Beethoven's Annotations To Cramer's Twenty-One Piano Studies - Context and Analysis of Performance

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Citation: Karydis, D. (2006). Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano

studies : context and analysis of performance. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University
London)
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BEETHOVEN'S ANNOTATIONS TO CRAMER'S TWENTY-ONE
PIANO STUDIES: CONTEXT AND ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
'Doctor of Musical Arts' (DMA)
Dimitris Karydis
City University
Music Department
March 2006
Contents
Introduction I
............................................................................................
Chapter 1: John Baptist Cramer and the Studio per il Pianoforte 10

............................
Chapter 2: Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies 32

................
i) Bindung 34
...............................................................................
ii) Longs and Shorts 67
...................................................................
iii) Accentuation 86
...................................................................
Chapter 3: The Allegretto of Op. 54: Suggestionsfor performance based on Beethoven's
annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies..................................... 116
Appendix: Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies, translated into
English by John Shedlock 136

.................................................................
Bibliography 144
.......................................................................................
ii
To Aliki Vatikioti t,
My beloved teacher, who was the first to show me how to approach Beethoven's
masterworks for the piano.
Many thanks and my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Simon Keefe for
his time, support and expertise. I would also like to thank Martino Tirimo for his advice
and guidance as well as Petros Moschos for his personal interest, support and
encouragementthrough the entire degree process. Also many thanks to Eoin Hayden and
Michael Bradley for their advice on language issues.
grant powers of discretion to the University Librarian to allow this thesis to be copied
in whole or in part without further reference to me. This permission covers only single
copies made for study purposes, subject to non-nal conditions of acknowledgement'.
iii
The present study focuses on the annotations Beethoven appended to twenty-one piano
studies by John Baptist Cramer, when teaching his nephew Karl. Beethoven held
Cramer's collection of studies in high esteem and considered them the best preparatory
school for his own works. The reading of his annotations reveals a continual pre-
occupation with issues such as legato (or bindung in Beethoven's own words),
accentuation and the application of poetic feet in the music. This study examines the
context of these annotations and applies them to Beethoven's piano music. The author's
goal is to stimulate interest in Cramer's neglected Studio per il Pianoforte and to use
Beethoven's advice on the execution of these studies as a guide for the performance of
his own works. The author believes that this study will serve as a valuable tool to the
teacherswho teach the piano music of Beethoven and his era, the students who study his
music as well as the professional performers of Beethoven's piano works.
IV
INTRODUCTION
Modem scholarship has devoted a great deal of attention to problems of
performance practice in Beethoven's piano music. Issues such as tempo, articulation,
phrasing, dynamics, fingering have been discussed extensively by Charles Rosen,
Kenneth Drake, Barry Cooper, Robin Stowell, Alan Tyson and other eminent scholars.
Not infrequently, controversy is evident, mainly because the evidence we have about
these issues is quite obscure and must be gathered almost entirely from bits of
information in diverse sources (Beethoven's letters, his contemporaries' writings,
editions of Beethoven's era, manuscripts, sketchbooks, etc.). It is all the more surprising,
then, that one of the major sources of information, the instructions for the playing of
twenty-one Cramer's studies, which Beethoven wrote for the use of his nephew Karl, has
attracted only sporadic attention.
The original Haslinger edition of Cramer's studies with Beethoven's annotations
in his own hand is not extant; as a result, the only primary source is a copy made by
Anton Schindler in another Haslinger edition. Schindler entered Beethoven's annotations
on the top of each study over the name 'Beethoven' and he also entered his own
annotations, signed 'A. S.' over nearly all of the other sixty-three studies, 'following my
'
teacher's example'. Although Schindler's Biographie von Beethoven is well known for
its inaccuracies, we have no serious reason to question the authenticity of his copy.
Scholars have argued in favour of its authenticity by using contemporary evidence -
including evidence from Beethoven's manuscripts, sketchbooks and music - that
1 William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven.- Playing His Piano Music His Wqy (New York: Norton,
1988), pp. 23-24.
I
4acknowledgesthe importance of the musical concept in these annotations' as well as the
fact that Schindler was in close contact with Beethoven in his late years.2
In 1893, the British Beethoven scholar John Shedlock discovered Schindler's
copy of Cramer's studies in the State Library of Berlin and published it for the first time,
translating Beethoven's annotations into English, quoting Schindler at length and
summarizing the value of the annotations, as he understood them: 'In one respect
Beethoven's mode of treating the Cramer Etudes becomes clear after reading the
comments; he regarded the mere notes in the music as an incomplete revelation of the
composer's intentions; they were the letter into which the interpreter had to infuse the
spirit. But though in relation to the Cramer Etudes these declarations are of extreme
interest, in their application to Beethoven's pianoforte works they become of the highest
importance only those who have true feeling of music and who, in addition, have
...
reflected long and carefully on their art ought fully to apply these Beethoven directions to
the great composer's music. ' 3
The first German edition of the annotations appeared only in 1961, edited by
Anna Gertrud Huber. It includes the original text in Gennan, the first few bars of each
and a brief preface and conclusion.4 Most recently, in 1974, Hanns Kann
annotated study
published the 21 studies together with their annotations in German and an extensive
' For a discussion of the authenticity of Schindler's copy, see William Newman, "Yet Another Major
Beethoven Forgery by Schindler? ", The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 3/4 (1984), pp. 397-423. Also, Sandra
Rosenblum, Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988),
pp. 94-10 1.
3 John Baptist Cramer, Selection of Studies with Comments by Beethoven, with a preface, translation,
explanatory notes and fingering by J. S. Shedlock (London: Augener, 1893), p. 8. In the present thesis,
Shedlock's translations of Beethoven's annotations have been used and slightly adapted by the author.
4 William Newman, "Yet Another Major Beethoven Forgery by Schindler? ", p. 412.
2
introduction, where he regularly quotes from Schindler and gives several experimental
passagesand exerciseswritten by 5
Beethoven, gathered from a variety of sources.
Sandra Rosenblum devotes a whole section to the annotations in her Performance
Practices in Classic Piano Music. Rosenblum identifies four key issuesthat are discussed
in the annotations: prosody, accents, legato playing and aspects of keyboard technique,
6
urging performers to apply the annotations to Beethoven's own music. William Newman
was more occupied with Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's Etudes and in his
Beethoven on Beethoven he, like Rosenblum, makes four remarks about the annotations:
firstly, that they concern only local relationships within the passagework; second, that
they reveal a constant alertness to polyphony; third, that they emphasize four aspectsof
perfonnance - correct prosody, proper accenting, legato playing, and alertness to
pseudopolyphony; and lastly, that they include occasional suggestions on keyboard
7
technique. Newman warns us that these annotations are often 'laconic, even obscure and
awkward at times' and states - creating expectations in his readers - that 'they require
8
some clarification and interpretation'. In the short section he devotes to the topic,
Newman confines himself only to discussing the four issues mentioned above. Although
Newman's clarification of the annotations is all too brief, he contributed greatly to
recognizing the value of the annotations; he was, indeed, the first scholar to try to apply
them to Beethoven's own piano 9

works.
5 John Baptist Cramer, 21 Etfidenftir Klavier, edited by Hans Kann (Wien: Universal Edition, 1974).
6 Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music, pp. 100- 103.
7 William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, p. 177.
' Ibid., p. 177.
9 William Newman, Performance Practices in Beethoven's Piano Sonatas An Introduction (New York:
-
Norton, 1971), pp. 74-75.
3
The significance of Beethoven's annotations to 21 of Cramer's studies had
already been identified by Schindler in the second part of his Life of Beethoven. Fully
aware as Schindler was of their value he did not hesitate to describe them as 'one of the
most precious heirlooms' in his master's working library. 'If his intention to write his
own School of Piano Playing had ever come to be realized these Studies would have
constituted the most important part of the practical exercises,for he regarded them as the
most suitable preparatory study for his own works'. The fact that Beethoven really did
intend to write a School of Piano Playing -as he first mentioned in 1818 - in order to
protect his works from being in

mangled performance has been confirmed by Dr. Gerhard
von Breuning's testimony on p. 23 of Wegeler's Supplement to the biographical notices:
'I possessedPleyel's School ofPiano Playing; he (Beethoven) was not satisfied with this,
or with any of the others.' Breuning goes on to recall how, when he was a boy, the sick
Beethoven had told him: 'I myself would have liked to write a School of Piano Playing,
but I never had the time; if I had, I should have written something along completely
different lines. "o
Elsewhere, in his notes to the first two volumes of Cramer's studies, which
contain Beethoven's instructions, we see Schindler striving to justify his decision not to
make this source, which he himself regarded as indispensable, accessibleto the public: 'If
it should be asked why I have not published the complete practical application of these
studies in the interests of Beethoven's music, then let it serve as an answer if I point out
that the tendency, which has dominated piano playing over the past 30 years, of
regarding technique as the sole requirement, would have taken no notice of so
'0 Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, translated by Constance S. Jolly and annotated by Donald
W. MacArdle (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1966), p. 182.
4
diametrically opposed an approach. A time must surely come which will again strive to
understand instrumental music of every genre by studying its spiritual aspect; only then
will it be possible to clear a way to the understanding of Beethoven's intentions.
Musicians of understanding will realize this. That notwithstanding, 1, for my own part,
can confirm that the is

way an arduous one. Without the prior study of (German) prosody,
without a detailed knowledge of the iambic, trochaic, dactylic and spondaic meters which
are the verse forms that underlie all instrumental music, the student can achieve nothing,
for it is on this knowledge that the art of correct accentuation and the discrimination
between long and short quantities in groups of notes is based. The correct recitation of
here. ' II
poetry serves as an analogy
Thus, Schindler confines the significance of Beethoven's annotations to the
valuable information they include about the realization of several poetic meters.
However, a thorough examination of the annotations reveals that Beethoven is occupied
with other major issues too. It should be noted that all annotations concern only the
passagework rather than any independent melodic lines that the passagework may
accompany. An example is the Study No. 16, where Beethoven makes no mention
regarding the execution of the right hand melody (Example 1). The annotations reads:
'The goal here is the study of the bass figure, which progresses, for the most part, in
longs and shorts.
" John Baptist Cramer, Selection Studies

of with Commentsby Beethoven, with a preface, translation,
explanatorynotes and fingering by J. S. Shedlock,p. ii.
5
Example I
Cramer Study No. 16/1-4
Within the passagework, Beethoven's annotations emphasize three aspects of
performance - maximum legato (or 'Bindung' in his own words), correct prosody
(including the recognition and scanning of specific poetic feet), and proper accentuation.
The annotation to Study No. 5 touches on all three topics: 'The movement is written in
four voices. The melody lies in the upper voice, as it is shown by the mode of writing.
Were, however, the latter as follows: still the
first note of each group would have to be unifonnly accentuated and held down. The
middle voice E-C, F-C, G-C, etc., must not be given out with the same strength as that of
the upper voice. The meter reveals itself to be trochaic'.
By examining Beethoven's annotations, this thesis will cletennine how Beethoven
wanted the studies to be practised and performed and also how the annotations provide
evidence about Beethoven's wishes in regard to the interpretation of his own works. The
need for a careful examination of Beethoven's own works in order to complete the latter
task is self-evident.
6
Chapter I serves as an introduction to John Baptist Cramer's Studio per il
Pianoforte and to Beethoven's admiration for it. The main characteristics of his studies
are discussed and emphasis given to J.S. Bach's influence, especially in regards to the
polyphony predominant in many of the studies that Beethoven so admired. Other
compositional and technical devices used in Cramer's studies - some of which Beethoven
may have in
adapted his own works - are also discussed.
Chapter 2 representsthe heart of my thesis and discussesBeethoven's annotations
of the studies. The three principal issues - maximum legato [bindung], the application of
poetic feet and proper accentuation - are explained in detail; examples from Beethoven's
own works, where the annotations could be applied, are also discussed. The musical
examples from Cramer's studies are taken from Nicholas Temperley's edition of Studio
per il Pianoforte. In Temperley's editorial policy 'the first is

authentic edition used as the
main source and where more than one authentic edition exists, the English one has been
12Autograph
chosen'. sourcesor continental editions preceding or contemporary with the
reproduced edition have been consulted to elucidate doubtful passages.The examples
from Beethoven's works are taken from the Henle Verlag Urtext edition, generally
considered the most reliable edition, although the Wiener Urtext edition has also been
consulted. In the editorial policy of Henle the autograph score always assumesthe role of
principal source. Where the is

autograph score not extant, the oldest surviving source is
taken as the main source.
12John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, in the
London Pianoforte School 1776-1860 series, Vol. 9. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1985), pp.
xi-xix.
7
Many Beethoven's annotations place great emphasis on Bindung or legato
playing. We have it also from Schindler that Beethoven 'abjured the staccato style',
especially in the performance of phrases, and that he derisively termed it 'finger
dancing', or 'manual air-sawing'. 13The discussion about legato goes even further when
Beethoven identifies pseudopolyphony in the passageworkand suggeststhe use of the so-
called prolonged touch, that is the sustaining of certain notes for longer than their written
values. The reading of Beethoven's annotations also reveals a constant interest in prosody
and poetic feet. Prosody originated in ancient Greek and Roman poetry. But what is the
relationship between prosody and music? In the annotations, we can see the terms
'trochaic' or 'iambic', which would seem more suitable in an ancient Greek poetry
treatise rather than in a piano method book. The discussionsof this topic will explain how
Beethoven applied these terms to music and why the application of these poetic feet are
so important to the performance of his music. Finally, Beethoven's annotations often deal
with proper accentuation. Indeed, descriptions of Beethoven's playing leave the
impression that accentuation helped create the impression of characteristic energy and
'fiery expression' for which it famous.14The discussion how important

was will show
metrical accentuation was for Beethoven as well as how he dealt with passageswhere
accents are present on as well as off the beat.
Chapter 3 representsa conclusion to the whole thesis in the fonn of an application
of Beethoven's annotations to a single piece - the second movement of his Sonata Op. 54
in F major (Allegretto). Beethoven's annotations may throw new light on the
performance of this rather neglected work and others besides if Beethoven's performing
" Reginald Geng, Famous Pianists and Their Technique (New York: Robert B. Luce, 1974), pp. 90-91.
14Franz Kullak, Beethoven's Piano Playing, transcribed by Theodore Baker (New York: Da Capo, 1973),
p. 5.
8
instructions on Cramer's studies are applied to other works by him as well. In this
respect, they may be considered a valuable source of information about Beethoven's
if 'the fitting 15
performance practices, not most preparation for his own works'.
15 Cf
.
9
1
JOHN BAPTIST CRAMER AND THE STUDIO PER IL PL4NOFORTE
'Our master declared that Cramer's Etudes were the chief basis of all genuine playing. If
he had ever carried out his own intention of writing a pianoforte method, the etudes
would have formed in it the most important part of the practical examples, for on account
of the in
polyphony predominant many of them, he looked upon them as the most fitting
preparation for his own works. "
Anton Schindler
The above statement, which is found in Schindler's biography of Beethoven,
raises two important questions: why was a minor composer, such as John Baptist Cramer,
so highly regarded by such a major historical figure, and, what was so special about
Cramer's collection of studies that made Beethoven regard them as 'the best preparation
for his own works'?
It is useful at this stage to introduce the principal characteristics of Cramer's
Studio per il Pianoforte. Emphasis will be placed on Bach's and Scarlatti's influence,
which explains the polyphony of which Beethoven was so fond, as well as the brilliant
character that dominates in many of the studies. Other compositional and technical
devices used in the Studio - some of which Beethoven may have adapted in his own
works - will also be discussed.
1 Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I knew Him, p. 182.
10
John Baptist Cramer was born in Mannheim, Germany on 24 February 1771. He
came from a distinguished family of musicians: his grandfather played in the famous
Mannheim Orchestra, his father was the leader of several important orchestrasin London,
while his brother was a violonist. Cramer was brought to London when he was only two
years of age. In addition to studying violin and theory with his father, he studied the
pianoforte with Johann Schroeter and then with Muzio Clementi for two years, as well as
composition with Carl Friedrich Abel. His first public appearanceas a soloist came at the
age of ten. At thirteen, in March of 1784, together with his teacher Clementi, Cramer
performed a 'Duetto for Two Pianofortes' at one of the Hanover Square Great Concerts -
the first 2
public two-piano performance of any description on record. From then on, he
worked on his own. In 1788 he made his first concert tour as a pianist in Europe and
to
started gain a reputation both as a pianist and a teacher. He returned to London in 1791
and did not leave the English capital until 1799, when he went for a second tour to
Germany, Austria and the Netherlands. These and other journeys to Central Europe gave
him the opportunity to be in contact with all of the leading musicians of his era, such as
Weber, Kalkbrenner, Czemy, Moscheles, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Liszt, Berlioz and
others. In 1800, Cramer came back to England and stayed there for almost all of the
remainder of his career. He was admired by the English audiences and 'Glorious John',
as they to
used call him, must have had some of the breathtaking public appeal of Franz
Liszt, as we can infer from an interesting anecdote from Robert Schumann: 'While
playing Kalkbrenner's four-part one-handed fugue, I thought of the excellent Thibaut,
author of the book 'On the Purity of Music', who told me that once, at a concert given by
Cramer in London, a polite lady Somebody, an art amateur, actually rose, against all
2 Reginald Geng, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, p. 60.

English convention, and stood on tiptoe to stare the hands. The ladies her
at artist's near
imitated her example, until finally the whole
audience was standing, and the lady
whispered ecstatically into Thibaut's ear: "Heavens, what trills! - what trills! And with
the fourth and fifth finger! - and with both hands at once!" The whole audience
murmured in accompaniment: "Heavens! What a trill! What trills! - and with both
hands! , 53
As a pianoforte player, Cramer was known for his expressive, singing style and
particularly for his 4

performances of Mozart. Indeed, he gave many premieres of Mozart
concertos in London. Writing about his interpretations on Mozart Ignatz Moscheles said:
'His interpretation of Mozart, and his own Mozart-like compositions, are like breathings
"from the sweet south" Those thin, well shaped fingers are best suited for legato
...
playing; they glide along imperceptibly from one key to the other, and whenever
possible, avoid octave as well as staccato passages.Cramer sings on the piano in such a
manner that he almost transforms a Mozart andante into a vocal piece! ý5 Cramer,
following the successful example of Clementi, entered the music publishing business in
1811, becoming a partner in Chappell & Co. Publications, but withdrew to forin a
partnership with Robert Addison and T. Frederick Beale in 1824. In 1844, he established
his own publishing firm, J. B. Cramer & Co., which still exists. Cramer spent a number
3 Robert Schumann, On Music and Musicians, translatedby Paul Rosenfeld and edited by Konrad Wolff
(New York: Norton, 1969),p. 50.
4 John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, in the
London Pianoforte School 1776-1860series,Vol. 9, p. xvi.
' Ignaz Moscheles,RecentMusic and Musicians as Described in the Diaries and Correspondenceof Ignatz
Moscheles, edited by Charlotte Moschelesand translatedby A. D. Coleridge (New York: Da Capo Press,
1970), p. 34.
12
of years in Paris after he retired from the concert platform in 1835, but returned again to
6
England in 1845, where he continued to compose. He died in London on 16 April 1858
.
Cramer composed solely for the pianoforte and his oeuvre contains, among other
works, 118 sonatas and 9 piano concertos. But while none of these works is widely
known today, Beethoven occasionally borrowed from Cramer's sonatas,while Schumann
considered Cramer and Moscheles as the only prominent sonata composers of their era.
Cramer's most successful work, although little known today, was his Studio per il
Pianoforte. The Studio is divided into two volumes, the first of which appearedin 1803-
1804 and the second in 1810.7 These eighty-four studies (forty-two in each volume)
occupy a position of great importance in the pianoforte literature as they were the first of
their kind. Indeed the term 'Study' (etude in French) appearsto have obtained its modem
pedagogical meaning through them, although in Cramer's title it was used in the singular
as a name for the whole set. Before Cramer's Studio, no complete collection of teaching
pieces for the pianoforte had yet appeared. There had been various methods, which
included brief examples in a book of instructions - for example Clementi's Introduction
to the Pianoforte (1801); and the idea of using the term Studio in such a collection does
not appear to have been exclusive to Cramer. Muzio Clementi had already expressedhis
intention of calling one of his works 'Studio for the pianoforte'. The earlier publication of
6A thorough biography and discussion of Cramer's works and performing style can be found in Helen
Metzelaan, "Cramer, Johann [John] Baptist", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New
York: Macmillan, 2001), Vol. 6, pp. 640-643.
7 The full titles of these two volumes as they appeared in their first edition are: Etuden pour le pianoforte,
42 Exercises, en Dififýrens tons, calculýs pour jaciliter les progris des Personnes qui se
contenant
d'etudier cet 6fond op. 39 and The Suite de 1'etude pour le pianoforte op. 40.
proposent
13
Cramer's Studio per il Pianoforte obliged Clementi to choose another title, and he
adopted Gradus ad Parnassum.8
In the Studio, each study deals with a technical problem by many repetitions and
sequencesof the same melodic pattern, but in a way that makes a perfon-nablepiece of
music, with sufficient variety and harmonic interest. One can read in the 'Prefatory
observations' written by the composer himself in a later edition of the Studio (1835):
'Throughout the work the Author has endeavouredto give a melodious character to each
Exercise, thereby interesting the performer and allowing him free scope for sentiment and
expression.' 9
In the new edition of the Studio, which appeared in 1835, sixteen new studies
were added augmenting the collection to one hundred. In this collection, there was no
to
attempt make the studies graduate from the easiestto the most difficult -a practice we
often see in later collections of studies. This was justified by Cramer himself in his
introduction to the Studio: 'It is difficult to settle the Order in which the Exercises should
be selected for practice: talents are so varied in different persons that it is impossible to
find one method which shall be suitable to all. It is, therefore, desirable that those who
have practiced the first ten numbers should afterwards select such as their own particular
dispositions and the experience of their own particular necessities would dictate to
them. "0
Cramer's Studio was used as a model by several composers. Daniel Steibelt and
Joseph Wblfl, both famous virtuosos of their time who lived in London, wrote sets of
' For more information on the Clementi-CTamer dispute see: Alan Tyson, "A Feud between Clement] and
Cramer"', Music & Letters, Vol. 54 (1973), pp. 281-288.
9 John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p. 17 1.
" ibid., p. 170.
14
studies based on Cramer's. Steibelt's Etudes were published by Goulding, D'Almaine,
Potter & Co. in 1809, and W61fl's Practical School for the Pianoforte,
a collection of
fifty exercises, was published by Clementi & Co. in 1812. Furthennore, Ludwig Berger,
a
pupil of Clementi, also used Cramer's Studio as a model for his twelve studies Op. 12 in
1816-1817. Ignatz Moscheles wrote a set of twenty-four studies in 1825 and the London
pianist and composer Cipriani Potter published two books of studies containing twenty-
four studies altogether in 1826. The archetype for all these sets was Cramer's Studio
per
il Pianoforte, which became an essential element in the nineteenth-century pianist's
repertoire. Beethoven used them for his nephew Carl. We also know that Clara
Schumann played these studies, and her father Friedrich Wieck borrowed shamelessly
from No. I in his own book of lessons for the piano, with the aim to make his daughter
play the Cramer studies if her playing was not up to his "
exacting standards. Robert
Schumann praised them as being the finest training 'for head and hand'. 12Even Frederick
Chopin considered them a necessarytool for a pianist and used them to teach his pupils
how to play legato and shapea cantabile melodic line. 13
Cramer's prefatory remarks to the enlarged edition of the Studio in 1845 reveals
something of his aims and influences: 'The original object of the Author in composing
the following studies was, practically, to point out to the student what ought to be
expected from the great works of SebastianBach, in to

