Lesson 1
Lesson 1
Lesson 1
Baliwag, Bulacan
MODULE 1
Prepared by:
Marvic V. Ablaza, MM
Assistant Professor I
Objectives:
After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:
Define statistics
Enumerate the importance and limitation of statistics
Explain the process of statistics
Know the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative variables
Distinguish between discrete and continuous variables
Determine the level of measurement of a variable
Definition of Statistics
Statistics plays a major role in many aspects of our lives. It is used in sports, for
example, to help a general manager decide which player might be the best fit for a
team. It is used in politics to help candidates understand how the public feels about
various policies. And statistics is used in medicine to help determine the effectiveness of
new drugs. Used appropriately, statistics can enhance our understanding of the world
around us. Used inappropriately, it can lend support to inaccurate beliefs.
Understanding statistical methods will provide you with the ability to analyze and
critique studies and the opportunity to become an informed consumer of information.
Understanding statistical methods will also enable you to distinguish solid analysis from
bogus “facts.”
Many people say that statistics is numbers. After all, we are bombarded by
numbers that supposedly represent how we feel and who we are. Certainly, statistics
has a lot to do with numbers, but this definition is only partially correct. Statistics is also
about where the numbers come from (that is, how they were obtained) and how closely
the numbers reflect reality.
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and analyzing
information to draw conclusions or answer questions. In addition, statistics is about
providing a measure of confidence in any conclusions.
Let’s break this definition into four parts. The first part states that statistics
involves the collection of information. The second refers to the organization and
summarization of information. The third states that the information is analyzed
to draw conclusions or answer specific questions. The fourth part states that
results should be reported using some measure that represents how
convinced we are that our conclusions reflect reality.
Field of Statistics
A. Mathematical Statistics - The study and development of statistical theory and
methods in the abstract.
B. Applied Statistics - The application of statistical methods to solve real
problems involving randomly generated data and the development of new
statistical methodology motivated by real problems. Example branches of Applied
Statistics: psychometric, econometrics, and biostatistics.
Limitation of Statistics
1. Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon.
2. Statistics does not study individuals.
3. Statistical laws are not exact.
4. Statistics table may be misused.
5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a problem.
Definitions:
Universe is the set of all entities under study.
Inferential statistics uses methods that take a result from a sample, extend it
to the population, and measure the reliability of the result.
You are walking down the street and notice that a person walking in front of you drops
PHP100. Nobody seems to notice the PHP100 except you. Since you could keep the
money without anyone knowing, would you keep the money or return it to the owner?
Suppose you wanted to use this scenario as a gauge of the morality of students at your
school by determining the percent of students who would return the money. How might
you do this? You could attempt to present the scenario to every student at the school,
but this would be difficult or impossible if the student body is large. A second possibility
is to present the scenario to 50 students and use the results to make a statement about
all the students at the school.
In the PHP100 study presented, the population is all the students at the school. Each
student is an individual. The sample is the 50 students selected to participate in the
study.
Suppose 39 of the 50 students stated that they would return the money to the owner.
We could present this result by saying that the percent of students in the survey who
would return the money to the owner is 78%. This is an example of a descriptive
statistic because it describes the results of the sample without making any general
conclusions about the population. So 78% is a statistic because it is a numerical
summary based on a sample. Descriptive statistics make it easier to get an overview of
what the data are telling us.
Example:
A research objective is presented. For each research objective, identify the population
and sample in the study.
1. The Philippine Mental Health Associations contacts 1,028 teenagers who are 13
to 17 years of age and live in Antipolo City and asked whether or not they had
been prescribed medications for any mental disorders, such as depression or
anxiety.
2. A farmer wanted to learn about the weight of his soybean crop. He randomly
sampled 100 plants and weighted the soybeans on each plant.
Example:
For the following statements, decide whether it belongs to the field of descriptive
statistics or inferential statistics.
1. A badminton player wants to know his average score for the past 10 games.
(Descriptive Statistics)
2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average lifetime of batteries by testing a
sample of 50 batteries. (Inferential Statistics)
3. Janine wants to determine the variability of her six exam scores in Algebra.
(Descriptive Statistics)
4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the number of passengers traveling via their
ships next year using their data on the number of passengers in the past three years.
