issue.
For example, Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, and Leone (1994) By definition, intrinsically motivated behaviors, the
demonstrated in a laboratory experiment that providing a prototype of self-determined actions, stem from the self.
meaningful rationale for an uninteresting behavior, along They are unalienated and authentic in the fullest sense of
with supports for autonomy and relatedness, promoted its those terms. But, as already noted, SDT recognizes that
internalization and integration. Controlling contexts extrinsically motivated actions can also become self-
yielded less overall internalization, and the internalization determined as individuals identify with and fully
that did occur in those contexts tended to be only assimilate their regulation. Thus, it is through
intrqjected. Using parent interviews, Grolnick and Ryan internalization and integration that individuals can be
(1989) found greater internalization of school-related extrinsically motivated and still be committed and
values among children whose parents were more authentic. Accumulated research now suggests that the
supportive of autonomy and relatedness. Strahan (1995) commitment and authenticity reflected in intrinsic
found that parents who were more autonomy-supportive motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation are most
promoted greater religious identification, as opposed to likely to be evident when individuals experience supports
introjection, in their offspring. Williams and Deci (1996), for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
using a longitudinal design, demonstrated greater It is the flip side of this coin, however, that speaks
internalization of biopsychosocial values and practices directly to the issues of alienation and inauthenticity and is
among medical students whose instructors were more relevant to such questions as why employees show no
autonomy-supportive. These are but a few of the many initiative, why teenagers reject their schools' values, and
findings suggesting that supports for relatedness and why patients adhere so poorly to treatment. SDT
competence facilitate internal ization and that supports for understands such occurrences in terms of the undermining
autonomy also facilitate integration of behavioral of intrinsic motivation and, perhaps even more typically,
75 January • American Psychologist
the failure of internalization. To explain the causes of such relative salience and their avenues for satisfaction are
diminished functioning, SDT suggests turning first to unchanging across the life span or that their modes of
individuals' immediate social contexts and then to their expression are the same in all cultures. The very fact that
developmental environments to examine the degree to need satisfaction is facilitated by the internalization and
which their needs for competence, autonomy, and integration of culturally endorsed values and behaviors
relatedness are being or have been thwarted. We maintain suggests that individuals are likely to express their
that by failing to provide supports for competence, competence, autonomy, and relatedness differently within
autonomy, and relatedness, not only of children but also of cultures that hold different values. Indeed, the mode and
students, employees, patients, and athletes, socializing degree of people's psychological-need satisfaction is
agents and organizations contribute to alienation and ill- theorized to be influenced not only by their own
being. The fact that psychological-need deprivation competencies but, even more important, by the ambient
appears to be a principal source of human distress suggests demands, obstacles, and affordances in their sociocultural
that assessments and interventions would do well to target contexts. Thus, to posit universal psychological needs does
these primary foundations of mental health. not diminish the importance of variability in goals and
orientations at different developmental epochs or in
Psychological Needs and different cultures, but it does suggest similarities in
underlying processes that lead to the development and
Mental Health expression of those differences.
As we have seen, both the cognitive evaluation and Our recent investigations of the importance of basic
organismic integration components of SDT have led us to psychological needs have addressed three questions: Are
posit a parsimonious list of three basic psychological the pursuit and attainment of all culturally congruent
needs as a means of organizing and interpreting a wide aspirations and life values associated with well-being? Do
array of empirical results, results that seemed not to be need-related processes operate similarly within different
readily and satisfactorily interpretable without [he concept cultural circumstances? Is within-person variability in
of needs. Much of our more recent work has used the basic need satisfaction related to variability in well-being
concept of three basic psychological needs to address new indi cators? We briefly consider some of this work.
phenomena and, more particularly, to evaluate the First, we discuss the relation of personal goals to
postulate that these three needs arc innate, essential, and well-being. We have hypothesized that the pursuit and
universal. attainment of some life goals will provide relatively direct
By our definition, a basic need, whether it be a satisfaction of the basic needs, thus enhancing well-being
physiological need (Hull, 1943) or a psychological need, is (Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser, & Deci, 1996), whereas the
an energizing state that, if satisfied, conduces toward pursuit and attainment of other goals does not contribute to
health and well-being but, if not satisfied, contributes to and may even detract from basic need satisfactions,
pathology and ill-being. We have thus proposed that the leading to ill-being. In accord with this reasoning, T.
basic needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness Kasser and Ryan (1993, 1996) examined individual
must be satisfied across the life span for an individual to differences in the emphasis people place on intrinsic