and, certain measure, prepare him
" Nancy Reich, Clara Schumann: the Artist and the Woman (London: Come]] University Press, 1985), p.
55.
12Robert Schumann, On Music and Musicians, p. 5 1.
13Reginald Gerig, Great Pianists and their Technique, p. 16 1.
15
for the cultivation of the compositions of this illustrious
artist, who may be considered
14
the Raphael, as Handel is justly esteemedthe Michael Angelo Of Music. 9
Indeed, a close study of Cramer's works reveals a composer who was associated
with the 'old style', particularly in his use of counterpoint, a device often regarded in the
later eighteenth century as too 'scientific' for popular taste. Popular piano music
of the
day was galant in style, borrowing tunes from opera and popular ballads, and setting
them to simple accompaniments; arrangements of orchestral and operatic music and
collections of popular tunes were much easier to sell; and publishers were trying to
popularize the piano sonata by commissioning works, in which some or all the
movements were based on popular tunes. According to Nicholas Temperley, the steep
decline in the demand for serious piano music in England between 1805 and 1830 is to be
accounted for by the fact that 'piano playing was an adjunct to the rapid rise in social
status of the newly rich, which was not yet being experienced to the same degree in
Europe'. 15Thus, we are wondering here why and how Cramer, who lived in this musical
environment, was influenced by a composer such as Bach when writing for an instrument
whose use in the English musical life was principally for entertainment.
Bach's music was not very well-known in England at the end of the eighteenth
century. The prevailing taste was for Handel, who had the edge because of his long and
successful residence in London. Charles Bumey, comparing Handel with Bach believed
that the first 'was perhaps the only great Fughist, exempt from pedantry and his themes
are almost always natural and pleasing. Bach, on the contrary, disclaimed facility so
14
John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p.
171.
" Ibid., p. 402.
16
much that his genious never stooped to the easy and graceful'. Bumey, while
acknowledging Bach's great significance, believed that if he had, like Handel, been
employed to compose opera in the major centres he would have 'sacrificed all unmeaning
art and contrivance ... by writing in a style more popular, and generally intelligible and
pleasing and would thus have become one of the greatestmusicians of the century! ' 16
Burney reflected general opinion to some extent. Although Bach's works,
particularly the Well-Tempered Clavier, were becoming known by the time Cramer
published the Studio, it had taken some time for them to gain popularity with the English
musical public. It appears that even Cramer might have acquired a copy of the Well-
Tempered Clavier more by accident than by design: a 'memoir' published some years
later in the Harmonicon reported that the composer, while in Paris in 1788, had met a
young Russian who 'possessed in manuscript the works of the celebrated Johann
SebastianBach, in consequenceof his having been a pupil of Carl Philip Emanuel Bach'.
We cannot be sure whether, what the Russian had, was actually a copy of the Well-
Tempered Clavier, but he gave his copy to Cramer in lieu of money to pay his debts.' 7
Various editions of the Well-Tempered Clavier were later reprinted in London around
1800 by Lavenu (Ndgeli) and Broderip and Wilkinson (Simrock).
However, London musical life was very much dominated by Handel; his oratorios
were heard regularly in concert, and many were arranged for piano and organ. The same
did not apply to the works of Bach, despite the presence in London of a group of
musicians who could well have promoted his music. These included his son, Johann
Christian Bach, as well as Charles Burney, who had received a manuscript copy of the
16Charles Burney, A General Histoty of Music, Vol. 2 (New York: Dover Publications, 1957), p. 955.
17Memoir of J. B. Cramer, Harmonicon, I (1823), p. 179.
17
Well-Tempered Clavier in 1772 from C P. E. Bach; and Carl Friedrich Abel,
who was a
X.,1 18
inend of J. C. Bach and the son of Bach's gamba soloist in C6then. None of these made
any effort to introduce Bach's music in London: it was thanks to the efforts of the
Germans Carl Friedich Horn and A. F. C. Kollmann, who had arrived in London between
1780 and 1790, that Bach started gaining fame in London. 19Kollmann was a theorist of
considerable note and published his Essay on Practical Musical Composition in 1799, as
well as the first English translation of JohannNikolaus Forkel's biography of Bach, On J
S. Bach's Life, and Works, in 1820; Horn, together with Samuel Wesley, produced a
complete critical edition of the Well-Tempered Clavier between 1810 and 1813. This
edition provided analytical markings (for subjects, inversions, diminutions,
augmentations, etc.) as well as a method of study, progressing from the easy to the more
difficult pieces which were 'set in keys less in use in England than upon the Continent',
and therefore required a 'constant and preserving application'. The works of Bach invited
analysis and explanation and Kollmann, a theorist and composer himself, provided an
analysis of the F-minor prelude from Well-Tempered Clavier II in his Essay on Musical
Harmony (1796) and published even more of Bach's works in his Essay on Practical
Musical Composition (1799).
The preludes and fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier presented two distinct
sides of keyboard writing, the one free and improvisatory - prelude - and the other more
strict and regulated - fugue. A study of the Studio shows that Cramer's set of studies was
influenced by both of those styles. Cramer cited, in his introduction to the 1835 edition,
" Here, one could easily surmise that Cramer was introduced to Bach's music by Abel when he was still a
child, as we know that Abel was his teacher in composition.
'9 For more information on the introduction of Bach's music into England, see: Hans Ferdinand Redlich,
'The Bach Revival in England (1750-1850)', Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book Vol. 7 (1952), pp. 287-300.
18
only four of the one hundred studies as being 'written expressly after the manner of
Sebastian Bach' 20 However, a closer study of the collection will show that there were
.
many more. For example, the first Study of the collection ends with a near exact
quotation of Bach's prelude in C major of the Well-TemperedClavier I (Example 2).
El-.
Example 2
7777
J. S. Bach BWV 846, Prelude/29-31
Perhaps the most influential of Bach's preludes appears to be the one in C minor from
Well-Tempered Clavier I, notable for its 'moto perpetuo' character and parallel figuration
in both hands, aspects that dominate many of Cramer's studies. The most striking
example of Cramer's adaptation of this prelude for the piano occurs in the final Study of
Vol. 1, No. 42, where the right hand plays a complex two-part texture over a bass
melodic line; the two parts are later reversed (Example 3).
20 John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p.
171.
19
Example 3
The resemblance to Bach's work is even more striking at the end of the piece where
Cramer quotes Bach almost directly. Cramer's use of key is often related to Bach's; the
key of C minor, for example, seemedto trigger preludes in the style of that in the Well-
Tempered Clavier I, as shown in Cramer's Study No. 59, though a similar type appearsin
the key of F sharp minor as well in No. 61. Bach's influence can also be found in
CramerIs Study No. 4, again in C minor. Once more the 'moto perpetuo' dominates and
the aim is to achieve a pianistic legato creating long musical phrases, as it is implied by
the long slurs, a technique often used by Bach. It is also worth noting that this particular
Study is carefully fingered in order to achieve legato playing without the use of the pedal.
20
Other examples, where Cramer's choice of key may have been influenced by the Well-
Tempered Clavier, can be found in Studies Nos 21,31 and 50. The key of G major often
suggesteda light and flowing texture as one can see in the G Major prelude of the Well-
Tempered Clavier I, this style can also be found in Cramer's Study No. 2 1. Similarly, the
fleeting B-flat major prelude of Well-Tempered Clavier I is reflected in Cramer's studies
Nos. 31 and 50 (Example 4).
Example 4
legg-ier-osempre
It is possible that this may have had something to do with temperament still being
adjusted at this time. Cramer refers to the Study No. 31 in

as an exercise contrasting
touches, where the left hand plays staccato against the right hand legato and he pairs it
with No. 5, which features the same device.
In addition, the frequent use of polyphonic writing perhaps also reminds us of
Bach's style. The collection of Cramer's studies includes pieces written in three or
four voices or layers such as Nos 3,5,8,9,12,30,41 and others (Example 5).
sometimes
21
This was apparently one of the qualities of the collection, which made Beethoven regard
it as 'the most fitting preparation for his own works'. 21
Example 5
Ana moderato
Cramer's introduction in the Studio is revealing about what he felt was important in the
collection and the skills he believed to be necessary for the pianist to acquire. Although
borrowing heavily in stylistic terms from Bach, he still sought to emphasize expressive
and articulative skills not associatedwith harpsichord and clavichord music. Cramer was
known for his melodic writing, and placed great importance on the development of a
smooth legato touch. Accordingly, in his introduction, he suggeststhat one should 'hold
down each note for its full proportion of time in quick as well as in slow movements,
22 Indeed, many of the studies,

except where passages are expressly marked staccato'.
such as Nos 4,7,13,30,57 come with the indication sempre legato and are phrased
accordingly. Other studies feature an expressive melody in an inner part, where the rich
tenor sound of the early piano's middle register came into its own; these pieces sound
particularly effective when played on such an instrument. The weight of the thumb and
2' Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, p. 182.

22 John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p.
170.
22
index finger needed to bring out the melody, a technique that was particularly suited to
the middle register. One can see this type of writing in studies such as Nos 7,28,31,67,
68, and 75.
The exploitation of the piano's expressive capabilities and its potential for light
and shade was also a preoccupation. Some studies mainly revolve around crescendosin
ascending passagesand diminuendos in the descendingones as in Nos 13,43, and 46. We
could also add the opening studies of each volume, Nos I and 43, to the same category
although no such indication is given by the composer. In addition, the Studio is notable
for its inclusion of expressive pieces, together with the usual obstacles of octaves and
complex passages of double thirds. The expressive pieces feature long-breathed
legatissimo melodies, as if in the imitation of the voice. In some cases,Cramer managed
to marry the best of Bach's expressive style with his own, as in the caseof No. 75, while
studies like No. 77 are purely 'vocal' pieces and one cannot but recall the writing style of
a Chopin Noctume (Example 6).
Study No. 41 (Example 5) betrays its vocal origins with the title of 'aria
moderato' and shares much of the lyrical quality of Bach's E-major prelude in Well-
Tempered Clavier L The influence of Bach, which is present at the Studio, was a major
factor that made Beethoven regard Cramer's collection so highly, mainly becauseof the
polyphonic texture which is dominant in many of the studies. Beethoven became familiar
with the preludes and fugues from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier when he was still a
child through his teacher Christian Gottolob Neefe. He acquired a lifelong fascination
with polyphonic textures, which also appear frequently in his compositions from all
the second movement of Op. 2, No. 2, the Adagio cantabile of the Sonate
periods, such as
23
Example 6
17
Path&ique, and, more clearly, the Fuga of the late Op. I 10.
Many of the technical skills that preoccupied later nineteenth-century composers
were first gathered in Cramer's collection. Double thirds and octaves, which came to be
in to
so popular, are used addition various figurations for both hands. Some are decidedly
pianistic in their conception, such as the roaming left-hand accompaniment in No. 16.
However, thirds, sixths and octaves were nothing new; one acquainted with the early
eighteenth-century keyboard repertoire may suspect the influence of the Italian
keyboardist Domenico Scarlatti in this respect. Scarlatti's contribution to the
development of the keyboard technique was immense when he composed a collection of
'30 Essercizi per gravicembalo' in 1738. These exercises, appearing under the title
4sonata', are binary single-movement pieces and introduce new keyboard technical ideas
including wide skips, unprepared jumps, hand crossings, double thirds and sixths, rapid
octave passages in one hand and quick repeated notes and glissandos. With this
24
collection, Scarlatti created a new virtuosic style for the keyboard, which could be
regarded as an important predecessorto the keyboard etude.23
Some of Scarlatti's works had been made known in London chiefly through the
efforts of the composer Thomas Roseingrave, who met the composer on a visit in Italy in
1709 and published an edition of sonatas in 1739; between that date and 1800 over a
24
hundred of Scarlatti's sonatas were published in England In 1785, Ambrose Pitman
.
published a selection of Scarlatti's sonatas, 'revised with a variety of improvements'. In
fact, Pitman changed very little; he just selectedsonatasthat he presumably felt would be
easier for the average pianist and chose fifteen sonatas out of the Roseingrave edition,
making only minor changes, such as eliminating the tenor clef, which had fallen into
25
disuse. Burney wrote of 'the Scarlatti sect', citing Kelway as a leading perfon-ner. He
in
also reported manuscripts private hands, 26
notably John Worgan's. While Worgan kept
his collection only for his own use, other composers were more ready to share their
wealth: in 1791 Muzio Clementi published a collection of works by Scarlatti, including
twelve sonatas. However, two are not actually by Scarlatti, while the E-major Sonata
(Kp. 380) was transposed into F. Indications of dynamics and articulation were also
27
added.
Clearly, Cramer did not intend to provide strict imitations of Scarlatti, and very
few of his pieces would actually sound effective on the harpsichord. However, there is
23For more information on the influence of Scarlatti in the London Pianoforte School, see Leon Plantinga,
"Clement], Virtuosity and the 'German Manner"', Journal of American Music Societies, Vol. 25 (1972),
pp. 303-330, and Dean Sutcliffe, The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and Eighteenth -Century
Musical Style (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 276-319.
24 Details of Scarlatti's music in England can be found in Dean Sutcliffe, The Keyboard Sonatas of
Domenico Scarlatti, p. 281.
25Domenico Scarlatti, The Beauties of D. Scarlatti. Selectedfrom his Suites de Leons, for the Harpsichord
Pianoforte and Revised with a Variety of Improvements by A. Pitman (London: 1785), pp. 1-2.
or
26Charles Burney, A General History Of Music, Vol. 11,p. 1009.
27Dean Sutcliffe, The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti, p. 22 1.
25
evidence of the harpsichord style in studies such as the brilliant No. 70 and the broken
chords of No. 33 (Example 7).
E--.
Example 7
Mf
Scarlatti's influence is even stronger in studies such as No. 60 with its many hand
crossings (indicated clearly in the notation) and hurrying thirds and sixths. Similarly, the
double thirds of No. 19 and No. 35 reveal a tendency for the bright and showy aspect of
harpsichord technique (Example 8).
Example 8
II
>-
26
This brilliant Scarlatian technique can also be found in several places in
Beethoven's own works. Even in his earliest works one cannot fail to the brilliant
notice
scales, arpeggios and hand crossings of the Sonata Op. 2, No. 2 or the fast double thirds,
sixths and octaves of Op. 2, No. 3 (Example 9).
Example 9
Beethoven Op. 2, No. 3/iv/1-4
Allegro assai
The most striking examples of Beethoven's appeal to this kind of keyboard technique,
which is also found in Cramer's be

collection, can seen in his sketchbook, which contains
several finger exercises; here, one can see fast brilliant scales, thundering octaves and
arpeggios in both hands, chromatic thirds, sixths, hand crossings and huge leaps
10). 28
(Example
Example 10
'Kafka' Sketchbook (S. 185) 68v, p. 224

Prt--. tn -1- -
28 All the examples from Beethoven's sketchbooks have been taken from J. B. Cramer, 21 Etaden flij-
Klaviei-, edited by Hans Kann, pp. xi-xvi.
27
'Kessler' Sketchbook (S.263) 23v, p.70
All these aspects of keyboard technique, which originated with Scarlatti, are also
included in Cramer's collection of studies; this may be another reason why Beethoven
declared that these studies were the chief basis of all genuine playing and that 'if he had
carried out his own intention of writing a pianoforte method, these Etudes would have
formed in it the most important part of the practical examples'. 29
The brilliant character of many of Cramer's studies could also be connected with
the development of piano manufacturing in England. By the end of the eighteenth century
the piano had replaced the harpsichord and two different types of instruments were
generally used: the English and the Viennese. The difference between the Viennese
instruments, which were made almost entirely of wood, and the English ones, with their
iron reinforcements and later the all-iron frame, resulted in the development of two quite
distinct schools of pianism. Hummel, comparing the two different instruments, asserted
that the English action 'does not admit of the same facility of execution as the German;
the touch is heavier and the keys sink much deeper'. But, although Hummel preferred the
Viennese instrument, he admitted that 'as a counterpoise to this, through the fullness of
29Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, p. 186.
28
tone of the English Pianoforte, the melody receives a peculiar chann and harmonious
30
sweetness'.
The growth of piano manufacturing in the late 1790s in London resulted in
important developments in keyboard composition and performance and there were a
number of composers - such as Clementi and Dussek - who exploited the greater power
of the English-made pianos, both for their virtuoso display and in order to achieve new
artistic effects. Cramer could not escapefrom this tradition; and we can clearly attribute
the many 'bravura' pieces in his Studio to developments in keyboard manufacturing that
created new demands on composers and performers. These 'bravura' studies were the
means of showing off the virtuoso capabilities of the piano. With their emphasison rapid
scales and arpeggios, they not surprisingly appear more often in the key of C major,
which with its absence of black keys made fast playing easier. The opening studies of
each volume of the Studio are of this type. In this way, Cramer created a tradition, as
many collections of studies that appearedlater in the nineteenth century start with a piece
in the key of C major, such as those by Potter, Czerny, Berens, Heller and others; even
Chopin's famous Study Op. 10, No. I is a classic of this type, although here it can be
that the key is than help.31

claimed choice of more an obstacle a
An innovative feature of the Studio is the number of studies that aim to develop
facility in executing trills, such as studies Nos II and 68. These studies are polyphonic
30johann Hummel, A Complete Theoretical and Practical Course of Instruction on the Art of Playing the
Pianoforte (London: Boosey, 1827), pp. 64-65.
31 Chopin's pupil Mikull reported that his teacher made his pupils play the scales of B and D flat major
(and so on, reducing the number of sbarps and flats) before attempting 'the most difficult scale of all, that
C major'. See Heinrich Neuhaus, The Art of Piano Playing, (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1973), p.
of
86.
29
with three or four layers, one of which has a melody, another the trill, and the other(s) a
bass moving line (Example 11).
Example 11
Cramer Study No. I 1/ 1-2
Beethoven seemsalso to have been fond of this type of writing since he uses it in several
occasions in his own compositions, such as in the late sonatas Op. 109 and Op. I 11. The
earliest that a polyphonic texture including a trill is used is the WaIdstein Sonata Op. 53
(Example 12). The fact that this particular work was finished in 1804, the same year as
the Studio appeared in press, might lead us to surmise that Beethoven was influenced by
Cramer's use of this device.
Example 12
Beethoven Op. 53/iii/485-489
IJ
Teb.
30
The Studio per il Pianoforte remained a popular work long after its initial publication.
Cramer's work is remarkable for its thorough exploitation of piano technique, especially
at such an early stage in the piano's history is