(Inferential Statistics)
5. A politician wants to determine the total number of votes his rival obtained in the
past election based on his copies of the tally sheet of electoral returns.
(Descriptive Statistics)
Variables are the characteristics of the individuals within the population. For
example, recently my mother and I planted a tomato plant in our backyard. We
collected information about the tomatoes harvested from the plant.
The individuals we studied were the tomatoes. The variable that interested us
was the weight of a tomato. My mom noted that the tomatoes had different weights
even though they came from the same plant. She discovered that variables such as
weight may vary.
If variables did not vary, they would be constants, and statistical inference
would not be necessary. Think about it this way: If each tomato had the same
weight, then knowing the weight of one tomato would allow us to determine the
weights of all tomatoes. However, the weights of the tomatoes vary.
One goal of research is to learn the causes of the variability so that we can learn
to grow plants that yield the best tomatoes.
It is helpful to divide variables into different types, as different statistical
methods are applicable to each. The main division is into qualitative (or categorical) or
quantitative (or numerical variables).
Example:
Determine whether the following variables are qualitative or quantitative.
1. Hair color (Qualitative)
2. Temperature (Quantitative)
3. Stages of breast cancer (Qualitative)
4. Number of hamburger sold (Quantitative)
5. Number of children (Quantitative)
6. Zip code (Qualitative)
7. Place of birth (Qualitative)
8. Degree of pain (Qualitative)
Example:
Determine whether the following quantitative variables are discrete or continuous.
1. The number of heads obtained after flipping a coin five times. (Discrete)
2. The number of cars that arrive at a McDonald’s drive-through between 12:00 P.M
and 1:00 P.M. (Discrete)
3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can travel in city conditions with a full tank of
gas. (Continuous)
4. Number of words correctly spelled. (Discrete)
5. Time of a runner to finish one lap. (Continuous)
Example:
Method of payment (cash, check, debit card, credit card)
Type of school (public vs. private)
Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown)
2. Ordinal Level - This involves data that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data values either cannot be determined or meaningless. An
ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also ranks them in terms of the
degree to which they possess a characteristics of interest. In other words, an
ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from highest to lowest, from most to
least. Although ordinal scales indicate that some subjects are higher, or lower
than others, they do not indicate how much higher or how much better.
Example:
Food Preferences
Stage of Disease
Social Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower )
Severity of Pain
Example:
Temperature on Fahrenheit / Celsius Thermometer
Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low anxious)
IQ (e.g., high IQ vs. average IQ vs. low IQ)
4. Ratio Level - A ratio scale represents the highest, most precise, level of
measurement. It has the properties of the interval level of measurement and the
ratios of the values of the variable have meaning. A value of zero means the
absence of the quantity. Arithmetic operations such as multiplication and division
can be performed on the values of the variable.
Example:
Height and weight
Time
Time until death
Both interval and ratio data involve measurement. Most data analysis techniques
that apply to ratio data also apply to interval data. Therefore, in most practical aspects,
these types of data (interval and ratio) are grouped under metric data. In some other
instances, these type of data are also known as numerical discrete and numerical
continuous.
1. A polling organization contacts 2141 male university graduates who have a white
collar job and asks whether or not they had received a raise at work during the
past 4 months.
A. ______________________________
B. ______________________________
2. Every year the PSA releases the Current Population Report based on a survey of
50,000 households. The goal of this report is to learn the demographic
characteristics, such as income, of all households within the Philippines.
A. ______________________________
B. ______________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Identify the qualitative and quantitative variables and indicate the highest
level of measurement required in each. If quantitative, classify whether
discrete or continuous.
1. Occupation
2. Number of government officials
3. Favorite color
4. Temperature in Celsius degrees
5. Type of school
6. Volume of mineral water sold daily
7. Employee number
8. Civil status
9. Equity accounts
10. Brands of soft drinks
11. Socioeconomic status
12. Status Employment
13. Number of missing teeth
14. Number of vehicles registered
15. Jersey Number
16. Number of employees collecting retirement benefits from GSIS
17. Duration of a seizure
18. Cause of death
19. Dividends
20. Current assets list
21. Number of heart attacks
22. Account receivable
23. Clothing size
24. Blood type
25. Ethnic group