2000
experience an ongoing sense of integrity and well-being or aspirations (goals such as affiliation, personal growth, and
"eudaimonia" (Ryan & Frederick, 1997; Waterman, 1993). community that directly satisfy basic needs) compared
Accordingly, much of our research now focuses on the link with extrinsic aspirations (goals such as wealth, fame, and
between satisfaction of the basic psychological needs and image that at best indircctly satisfy the needs). They found,
the experience of well-being. first, that placing strong relative importance on intrinsic
Specifying psychological needs as essential aspirations was positively associated with well-being
nutriments implies that individuals cannot thrive without indicators such as selfesteem, self-actualization, and the
satisfying all of them, any more than people can thrive inverse of depression and anxiety, whereas placing strong
with water but not food. Thus, for example, a social relative importance on extrinsic aspirations was negatively
environment that affords competence but fails to nurture related to these well-being indicators. Ryan, Chirkov,
relatedness is expected to result in some impoverishment Little, Sheldon, Timoshina. and Deci (1999) replicated
of wellbeing. Worse yet, social contexts that engender these findings in a Russian sample, attesting to the
conflicts between basic needs set up the conditions for potential generalizability of the findings across cultures.
alienation and psychopathology (Ryan et al., 1995), as These findings go beyond goal importance per se.
when a child is required by parents to give up autonomy in Both Ryan, Chirkov, et al. and T. Kasser and Ryan (in
order to feel loved. press) have found that whereas self-reported attainment of
To suggest that the three needs are universal and intrinsic aspirations was positively associated with
developmentally persistent does not imply that their wellbeing, attainment of extrinsic aspirations was not.