and a valuable source of information
regarding advancesin technical writing for the piano.
31
2
BEETHOVEN'S ANNOTATIONS TO CRAMER'S TNVENTY-ONE PIANO STUDIES
Beethoven repeatedly expressed his admiration for the collection and, as has
already been mentioned, regarded it as the 'best preparatory school for a proper
understanding of his 1
own pianoforte works'. His high esteem for the studies derived
mainly from their polyphonic textures, their brilliant passage-work and their new
technical devices. Beethoven's pianoforte works contain all these elements too; a
noteworthy example is the similarity between one of the main melodic motives as well as
accompanimental figures of the Finale of the famous Appassionata (Sonata Op. 57) and
Cramer's Study No. 16 (Example 13).
Example 13
I
' Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, p. 186.
32
50
CI
It could reasonably be suggested here that Beethoven borrowed some ideas for
composing his Op. 57 from this particular Study; and this was not the only occasion that
Beethoven used ideas earlier employed by Cramer. William Newman has also stated that
the theme of the Allegro Finale of Op. 26 could have derived from music by Cramer, and
especially from his 3 sonatas Op. 23, which were published in 1799 and performed in
Vienna in the same year by their composer. In addition, Czerny, Beethoven's pupil, more
specifically traced the theme of the Allegro Finale to Cramer's Sonata Op. 23, No. 1,
third movement, in the same key of A flat major. 2
The above similarities reveal that Cramer, a relatively uncelebrated composer,
may have had an important influence on Beethoven and that Beethoven held the Studio in
high esteem. The parallel examination of Beethoven's pianoforte works and Cramer's
Studio may reveal further significant similarities; however, this is not the aim of the
present study. Besides, the practice of exchanging ideas between composers was, and is,
quite common. What is more important for present purposes is to explore how Beethoven
would have wanted these studies to be perfonned and to use his practical advice as a
guide for interpreting his works.
William Newman, The Sonata in the Classical Era (New York: Norton, 1983), pp. 516-517.
33
I shall now examine each of Beethoven's three principal areas of interest, as
revealed in his annotations - maximum legato (or 'Bindung' in his own words), the
application of poetic feet and proper accentuation.
i) Bindung
Beethoven's annotations of Cramer's studies often use the term Bindung, which
3
means binding, connecting together, or legato (as translated by William Newman). In
studies Nos 1,2,3,4,8 and 23 Beethoven uses Bindung to indicate legato touch and
there are other annotations where, without using the term, he indirectly suggests the
application of legato to the annotated studies. For in

example, one reads the annotation of
Study No. 7: 'Here the first and third notes of each group carry the melody (in trochaic
meter). The finger continues to dwell for the space of two quavers on the long syllable
(first note)'. One could find at least ten occasions in the twenty-one annotated studies
where Beethoven requires the legato touch. How is his fascination for this kind of touch
justified? Where is it applied and how can we benefit from these annotations when we
decide which touch to use when playing Beethoven's own works?
At this point, we must turn to the treatises of the eighteenth and early nineteenth
century and examine theoretical discussion of keyboard touch, especially the touch
appropriate to notes without either staccato marks or slurs, the so called 'normal' touch.
3 William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, p. 179.
34
The first treatise that comes to mind first chronologically and also in terms of its
-
influence on subsequentwritings is Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach's Essay the True Art
- on
of Playing Keyboard Instruments, which was published in 1753. Bach observed that
'notes that are neither detached, slurred nor fully held are sounded for half their value,
unless the abbreviation Ten. [Tenuto] is written over them, in which case they must be
4
held fully'. Similarly, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpung wrote in 1755 that 'both legato and
staccato are different from the ordinary touch, in which one raises the finger from the
preceding key quite quickly and just 5

before depressing the following note'. In 1789,
Daniel Gottlob Tiirk suggestedthat 'for notes that are to be played in the usual way, that
is, neither detached nor slurred, the finger is raised from the key a little earlier than the
duration of the note requires if there are some notes inten-ningled that should be held
...
6
for their full value, then ten. or tenuto is written over them'. What we gather from the
above three theoretical treatises is that there is a disagreementabout the exact duration of
the notes when the 'non-nal' touch is applied: Bach suggesteda separation of unmarked
to
notes equal one-half of the value of the notes, while Marpung and Tflrk agreedthat the
finger should be raised from one key just before striking the next. What all three agree on
is that non-legato was the 'normal' keyboard touch. Just a few years after Bach's and
Marpung's treatises appeared,Nicolo Pasquali in Ae Art of Fingering the Harpsichord,
published in 1760, compared keyboard playing to singing and string playing, pointing out
that 'the Legato is the Touch that this Treatise endeavours to teach, being a general
4 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, translated and edited
by William J. Mitchell (London: Cassell, 195 1), p. 157.
5 Daniel Raessler, "Change in Keyboard Touch Around 1800: From Non-legato to Legato", Early
Keyboard Journal, Vol. 1,1982-1983, p. 27.
6 Daniel Gottlob Tdrk, Klavierschule (Leipzig: Schwickert, 1789), translated by Raymond H. Haggh as
School of Clavier Playing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), p. 356.
35
Touch for almost all Kinds of Passages,and by which the Vibration
of the Strings are
made perfect in every Note all those Passagesthat have none of these Marks for other
...
touches must be played legato, i. e., in the usual Way'. 7 With these comments, Pasquali
anticipated the trend toward more legato playing and became the first to suggestlegato as
the 'normal' touch, only a few years after Bach and Marpung established non-legato as
the technique that should be generally applied. But Pasquali's comments on 'normal'
touch did not seem to have had an immediate influence or, if they did, their must have
remained only locally influential, as we do not have any evidence that legato was used as
the 'normal' touch during Pasquali's 8

era.
It was not until 1795, thirty-five years after Pasquali's treatise, that Nikolaus
Joseph Hfillmandel, placing for the first time the word Pianoforte ahead of Harpsichord
in the title of his treatise, suggestedthat 'everything is executed by holding a key on

...
9
till the next is struck'. Between 1797 and 1804, three new methods written specifically
for the fortepiano appeared in Germany, France and England. Johann Peter Milchmeyer
in Die wahre Art das Pianoforte zu spielen (1797) stated that 'normal touch consisted of
connecting the notes and was to be used when the notes were unmarked', therefore
advocating legato as the 'normal' touch. Milchmeyer went even further suggesting that
4slurredplaying was produced by holding the keys longer than the note values indicated
and was to be employed whenever the composer included curved lines over the notes'.
This overlapping was recommended especially for playing broken-chord patterns in the
left hand and, in addition, 'all passagesfrom C above the third line of the G clef to the
7 Nicolo Pasquah, Theý4rt of Fingering the Harpsichord (Edinburgh: Bremmer, c. 1760), p. 26.
8 Daniel Raessler, "Change in Keyboard Touch Around 1800", pp. 28-29.
9 Nikolaus Joseph HUllmandel, Principles of Music, Chiefly Calculatedfor Piano Forte or Harpsichord
(London: 1795), pp. 20-2 1.
36
highest notes of the piano, could be played in the 'slurred'
way without offending the ear
through this touch the upper notes of the instrument, which are inclined to a certain
hardness and dryness could be sweetened and made more gentle'. 10 Muzio Clementi
wrote in 1801 that 'when the composer leaves the LEGATO, and STACCATO to the
performer's taste, the best rule is, to adhere chiefly to the LEGATO, reserving the
STACCATO to give SPIRIT occasionally to certain passages,and to set off the HIGHER
BEAUTIES of the LEGATO'. 11Similar advice is given by Louis Adams, in his M&hode
de Piano, (1804) who wrote that 'sometimes the composer indicates that the phrase ought
to be slurred; when he does not, leaving the choice of legato and staccato to the
performer, the performer should adhereto legato'. 12
It is interesting here to point out that John Baptist Cramer, in his introduction of
his collection of studies, expressesa similar view to Milchmeyer, Clementi and Adams
regarding 'normal' touch, explaining that one should 'hold down each note its full
proportion of time in quick as well as in slow movements, except where passagesare

13Although these comments appear in the later edition of the
expressly marked staccato'.
studies in 1835, we have no reason to doubt that Cramer had the same kind of touch in
mind when he composed and played these studies at the beginning of the nineteenth
century.
As is apparent from the above sources, the change from non-legato to legato as
the 'nonnal' touch happened around the turn of the century and was widespread. In
Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music, pp. 153-154.

Muzio Clementi, Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Pianoforte (New York: Da Capo Press, 1974),
P. 9.
12Daniel Raessler, "Change in Keyboard Touch", p. 30.
13John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p.
170.
37
Germany, though native writers added little to the information
on touch, the tutors of
Clernenti and Adams along with others published in England
and France were promptly
translated into 14
German. The increase in legato playing must have been linked to the
changing musical style in general, as we can see in the revised fourth edition of
Leopold's Mozart's Violinschule, published in 1804, where the earlier advice that non-
legato was the usual way of playing the violin was replaced by a new statement that
'everything cantabile needs slurred, bound and sustained notes; this is even more
15
imperative in an Adagio than in an Allegro'.
The idea of a shift towards legato as the 'normal' touch at the turn of the century
is also supported by the reports we have about the style of playing of the great piano
virtuosos of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, who were admired
particularly for their cantabile legato style. When Clementi was asked by his pupil
Ludwig Berger in 1806 whether in 1781 he had begun to treat the piano in his present
(i.
style e. the 'legato' style), he answeredno, and added that he had now achieved a more
melodic and noble style of performance 'after listening to famous singers and also by
means of the perfected mechanism of English pianos, the construction of which formerly
in the legato 16John Field, Clementi's

stood way of a cantabile and style of playing'. pupil
between 1794 and 1802, was famous for his exquisite singing tone and legato playing
17
too. Alexander Dubuk, who knew Field when he was living in St. Petersburg claimed
that 'the chief beauty of Field's compositions lay in his playing [of them] - his touch on
14Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices, p. 154.

15Daniel Raessler, "Change in Keyboard Touch", p. 3 1.
" Reginald Geng, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, p. 57.
17John Baptist Cramer, Studio per il Pianoforte, edited with an introduction by Nicholas Temperley, p. xii.
38
the keys - the way his melodies sang.. 18John Baptist Cramer, who was, according to
-'.
Thayer, at the beginning of the nineteenth century and for a number of years after one of
the foremost European pianists, was well-known for his fine legato playing and
Beethoven assuredhim once that he preferred his touch to that of any other player. 19
When considering Beethoven's opinion about 'normal' touch, one cannot ignore
the fact that he was very fond of C. P. E. Bach's treatise, which favoured the non-legato
touch. Beethoven was introduced to Bach's treatise when he was still a child by his
teacher Christian Gottlob Neefe and it is known that Czemy, when he became a pupil of
Beethoven's in 1801, was asked to bring with him the Essay on the True Art of Playing
Keyboard Instruments 20However, we cannot be sure whether Beethoven agreed with the
.
section about 'normal' touch at that time. In fact, it seems rather unlikely than he did,
since Czemy also reports that 'he [Beethoven] went through the practice pieces in Bach's
treatise, making me particularly aware of the legato'; it seems here that Beethoven,
although he held Bach's treatise in high esteem and made use of it in his teaching, he
neglected Bach's advice for 'normal' touch and advised a different kind of touch instead.
In addition, at a later stage, Beethoven recommended Clementi's tutor to Czerny, which
favoured the legato touch Beethoven's preference for Clementi's methods may also be
.21
supported by his letter to the bookseller Tobias Hasslinger, where he asks him for a copy
of Clementi's book translated into German for a young pupil; a year later, he asked for
another two copies when the first copy had not arrived; and in 1826 he asked for yet
18Patrick Piggott, The Life and Music of John Field, 1782-1837 (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1973), p. 102.
'9 Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer's Life of Beethoven, revised and edited by Elliot Forbes (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 209.
20 Elizabeth Non-nan McKay, The Impact of the new Pianofortes on Classical Keyboard Sýyle.- Mozart,
Beethoven and Schubert (West Midlands: Lynwood Music, 1987), p. 49.
21
Ibid., p. 49.
39
22
another copy of the same book. Beethoven's admiration for Cramer, for both his
compositions and style of playing, also supports the argument that Beethoven was fond of
the legato touch. Beethoven's comments on Mozart's style of playing, which favoured a
more detached touch, show that Beethoven disliked the old fashioned style of non-legato;
he describes Mozart's playing as 'choppy' and more suitable for the harpsichord than for
23
the fortepiano.
Information gathered by Beethoven's pupils and friends also show that he applied
legato as the 'nonnal' touch in his own playing. Czemy stated that legato was 'one of the
unforgettable features of his playing' while Schindler reports that Beethoven 'disliked the
staccato style, especially in the performance of phrases' and that 'there are many
passagesin his works, which, though not marked with slurs, need to be legato'. 24
played
Reichardt, after hearing Beethoven perform his fourth piano concerto, wrote that 'the
Adagio, a masterpiece of lovely drawn-out melody, he truly sang on his instrument with
deep, melancholy feeling that moved me to the core'. 25
Beethoven's dislike for the non-legato touch and preference for the legato is also
in
expressed one of his letters to Streicher as early as 1796, where he believes that 'there
is no doubt that so far as the manner of playing is concerned, the pianoforte is still the
least studied and developed of all instruments; often one thinks that one is merely
listening to a harp. And I am delighted, my dear fellow, that you are one of the few who
realize and perceive that, provided one can feel the music, one can also make the
22Emily Anderson (ed. and trans.), The Letters of Beethoven (New York: Norton, 1985), pp. 1250,1308,
1313 and 1323.
23Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices, pp. 24-25.
24Reginald Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, pp. 90-91.
25William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven.- Playing His Piano Music His Way, p. 229.
40
26
pianoforte sing'. The importance of this letter becomes evident on account of its early
date and the piano's potential for singing and it could further be considered as an early
request for legato treatment.
In addition, Beethoven's dedication to the legato style of playing is evident in his
scores. In one score of some early exercises, which can now be found in the British
Museum, Beethoven advised that 'the hands must keep together as much as possible'
with 'the strictest legato' (Example 14).
V..
Example 14
'Fischhof 4r, Nottebohm, Beethoveniana 11,362
die Hand sehr möLhch zusammen zehallen
Long slurs, apparently indicating legato, appear very frequently in his scores too. For
example, a long six-bar slur at the beginning of the second movement of the Sonata Op.
10, No. 2 cannot be interpreted as anything other than an indication of a legato touch
(Example 15).
26Emily Anderson, The Letters of Beethoven, pp. 25-26.
41
Example 15
Beethoven Op. 14, No. I /ii/ 1-8
Similarly, at the beginning of the Trio of the Piano Sonata Op. 26, Beethoven inserts a
six-bar slur over the notes, indicating the application of legato. It is also worth noting that
Beethoven, in addition to the slur, writes sempre legato, making his intentions even
clearer (Example 16).
V..
Example 16
Beethoven Op. 26/11/68-76
AR
The original fingering that Beethoven sometimes suggests in his scores could also be
regarded as additional evidence of his predilection for the legato touch. In another early
is
exercise a chromatic rise repeated four times and on each of the last three occasions is
covered by a slur, the last of them, Beethoven instructs, being the softest. At the second
42
repeat of the fragment, the slur and two successivefinger slides, replacing four individual
fingers, create a 'super' legato (Example 17).
Llý .
Example 17
Kafka Sketchbook, folio 39v-15, in Kafka Sketchbook 11187.
In the Bagatelle Op. 126, No. 1, the use of the thumb instead of the expected fifth finger
on the last note of the bar in the left hand part ensuresthe continuity of the line after the
27
tie (Example 18)
.
Example 18
Beethoven Op. 126, No. 1/36-37
36
From all of the above sources, it is apparent that Beethoven considered legato touch one
of the most important features to be employed in piano performance. Bearing in mind
that his roots were in the Classical tradition that favoured a detached style of playing, it
could be argued that Beethoven's perfonning style pointed forwards to a new era and
27 A more thorough stud), regarding the significance of Beethoven's original fingerings can be found in
William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, pp. 284-300.
43
28
moved towards the connected cantabile style of the romanticists. It should also be noted
that Beethoven most likely did not alter his 'normal' touch even when playing the music
of his predecessors,which used to be played with a more detached and highly articulated
touch. This is also supported by Charles Rosen, who believes that 'Beethoven may have
played Mozart's Concerto in D minor, K. 466, he

since wrote cadenzasfor it, with a more
emphasized legato and cantabile than Mozart'; he also implies that Beethoven's touch
might have been more suitable than Mozart's for a work 'as revolutionary as this
29
concerto'.
Beethoven's preference for the legato touch must have been passedon to his pupil
Carl Czerny who wrote in his Pianoforte School (1839) that 'legato must be employed in
all caseswhere the Author has not indicated any particular expression. For in music, the
30
Legato is the rule, and all other modes of execution are only the exceptions'. Czerny
left his observations on performing Beethoven in the fourth volume of his piano method
Op. 500 as well as in his editions of Beethoven's music. His observations should be
treated with respect becausehe was Beethoven's pupil, a professional pianist himself and
an eminent musical figure in the early nineteenth century. However, as William Newman
his superficial and 31

inconsistent. Indeed, Czerny
suggests, observations are sometimes
wrote for the finale of the Sonata Op. 57, where slurs are rare that 'the passagesare to be
lightness, little legato, and only rarely stormy'. 32

played with clear evenness and
Similarly, the passagesof serniquavers and derniserniquaversin the Adagio sections of
28 The same view is expressed in Elizabeth Norman McKay, The Impact of the New Pianofortes on
Classical Keyboard Stvle, p. 49.
- Notes:
29Charles Rosen, Piano the Hidden World of the Pianist (London: Penguin, 2004), p. 202.
30 Carl Czemy, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, Op. 500, translated by J. A.
Hamilton (London: Cocks, 1839), Vol. 111,p. 22.
31William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, p. 21.
12Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, Vol. IV, p. 62.
44
the first movement of Op. 109, which are also rarely slurred, should be played according
to Czerny 'very lightly, like dream figures, just as the Vivace is effective only very legato
33
and singing'. It should be noted here that, according to Czemy, there is a correlation
between lightness and non-legato, as he specifically mentions it in his Piano Forte
School. One quickly realizes that Czerny's comments on the execution of these two
particular works contradict his previous statement that the general rule for the unmarked
notes is to apply the legato touch. The question, apparently raised here, is whether there
are some caseswhere Beethoven wanted the application of the non-legato touch.
Beethoven, as has already been stated, abjured the non-legato style of playing and
preferred a more sustained, singing style of performance. In one of his letters to Czerny,
Beethoven wrote to him about the kind of touch he wanted his nephew to learn: 'I should
like him to use all the fingers now and then, and in such passages as
1) to rP-
--- OV - OP
05 2rI r- 111iC: I f.
r iF--
0) .. I--=: W=*= so that he may slip one finger over another.
Admittedly such passagessound, so to speak, as if they were 'played like pearls' (i. e.
few fingers) but like to have a different kind of touch'. 34

with only a - occasionally we
Here, Beethoven shows his preference for the more legato style of playing; however, he
is not totally negative about 'pearly' touch, which is the slightly detached, non-legato
style of playing. In fact, in spite of his opposition to the old fashioned detached and
35
highly articulated style of playing, Beethoven often found it useful to return to it. In the
second movement of his Sonata Op. 3 1, No. 1 he even directed a passageto be played
leggieramente, with only two fingers in order to achieve the pearly touch; ironically, the
33
Ibid., p. 67.
34Emily Anderson, TheLetters of Beethoven,p. 743.
35 Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas. - a Short Companion (New Haven and London: Yale
University Press,2002), p. 37.
45
figuration of this passageis the same as the one he wanted his nephew to play with all
five fingers (Example 19).
z7-.
Example 19
Beethoven Op. 3 1, No. I /ii/74
74 leggieramente
AI-
Another example, where Beethoven indirectly instructs the non-legato touch, can be
found in the second movement of the Sonata Op. 109, bars 17-24. Bars 19-20 and 23-24
are slurred together and are additionally marked legato. It is obvious that, when
something is repeatedly marked legato, something else must not be legato. That means
that bars 17-18 and 21-22 ought to be played with a different kind of touch, and that is
the non-legato touch (Example 20).
Example 20
Beethoven Op. 109/ii/ 17-24
1,-- t-
I/ levato
40
IPL
46
When playing Beethoven's or any other composer's works, it is dangerous to
make general rules regarding touch, as Czerny did. Except on isolated occasions such as
the second movement of Op. 3 1, No. 1, it would appear that Beethoven did not use the
detached or non-legato technique for long sections, but only used it to achieve an
textures. 36 His full

interesting variety of scores are of places where sections played
staccato or non-legato happily co-exist with long legato cantabile lines. For example, in
the first movement of the Sonata Op. 53 staccatobroken octaves are followed by slurred
chords, marked dolce a molto ligato (Example 2 1).
Example 21
Beethoven Op. 53/i/31-38
31
The opposite happens in the second movement of the Sonata Op. 27, No. 1; twelve three-
note slurred bars are followed by three bars, where the notes are marked with staccato
dots (Example 22).
" Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas.- a Short Companion, p. 39.
47
Example 22
Beethoven Op. 27,1 /ii/ I- 17
8 _____ -
13 1-1
The frequent contrasts in touch, together with the contrasts in dynamics and phrasing, are
one of the most characteristic features of Beethoven's works, especially the piano
sonatas, and, according to Charles Rosen, one of the many reasons that they remain 'so
fascinating to play'. 37
Cramer's twenty-one studies that Beethoven annotated do not usually reveal any
of these contrasts for reasons relating to generic expectations. A Study, or 'etude', is,
after all, a composition designed to improve the technique of an instrumental performer

38
by isolating specific difficulties and focusing on one technical problem. Beethoven's
annotations to them, however, contain valuable information regarding his feeling of
37Ibid., pp. 41-42.

38 Don Michael Randel (ed. ), The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambndge, Massachusetts: The
Belk-nap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 293.
48
touch. We must examine in particular his annotations to studies Nos 1,2,3,4,5,7,81 155
23 and 24, where Beethoven discusseslegato (Bindung).
In most of these studies, Cramer himself indicated the legato touch by either
putting slurs over or under the bars, or verbally, by inserting the word legato or,
sometimes, sempre legato in the score. For example, at the beginning of Study No. 1,
Cramer writes sempre legato (Example 23).
Example 23
Cramer Study No. 1/ 1-2
The same indication can be found in Study No. 4, but this time the need for the legato
touch is also supported by the long slurs he has put over both the right and the left hand
parts (Example 24).
Example 24
49
Beethoven, in his annotations on these two studies, also expressesthe view that
they should be played legato. For example, at the end of his annotation on the Study No.
4 he writes that 'the intelligence of the pupil becoming gradually more formed will help
and proper legato [bindung] will be obtained'.
It is interesting though to look at those studies that are left unmarked by
Cramer, as far as touch is concerned, and to consider Beethoven's annotations. For
example, there is no indication in the original score about which touch to apply in the
right hand part, for at least the first ten bars, of Study No. 23 (Example 25).
Example 25
Beethoven's annotation though is clear: 'the melody is to be found in the first note of
each group, hence the finger ought not to leave the key until the is
next melodic note to
be struck. Only thus will proper legato [bindung] be achieved'. Similarly, the term
Bindung appears in the annotation of Study No. 2, where again no indication regarding
the touch of the right hand is marked by Cramer (Example 26).
50
Example 26
It would be no exaggeration to say that Beethoven wanted most of these studies (maybe
with the exception of Nos. 8 and 29) to be played with a legato touch. One should bear in
mind that Beethoven considered Cramer an exquisite performer, especially for his
sustained, cantabile style of playing, and one of the reasons he regarded his studies as
'the best method for the preparation of his own works' could well have been the
opportunity they offered for teaching this kind of touch. At the turn of the century, when
Beethoven made his annotations, legato started to replace the non-legato as the 'non-nal'
touch; however, this different approach was new when Beethoven was teaching Carl, and
his nephew could still have been applying the old-fashioned detached style in his playing.
Thus, Beethoven, for teaching purposes, may have considered Cramer's studies an ideal
resource for teaching the more sustained, legato touch.
In another study, left unmarked by Cramer (Example 27), Beethoven annotated:
'In the first five bars the first note of each triplet and the third note of the second triplet
must be connected together in the best possible manner, so that the melody may stand out
51
thus: The finger therefore,
remains on the long note. For the rest, the rule for the rendering of the triplet holds
good... '.
Example 27
pp
--77
3
Here, although the term Bindung does not appear, the implication of the legato touch is
made clear with the phrases 'must be connected together' and 'the finger remains'.
However, what is more important in Beethoven's annotation is the identification of a
hidden line in the passage-work. Although Cramer's score at first glance appearsmerely
to be technically challenging passage-work for the right hand, it is given added
significance by Beethoven, as he singles out certain notes, thus creating a 'new' melodic
line. In this way, the score becomes polyphonic, consisting of three voices, two for the
right hand and one for the left, since the first and seventh notes in each bar, according to
Beethoven, should not be executed as serniquavers,as the score suggests,but should be
52
held down until the sixth and twelfth semiquavers are played. The polyphonic texture,
which is suggested here albeit in rudimentary fashion, reminds us of Schindler's
statement that Beethoven regarded Cramer's studies very highly because of the
'polyphony predominant in many of them'. 39 Polyphonic writing, where three or four
voices are clearly written out, can be found in many studies in Cramer's collection. For
example, in Study No. 3, the writing suggests a single line for the right hand while the
left hand plays two moving lines (Example 28).
F7-.
Example 28
Similarly, Study No. 9 consists of a single line in the left hand moving in triplets while
the right hand is written, in most parts of the Study, in two voices (Example 29).
In addition, the annotation on Study No. 24 alerts us to the fact that Beethoven
detected his beloved polyphony even in cases where the polyphony is not immediately
evident.
" Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, p. 182.
53
Example 29
21 tr
Beethoven treats the passage-work in Study No. I in a similar way. In his annotation we
read that 'in to

order obtain the necessarylegato [bindung] the finger must not be lifted
off the first note of each group until the fourth note is to be struck'. Beethoven does not
specify to which hand this applies but we can assume, since the writing and progression
in the right and left hand is the same,that the advice applies to both hands, thus creating a
four-part texture. Beethoven's version of this passage,judging by his annotation, would
be heard as follows (Example 30).
Example 30
Cramer Study No. 1/ 1-2 (after Beethoven's annotation)
54
The re-creation of a texture of a single line in each hand into a four-part layered
one, by means of holding some notes for longer than their written value, is even more
in
clearly stated the annotation of Study No. 7 (Example 3 1).
Example 31
Here, we read that 'the first and third notes of each group carry the melody (in trochaic
meter). The finger continues to dwell, for the duration of two quavers, on the long
syllable (first note). The tenor secondsthe soprano; therefore, alto and bass should not be
given out with equal strength'. Thus, the over-holding of the first note of each group
'until the third note is struck', together with a softer sound of the second quaver of each
group, establish a polyphonic texture.
Beethoven's fascination with polyphony can also be seen in the annotation of
Study No. 5. Here, Cramer's style of writing, of course, clearly reveals the existence of
two voices in the right hand (Example 32).
However, Beethoven states that the execution of the Study should reveal the
presence of these two voices even if the writing were different: 'Were, however, the
writing as follows, still the
first note of each group would have to be uniformly ... held down'.
55
Example 32
IA
r--- :9 r--9 -7-7 -7-7
"29 4 OR I
Mf
FF"u
ME I
I-ý
Furthermore, the annotation on Study No. 15 (Example 33) gives us information about
how Beethoven treated the 'alberti bass' in the left hand: 'the finger holds firmly [on the
first note of each group], except in those groups in which there is a progression of a
second, as for instance, already in the secondbar in the bass'.
Example 33
This statement reminds us of Czerny's later advice that one should hold down 'only such
notes belonging to those chords as are consonant or agreeable to the ear'. 40 One could
argue that a similar (though not identical) effect could be achieved by the use of the
damper pedal. This would work for most parts of the Study, as the notes of the left hand,
which are indicated to be held down, belong to the same chord as the right hand octaves
40Carl Czemy, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, Vol. III, p. 19.
56
at the beginning of each bar. However, the use of the damper pedal would somewhat
cloud bars 12,205 28 and 32, where the right hand plays an appoggiatura (Example 34).
F7-.
Lxample 34
Cramer Study No. 15/12,20
12 20
Thus, one is urged to sustain the sound of the note, which marks the changesof hannony
in the left hand part, with the fingers, using the so called 'finger pedalling', rather than
the damper pedal mechanism. 41
The annotation of Study No. 23, however, reveals a different approach towards
the use of the damper pedal (Example 35).
Example 35
" Joanna Goldstein, A Beethoven Enigma. Performance Practice and the Piano Sonata op. III (New
York: Peter Lang, 1988), p. 34.
57
Again, here, Beethoven suggests the over-holding of some notes in order to create a
melodic line in the passage-work of the right hand: 'the melody is found in the first note
of each group; hence the finger ought not to leave the key until the next melodic note is to
be struck. Only in this way will proper legato [bindung] be achieved'. Thus, Beethoven's
version would be as follows (Example 36).
Example 36
Cramer Study No. 23/1-2 (after Beethoven's annotation)
===:: a I
According to Beethoven, the first higher A should be held down for four serniquavers
until the higher C sharp is struck. Both melodic notes (the higher A and the higher C
sharp) because of the mode of writing cannot be played with any finger other than the
fifth; this means that, although one can hold down the A until the fourth semiquaver is
struck (the lower A), there will inevitably be a gap just before the next melodic note (the
higher C sharp), since one must raise the fifth finger from the higher A in order to play
the higher C sharp. The same applies to the connection of the other
melodic notes (the higher C sharp with the higher E, the higher E with the higher B, etc.).
The only way to achieve a smooth connection between these melodic notes, without a
gap between them, would appear to be through using the damper pedal. Unfortunately,
58
there is no reference to the use of the damper pedal in this or any of Beethoven's other
annotations. However, that does not mean that Beethoven wanted these studies to be
played entirely without pedal. We know that Beethoven used the pedal much more than
he indicated in his scores and that he was known to have pioneered an increaseduse of it,
in part to improve the legato.42If we want to achieve legato between the melodic notes,
as suggestedby Beethoven in Study No. 23, the use of the damper pedal would appearto
be the only means to this end.
The over-holding of some notes for longer than their written value was part of
Classic performance practice at the end of the eighteenth century, as Milchmeyer's
treatise illustrates 43 Twentieth-century theorists and performers have given different

.
names to this kind of touch. Walter Gieseking believed that it 'provides a greater degree
in line' it 'legatissimo'. 44In the Kenneth Drake it

of connectedness a and called words of
it 45
is the 'sustained style', while Howard Ferguson called the 'tenuto Touch'; Sandra
Rosenblum devoted a whole section to this kind of touch, implementing examples from
Beethoven's annotations on Cramer's studies, in her Performance Practices in Classic

46
Piano Music under the title 'the prolonged touch'. It is not crucial for present purposes
to detennine which term best fits the kind of touch that Beethoven describes, as each
42A thorough discussionabout Beethoven'suse of pedalscan be found in William Newman, Beethovenon

Beethoven. - Playing his Piano Music His Way,pp. 231-252.
43
Cf. p. 36.
44 Walter Gieseking and Karl Leiner, Rhythm, Dynamics, Pedal (Bryn Mawr, Pensylvania, Theodor
Presser, 1938), p. 37. Carl Czerny also used the term legatissimo when he described the kind of touch,
which is under discussion here. See Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School,
Vol. 111,P. 19.
45 Kenneth Drake, The Sonatas of BeethovenAs He Played and Taught Them, (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1972), p. 129 and Howard Ferguson, Keyboard Interpretation (London: Oxford
University Press, 1975),p. 65.
46SandraRosenblum,PerformancePractices, pp. 155-158.
59
appears to have 47
the same or similar meaning. It is more important to examine
Beethoven's methodology for finding specific notes in passage-work that he connects
through the 'prolonged' touch in order to create a 'new' melodic line.
An examination of Beethoven's annotations reveals that the 'prolonged' touch is
only used when an established pattern is repeated several times. For example, in Study
No. 1 (see Example 23), the first four ascending serniquaver notes form a pattern that is
repeated fourteen times until bar 5. Similarly, the first six quavers of Study No. 2
(Example 26) form a pattern that is repeated eight times until bar 5. The same applies to
studies Nos 3,5,7,12,23,24 and 27. In contrast, Study No. 4 (Example 24) does not
reveal any repetition of a pattern and probably explains why Beethoven, although he
mentions that legato should be applied, does not single out any melodic notes that should
be held down for longer than their written value. After a pattern is established and
it
repeated, remains to examine which notes Beethoven singles out and connects in order
to fon-n a melodic line. Here, the factors that we need to consider are the position of the
notes on the strong or weak beats of the bar, the proximity of the pitches, the changesof
hannony and the changesof direction in the passage-work.
The annotation of Study No. I (Example 23) reveals that the notes that Beethoven
advises the perfonner to over-hold are the ones that fall on the strong beats of the bar.
These notes, together with the fourth note of each group of four serniquavers, form
Beethoven's melodic line. The inclusion of the fourth note in the melody can be justified
by its proximity to the following G, which again falls on the strong beat. The case in
Study No. 7 is similar (Example 3 1). Here, the first note of each triplet is held for the
47The term "prolonged touch", which is going to be used here when referring to the over-holding of some
certain notes has been chosen by the author.
60
spaceof two quavers until the third note is struck. The third note of the triplet is included
in the melody not only because of its proximity with the next note, but also because it
marks a change of harmony. This also happens in Study No. 24 (Example 27). However,
here, only the first note of the first and third groups of triplets is over-held, while the first
note of the second and fourth groups are not treated in this way. This can be explained by
the time signature of the Study. The 2/4 indication means that the second and fourth
groups do not fall on the strong beats of the bar. However, even if the time signature were
4/8, Beethoven would probably treat the passagein the same way. This is because the
E's, which are placed at the beginning of the second and fourth groups, are not close to
the D's of the first and third groups. The change of hannony as well as the change in
direction of the passage-work mean that one note from the second and fourth group
should be singled out in the melodic line and Beethoven choosesthe C sharpsbecauseof
their proximity to the following D's, which fall on the strong beat.
The importance of the change of direction in the passage-work in singling out a
melodic line can be demonstrated through a comparative examination of the annotations
of Studies No 2 (Example 26) and No. 23 (Example 25). If we isolate the first two groups
in both cases(the first two triplets in Study No. 2 and the first two groups of semiquavers
in Study No. 23), it is obvious that there is no change of harmony in the second group.
In Study No. 2 the E of the second triplet does not mark a change of direction as it
continues the ascending direction of the first triplet. In Study No. 23, however, the C
sharp marks a new direction as it is placed a tenth higher over the last note of the first
group, which descends.As a result, Beethoven views these passagesin different ways. In
Study No. 2, he suggests that only the first note of the first and third triplets should be
61
sustained, excluding any notes from the second and fourth triplets. However, in Study
No. 23, all first notes of each group of derniserniquavers are, according to Beethoven,
required to be over-held.
Deciding whether and where to apply the 'prolonged' touch when perfon-ning
Beethoven's works, requires us to take into consideration all of the kinds of factors
discussed above. However, there are no general rules to follow; other factors should be
considered too, such as tempo, the mood of the work, pedalling, etc. Beethoven's
annotations on Cramer's studies reveal that he was fond of this kind of touch and we have
no reason not to believe that he applied it when he was playing his own works. Schindler
remembered that Beethoven held down certain notes (F sharp in bar 15, A natural in bar
17) using 'a soft, gliding touch' in the first movement of the Piano Sonata Op. 14, No. 2
48
(Example 37).
Example 37
Beethoven Op. 14, No. 2/i/ 15-17
15
One is prompted to find other places too where Beethoven might have used the
4prolonged' touch. An example can be found in the first movement of the Sonata Op. 14,
No. I (Example 38).
" Kenneth Drake, The Sonatas of Beethoven As He Played and Taught Them, p. 129.
62
In bars 7 and 8, the A is followed by an F sharp, aD sharp and a B. The first three
notes descend, while the B marks a change of direction, being placed a sixth higher than
the D sharp. Thus, the A, which falls on a strong beat of the bar, together with the B
could form a short melodic pattern, on account of the reasonsstated above as well as their
proximity in pitch. This means that the A could be held for three quavers until the B is
struck.
Example 38
Beethoven Op. 14, No. I/i/7-8
C14D
In the third movement of the same Sonata,a whole section (bars 47-79) is left unmarked
by Beethoven, as far as touch is concerned, with the exception of some staccato dots in
the right hand part. In fact, the dots here probably indicate accentson the notes (Example
49
39).
A close examination of this section reveals that these notes with the staccatodots
actually form a hidden melodic line. The B, which falls on the third beat of bar 47, is the
starting point of a pattern, which is later repeated. The B, which falls on the fourth beat of
the bar, belongs to the sameharmony and direction that was establishedin the third triplet
and this is why it does not belong to the melodic line; this is also supported by the fact
that it has no dot on it in the score. The D, which follows on the first beat of bar 48,
49A detailed discussion about Beethoven's staccato signs can be found In WIllIam Newman, Beethoven on
Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, pp. 139-146.
63
Example 39
Beethoven Op. 14, No. I/iii/47-53
47
it
although also belongs to the same harmony, marks a change of direction, being placed
an octave higher than the last note of the previous descendingtriplet. Thus, it is treated as
a melodic note with a staccato dot. The D on the second beat of bar 48 is treated in the
same way as the B on the fourth beat of bar 47, and the G of the third beat of bar 48 as
D
the of the first beat in the same bar. The F sharp, which falls on the fourth beat of bar
48 marks both a change of harmony and direction and, thus, is treated as part of the
melodic line with a staccato dot over it. The same applies for the G, which follows at the
beginning of bar 49. The above observations, compared with Beethoven's annotations,
could lead us to the conclusion that the B D

and with the staccato dots should be held
down for the spaceof six quavers and the G and F sharp for the spaceof three quavers. A
similar approach could be applied for the rest of the section, which ends in bar 79.
The application of the 'prolonged' touch is probably implied by Beethoven, with
his indication molto legato, in bars 17-19 and 21-27 in the fourth movement of the sonata
Op. 28 (Example 40). Here, the same pattern of broken is

chords repeated six times and,
break of one bar, for another fourteen times in both hands. What Beethoven most
after a
64
likely means here is that one should hold down the first note of each broken chord in each
hand for four serniquavers.
Example 40
Beethoven Op. 28/iv/17-27
Ic
The Sonata Op. 3 1, No. 2 offers another example of where the 'prolonged' touch could
be applied (Example 41). In bars 75-76 and 79-80, the A should be held down for the
space of three quavers until the higher C is struck. The higher C belongs to the hidden
melodic line as, although it belongs to the same harmony with the previous three notes, it
marks a change of direction is

and close to the following B natural. The same pattern is
in
repeated the left hand (bars 77-78 and 81-82) and should be treated likewise.
65
Example 41
Beethoven Op. 3 1, No. 2/i/75-82
The left hand accompaniment in the fourth movement of the sonata Op. 3 1, No. 3
carries no indication regarding touch (Example 42).
Example 42
Beethoven Op. 3 1, No. 3/iv/1 -6
I-
Here, if Beethoven's views expressedin his annotations are taken into account, the first
note of the first triplet in bar I should be held down for three quavers. However, the same
could not be applied to the first note of the second triplet, as there is a conjunct move of a
second. The same applies up to bar 5 and it is repeated several times throughout the
movement. This approach is based on the annotation of Study No. 15 (see Example 33).
66
Many other examples from Beethoven's works could be cited,
where the
application of his annotations regarding legato and the 'prolonged' touch on Cramer's
studies would seem appropriate. The implementation of varying degrees of this touch
would introduce varying degrees of colour to his 50

music. The number and shades of
these colours depend on the intelligence, imagination and taste of the individual
performer and, becausethe possibilities are endless,it is useful to remember that this type
of touch was common practice in the Classical period and especially in Beethoven.
i)
I
Longs and shorts
'Here the long and shorts must be attended to throughout, i. e. the first note long (-), the
second short (u), the third in its turn long, and the fourth in its turn short: the same as in
scanning trochaic measure. At first, the first, also third note is to be intentionally
lengthened so that long may be perceptibly distinguished from short, but without
prolonging the first and third note as if they were dotted. The movement should only be
increased later on, and then the sharp edgeswill easily be smootheneddown... 5.51
Beethoven
50 This view is also expressed by Howard Ferguson, Keyboard Interpretation from the 14'h to the 19th
Centwý,, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 66.
51 John Baptist Cramer, Selection of Studies with Comments by Beethoven, with a preface, translation,
notes and fingering by J. S. Shedlock, p. Iv.
explanatory
67
The above annotation is appended to Cramer's Study No. 4 (Example 43) and
other comments of similar nature can be found in most of the studies that Beethoven
annotated (Nos. 5,6,7,13,15,16,18,21,27, and 30).
Example 43
Cramer Study No. 4/1-4 (after Beethoven's annotation)
AA
fsempre legato
The terms in italics here originate from Ancient Greek and the naming of long and short
syllables as well as the identification of the correct poetic foot (trochaic tetrameter,
iambic trimeter, dactylic hexameter) in the works of Sophocles, Sapho, Homer, etc. is a
common task for those who study Classics. Thus, when one comes across the sameterms
to
applied piano pieces, such as these studies by Cramer, and, more notably, when these
terms are used by Beethoven himself, several questions immediately come to mind. How
are these terms, originally used in literature, applied to music? How far was Beethoven
acquainted with prosody? Do we understand the link between in

music and prosody the
same way as Beethoven did two hundred years ago? And, last but not least, why is the
application of longs and shorts so important in performance? At this point it is
worthwhile explor-ing Beethoven's acquaintance with the theoretical treatises of the
eighteenth century and examining how these treatises linked music to language.
68
We know that Beethoven was familiar with Bach's Essay on the True Art of
Playing Keyboard Instruments from his childhood, when he was studying composition
with Christian Gottlob Neefe, and that he regarded it very highly. 52 Beethoven's
acquaintancewith prosody can also be supportedby the fact that around 1790 he began to
consult Mattheson's Der Volkommene Capellmeister at least for its information on

53 by the last decade of the eighteenth century he also consulted
counterpoint;
Kimberger's Der Kunst des reinen Satzes.54We cannot be sure that Beethoven's interest
might have led him to any of the extensive sections in those theoretical works that deal
with rhetorical-musical concepts. However, there is evidence that he referred to Der
Volkommene Capellmeister in 1802 and at other times during his life specifically in
55 He also owned Daniel Webb's Betrachtungen flber die

relation to text setting.
Verwandschaft der Poesie und Musik (Leipsig: Scheickert, 1771), originally published in
English as Observations on the Correspondence between Poetry and Music (London,

56
1769). His more general reading included works by Goethe, a number of Shakespeare's
plays in German and several books by Greek and Roman writers, such as Homer, Plato,
Aristotle, and Horace, some of which may well have been 57

concernedwith prosody.
The application of prosody in music was mentioned in several treatises of the
eighteenth century as part of the prevailing concept that music was closely linked to
language - poetry, drama, and more specifically rhetoric, the 'art of expressive
" Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer's Life of Beethoven, p. 66 and p. 467.