January 2()()() • American Psychologist 76

Further, Sheldon and Kasser (1998) found in a hierarchical linear mod* eling to show that within-person
longitudinal study that well-being was enhanced by daily fluctuations in the satisfaction of autonomy and
attainment of intrinsic goals, whereas success at extrinsic competence needs predicted within-person fluctuations in
goals provided little benefit. Together, these results outcomes such as mood, vitality, physical symptoms, and
suggest that even highly efficacious people may self-esteem. In a more recent study, Reis, Sheldon, Gable,
experience less than optimal wellbeing if they pursue and Roscoe, and Ryan (in press) found that variations in the
successfully attain goals that do not fulfill basic fulfillment of each of the three needs (i.e., competence,
psychological needs. We hasten to add, however, that the autonomy, and relatedness) independently predicted
meaning of specific goals is culturally influenced, so that variability in daily well-being. These studies support the
how specific goals relate to well-being can vary across view that basic psychological needs are determinative with
cultures, although the relation between underlying need regard to optimal experience and well-being in daily life.
satisfaction and well-being is theorized to be invariant.
Clearly, there are many factors that lead people to Conclusions
emphasize certain life goals that may not be need Debates concerning the activity or passivity, responsibility
fulfilling. For example, exposure to the commercial media or indolence, of human beings have been perennial (Kohn,
can prompt a focus on materialism (Richins, 1987), which 1990). As psychology has become more advanced, both in
provides only fleeting satisfactions and could actually terms of our understanding of evolution and neurobiology
detract from basic need fulfillment and, thus, well-being. and of social behavior and its causation, ample support for
Prior deficits in need fulfillment (e.g., from poor both perspectives could be garnered. SDT addresses this
caregiving) might also lead individuals to yearn for more issue by attempting to account for both the activity and the
extrinsic goals as a substitute or compensatory mechanism. passivity, the responsibility and the indolence. To do this,
In fact, T. Kasser, Ryan, Zax, and Sameroff (1995) found we have assumed that humans have an inclination toward
that teens who had been exposed to cold, controlling activity and integration, but also have a vulnerability to
maternal care (as assessed with ratings by the teens, passivity. Our focus, accordingly, has been to specify the
mothers, and observers) were more likely to develop conditions that tend to support people's natural activity
materialistic orientations, compared with better nurtured versus elicit or exploit their vulnerability.
teens who more strongly valued the intrinsic goals of Our early investigations focused on the social
personal growth, relationships, and community. In short, conditions that enhance versus diminish a very positive
cultural and developmental influences produce variations feature of human nature, namely, the natural activity and
in the importance of goals, the pursuit of which, in turn, curiosity referred to as intrinsic motivation. We found that
yields different satisfaction of basic needs and different conditions supportive of autonomy and competence
levels of well-being. reliably facilitated this vital expression of the human
In other research, we have examined the relations of growth tendency, whereas conditions that controlled
people's reports of need satisfaction to indicators of behavior and hindered perceived etTectance undermined
wellbeing in various settings. For example, V. Kasser and its expression. Subsequently, we investigated the
Ryan (in press) found that supports for autonomy and acquisition and regulation of nonintrinsically motivated
relatedness predicted greater well-being among nursing behaviors and, here too, we found evidence of the dramatic
home residents, 13aard, l)eci, and Ryan (1998) showed power of social contexts to enhance or hinder the
that employees' experiences of satisfaction of the needs for organismic tendency to integrate ambient social values and
autonomy, competence. and relatedness in the workplace responsibilities. Contexts supportive of autonomy,
predicted their performance and well-being at work. Such competence, and relatedness were found to foster greater
research shows that within specific domains, especially internalization and integration than contexts that thwart
those central to the lives of individuals, need satisfaction is satisfaction of these needs. This latter finding, we argue, is
correlated with improved well-being. of great significance for individuals who wish to motivate
A more compelling way of demonstrating the others in a way that engenders commitment, effort, and
essential relations between need fulfillments and mental high-quality performance.
health has been the examination of role-to-role and day-to- Yet, our primary concern throughout this program of
day fluctuations in basic need satisfaction and their direct research has been the well-being of individuals, whether
effects on variability in well-being, while controlling for they are students in classrooms, patients in clinics, athletes
individual differences and various confounding variables. on the playing field, or employees in the workplace. As
For example, Sheldon et al. (1997) demonstrated that formulated by SDT, if the social contexts in which such
satisfaction in each of several life roles (e.g., student, individuals are embedded are responsive to basic
employee, friend), relative to the individual's own mean psychological needs, they provide the appropriate
satisfaction, was attributable to the degree to which that developmental lattice upon which an active, assimilative,
role supports authenticity and autonomous functioning. and integrated nature can ascend. Excessive control,
Similarly, in a study that examined daily variations in nonoptimal challenges, and lack of connectedness, on the
well-being, Sheldon, Reis, and Ryan (1996) used other hand, disrupt the inherent actualizing and
77 January • American Psychologist
 organizational tendencies endowed by nature, and thus Baard, P. P. , Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1998). Intrinsic need
such factors result not only in the lack of initiative and satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in
work settings. Unpublished manuscript, Fordham University.
responsibility but also in distress and psychopathology. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social
Knowledge concerning the nutriments essential for cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
positive motivation and experience and, in turn, for Baumeister, R. , & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for
enhanced performance and well-being has broad intemersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
significance. It is relevant to parents and educators Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
Blais, M. R. , Sabourin, S., Boucher, C. & Vallerand, R. J. (1990),
concerned with cognitive and personality development Toward a motivational model of couple happiness. Journal of
because it speaks to the conditions that promote the Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1021-1031.
assimilation of both information and behavioral Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds.
regulations. It is also relevant to managers who want to London: Tavistock.
facilitate motivation and commie ment on the job, and it is Chandler, C. L. & Connell, J. P. (1987). Children's intrinsic, extrinsic and
internalized motivation: A developmental study of children's reasons
relevant to psychotherapists and health professionals for liked and disliked behaviours. British Journal of Developmental
because motivation is perhaps the critical variable in Psychology. 5, 357-365.
producing maintained change. Thus, by attending to the Chatzisarantis, N, L. D, Biddle, S. J. ll., & Meek, G. A. (1997). A self-
relative presence or deprivation of supports for basic determination theory approach to the study of intentions and the
intention— behaviour relationship in children's physical activity.
psychological needs, practitioners are better able to
British Journal of Heallh Psychology, 2, 343—36().
diagnose sources of alienation versus engagement, and Cicchetti, D. (1991). Fractures in the crystal: Developmental
facilitate both enhanced human achievements and well- psychopathology and the emergence of self. [Developmental Review,
being. Il, 271— 287.
Connell, J. P. , & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy and
REFERENCES relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes, In M. R.
Gunnar & L. .A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota Symposium on Child
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. New York: Westview Psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 43-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Press. Anderson, R. , Manoogian, S. T. , & Reznick, J. S. (1976). The Csikszentrnihalyi, M., & Rathunde, K. (1993). The measurement of flow
undermining and enhancing of intrinsic motivation in preschool children. in everyday life: Toward a theory of emergent motivation. In J. E.
Journal of Personalitv and Social Psychology, 34, 915—922. Jacobs (Ed.), Developmental perspec/ives on motivation (pp. 57—97).
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New Yolk: Academic Press.