53Richard Kramer, "Notes to Beethoven Education", Journal of American Music Society, Vol. 28, No. 1,
1975), pp. 92-94.
54
Ibid. pp. 73-92.
55
Ibid. pp. 95-98.
57Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Thayer's Life of Beethoven, pp. 245-246.
69
discourse'.58 A widespread view of the relationship between music
and rhetoric was
expressedby John Hawkins, who said, in 1776, that 'the art of invention is made out of
hands among the precepts of rhetoric, to which music in this and sundry instancesbears a
near resemblance; the end of persuasion, or affecting the passions, being common to
both. 559Similarly, Quantz claimed that 'musical execution may be compared with the
delivery of an orator. The orator and the musician have, at bottom, the sameaim in regard
to both the preparation and the final execution of their productions, namely to make
themselves masters of the hearts of their listeners, to arouse or still their passions, and to
transport them now to this sentiment, now to that. Thus, it is advantageousto both, if
each has some knowledge of the duties of the other.' 60
The idea of 'persuasion or affecting the passions' as the common aim between
rhetoric and music reappeared frequently in the writings of the period. Musical
performance was approached as the art of communication of feelings, such as joy,
depression, anger, etc. The means of doing so were regularly associated with oratory.
Mattheson, in his Der Vollkommene Capellmeister took these ideas furthest stating that
'since for example joy is an expansion of our soul I could best express this affect by
...
large and expanded intervals. Whereas if one knows that sadnessis a contraction of these
subtle parts of our body, then it is to

easy see that the small intervals are the most suitable
58Hans Lenneberg,, Johann Mattheson on Rhetoric and Affect, Journal of Music Theory, 2, (1958), pp. 47-
84,193-236. See also Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices, p. 9.
59John Hawkins, A General History of the Science and Practice of Music (London, 1776), pp. 30-3 1.
60Johann Joachim Quanz, On Playing the Flute (London: Faber and Faber, 1966), p. 119.
70
for this passion.' 61Mattheson here, not only associatesfeelings
with musical performance
but also, describing how these feelings physically function, suggestshow they could be
best delivered. Thus, knowing how the passions actually work in the human body is,
according to Mattheson, a basic skill a composer should have.
Similar associations between rhetoric and music are found in Tfirk's
Klavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Klavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende (1789) and
Koch's Musikalisches Lexicon (1802). In all these treatises the association between
rhetoric and music was based on their common aim: to arouse passions or sentiments,
that is feelings, states of mind, reactions characteristic of man, such as love, joy, sadness
and so on. The 'affects' were thus regarded as the content of music. However, the
'affection of passions' was not the only basis on which theorists of the eighteenth century
associated rhetoric with music. Rhetoric also interested musicians of the eighteenth
century because it provided concepts that helped them designate various aspects of
descriptive 62 TUrk
musical composition and some applicable vocabulary. mentioned
repeatedly analogies between rhetoric and music as he discussed clarity, accentuation,
'good 63In Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, Mattheson

and other aspects of execution'.
explored the relationship between rhetoric and music at many levels, from the
philosophic to the level of harmony, rhythm, symmetry, etc. However, his major
preoccupation was the transformation of the poetic feet, that is prosody (iamb, trochee,
etc.) to music, which he called 'tone-feet', explaining that 'What in

meters are poetry,
61 Johann Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, translated and edited by Ernest C. Harriss (Ann
Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981), pp. 104-105.
62Leonard Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Sty,le (New York: Schinner Books, 1980), p. 3 1.
63Daniel Gottlob TUrk, Kla viersch tile, p. 338 and pp. 340-3.
71
rhythms are in music, for this reason, we will call them tone-feet, since song as it were
64
walks along them. '
Both poetic and tone feet are based on the same general rule: a short, easily
recognized pattern of time and accent is chosen for the basic unit and is then constantly
repeated so that it is easily perceived. Classical Greek and Latin poetry used a time
schemedepending on whether the vowel of a syllable was long or short: the vowelsq and
o) were always considered as long (-); F-and o were short (u); a, t, and i) could be either
long or short depending on the consonantsthat were following. Beethoven's annotation
to Study No. 13 mentions the importance of the application of correct tone foot in music:
'The study of longs and shorts in passagesis here the aim by paying heed to these long
...
and shorts the melodic movement stands out in the passages;without so doing, every
passageloses its meaning.'
Thus, according to Beethoven, short and long notes are responsible for the
movement and the flow of the melodic line and have to be applied in performance. This
kind of treatment of melody by Beethoven reminds us of Mattheson, who devoted a
whole section to giving advice on how to compose a flowing melodic line. Mattheson
stressed the importance of a flowing melody because it helps the listener to 'observe
rhythmic conformity and the proper variation of the arithmetic relationship of certain
rhythms'. He associated the flowing melody with rhythmus, that is tone-feet, stating that
'the same rhythmi must appear in melody just the same at one place as at another, so that
they as it were answer one another and make the melody flowing'. 65
64Johann Mattheson, Der vollkoininene Capellmeister, pp. 309-3 10.

65 Ibid., p. 326.
72
In a rhythmus, two or three notes are grouped as a unit to make one 'tone foot'
-
in
as poetry, where two or three syllables are gouped together to make one poetic foot.
Thus, the possible combinations of longs and shorts could be:
u--, UUU,
- -, - U, u u
-, U, -uU, u-U, uu -5 -u-, --U, ---
Indeed, all these different kinds of poetic foot can be found in Mattheson's Der
Volkommene Capellmeister and in Heinrich Christoph Koch's Lexicon, with
recommendations for setting each one to music of various kinds. In the following
example of three-syllable tone-feet, the symbol 'o', instead of V, is used to designate a
short (Example 44).
Example 44
J. Mattheson, Der Volkommene Capellmeister, 'Feet of Three- Syllables', pp. 354-358
Dactylus- senousas
well ashumorous
Anapaestus -
as wcll as sm
molossus-
sorro-vN-ful
Tribrachis -
as Nvellas se
Bacchius-
tlor fugues
Amphymacer - lively,
brisk
Arnphybrachys -
popular, tor hvelý
expression
73
In addition, Koch included samples of text that correspond to tone feet; KQnst6
(trochaic), Dds Gdst-dd(anapest),F-dl6Thdt (creticus) 66C. P. E. Bach also mentioned the

.
presence of long and short notes in music; in his Essay on the True Art of Playing
Keyboard Instruments he explained that 'if the accompaniment falls directly on the notes
that are long in terms of their inner value, then the passing tone is regular (transitus
regularis). With notes of equal value, the first, third, etc., are long in terms of their inner
value, and the second, fourth, etc., short.967
C. P. E. Bach's comment reminds us of Beethoven's annotation to Study No. 4:
'the first note long, the second short, the third in its turn long, the fourth in its turn short,
etc.' Beethoven's reference to longs and shorts has usually been associated only with
volume of sound. For example, William Newman clarifies the reference to 'longs and
68
shorts' by adding 'for which read, strong and weaks'. Beethoven's annotation implies
that there is indeed a relationship between longs and shorts and volume of sound at the
end of the annotation on Study No. 4 by explaining that 'the sharp edges will easily be
smoothened down'. However, a closer look at the annotation reveals that this is not the
longs 69
only way we should interpret and shorts.
The performance of longs and shorts, according to Beethoven, is accomplished by
lengthening 'the first and third notes deliberately so as to distinguish the longs clearly
from the shorts, yet not to the extent of making the first and third notes dotted'. Clearly
here, Beethoven's concern is not only with volume (strong or weak), as Newman
suggests, but with duration, too. This resembles the function of prosody in the Greek
66Heinrich Koch, Musikalisches Lexicon (Frankfurt: Hen-nann demjungem, 1802), p. 953.

67Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essa on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, p. 154.
'v
68William Newman, Beethoven on Beethovcn.- Pla ving His Piano Music His Way, p. 178.
69 For the annotation on Study No. 4 cf. pp. 67-68.'
74
Classics where the long syllables were given longer duration in their pronunciation than
the short syllables, that is'q was pronounced as a prolonged F,(cE) and o) as a prolonged o
(oo). Beethoven's concern about duration of long and short notes receives more support
from three of the most influential theorists of the eighteenth century: Daniel Gottlob
Tiirk, Johann Mattheson and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. Tiirk, in his Klavierschule, in
the section about accents, stated that 'another means of accentuation is that of lingering
...
on certain notes. An orator not only emphasizesthe most important syllables etc., but also
lingers on them. Naturally, such lingering in music cannot always be of equal duration;
for it seems to me that it depends chiefly on (1) the degrees of importance of the note
itself, (2) the value of the note and its relation to other notes, and (3) the basic harmony.70
Tiirk makes it clear that notes of apparently equal value are not alike in duration
and this practice originates again from the association of music with oratory. Mattheson
also described the element of accent, which is related to time, employing the ten-n
rhythmus. In his chapter entitled 'On the length and Shortness of Sound, or the
Construction of Tone-Feet' he defined rhythmus and rhythmopbia as following: 'What a
rhythmus is, is taught to us by prosody, or that instruction in the by

art of speaking means
of which it is ascertained how one should place the accent, and whether one should utter
a long or short. The meaning of the word rhythmus however is merely quantitive, namely,
a certain measuring or counting out, there the syllables, here the sounds, not only with
regard to their multiplicity; but also with their regard to their brevity and length the
...
the tone-feet (rhythmus) is called rhythmop6ia. ' 71
uniting and other manipulation of
70Daniel Gottlob TUrk, Klavierschule, p. 3 1.

71Johann Mattheson, Der Volkommene Capellmeister, p. 344.
75
Mattheson here is giving a definition of one of the most important aspects of
performance: rhythm. The two fundamental aspectsof rhythm are, according to him, the
group pattern (tone-feet) and the repetition of it (rhythmop6ia). An example of a group
pattern is the composition of a tone-foot, for example the short-long sequence of an
iambic foot and the opposite (trochaic); the repetition of it forms a rhythm. We could
more easily understand what Mattheson means here by applying these two aspects of
rhythm in various human performances, such as walking, running and dancing. For
example, somebody who is lame cannot make two equal steps: one step will always be
equally longer (or shorter) than the other; however, a human observer will impose a
rhythmical interpretation for a lame person's walking because the alternation between
long and short steps is identical and constant.
C. P. E. Bach was also concerned about the length of particular notes, as one can
read in his Essay: '[The example] shows us various instanceswhere for the sake of affect
one allows the notes and rests to have a longer value than that required by the notation.
Some of these broadenings I have clearly written out, others are indicated by small
972
crosses.
Thus, we could suggest that Beethoven's annotation to Study No. 4 continues a
tradition of treating notes as long and short, which had already been established by the
eighteenth-century theorists. The Study No. 4 is said by Beethoven to be in trochaic
meter and this applies to most of the studies, which were annotated by Beethoven. For
instance, in the annotation to Study No. 7 we read that 'here the first and third notes of
each group carry the melody in trochaic measure'; similarly, in the annotation of Study
No. 30, it is said that 'the trochaic measuremust be audible'. A trochaic measuresuggests
72Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, pp. 160- 1.
76
a two-note grouping of the notes where the first is long (-) and the second is short (u).
However, in the annotation of the Study No. 15, the application of the iambic
measure(u
-) is suggested: 'From the thirteenth to the sixteenth bar inclusive, the melody lies in the
highest notes; the accentuation here resemblesiambic measure.'
Trochaic and iambic measures are similar in that they are both constituted of
groups of two notes. But how shall we determine if these groups are beginning-accented
(trochaic) or end accented (iambic)? In the case of Study No. 15, such identification is
complex (Example 45).
In bar 13, where the iambic measurebegins, the melody is carried in the highest
i.
notes, e. the C and the E flat, the E flat and the D and that carries on until bar 15. The
fact that the first C is placed on the secondhalf of the first beat makes us consider it as an
arsis to the following E flat, which is placed on the second beat, which is considered a
thesis; the same applies to the groups of E flat-D, B flat-D, D-C, A natural-C and C-13 flat
El- -
Example 45
in the following bars. The first C, being considered as an arsis, leads to the following
note and cannot be considered as the end of a rhythmic group. Thus, the group will be
end-accentedand we come to the conclusion that the measure here is iambic. The iambic
77
measure is also supported by the function of the left hand. The presenceof the chords on
the second and the fourth beats of these bars make the notes of the right hand which are
placed at the same place, i. e. E flat, D, B flat, D, etc. sound stronger in relation to the C,
E flat, B flat, D, etc.
On the other hand, the grouping in Study No. 7 (Example 46) is clearly trochaic,
that is beginning-accented (- u).
Example 46
This means that in the first bar of the Study, the higher F is long, the E flat is short, the D
again long, the C again short, making two groups of trochaic feet. The higher F and the D
are placed on the first and the second beats of the bar respectively, making them the most
important notes of the bar in contrast to the E flat and C, which are placed at the end of
each triplet. Besides, F and D are literally longer in duration as well if they are perfon-ned
as Beethoven suggests: 'the finger continues to dwell for the spaceof two quavers on the
long syllable (first note)'. Thus, according to Beethoven, the actual rhythm of the melody
will be instead of the notated
i we consider the absenceof a melodic
the second quaver of each triplet as a rest. Thus, there is no problem in identifying
note in
78
the long and the short notes and in interpreting the long and short notes as beginning-
accented.
It is noteworthy that Beethoven always applies the tone-feet

only to the melodic
line. In most cases,the notation makes the identification of the

melodic line quite clear.
However, there are some occasions when the melody has to be sought. In both
instances
where this is the case, Beethoven applies the tone-feet to melody. For example, in Study
No. 5 the notation by Cramer makes it clear which are the melodic notes through the use
of different stems between the soprano voice and the alto (Example 47).
Beethoven, in his annotation on this Study, statesthat 'the movement is written in
four voices. The melody lies in the upper voice, as it is shown by the mode of writing.
Were, however, the latter as follows: still
the first note of each group would have to be unifonnly accentuatedand held down. The
Example 47
middle voice E-C, F-C, G-C, etc. must not be given out with the same strength as that of
the upper voice. The measure shows itself as trochaic.
Here, Beethoven, after identifying the melody in the upper voice of the right hand,
longs and shorts only to those notes that belong to the melody and he stresses
applies the
79
that this should have been done even if the notation had not clarified it. The remaining
notes of the right hand should be softer and no longs and shorts are to be applied to them.
In contrast, the notation of Study No. 21 does not make clear where the melodic
line lies (Example 48.).
ILI-
Example 48
.
cresc.
Here, the right hand plays serniquavers where the left hand plays an accompanimental
figure consisting of quavers. If we were to consider all the notes of the right hand as
melodic we would put longs on the first, third, and fifth notes and shorts on the second,
fourth and sixth notes forining three groups of trochaic feet in each figure. However, this
is not the case as we can see in Beethoven's annotation on this Study: 'Attention must be
paid to the accent of the fifth note of each group, which mostly appears as a minor
second. Trochaic measure forms the basis of each group: the first note accentedand long,
but less so the fifth. ' Here, Beethoven identifies the melody in the first and fifth note of
each unit. By suggesting an accent on the fifth note, he meant that this particular note
should be distinguished in tone from the second, the third, the fourth and the sixth notes.
He then paired the fifth together with the first note of each group so that these two notes
80
forrn a trochaic foot. There is no application of longs and shorts to the remaining notes as
they do not belong to the melodic line.
Similarly, we could apply the longs and shorts to Study No. 24 (Example 49).
Example 49
pp
Here, the right hand plays triplet serniquavers whereas the left hand has a long bass note.
If we were to put longs and shorts in the right hand we would consider the first note of
each triplet as long and the two remaining as short, establishing a dactylic foot (- u u).
However, these triplets do not form a melodic line themselves and, therefore, should not
be treated in this way. Beethoven's annotation on that Study shows us where the melodic
line is hidden and implies the tone-foot that should be applied: 'In the first five bars the
first note of the first triplet and the third note of the second triplet must be connected
together in the best possible manner, so that the melody may stand out like this:
The finger therefore must remain on the
long note. For the rest, the rule for the rendering of the triplet holds good; but here the
second triplet must be less strongly accentuated. '
81
There is no reference here to the application of longs and shorts; however, if we
were to identify the tone-foot, Beethoven's identification of the melody serves as a
valuable guide. Since the melody consists of the first note of the first triplet and the third
note of the second triplet, we could argue that the first melodic note (D) is considered as
long and the second (C sharp) as short (forming a trochaic foot). The four notes that lie
between them should not be given out with the same strength and there is no issue of
applying longs and shorts to them as they do not belong to the melodic line.
Beethoven's application of longs and shorts only to the melodic line complies
with the general concept about the relationship between music and oratory. The theorists
of the eighteenth century were mainly using melody in order to establish the relationship.
The importance of melody in music is best described by Mattheson: 'Mere melody,
entirely by itself, can stimulate certain affections admirably well, express these, and can
listeners'. 73But here have

move receptive we nothing else than the common aim of music
is the affection of 74
passions. Mattheson might have been deliberately
and oratory, which
over-stating matters. Music obviously consists of many other elements too. However,
with this statement he clearly identifies melody as the basic element of music; and he
to
usesmelody establish the relationship between music and rhetoric.
A flowing melodic line enhancesmost of the studies in Cramer's collection and
this may have been one of the main reasons that Beethoven was so fond of them.
However, there are some studies, which feature notes equal in duration that should be
played at quite a fast speed, and where a melodic line is hardly audible. Beethoven has
annotated one of those studies, that is the Study No. 4 (Example 43), and it is worth re-
73
JohannMattheson,Der VollkommeneCapellmeister,p. 308.
74 Cf.
p. 70.
82
examining the annotation for its tone-foot. What we have from Beethoven here is that the
first, the third, the fifth and the seventh notes of each bar long
are while the second, the
fourth, the sixth and the eighth are short. Beethoven here explains that the
measure is
trochaic (- u). Could we have another arrangement of grouping here so that the measure
would become iambic?
According to Cooper and Meyer, the mind groups proximate things together or to
put the matter the other way around, separategroups tend to arise where there is a relative
75
non-proximity. This in this particular Study that we are examining. For
could work
example, the first E flat of the Study is not proximate to the next note, the higher E flat,
which is proximate to the following D. Similarly, the higher G of the first bar is more
proximate to the following E flat rather than the preceding D, and the B natural is more
proximate to the following C than the preceding E flat. Thus, the mind groups together
the second with the third notes of the bar, the fourth with the fifth, the sixth with the
seventh and the eighth with the first note of the following bar. Thus, the poetic foot,
starting from the second note of the passage,would be [u -] [u -] [u -] [u -]. Such a
rhythmic grouping does not contradict the notation of the score; in contrast to the
previous example in Study No. 7, Cramer here, together with the indication sempre
legato, also used long slurs over the bars, a fact that does not oblige us to consider the last
note of each bar as the end of a unit. Thus, an iambic grouping of the melodic line is
In
possible. relation to the same matter, there is at least one more occasion (in the Study
No. 5) where one could come up with a different rhythmic grouping than the one
Beethoven suggests (Example 47).
" Grosvenor Cooper, and Leonard Meyer, The Rki-thmic Structure of Music (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1960), p. 14.
83
However, such an interpretation would contradict Beethoven's view, who clearly
in
stated his annotation that the foot here is trochaic. This may be explained by the fact
that Beethoven considered the very first note of the Study as long because it coincides
with the first beat of the bar, and consequently he grouped it with the secondnote in order
to establish the tone foot.
The issue of applying the trochaic or the iambic foot in this particular Study
becomes significant when it is associatedwith the difference between the ideal sound of
Beethoven's era and our own. But before exploring these two different 'sounds', it is
important to describe the different character and use of the trochaic and iambic feet.
Johann Mattheson said that the trochaic or chordus foot - as it is also known- is
appropriate for fast is

melodies and suitable for dance. On the other hand, the iambic foot
76
is not hasty and is suitable for tender melodies with a noble simplicity. In other words,
the trochaic foot, which is suitable for dancing, has a dynamic character and is beginning-
accented; the end-accented iambic foot would not have such a firm accent on the long
note because it is rather suitable for tender melodies and, obviously, tenderness and
do
accents not go together.
When reading descriptions of Beethoven's playing we are left with the impression
that accentuation was a major attribute of it, helping to create its characteristic dynamism,
'fiery 77 His full of indications,

energy and expression'. scores are which, one way or
another, suggest accents (sf, rfz, fp, sfp, ffp, etc.). This ideal sound is best suited to the
trochaic foot. It is no coincidence that Beethoven, in all his twenty-one annotations on
Cramer's studies - with the exception of one case - is applying that specific type of tone
76Johann Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, p. 351-353.

77Franz Kullak, Beethoven's Piano Playing (New York: Da Capo, 1973), p. 5.
84
foot. This could also be supported by the evidence we have about Beethoven's choice of
tempi. We should recall here that Beethoven's playing was known for its unusual bravura
78
and speed. The metronome markings, which he indicated in several of his works,
suggest unexpectedly fast tempos. Unfortunately, among all his pianoforte works, only
the 'Hammerklavier' Sonata Op. 106 has been published with metronome markings by
the composer himself Nevertheless, these markings appear surprisingly fast. Czemy,
who studied the particular sonata with Beethoven several times talked about the 'major
difficulty' of the first movement for its 'unusually fast and fiery tempo', for its second
movement, which has to be played 'as fleet as possible' and for the 'very lively and
strong' fourth movement.79Certainly, the shallow, light the Viennese fortepiano

action of
during Beethoven's life would have made it less difficult to apply such fast tempos. Thus,
concerning the tone feet, one could argue that Beethoven was thinking more of the
melodic motives as beginning-accented since the trochaic foot by nature encourages
relatively fast melodic lines.
The ideal sound and speed are quite different nowadays. A performer of
Beethoven's works today will more likely pursue an even, well-rounded tone. This
sound ideal best suits the iambic grouping for reasons already explained. I have heard
many prominent piano tutors today prompting their students to think in tenns of end-
accented groupings while performing in order to avoid accents on the strong beats so that
the playing becomes even and smooth, without strong emphasis in any places. In
addition, the hard action of the modem piano does it

not make easy, or even perhaps

79Carl Czerny, On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven's Worksfor the Piano, edited by Paul Badura
Skoda (Vienna: Universal. 1970), pp. 57-59.
85
possible, for someone to choose very fast tempos similar to those Beethoven apparently
favoured.
iii) Accentuation
It has been claimed that one of the features that seemsto have lent peculiar charm
to Beethoven's playing, and one which 'we, too, reckon among the chief requisites of a
fine interpretation' was the accentuation.80Sandra Rosenblum believes that descriptions
of Beethoven's playing give the impression that the use of accents helped create the
81
6energy' and 'fiery expression' considered characteristic of his music. Anton Schindler
also referred to Beethoven's particular style of accentuation in both his playing and
teaching: 'It was above all the rhythmic accent that he stressedmost energetically and
that he wanted others to stress. On the other hand, he treated the melodic accent mostly
according to the internal requirements ... His playing thus acquired a highly personal
character, very different from the even, flat performances that never rise to tonal
82 Schindler's statement accords with Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's

eloquence'.
twenty-one studies, where a constant concern with proper accentuation is revealed. This
becomes obvious even from the first sentence of the annotation of Study No. 1: 'The
rhythmical accent is the same on all beats of the bar and it appears in scale-like
progressions.' In some other cases,this rhythmical accent is opposed to the melody, or, in
80Franz Kullak, Beethoven's Piano Playing, p. 35.

82Anton Schindler, Beethoven As I Knew Him, p. 416.
86
Schindler's words, the 'melodic accent', as, for example, in the annotation of Study No.
3: 'The melody is nearly always to be found in the third note of each group; but the
rhythmical accent must be given uniformly on the first note'. One is prompted then to re-
examine Beethoven's annotations on Cramer's studies in order to determine which notes
he choosesto accent and how the rhythmical and 'melodic' accents can be brought out in
perfon-nance.
Proper accentuation was considered one of the most important aspects of
performance in the Classical period as is shown by the frequency with which it was
discussed in contemporary music treatises. In general, accents were grouped into two
main categories: the 'grammatical', or 'metric accent', which was the accentuation
connected with the metrical structure of the music and the so-called 'rhetorical',
83
toratorical', or 4expressiveaccent'. Regarding the first type of accent, the majority of
the theorists of the second half of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
to
nineteenth century seem agree on the arrangementof accentedand unaccentedbeats in
the bar. The fundamental concept was that in duple meters, the first beat is always
accented and the is

second unaccented, while in triple meters, the first beat receives a
degree than the 84

others. Regarding the metrical accentuationof
greater of metrical accent
triple time, many writers of the period believed that the third beat was emphasizedmore
than the second. Johann Peter Milchmeyer, in his Die Wahre Art das Pianoforte zu
Spielen (1797) said that 'in a three-four meter, the first and third crotchets are the strong
beats and the second the weak beat'. A similar view was expressed by Georg Simon
83Clive Brown, Classical and Romantic Performance Practice, 1750-1900 (Oxford: Oxford University
Press,1999), p. 8.
84
Ibid., p. 9.
87
L6hlein, as it is shown in the following example (Example 50), which he gives in his
85
Anweisung zum Violinspielen (1774)
.
V. .
Example 50
Georg Simon Löhlein, Anweisung zum Violinspielen, p. 13.
Grammatical or metric accents occurred not only on the strong beat or beats of the bar
but also on the first note of a group formed by the division of the beat. Accordingly, Carl
Czemy wrote that 'as it is one of the first duties of a player never to leave the hearer in
doubt as to the subdivision of the bar, it follows of course that where it is possible, he
should mark by a gentle accent the commencement of each bar, and even of
it. ' 86 Accents the last kind

every ... subdivision of of were sometimes called group
87 On the hand, the oratorical or expressive accents were the

accents. other rhetorical,
accents given to an important melodic note, whether or not it falls on the normal
88According to Heinrich Christoph Koch, these accents are often not

grammatical accent.
indicated and they help the melody to acquire 'its characteristic expression'. They can
occur anywhere in the bar, depending on the composer's intended sense of the melody
and the performer's taste. This kind be

of accent can placed on notes that are dissonant or
prepare dissonant intervals, or those that are chromatic or syncopated, or those

89
distinguished by their length or by their high or low pitch.
" As given in Ibid., p. 13.

86Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School (London, 1839), Vol. 111,p. 8.
87Sandra Rosenblum, Peiformance Practices, p. 91.
88Leonard Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style, p. 191.
'9 Sandra Rosenblum, Performance Practices, p. 92.
88
Beethoven himself used a variety of signs to indicate accents, grammatical or
expressive, in his scores. sf or sfz for sforzando is the most frequently used indication.
For example, in the first movement of the Sonata Op. 54 (bars 26-27), this sign is used to
indicate a metric accent at the first note of each beat of the bar (Example 5 1).
Example 51
26
.I
However, the sfs in the second movement of the Sonata Op. 28 (bars 13-16) evidently
indicate expressive accents on the dissonant minor 7t" and gthintervals, on the weak parts
of the bar (Example 52).
Example 52
Beethoven Op. 28/ii/13-14
do dr do
A 1. Oil!
'It
Sf
op op po p op
LN. 6m op
lip op op op
89
Other frequent signs of accentuation are the horizontal or vertical wedges (>, <, orA), f or
ff during a piano or pianissimo section, fp or ffp, and rf or rfz for

rinforzando. These
signs appear in abundance in Beethoven's piano scores and it is often difficult to make
consistent distinctions between 90

them. However, the assumption that Beethoven used
signs at all the places where he intended to indicate an accent, would not be so credible.
As William Newman suggests,Beethoven's accents are 'often not marked as such, but
only implied by other signs or by in 91

circumstances the music'. This argument becomes
stronger still when Beethoven's annotations on Cramer's studies are taken into account;
while discussing accentuation, he comments that 'all nuancescannot be indicated, neither
can they in other pieces. These studies provide counsel and help for all cases'. The above
statement urges us to examine Cramer's studies and Beethoven's respective annotations
and see how he treats the issue of accentuation in places where the score reveals no
apparent accent indications. It also urges us to find analogous passagesin Beethoven's
own music and to apply a similar style of accentuation. It should be rememberedhere that
Beethoven's annotations regarding accents, as well as all other issues, concern only the
passagework and its own melodic elements or outlines rather than independent melodic
lines that the passagework sometime accompanies.
The most frequent comments among the annotations are those concerned with
metrical accentuation in the passagework. According to Sandra Rosenblum, such metric
accentuation 'lends drive to long lines of notes of equal value and helps to define their
92 Beethoven recommends that regular accents on the first note of every beat or
shape'.
90This opinion is also supported by William Newman in his Beethoven on Beethoven; Playing His Piano
Music His Wa),,,p. 150.
91William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven; Playing His Piano Music His Way, p. 150.
90
every first note of every subdivision of the beat should be brought out in the passagework
of studies Nos 2,6,8,9,13,15 and 23. For in

example, the annotation of Study No. 13
we read that 'the rhythmical accent occurs on almost all beats of the bar, from the second
to the fifth bar inclusive - from the seventh to the eleventh bar inclusive' (Example 53).
V-.
Lxample 53
In addition, in the passageworkof Study No. 9 (Example 54), metrical accents should be
placed on the first note of each group of triplets, as we gather from Beethoven's
annotation: 'The triplets in the bass constitute a melody-bearing figure. The accent falls
throughout on the first note of each triplet, which almost always supports the middle
voices'. Thus, there are two accents on every beat here.
Example 54
tr
I
91
A very interesting case of where Beethoven places the metric or grammatical accents in
the bar can be found in the annotation of Study No. 8 (Example 55). Here, we read that
'the rhythmical accents are unequally distributed; in the first bar they occur on the first
and third beats; in the secondbar, however, on the first note of each group'.
1:7--
Example 55
Ik
AI tr
---, ýý
0)
IP
.iii týý -ý T
9=ýý
The same treatment of accentuation could be applied up to bar 10 of the same Study. The
reason that Beethoven places a grammatical accent only on the first and third beats in the
odd bars (1,3,5,7,9) and not on the first note of every group of serniquaversas he does
in the even bars (2,4,6,8,10) is probably becausethere is no change of pitch, hannony
or direction in the passagework in the odd-numbered bars. However, when the pitch,
hannony and direction of the passagework does change in the even bars, Beethoven
suggestsaccents on the first note of each beat of the bar. The same treatment appears in
other studies mentioned above (Nos 2,6,15 and 23).
92
The annotation of Study No. 2 also reveals that metric or grammatical accents
should be placed on the passagework (Example 56): 'the rhythmical accent must be
unifounly placed on the first note of each triplet'.
Example 56
In addition, against the 16th bar of the Etude Beethoven notes 'the melody on the third
note of the triplet' (Example 57).
Example 57
/A
Here, we have an example of where regular accents on the beat counter bits of melody off
the beat. Beethoven, here, probably means that while an accent should be given on the
it
first note of each triplet - as should in the rest of the Study - some emphasis, a 'melodic
93
accent', should also be given to the third notes of the triplets, as they themselves form a
melodic line.
A different type of accentuation is found in the annotation of Study No. 15
(Example 58). More specifically, we read: 'From the 13th to the 16th bar inclusive the
melody lies in the highest notes; the accentuation here resemblesiambic measure...'
Example 58
15 1
What Beethoven means here is that the highest notes of the passagework are grouped in
pairs of two (the C with the E flat, the E flat with the D, )
etc. and that these notes should
be distinguished from the others. The C and the E flat, which fall on the third note of each
group of demi semiquavers, should be stressed more than the other three notes of the
group, in which they belong, but not as much as the E flat of the second group and the D
of the fourth group, because these two notes are placed on the strong beats of the bar.
Here, we have an occasion where regular accents on the beat occur at the same time as
on and off the beat. The same applies in bars 21-24 of the same Study.
melodic elements
94
A similar rhythmic interplay between regular accents on the beat and bits of
melody on and off the beat, coupled with advice on its correct execution, can be seen in
the annotation of Study No. 5 (Example 59).
Example 59
Here, we read that 'the movement is written in four voices. The melody lies in the upper
voice, as it is shown by the [

mode of writing ... ] the first note of each group uniformly
accentuatedand held down. The middle voice E-C, F-C, G-C, etc. must not be given out
with the same strength as that of the upper voice. The measure shows itself as trochaic'.
Here, while Beethoven applies the accent on the first note of each group, he also
identifies a melodic line on the first, which happens to coincide with the metric accent,
and the fourth notes of each group. The first note is, as we expect, accented; but what is
most important here is that the fourth note of the group, becauseit belongs to the melodic
line, should also receive more emphasisthan the second and the third, but not as much as
the first.
The differentiation that Beethoven tends to make between rhythmic and melodic
becomes more obvious in his annotation to Study No. 12. Here he states that 'the
accents
95
melody throughout lies in the secondnote of each group, the rhythmical accent falls on
each first note of the group' (Example 60).
Example 60
-p-
Here, the rhythmic interplay is between regular accents on the beat and a continuous
melodic line off the beat. In this case, the off-beat melody is a counterweight to the
metrical accentuation, 'creating another dimension of sound from the ostensible single
93
line. ' The question that is raised here is what the dynamic relation between these two
different kinds of accents is, or, to put it more simply, which of the two is stronger.
William Newman, when referring to accents off the beat, uses the tenn 'contrametric'
and believes that these accents 'add tension and excitement by conflicting with the
prevailing meter'. He continues by explaining that they are effective only if the 'bar line
remains clear, whether deliberately emphasized in the playing or simply felt in the
In
musical consciousness. other words, the performance must expose the opposition of
two kinds of accents, the contrametric versus the metric. On the principle that tension
requires more strength than relaxation (as in dissonance versus consonance), the
likely be 94
contrametric accents are to proportionally stronger than the metric accents.
The supremacy of the 'melodic accent' which falls off the beat over the metric accent is
93Sandra Rosenblum, Perforntance Practices, p. 98.

94William Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven,- Phýving His Piano Music His Way, p. 154.
96
also supported by Beethoven himself, who wrote in his annotation to Study No. 12 that
'the rhythmical accent [ ] should be given at first in very moderate tempo fairly
... and
strong though not with short touch [ ] as the tempo is afterwards increased, the less it
...
will be heard, and the melody and character of the Study will stand out in a clearer light'.
Beethoven's annotation on Study No. 16 presents a special type of accentuation. It
is worth observing here the additional markings that Beethoven has inserted in the score
(Example 61).
Example 61
-:Mmmmmmmmý
APL
Ap
I
vvv
3
One can see that in bar 2 he adds accentson the first and third note of each group of four
serniquavers in the first two beats; he wants to underline the repeated two-note pattern,
which is forined by the harmonic C and the non-harmonic B natural. When this pattern
stands aside for a new pattern, Beethoven puts accents only on the first note of each
group of four serniquavers. The same applies for the two-note pattern F-E natural in bar
4.
97
Another type of accentuation is the one that we can find in the annotation of
Study No. 21 (Example 62). Here, we read that 'attention must be

paid to the accent of
the fifth note of each group which mostly appears as a minor second. Trochaic measure
fonns the basis of each group: the first note accentedand long, but less the fifth'.
so
Example 62
Cramer Study No. 21 /1
It should be noted that the accent on the fifth note should not be considered as 'melodic'
or 'expressive'. The beats are subdivided here in triplet meter and the accent on the third
subdivision of the beat, which Beethoven suggests, aligns with the tradition which was
established by the theorists of the eighteenth century that, in triple time, the first as well
the third beats the of a bar.95 Therefore, both accents, which are
as are strong parts
suggestedin this particular Study, be

should considered as metric.
At this point, it is necessary to try to find similar passages in Beethoven's own
works that could invite similar treatment. It has already been stated that Beethoven has
left many indications in his scores, which reveal his intentions about accentuation. The
examples that follow include only passageswhere there are no accent markings added by
Beethoven. These passages are more likely to occur in Beethoven's early and middle
works, when Beethoven was closer to the style of Cramer.
95
Cf p. 87-88.
98
An example of where regular 'grammatical' accents in the passagework on every
beat of the bar should be applied, is found in the last movement of the Sonata Op. 2, No.
2, bars 36 and 38 (Example 63).
77-.
Example 63
Beethoven Op. 2, No. 2/iv/36-38
36
27
Here, the passagework of the left hand consists of four groups of serniquavers in each
bar. The first note of each group underlines the harmony of each beat and is always
placed at the low register of the keyboard in contrast to the other three notes. Thus,
metrical accentuation should be applied in order to stress the bass notes. Regular
grammatical accents in this example would also make the 'contrametric' accents of the
right hand, which fall on the weak part of every beat, even more effective since the
'contra' effect can only be achieved when the metric accentuation is clear.96
Beethoven's annotation on Cramer's Study No. 2 could throw some light,
to the perfon-nance of the triplets of the Sonata Op. 27, No. 2,

regarding accentuation, on
bars 1-4 (Example 64).
96 Cf.
p. 96-97.
99
Example 64
Beethoven Op. 2 7, No. 2/i/ 1-4
I
333
IL
-4 -OL
sempre PP e senza sordino
Z 14 av &30
=p_--
I-
3
In the first three bars, the rhythmical accent should fall on the first note of each triplet, as
the annotation reveals. However, the writing of bar 4 could be treated differently. The
writing of the triplets here bears a striking resemblance to the triplets of bar 16 in
Cramer's Study No. 2. In both cases, the pitch of the first note of each triplet remains the
same while the third notes form descending melodic segments.Thus, while the rhythmic
accent on the first note of each triplet should be obvious, some stress should also be
A
placed on the third notes. similar passage,which needs this treatment, can be found in
the first movement of the sonata Op. 53. Bars 114-115,118-119,122-133 give triplets,
the third notes of which form a single melodic line (Example 65). Thus, it would be
suitable here to make the melodic line that is placed off the beat, easily perceptible,
although the rhythmic accent should always fall on the first note of each triplet.
100
Example 65
Beethoven Op. 53/i/I 14-115,118-119,122-123
The 'iambic accentuation' that Beethoven suggests for the execution of the passagework
in bars 13-16 of Study No. 15, could also be applied to certain parts of the second
movement of his Sonata Op. 3 1, No. 3 (Example 66).
The passagework of the right hand in bars 43-46 resolves the repetitive F's to the
E flats, which fall on the first note of the secondbeat of each bar. However, the writing of
bars 47 and 48 is different. Here, the F's are placed on the weak part of the beat and
resolve to the E flats, which fall on the strong part, creating an 'iambic figure'. Since the
writing of bars 13-16 of Cramer's Study is similar, we could apply Beethoven's advice
regarding accentuation to his own passagefrom Op. 3 1, No. 3.
101
Example 66
Beethoven Op. 3 1, No. 3/ii/43-48
An example of where regular accentson the beat run counter to a consistent melodic line
off the beat, can be found in the second movement of the Sonata Op. 57 bars 57-60
(Example 67).
V-.
Example 67
57
cn
This passage comes from the third variation of the theme. The melody of the theme, as it
is revealed in bars 1-3, is forined by the pitches A flat, B flat, A flat, B flat, A flat, A flat,
A flat (Example 68).
102
Example 68
The passagework of the right hand in bars 57-59 reveals the presence of the same theme
on the second note of the second and fourth group of demi semiquavers. This means that
these notes should be accented as they form the melodic outline of the passagework.
However, the rhythmical accents should always fall on the first note of each group.
Moreover, the rhythmical accents of the passagework here are enhanced with the left
hand chords, which fall on the strong parts of the beat and are marked sf. This kind of
accentuation is taken from Beethoven's annotation on Study No. 12 and can also be
applied in bars 61-64 of the samemovement of the Sonata.
The opposition of metrical and melodic accents in the passagework can also be
seen in bars 170-174 of the first movement of the Sonata Op. 26 (Example 69). The
example is taken again from a variation of a theme, which was established at the
beginning of the movement (Example 70).
Example 69
III
103
Example 70
Beethoven Op. 26/i/ 1