200()

What Is Mental Health

Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel,
and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health
is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.

Over the course of your life, if you experience mental health problems, your thinking, mood, and behavior
could be affected. Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:

 Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry

 Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
 Family history of mental health problems

Mental health problems are common but help is available. People with mental health problems can get
better and many recover completely.

Early Warning Signs

Not sure if you or someone you know is living with mental health problems? Experiencing one or
more of the following feelings or behaviors can be an early warning sign of a problem:

January 2()()() • American Psychologist 78

  Eating or sleeping too much or too little
 Pulling away from people and usual activities
 Having low or no energy
 Feeling numb or like nothing matters
 Having unexplained aches and pains
 Feeling helpless or hopeless
 Smoking, drinking, or using drugs more than usual
 Feeling unusually confused, forgetful, on edge, angry, upset, worried, or scared
 Yelling or fighting with family and friends
 Experiencing severe mood swings that cause problems in relationships
 Having persistent thoughts and memories you can't get out of your head
 Hearing voices or believing things that are not true
 Thinking of harming yourself or others
 Inability to perform daily tasks like taking care of your kids or getting to work or school

Learn more about specific mental health problems and where to find help.

Mental Health and Wellness

Positive mental health allows people to:

 Realize their full potential

 Cope with the stresses of life
 Work productively
 Make meaningful contributions to their communities

Ways to maintain positive mental health include:

 Getting professional help if you need it

 Connecting with others
 Staying positive
 Getting physically active
 Helping others
 Getting enough sleep
 Developing coping skills

79 January • American Psychologist

 Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum. Kasser, T.. Ryan, R. M., Zax, M. , & Sameroff, A. J. (1995). relations of
Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). maternal and social environments to late adolescents' materialistic and
Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective. prosocial values. Developmental Psychology, M, 9()7—914.
Journal of Personality, 62, 119-142. Kasser, V. , & Ryan, R. M. (in press). The relation of psychological needs
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review for autonomy and relatedness to vitality, weJLbeing, and mortality in a
of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic nursing home. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627—668. Kim, Butzel, J. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1998, June). Interdependence and
Deci, E. L., Nezlek, J., & Sheinman, L. (1981). Characteristics of the well-being: A function of culture and relatedness needs. Paper
rewarder and intrinsic motivation of the rewardee. Journal of presented at The International Society for the Study of Personal
Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 1—10. Relationships, Saratoga Spring, NY.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self- Koestner, R., I-osier, G. F., Valierand, R. J., & Carducci, D. (1996).
determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. Identified and introjected forms of political internalization: Extending
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 70, 1025-1036.
Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium
on Motivation: Vol. 38. Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237—288). Kohn, A. (1990). T/le brighter side Q/ human nature. New York: Basic
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Books.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true Kuhl, J.. & Fuhrmann, A. (1998). Decomposing self-regulation and
self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. selfcontrol. In J. Heckhausen & C. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation and
31—49). New York: Plenum. selfregulation across the (pp. 15—49). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Eisenberger, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward:
Reality of myth? American Psychologist, 51, 1153—1166. Loevinger, J.. & Blasi, A. (1991). Development of the self as subject. In J.
Fisher, C. D. (1978). The effects of personal control, competence, and Strauss & G. Goethals (Eds.), The self: Interdisciplinary approaches
(pp. 150—167). New York: Springer-Verlag.
extrinsic reward systems on intrinsic motivation. Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, 21, 273—288. Miserandino, M. (1996). Children who do well in school: Individual
Flink, C, Boggiano, A. K. , & Barrett, M. (1990). Controlling teaching differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above-average
children. Journal Q/ Educational Psychology, 88, 203—214.
strategies: Undermining children's self-determination and performance.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 916—924. Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability,
Frederick, C. M., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Self-determination in sport: A subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological
Review, 91. 328—346.
review using cognitive evaluation theory. International Journal of Sport
Psychology, 26, 5—23. Nix, cr., Ryan, R. M., Manly, J. B., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Revitalization
Frodi, A., Bridges, L. , & Grolnick, W. S. (1985). Correlates of through self-regulation: The effects of autonomous and controlled
motivation on happiness and vitality. Journal of Experimental Social
masteryrelated behavior: A short-term longitudinal study of infants in
their second year. Child Development, 56, 1291—1298. Psychology, 35, 266—284.
Green-Demers, 1., Pelletier, L G. , & Menard, S. (1997). The impact of Reeve, J. (1996). Motivating others. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
behavioural difficulty on the saliency of the association between
selfdetermined motivation and environmental behaviours. Canadian Reis, H. T. (1994). Domains of experience: Investigating relationship
Journal of Behavioural Science, 29, 157—166. processes from three perspectives. In R. Erber & R. Gilmour (Eds.),
Theoretical frameworks jör personal relationships (pp. 87—1 10).
Grolnick, W. S. , Deci, E. L. , & Ryan, R. M. (1997). Internalization
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
within the family. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and
Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (in
children 's internalization of values: A handbook of contemporary
press). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and
theory (pp. 135—161). New York: Wiley.
relatedness. Personality and Social Psvchology Bulletin.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). Autonomy in children's learning: Richins, M. ( 1987). Media, materialism and human happiness. Advances
An experimental and individual difference investigation. Journal of in Consumer Research, 14, 352—356,
Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 890—898. Ryan, R. M. (_1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere:
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and
children's self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 450—461.
Educational Psychology, 81, 143—154. Ryan, R. M. ( 1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of
Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, 397—427.
developmental model. Human Development, 1, 661—669. Ryan, R. M., Chirkov, V. 1., Little, T. D., Sheldon, K. M., Timoshina, E.,
Hayamizu, T. (1997). Between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Japanese & Deci, E. L. (1999). The American dream in Russia: Extrinsic
Psychological Research, 39, 98—108. aspirations and well-being in two cultures. Personality and Social
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1509-1524.
Wiley.
Ryan, R. M, & Connell, J. P, (1989). Perceived locus of causality and
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749
theory. New York: AppletonC,entury-Crofts. 761.
Johnson, F. A. (1993), Dependency and Japanese socialization. New York: Ryan, R. M. , Deci, E, L. , & Grolnick, W. S. (1995). Autonomy,
NYU Press. relatedness, and the self: Their relation to development and
Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & I). J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental
Correlates of financial success as a life aspiration. Journal of psychopathology: Theory and methods (pp. 618—655). New York:
Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410—422. Wiley.
Kasser, T. , & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American Ryan, R. M.. & Frederick, C. M. ( 1997). On energy, personality, and
dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. JouF
Personality and Social Psychology Bulle!in, 22, 8()—87. nal ef Personality, 65, 529—565.
Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (in press). Be careful what you wish for: Ryan, R. M., & (Grolnick, W. S. (1986). Origins and pawns in the
Optimal functioning and the relative attainment of intrinsic and classroom: Self-report ancl projective assessments of individual
extrinsic goals. In P. Schmuck & K. M. Sheldon (Eds.), Lift goals and ences in children's perceptions. Journal Q/' Personality and Social
well-being, Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science. Psychology 50, 550-558.