-4
I
A comparative study of the theme and this particular variation reveals that in bars 171-
172 and 174, the pitches of the melody of the theme are found on the third note of each
triplet. Moreover, in bars 173 and 175, melodic elements can be found on both the second
and third note of each triplet. It should be pointed out that, in this example, the melody is
always placed on the weak parts of the beat and only in bar 179, where the exposition of
the theme finishes, does Beethoven place the melody on the strong beats. This
'contrametric' melody can only be effective if regular rhythmic accents occur in the
passagework too. In that way, the off-beat melody is a counterweight to the metrical
accentuation, creating more tension and excitement as a result.
The Sonata Op. 57 offers another example of the possible application of
Beethoven's annotations to his own works (Example 71). The writing of the left hand in
bar 52 of the third movement bears a striking resemblanceto bar 2 of Cramer's Study No.
16. From bar 50 until the second beat of bar 52 regular accents should be placed on the
first note of each group. However, on the secondbeat of bar 52, a two-note pattern, which
is formed by the non-harmonic B natural and the harmonic C, is repeated three times.
Thus, applying Beethoven's additional accent indications in Study No. 16, an accent
104
should be placed on all B naturals, as it is shown in brackets in the above example. The
same treatment should be applied in bar 56 of the samemovement.
z7-.
Example 71
51
55
Beethoven's annotation to Study No. 21 gives us advice about the type of accentuation
that should be applied in passages like the one taken from the seventh variation of WoO
66 (Example 72). The rhythmical writing of this particular variation bears an obvious
resemblance to the writing of Study No. 21, as in both cases the right hand plays groups
of six serniquavers where the left accompanies with quavers.
Example 72
Beethoven WoO 66NIF 1-2
105
In this extract from Beethoven's work attention should be given to the accent of
the fifth note of each group of serniquavers, in the same way as is advised in the
annotation to Study No. 2 1, where we read that 'attention should be paid to the accent of
the fifth note of each group the first note accented and long, but less so the fifth'. The
...
proper accentuation of the right hand passageis given in brackets in the above example.
It should be remembered here that the accent on the fifth note should be realised as a
'metric' and not a 'melodic' one and is in agreement with the traditional view that, in
triple time, both the first and the third beats are strong parts of the bar.97
At this point, it should be noted that William Newman was the first scholar who
tried to apply the Beethoven annotations to Cramer on Beethoven's own piano works,
thus contributing considerably to recognizing their value. In his Performance Practices in
Beethoven's Piano Sonatas, Newman associatesCramer's Study No. 13 with the bridge
that leads to the second theme in the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 53, bars
23-26, probably because they both feature fast and uninterrupted passagework in
). 98
semiquavers in both hands (Example 73
In the annotation of Study No. 13 we read: 'The study of longs and shorts in
passagesis here the aim. The rhythmical accent occurs on almost all beats of the bar,
from the second to the fifth bar inclusive - from the seventh to the eleventh bar inclusive.
Longs and shorts, the first of which I mark V, placing it under the note which has to be
accented. By paying heed to these longs and shorts, the melodic movement stands out in
the passages;without so doing, every passageloses its meaning' (Example 74).
97
Cf. p. 87-88.
98WIlliam Newman, Performance Practices in Beethoven'sPiano Sonatas- An Introduction, pp. 74-75.
106
Example 73
iß-r!,, op -, 01 i
tzc=ZN--ý t=%ZZWý-
iz= 1,! - iz=! 1 F-

kq L= iii L= 1i r-
.1 cresc
OR
xample 74
E-,
]H ]JJ II! I iii

off r 4ý F
-44
___
10
107
Applying the above annotation to Beethoven's similar passagework in Op. 53,
Newman suggestsaccentsat almost every beat of the bar, arguing that every is
accent the
point of a 'change direction'. 99What Newman apparently means here is that an accent
of
is needed when the passagework changesdirection. For example, the accent on the G
on
the third beat of bar 23 is neededbecauseit marks a change of direction in relation to the
descending notes of the second beat. However, on the first beat of bar 24 there is no
accent recommended as the notes here continue the descending motion starting on the
fourth beat of the previous bar; this meansthat the D sharp on the first beat of bar 24 does
not imply a new direction and, therefore, need not be accented.
The above example, given by Newman, is to my knowledge the only occasion in
modem scholarship where the spirit of Beethoven's annotations on Cramer's studies is
applied to his own music; however, Newman's results need to be re-examined. As he
himself states, the annotations are frequently obscure and brief and, therefore should
make us cautious when interpreting and applying them to Beethoven's works. Newman's
recommendations of accents in the fast passagework of Op. 53 are based on the
annotation of Study No. 13. But we should also look at other studies in Cramer's
collection that deal with similar passagework and read what Beethoven recommends on
these occasions. Study No. 4 can be considered similar as it is based on fast and
uninterrupted passageworkwithout a melodic line standing out (Example 75).
99 Ibid., p. 75.
108
Example 75
legato
One reads in Beethoven's annotation on this Study: 'Here the longs and shorts must be
attended to throughout; i. e. the first note long, the secondshort, the third in turn long, and
the fourth in turn short: the same as in scanning Trochaic measure [ ] The movement
...
should only be increased later on, and then the sharp edges will easily be smoothed
down. ' What Beethoven probably meanshere is that when one is practicing the Study at a
slow speed, one should place accents at specific places; however, later on, when the piece
is played at a fast speed, these accents - or 'sharp edges' as Beethoven calls them -
should be removed or rendered unnoticeable. Thus, if we base our interpretation of the
transitional passage of Op. 53 on the annotation of Study No. 4, we conclude that accents
should be avoided here and smooth execution emphasized instead. This interpretation
would be the to
complete opposite what Newman suggests.
The two different approaches to the transitional passage of Op. 53 stem from
references to two different annotations. Newman's interpretation is based on the
annotation of Study No. 13, which suggests metric accents at almost all the beats of the
109
bar; on the other hand, the opposite interpretation draws on the annotation of Study No. 4,
which recommends smooth playing with the absenceof any easily perceptible accents.
It is necessary to try to understand why Beethoven treats these two studies
differently, although they both deal with fast and uninterrupted passagework in equal
length notes. For this we must consider the musical character of these two pieces. One of
the most striking features of Study No. 13 is the high repetition rate of patterns,
especially in the right hand. Even from the first bar, this feature makes itself known with
the descending A major scale in the right hand and ascending in the left hand which is
repeatedone octave lower in the right and one octave higher in the left hand. A new four-
note pattern starts at bar 2 in the right hand is

and repeated - only with little variation -
until bar 6; it includes two identical notes on the first and third appearanceof the pattern,
one lower pitch on the second and one higher note on the fourth. From bar 7 until the
first half of bar 9 we observe five repetitions of the same pattern and after a small
transitional scale-like passagework a new pattern takes hold, which is repeated until bar
12. Repetitions of scales and arpeggios follow until bar 19, where another pattern is
introduced consisting of a pair of notes in an interval of a fourth, and repeatedin the next
two bars. When a note-pattern repetition is foregrounded a strong rhythmical effect is
usually created, and here, we associatethe Study No. 13 and its annotation with another
passagefrom the Sonata Op. 53, bars 58-67 (Example 76).
110
Example 76
!ýQMftý i
cresc.
IL- I
ii- to fop- fo )o fl, .p fa
- i- v
KI.
62
Mp 106
I
4
1)
Ile
10 aL
-F Sf
li i II ý ff ,
p- ý,- ir
IIý rý I -Fi .
In bar 58, an 8-note pattern is repeatedtwice and then is followed by four repetitions of a
4-note pattern in bar 59. Repetitions of other patterns follow and the climax of the
passage occurs in bars 66-67 with the repetition of a 4-octave pattern, where Beethoven
marks sf at the beginning of each segment. Beethoven often inserts sfs or other notation
times. 100For instance, repeated broken

on occasions where a pattern is repeated several
octaves in Op. 2, No. 3 are marked sf on the first and the third beats of the bar (Example
77).
100For other notation that Beethoven uses in order to mark emphasis see Clive Brown, Classical and
Romantic Pcifoi-inance Practice, 1750-1900, pp. 79,82-84,103 and 106-107.
Example 77
Beethoven Op. 2, No. 3/1/67-68
The sfs also appear on the first beats of a repeated pattern in Op. 2, No. I (Example 78).
Example 78
Beethoven Op. 2, No. I /iv/ 120-124

11)
1
Thus, we could argue that the high repetition rate and the consequent rhythmic character
of the Study No. 13 makes Beethoven in

suggestaccents several places as one can realize
from his annotation and the additional accent markings that he inserted in bars 7-11 and
19-20.101
On the other hand, the most characteristic feature of the Study No. 4 is the
ths, th% ths).
existence of long and different intervals of the right hand (7 6 5th'and 4 Since
these different intervals do not alternate in a specific order and feature notes that are
placed on as well as off the beat, all pitches become equally important. This means that
the writing of the right hand has more of a melodic character than a rhythmic one; any
John Baptist Cramer, 21 EtWenftir Klavier, edited by Hans Kann, pp. 22-23.
112
nuances - including accents - would destroy the flow of the melodic line and would direct
the listener's attention to rhythm rather than melody. Therefore, Beethoven, at the end of
his annotation, comes to the conclusion that there should not be any 'sharp
edges' audible
in the performance of this particular Study.
In order to decide which of the two studies is closer in character to the transitional
passageof Op. 53 discussed above, we need to look at the role this passageplays in the
structure of the movement. The Sonata starts with a vibrant, repetitive and highly
ths ths
rhythmical motive consisting of thirds in the right hand and 5 and 6 in the left hand
and lasts until bar 13. The rhythmic vitality continues with the repetition of the same
theme, now in broken thirds, fifths and sixths until bar 23, where the transitional passage
under discussion begins. After the 'monotonous' 'moto perpetuo' in the exposition of the
Sonata, more elaborate passagework takes hold. While the writing of the left hand is
rather simple, small diatonic and chromatic scales ascend and descend with no signs of
repetition in the right hand. This lasts for two bars (23-24) is in
and repeated the next two
(25-26) before, after a crescendo, the passage reaches its climax in bar 28. Here
Beethoven brings the most out of the repetitive 4-note pattern by adding four sf on each
beat of the bar. One could argue that Beethoven indirectly intends bars 23-27 to be played
smoothly, without any nuances because the climax in bar 28 would lose its meaning if
they were not, as it would sound similar to the previous bars.
A closer examination of the score reveals that the argument Newman raises to
insert the accents in the particular passage- accentsat every main 'change of direction' -
needs to be re-thought. In bar 23, the G of the third beat does mark a change of direction,
as has already been stated, so Newman is right - following his own criteria to insert the
-
113
accent. The E on the fourth beat of the bar also marks a change of direction in relation to
the D sharp, which precedes it; however, this does not last for long as the G, which
immediately follows it, marks another change of direction. The interval of a third
between the E and the G makes the G more important than the E, as this is the first
instance where the passage-work does not move in intervals of a second; therefore, an
accent on the E, as Newman suggests,would make the G sound weak. Similarly, we have
to re-examine the change of direction that occurs on the third beat of bar 24. Newman
puts an accent here on the E, the first note of the third beat, apparently considering it a
new direction. However, this E is actually the last pitch of the small chromatic scale,
which started on the secondbeat. The new direction starts with the following D sharp and
continues until the first beat of the next bar. Thus, Newman's argument to insert accents
on beats of each bar on the grounds that the notes placed on these beats mark a change of
direction is not always justified. The metrical accents and regular recurring emphasis of
strong beats to which Newman draws attention, are certainly of primary importance to
but do in themselves 102In

rhythmic construction not create rhythmic vitality. order to
achieve this rhythmical feeling the performer should stressnotes according to the musical
in 103
sense of a phrase and to the role that the phrase serves the musical structure. The
transitional passageof Op. 53 at issue is one of those passagesthat should be played 'in
the air' - an anecdotal term used by many modem pianists - meaning lightly, smoothly,
and without any nuances or accents.
The examples discussed above represent only a few of the ways that Beethoven's
annotations regarding accentuation on Cramer's studies can be applied to his own works.
102Walter Gieseking, and Karl Leiner, Rhythm, Dynamics, Pedal, p. 20.

103Aaron Copland, What to Listen For In Music (New York: New American Library, 1967), p. 34.
114
Thankfully, Beethoven was careful in his scores to give many indications about
accentuation. Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's studies reinforce the argument that
the composer laid great emphasis on proper accentuation and suggest that they can
in
sometimes guide performers passageswhere no indications have been marked.
115
3
THE ALLEGRETTO OF Op. 54: SUGGESTIONS FOR PERFORMANCE BASED ON
BEETHOVEN'S ANNOTATIONS TO CRAMER'S TVVENTY-ONE PIANO STUDIES
My final chapter will demonstrate how Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's 21
studies can be applied to one piece, his Sonata Op. 54, Allegretto (2ndmovement). The
Sonata Op. 54 was written in 1804 and first published in Vienna by the Bureau des Arts
et d'Industrie in 1806 and consists of only two movements-' Carl Czemy associatedthe
Allegretto, together with the Finale of Op. 26, with Clementi's and Cramer's style of
writing, when he explained that 'at that time [around 1800], Beethoven wrote his Sonata
in A flat Major, Op. 26, whose Finale is intentionally reminiscent of the Clementi-Cramer
passage-work manner of Finale. The Sonata in F major is from the same period, and its
Finale is in the same manner'.2 Eric Blom describes its second movement as a 'moto
perpetuo of continuous serniquavers,a fascinating movement made of the kind of music
one would hum to oneself in 3

a train going at a steady pace'. Similarly, Donald Tovey
refers to it as a 'perpetuum mobile in 2-part polyphony on a single theme ... running at a

4 The Anton Kuerti likens the Allegretto to
unifonn pace which nothing can stop'. pianist
a 'taylor's apprentice' stating that 'once this sewing-machine-like operation is set in
it
motion, can simply not be stopped up to the last chord. ý5
1Eric Blom, Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas Discussed (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968), p. 159.
2 George Robert Barth, The Pianist as Orator. - Beethoven and the Transformation of the Keyboard Style
(Ithaca: Cornell University, 1992), p. 44.
3 Ibid., p. 161.
4 Donald Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas (London: The Associated Board of the
R.A. M. and the R. C-M-, 193 1), p. 173.
5 http: //www. raptusassociation. org/son22e. htmi (accessedon 25/10/2005).
116
Indeed, the Allegretto of Op. 54 is one of the two occasions in Beethoven's
Pianoforte Sonatas the other is the Finale of Op. 26 where the whole movement is
- -
based on running semiquavers in both hands (apart from two strategically placed trills), a
fact that has led many scholars and performers to describe it as a Toccata, or even a
6
Study. This is the principal reason why this particular movement has been chosen for
discussion here as the 'Study-like' notation of its score bears similarities with passages
from Cramer's twenty-one studies that Beethoven annotated. Suggestions concerning
legato and the prolonged touch, accentuation and the application of poetic feet will be
in
proposed passageswhere the author believes that they can be associatedwith passages
from Cramer's studies.
In the exposition (bars 1-20) the first thematic figure (bars 1-8) is presentedin 2-
part polyphony with '2 bars in bass climbing up in intervals of sixths the scale of F major
and closing into a sudden 'jerk' (A-F) in the 3rd bar, while a treble answers at the upper
octave. In bar 5 the bass again climbs up the subject, initiating a repetition of bars 1-4 an
higher'. 7 Bars 1-8 offer a lot of potential for applying ideas from Beethoven's
octave
annotations on Cramer's twenty-one studies (Example 79). The two-bar slurs witnessed
until bar 6 indicate legato, or Bindung in Beethoven's words. The dolce marking in bars
I and 3, also hints at legato, since a passageis more likely to sound dolce if it is played
legato rather than non-legato. In addition, the legato could be enhanced through the
application of a prolonged touch on the notes that form the F major scale. This means
that, in bars 1-2, the first F could be held for a crotchet until the next G is struck.
6 Alfted Johnstone, Notes on the Interpretation of 24 Famous Piano Sonatas by Beethoven (London:
Reeves, 1927), 177; see also Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas.
- a Short Companion, p. 90.
p.
7 Donald Tovey, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas, p. 173.
117
Example 79
Beethoven Op. 54/ii/I -8
1 dnk
Then, the G, A, B flat, C, D, and E could be held for a quaver. This kind of touch would
make the F
ascending major scale, which forms a melodic figure, stand out more clearly
and the same treatment could be applied to the serniquavers that last until bar 8. If the
prolonged touch is applied, one should also examine the fingering to be used; silent
finger changes on the same key or the passing of a shorter finger under a longer one,
by Beethoven, be 8
techniques widely used could profitably applied.
In addition, the F major ascending scale will be heard more clearly if accents are
placed on the notes that forrn the scale. In the first beat of the first bar, the lower F forms
the beginning of the scale and this is it

why should be played with more strength than the
next three notes (A, C, higher F). From the second beat of the first bar until the end of the
bar, the notes that form the ascending F major scale should be brought in
second
performance.
' Sandra Rosenblum, Perforinance Practices, pp. 209-215.
118
In terms of scansion, we need to apply the longs and shorts only to the notes that
form the melodic line of the passage,as Beethoven did in his annotations. And in this
case these are the notes that form the F major ascending scale. The first F lasts for a
crotchet until the next melodic note is struck and thus should be considered as long.
However, all the other melodic notes appear to be equal in value as they all span
a
quaver. The G, B flat and D, since they fall on the strong parts of the bar, should be
considered as long, and the A, C and E as short, thus forming trochaic feet (-u).
The same treatment can be applied in bars 3-8 but attention should be paid to the
sf s in bars 3,5 and 7. In bar 3 the sf on the F, which is the first note of the ascending F
major scale that continues in the right hand until the end of bar 4, falls on a weak part of
the beat thus creating a contrametric accent. However, the sf will only be effective if a
metric accent, that is an accent on the A that falls on the first beat of the bar, is also
heard. A metric accent on the A's should also be placed in bars 5 and 7 so that the sf s
can add tension and excitement by conflicting with the prevailing meter. However, the
sfs should be stronger than the accents on the A's since the contrametric accents are
likely to be stronger than the metric accents.
The suggestionsabove for the interpretation of bars 1-8 are now highlighted in the
example which follows (Example 80).
In bar 9, the 'jerk' 'becomes a steady figure descending in a sequence,creating
the second thematic figure, which lasts until bar 12. This figure appears more complex
than the first, since the semiquavers now appear in both hands and the intervals between
the pitches alternate between descendingthirds and sixths in the right hand and ascending
thirds and fifths in the left (Example 8 1).
119
Example 80
Beethoven Op. 54/ii/ 1-8 (with the author's suggestions)
I
___
dolce :jý
TT
9 ! i I
9: ky i-
=t iT--zý oo
i op--
, -r
L m
o. f- - 1 - r-
.1
i 1
.M
. SO -1
L)
V-.
Example 81
In bars 9-10 the melody is found on the higher notes of the passage,becausethese notes
mark a change of han-nony as well as a change in the direction of the passagework.This
means that the melody falls on the first and third notes of each group of serniquavers (A -
F-A-D-F-B flat - D), which becomes even clearer in bar I I, where the first
and third notes of each group form a moving melodic segment (G -B flat -G- F) while
the pitch of the second and fourth notes remains the same (D). For bars 9- 10 legato touch
120
should be applied since the slur that started in bar 7 continues until the end of bar 10. A
performer may want to continue the prolonged touch, which was suggested for the
execution of bars 1-8, holding the melodic notes for a quaver. However, because the
serniquavers now appear in both hands, the direction changes from ascending to
descending and the intervals between the pitches change more frequently than the
previous section; we might therefore want to highlight the contrasts between the two
thematic figures by altering the touch and not over-holding the melodic notes for a
quaver. An alteration of touch would make the entrance of the second thematic figure
more evident. Regarding accentuation, the melodic notes should be brought out more
than the others and the meter appearsto be trochaic, as in bars 1-8.
Attention should be paid to the execution of the right hand part in bar 12. Here,
the third note of the first group of serniquavers(A) does not mark a change of direction in
the passagework, as it belongs to the descending motion established by the first two
serniquavers of the group, and this is why it should not be considered melodic. On the
other hand, the fourth note of the group (D) is placed a fourth higher than the A, thus
marking a change of direction. Therefore, the D should be considered a melodic note
paired with the E that falls on the first beat of the bar. In the second beat of the bar, the
melodic notes are the C and the B natural, which fall on the second and fourth notes of
the group, because they continue the scale-like descending progression that was
established by the two melodic notes of the first group of serniquavers.The melodic notes
of bar 12 are shown with stems going up as follows:
941 When executing the passage, the E should be
held down for a dotted quaver until the D is struck. A metric accent should be placed on
121
the E, since it falls on the first beat of the bar. The D should be brought Out more than the
second and third notes of the group but not as much as the E, since it falls on a weak part
of the group. In that way, the E is paired together with the D fonning a trochaic foot:
(-
In the second beat of the bar, the 'melody' lies in the second and fourth notes of
the group. The C and B natural should be accented but a metric accent should also be
placed on the first note of the group (G) so that the melodic notes can sound as a
counterweight to the metrical accentuation. This is a case where the performance should
expose the opposition of two kinds of accents, the contrametric versus the metric. The
accents on the C and the B natural add tension and excitement by conflicting with the
prevailing meter. On the principle that tension requires more strength than relaxation, the
C B
contrametiric accents on and natural should be stronger than the metric accent on the
G.
The author's suggestions for the execution of bars 9-12 are shown in the
following example (Example 82).
Example 82
Beethoven Op. 54/ii/9-12 (with the author's suggestions)
122
The final section of the exposition (bars 13-20) consists of 8 bars in the dominant.
In the first four bars the 'jerk' appearsnow as a rising octave, marking the
rhythm in the
bass. The section ends with 4 bars of a scale in which the two hands
move in opposite
ways rhythmically as well as melodically (Example 83).
In bars 13-16, the sf s in the left hand part are always placed at a weak part of the
bar, thus creating contrametric accents. Therefore, a metric accent should also be
placed
on the notes that fall on the strong beats of the bar (the lower C's), although not as strong
as the contrametric accents, for the same reasons that were explained above for the
execution of bars 3,5, and 7.
Example 83
13
In the right hand part, at least until bar 15, the semiquavers could be treated in a similar
way to those in bar 1. In bar 13, The C that falls on the first beat of the bar should be
accented and held down for a crotchet until the D sharp is struck. Obviously, the latter is
123
practically impossible since the same note has to be played again by the left hand
immediately afterwards. However, the effect of the prolonged touch is still the same,
as
the left hand now holds this note until the end of the bar. A prolonged touch could be
applied for the E in bar 14 and the C in bar 15. In the secondbeat of bar 13, the first and
the third notes of the group could also be treated in the sameway as the G and A in bar 1.
The D sharp and the E could be held down for a quaver, being brought out more than the
other notes of the group, and should be grouped together to form a trochaic foot. The
same applies to the execution of the second beats of bars 14 and 15. The serniquavers of
bars 16-20 should be treated with longs and shorts in both hands (Example 84).
Ir..
Example 84
13
The exposition (bars 1-20) is repeated and at the end of its repetition a trill marks the
beginning of an extensive development, which lasts until bar 161 and starts in the remote
key of A major. The two thematic figures of the exposition - an ascending one (bars
124
and a descending one (bars 9-12) - pass through a number of keys in the development
section and should be performed in the manner already described. However, a few places
require further discussion. For example, in bar 31 the melodic notes in the right hand
appear to be the A that falls on the first beat of the bar, the G on the fourth note of the
first group, the F on the second beat of the bar and the E on the fourth note of the second
group (Example 85).
V.
Example
.
85
Beethoven Op. 54/ii/31
31
Here, since the first and the fourth notes of each group carry the 'melody', these notes
should be grouped together to form trochaic feet. The A and the F should be held down
until the G and the E respectively are struck. Metric accents should be placed on the first
notes of each group (Example 86). The same treatment should be applied to bar 35,
which is identical to bar 31 only an octave lower.
T7--
Example 86
Beethoven Op. 54/ii/31 (with the author's suggestions)
125
A similar approach should be used for the execution of the right hand part bars 63-64.
in
From the second beat of bar 63 until the end of bar 64, the notations
reveals that the
4melody' is found in the first and fourth note of each group of serniquavers(Example 87).
Example 87
63
MISC.
The passage should be treated in the same way as the one in bar 31 and here the
prolonged touch lasts for 3 beats in total (Example 88).
Example 88
63
In the section that follows (bars 65-74) both hands are written in the low range of the
keyboard. In the first four bars there are sudden dynamic shifts (ff - p) while in bars 69-
126
72, sf s are always placed on the secondbeat of the bar. The passagecomes to Its climax
in bar 74, which is markedff (Example 89).
Example 89
65
70
In bars 65-69 the tension created by the changes of han-nony and the sudden dynamic
shifts, could also be enhancedby contrametric accents. In bar 65, the C, which falls on
the second note of the first group, resolves to the B natural that is placed on the fourth
note while the pitch of the first and third notes remains the same (F). Here, we have
another example of the rhythmic interplay between metric and contrametric accents.
Accents should be placed on the C and B natural, which fall on the weak parts of the
group, but an accent should also be placed on the F that falls on the beat, although not as
strong as the accents on the C B