January • American Psychologist 80

Ryan, R. M.. Kuhl, J. , & Deci, E. L. (1997). Nature and autonomy: Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York:
Organizational view of social and neurobiological aspects of selt z MacmilIan.
regulation in behavior and development. Development and Steinberg, L. , & Silverberg, S. (1986). The vicissitudes of autonomy in
Psychopaihology, 9, 701-728. adolescence. Child Development, 57, 841—851.
Ryan, R. M.. & La Guardia. J. G. (in press). What is being optimized over Strahan. B. J. (1995). Marriage, family and religion. Sydney, Australia:
development'?: A self-determination theory perspective on basic Adventist Institute.
psychological needs across the life span. In S. Qualls & R. Abeles Utman, C. H. (1997). Performance effects of motivational state: A
(Eds.), Dialogues on psychology and aging. Washington. DC: metaanalysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 170—182.
American Psychological Association. Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and
Ryan, R. M. , & Lynch, J, (1989). Emotional autonomy versus extrinsic motivation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental

200()
detachment: Revisiting the vicissitudes of adolescence and young social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 271—360). San Diego, CA: Academic
adulthood. Child Development, 60, 340—356. Press.
Ryan, R. M., Plant, R. W. , & O'Malley, S. (1995). Initial motivations for Vallerand, R. J., & Bissonnette, R. (1992). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and
alcohol treatment: Relations with patient characteristics, treatment amotivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study.
involvement and dropout. Addictive Behaviors, 20, 279—297. Journal of Personality, 60, 599—620.
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, S., & King, K. (1993). Two types of religious Vallerand, R. J.. & Reid, G. (1984). On the causal effects of perceived
internalization and their relations to religious orientations and mental competence on intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive evaluation
health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 586—596. theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 94—102.
Ryan, R. M., Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., & Deci, E. L. (1996). All goals Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of
are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals personal expressiveness and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality
and their regulation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The and Social Psychology, 64, 678—691.
psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. White, R. W. (1963). Ego and reality in psychoanalytic lheory. New York:
7—26). New York: Guilford Press. International Universities Press.
Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of
Williams, G. C., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Internalization of biopsychosocial
relationships to teachers, parents, and friends as predictors of academic
values by medical students. Journal Pems•onality and Social Psychol
motivation and self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 226
70, 767-779.
249.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness. San Francisco: Freeman. Williams, G. C., Freedman, Z. R. , & Deci, E. L. (1998). Supporting
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1998). Pursuing personal goals: Skills autonomy to motivate glucose control in patients with diabetes.
enable progress, but not all progress is beneficial. Personality and Social Diahetes care, 21, 1644-1651.
Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1319-1331. Williams. G. C., Grow, V. M., Freedman, Z., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.
Sheldon, K. M„ Reis, H. T. , & Ryan, R. (1996). What makes for a good (1996). Motivational predictors of weight loss and weight-loss
day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. PersoRE maintenance. ./ournal Qf Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 115
ality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, —126.
Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L, & liardi, B. (1997). Trait Williams, G. C., Rodin, G. C., Ryan, R. M., Groinick, W. S., & Deci, E.
self and true self: Cross-role variation in the Big Five traits and its L. (1998). Autonomous regulation and long-term medication
relations with authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of adherence in adult outpatients. Health Psychology, 17, 269—276.
Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1380—1393.

2()00

81 January • American Psychologist