and natural.
The rhythmical interplay between metric and contramentric accents becomes
in bars 67-73. In bar 69, for example, in the right hand the B flat that falls
more elaborate
the second note of the first group of serniquavers is resolved to the A natural that falls
on
127
on the fourth note while the pitch of the first and third notes is the same (E flat). This
means that contrametric accents should be placed on the B flat and the A natural. At the
same time, in the left hand part, the G flat that falls on the first note of the first group
resolves to the F that falls on the third note, while the pitch of the secondand fourth notes
is the same (C). This means that accents should be placed on the G flat and F and since
these two notes fall on the strong parts of the group (first and third) these accents are
metric. Therefore, the rhythmical interplay here is between contrametric accents in the
right hand and metric accents in the left hand. The same applies for the first group of
semiquavers in bars 70,71 and 72. The rhythmical interplay ends at bar 73, where only
metric accents should be applied. The accentuation suggestedhere is illustrated in the
following example (Example 90).
Example 90
65
70
128
The section resolves ends in bar 75 in the key of A flat major, where a new section starts
when the melody is taken by the left hand playing quavers marked espressivo, while the
right hand accompanies with semiquavers (bars 75-98) (Example 91).
E',xample 91
75
In the second beat of bars 75 and 76 and from the secondbeat of bar 77 until the end of
bar 78, the right hand 'supports' the melodic line with notes that are always placed an
interval of a third higher than the notes of the melody. This means that the notes D flat -
C in bars 75 and 76 and the notes D flat -C-D flat -C-E flat -G flat in bars 77-78
should be played with more force than the other notes of the right hand passageworkand
could also be overheld for a quaver, matching in this respect the note values of the left-
hand. These notes should also incorporate longs and shorts fon-ning trochaic feet, as it is
in
shown the example that follows (Example 92). The same treatment can then be applied
until bar 95.
The section ends with three bars where the right hand plays descending
serniquavers leading to the first thematic figure of the exposition played now in the key
of C major (Example 93).
129
Example 92
75
Example 93
96
crese.
The writing of the right hand reveals that, until the first beat of bar 97, the first note of
each group of serniquavers should be joined together with the fourth to create trochaic
feet. The finger should hold the first note of each group until the fourth is struck.
However, from the second beat of bar 97 we should observe the descendingF major scale
on the weak parts of the beats, which starts with the B flat and ends, instead of the
anticipated D, with aB natural, which is the leading note of the C major tonality that
follows. This means that the notes that belong to the scale, should be brought out with
accents although some metric accents should also be placed on the strong parts of the bar
(Example 94).
130
Ll. .
Example 94
The section that starts from bar 105 and ends in bar 114 is the only occasion in the
whole movement (apart from the coda), where Beethoven has added no slurs over the
bars. It seems fairly clear that since the rest of the movement is repeatedly marked with
legato slurs, this particular section should be played with a different kind of touch,
namely the non-legato touch. In addition, this section reminds us of Beethoven's famous
letter to Czerny, where he refers to a similar pattern suggesting that it should 'sound as if
it was played like pearls'. Here, the non-legato touch is apparently used to achieve a more
interesting variety of textures (Example 95).
After this 'pearly' section the main ascendingthematic figure appearsagain in the
key of F major and after several modulations, a new section appearsin bar 130 and lasts
until 152. This section should be treated with longs and shorts as in Example 92.
Attention should be paid to the sf markings, which fall on the weak parts of the beats in
bars 148-150 (Example 96).
131
Example 95
105
110
Example 96
The contrametric accents that are noted here with the sf s will only be effective if the
performance of the passagemakes clear where the strong beats fall. Thus, metric accents
should also be added. The tension created here, is resolved in the second beat of bar 150,
where the indicationff falls on a strong part of the bar (Example 97).
132
El- .
Example 97
After another strategically placed trill lasting for 2 bars, the coda starts in bar 162,
marked PiU' Allegro, where both the principal thematic figures appear with no slurs over
them. Thus, the whole section ought to be played with a non-legato touch. Attention
should be paid again to the sf s in bars 180-187, which fall on the weak parts of the bar
and should be treated like those in Example 97 (see Example 98).
Example 98
180
1;
152
Sf
The identification of 'hidden melodic lines', the use of legato and the prolonged touch,
the application of poetic feet and the rhythmic interplay between metric and contrametric
in the passagework of the Allegretto will most likely elevate the whole movement
accents
133
from a 'sewing-machine like operation' to one of Beethoven's
most subtle and poetic
works, as Charles Rosen describes it. 9 If the details I have conveyed are brought out
clearly in performance, the movement will gain considerably more character than that of
a finger exercise, as Czerny implied when stating that 'it may serve as an excellent study
for every good pianist'. 10
Unfortunately, many performances of the Allegretto fail to portray subtle details
stemming in part from the very fast speed chosen by most performers in order to
emphasize its brilliant character. For example, Artur Schnabel and Maurizio Pollini play
it at crotchet = 138-144 and at such a rapid tempo the hidden melodic lines in the
passagework are lost, the interplay between metric and contrametric accents is not clear,
and the contrast between the dolce sonority, which Beethoven indicates twice at the
"
beginning of the movement, and the offbeat sf s is ineffective. Misunderstandings about
the tempo of the movement may derive from the misguided belief that a perpetual motion
piece must necessarily be played at a frantic speed. However, Beethoven makes no
brilliance the last 12 In fact, he

attempt at genuine until page. marks the movement only
Allegretto conveying brilliance only in the coda, which he marks PiU' Allegro. If the
is
movement played at a slower speed, all the subtle details discussed above are more
likely to be brought out clearly leading to the piece 're-gaining its poetry'. This is the
case in Alfred Brendel's recording, where one can clearly hear the use of a prolonged
touch in several places, the outline of hidden melodic lines in the passagework and the
9 Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion, p. 87-95.

'0 fbid., p. 90.
" Ludwig V. Beethoven, Beethoven Piano Sonatas Nos. 21 'Waldstein', 22,23 'Appassionata', 24,25,27
& 30-32. Pianist: Artur Schanbel. EMI B0002VEPNK and Ludwig V. Beethoven, Sonatas Opp. 54,57,78,
90. Pianist: Maunzio Pollini. Deutsche Grarnmophon CD 474 451-2,2003.
12Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas, p. 90.
134
rhythmic interplay between accents on and off the beat. It is noteworthy that Brendel
plays the Allegretto at only crotchet = 108, thus allowing himself time and spaceto bring
out fine details. 13 It might even be argued that Beethoven's interest in the use of legato
and sustained tones in the prolonged touch, the application of poetic feet and proper
it
accentuation - as is seen in his annotations to Cramer's studies - will serve as an
important argument for slower performance tempos in Beethoven's fast movements.
Thorough consideration of Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's studies helps
reveal which issues mattered most to the composer in performance and provides fresh
perspectives on his perfonnance intentions. The use of legato and the prolonged touch,
the assignment of 'longs' and 'shorts' to the passagework and the awarenessof proper
accentuation throw new light on the performance of Beethoven's works. In this respect
his annotations to Cramer's studies are one of the most valuable sources of information
about performance practice in his works.
13Ludwig V. Beethoven, Beethoven Piano Sonatas Op. 53 "Waldstein", Op. 54 & 101, Andante favon.
Pianist: Alfred Brendel. Philips 438 472-2,1993.
135
APPENDIX
BEETHOVEN'S ANNOTATIONS TO CRAMER'S TNVENTY-ONE PIANO STUDIES9

TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH BY JOHN SHEDLOCKI
No. I
The rhythmische Accent ist auf allen Takttheilen gleich. In solcher Weise kommt er in
tonleitermäßig fortschreitenden Gängen vor. Um die erforderliche Bindung zu erzielen,
hebt sich der Finger nicht eher von der ersten Note jeder Gruppe, bis die 4te Note
anzuschlagen ist. Es versteht sich, daß mit Schülern diesesStudium anfangs sehr langsam
geübt werden muß.
The rhythmical accent is the same on all beats of the bar. In this way, it appearsin scale-
like progressions. In order to obtain the necessarybinding, the finger must not be lifted
off the first note of each group until the fourth note is to be struck. With pupils, this Study
must naturally be practiced at first in a very slow time.
No. 2
Wiederum ist der rhythmische Accent auf der ersten Note jeder Triole gleichmäßig
anzubegen. In den 4 Eingangstakten halt der Daumen den Grundton fest, damit der
zerlegte Dreiklang, desgleichen alle zerlegten Accorde, deutlich werden. Ebenso ist die
Triolenfigur in der linken Hand zu behandeln, um Bindung zu erzielen.
the 16 thbar is written: Die Melodie in der 3.Note der Triole.
-against
In like manner the rhythmical accent must be uniformly placed on the first note of each
triplet. In the four introductory bars the thumb adheresfirmly to the fundamental note, so
that the broken in
third, and a similar manner all broken chords, may be made clear. In
order to obtain binding, the triple figure in the left hand must be dealt with in the same
way.
the th is
16 bar written: the melody in the 3 rd note of the triplet.
-against
John Baptist Cramer, Selection of Studies with Comments bY Beethoven, with a preface, translation,
and fingenng by J. S. Shedlock, pp. lv-vl.
explanatory notes
136
No. 3
Die Melodie liegt fast durchgehends in der 3ten Note jeder Gruppe; der rhythmische
Accent aber ist auf der ersten Note gleichmäßig anzugeben.Der Bindung wegen bleibt
der Finger auf dieser accentuirten Note liegen.
The melody in nearly always to be found in the third note of each group; but the
rhythmical accent must be given uniformly on the first note. On account of binding, the
finger should dwell on this accentednote.
No. 4
Hier sind durchgehends Lä ngen u. Kürzen zu beobachten, d. h. die Ite Note Lang (-),
die 2te kurz (u), die 3te wieder lang, die 4te wieder kurz. Gleiches Verfahren wie
Scandiren des trochäischen Versmaßes.Anfangs verlängerung der Iten und 3ten Note
durch Punkte. Erst spatter beschleunige man die Bewegung, wobei dann die scharfen
Ecken leichtwegfallen,- dernach u. nach gebildetere Sinn des Schülers wird schon
mitwirken u. Bindung erzielt werden. Die Hände etwas breit hinlegen.
Here, the longs and shorts must be attended to throughout, i. e. the I" note long (-), the
2ndshort (u), the 3rd in its turn long, and the 4th in its turn short: the same as in scanning
Trochaic measure. At first, the I't, also 3rd note, is to be intentionally lengthened so that
the long may be perceptibly distinguished from short, but without prolonging the I" and
3rdnote as if they were dotted. The movement should only be increased later on, and then
the sharp edges will easily be smootheneddown. The intelligence of the pupil becoming
gradually more fori-ned will help, and proper binding will be obtained. The hands to be
somewhat spread out.
No. 5
Der Satz ist durchhaus vierstimmig. Die Melodie liegt in der Oberstimme, wie es die
Schreibart zeigt. Wäre aber auch die Schreibart diese:
4--
-4 so müsste dennoch die erste Note jeder
,
Gruppe gleichmässig accentuirt und angehalten werden. Die Mittelstimme ec,fc, gc, u. s.
f darf nicht mit gleicher Stärke, wie die Oberstimme, angeschlagen werden. Das
Vermasszeigt sich als ein trochäisches.
The movement is written in four voices. The melody lies in the upper voice, as it is
by the mode of writing. Were, however, the latter as follows:

shown
137
still the first note of each group would have to
be uniforrnly accentuatedand held down. The middle voice e-c, f-c, g-c, etc., must not be
given out with the same strength as that of the upper voice. The measure shows itself as
trochaic.
No. 6
Der rhythmische Accent auf der ersten Note jeder Triole. Hierbei sind aber die
rhythmischen Gliederungen wohl zu beachten, die bald länger, bald kürzer sind,-
ausserdem würde eine falsche rhythmische Fortschreitung in der Melodie hörbar
werden. Der Satz vierstimmig bis zum 15 Takte.
The rhythmical accent on the Ist note of each triplet. But here the rhythmical
articulations, now long, now short, must be attended to, for without this a false
rhythmical progression would become perceptible in the melody. The Study up to the 15th
bar is in four voices.
No. 7
Hier führt die erste und dritte Note jeder Gruppe die Melodie (im trochäischen
Versmass).Der Finger halt die lange Sylbe (erste Note) fortan zwei Achtel dauernd an.
Der Tenor secundirt dem Sopran,- darum dürfen Alt und Bass niemals mit gleicher Stärke
angeschlagenwerden.
Here the I" and 3d notes of each group carry the melody (in trochaic measure). The
finger continues to dwell for the spaceof two quavers, on the long syllable (I" note). The
tenor seconds the soprano; therefore alto and bass should not be given out with equal
strength.
No. 8
Die Melodie ergiebt sich aus den höchstgeschwänzten Noten. Die rhythmischeAccente
im
sind ungleich vertheilt.- ersten Takt ruhen sie auf dem ersten und dritten Takttheil, im
zweiten Takte aber aulf der ersten Note i eder Gru PPe. Die rechte Hand ist breit
hinzulegen und mit Festigkeit auf den schweren Takttheilen (ersten und dritten), im
vierten, sechsten, achten und zehnten Takte auf der ersten (Note) jeder Gruppe
zweiten,
kommt die Hand aus dem Gleichgewicht.
anzuhalten, sonst
the I Ith bar is written: Der Anschlag hier gleichmäßig breit.
- against die Note üeder Gruppe)
bars 16 and 17: Der Bindung wegen erste stets anzuhalten.
bar 19: Der rhythm. Akzent aufjeder Gruppe gleich.
138
The melody is to be found in the highest tailed notes. The rhythmical
accents are
unequally distributed; in the first bar they occur on the l't and 3rd beats, in the second bar,
however, on the first note of each group. The position of the
right hand must be broad
and firm on the accented beats (I" and 3rd) in the 2nd 4Ih 6th, 8th and 1Othbars on the first
(note) of every group, otherwise the hand loses its equalibrium.
- against the I 1'hbar is written: the touch here uniformly broad.
- bars 16 and 17: on account of binding the first note must always be held on.
- bar 19: the rhythmical accent uniformly on each group.
No. 9
Die Triole als Melodie tragende Figur im Baß. Der Accent fällt durchweg auf die erste
Note jeder Triole, die fast immer auch die Mittelstimmen trägt. Diese Ex. muß Anfangs
mit starkem Anschlag behandelt werden, auch lagsam; weil der Charakter der Melodie
eine gewisse Breite erfordert, soll sie niemals schnell gespielt werden; gerade in mäßiger
Bewegung ist u. bleibt sie schwer, weil die Achtsamkeit immer gespannt bleibt.
The triplets in the bass constitute a melody-bearing figure. The accent falls throughout on
the first note of each triplet, which almost always supports the middle voices. This Study
must be practised at first with firm touch, also in slow time. Since the character of the
melody demands a certain breadth, it should never be played quickly; in moderate
movement it actually is, and remains difficult, becausethe player's attention is always on
the stretch.
No. 12
Die Melodie liegt durchgehends in der 2ten Notejeder Gruppe, der rhythm. Accent auf
jeder ersten der Gruppen. Man gebe diesen anfänglich bei sehr mäßigem Tempoziemlich
stark an, jedoch nicht mit kurzem Anschlag; je mehr weiterhin das Tempo beschleunigt
wird, desto mehr schwindet der grelle Accent, u. Melodie und Charakter der Etude
werden deutlich hervortreten.
The melody throughout lies in the second note of each group, the rhythmical accent falls
on each first of the group. This should be given at first in very moderate tempo and fairly
strong though not with short touch. In proportion as the tempo afterwards increased, the
139
less will be heard of it, and the melody and character of the Study will stand
out in clearer
light.
No. 13
Zweck ist Studium der Längen u. Kürzen in Passagen.Der rhythm. Accent kommtfast auf
allen Takttheilen vor, z. B. vom 2. bis inclus. 5. Takt, - vom 7. bis inclus. 11. Takt Längen
und Kürzen, deren erstere ich also bezeichne V u. unter die zu accentuirende Note setze.
Durch Beachtung der Längen u. Kürzen tritt der melodische Gang in der Passage
hervor; ohne die Beachtung verliertjede Passageihre Bedeutung.
The study of longs and shorts in passages is here the aim. The rhythmical accent occurs
on almost all beats of the bar, from the 2ndto the 5thbar inclusive from the 7th to the II th
-
bar inclusive. Longs and shorts, the first of which I mark V, placing it under the note,
which has to be accented. By paying heed to the longs and shorts the melodic movement
stands out in the passages; without so doing, every passage loses its meaning.
No. 15
Längen und Kürzen abwechselnd in beiden Händen. Der Haupt-Accent ruht auf der
ersten Note jeder Gruppe, der Finger halt daher diese erste fest an, ausgenommenin
jenen Gruppen, in denen eine Secunden-Fortschreitung erscheint, z. B. schon im 2ten
Takte im Baß. Vom 13. bis inclus. 16. Takte liegt die Melodie in den höchstenNoten. Die
Accentuation hierbei gleicht ungefähr der Scansion des Jambus. Ferner ist bei der
Reprise des Motivs im 9. u. 12. Takte auf den Accent der Mittelstimme zu achten, die ich
so V bezeichne.
Longs and shorts alternatively in both hands. The principal accent rests on the first note
of each group; hence the finger holds firmly on to it, except in those groups in which
there is a progression of a second, as, for instance, already in the second bar in the bass.
From the 13th to the 16th bar inclusive the melody lies in the highest notes; the
accentuation here resembles iambic measure. Further when the motive is taken up again
from the 9thand 12thbars, attention must be paid to the accent in the middle voice, which
I mark thus V.
140
No. 16
Zweck ist das Studium der Baßfiguren, die meist in Längen u. Kürzen fortschreiten,
delikat u. schwer sind. Einige Stellen bezeichne ich wieder mit V- alle Nuancen lassen
sich nicht bezeichnen, in anderen Tonstücken auch nicht. Diese Etuden schaffen Rath u.
Hiffiefür alle Fälle.
The aim here is the study of the bass figure, which progresses,for the most part, in longs
and shorts: a delicate and difficult matter. In some places I again mark a V: all nuances
cannot be indicated, neither can they in other pieces. These studies provide counsel and
help for all cases.
No. 18
Zweck ist die Behandlung der Längen u. Kürzen in Passagen, deren Gruppen in Terzen,
Quarten u. dgl. Auf- und absteigen. Ite u. 3tejeder Gruppe sind lang, 2te u. 4te kurz, die
Accentuation gleichmäßig.
The aim is proper treatment of the longs and shorts in passagesin which groups rise or
fall in thirds, fourths, etc. The I't and 3rdof each group are long, the 2ndand 4'h short; the
accentuation unifonn
No. 21
Zweck ist der Accent der fünften Note jeder Gruppe, die meist als kleine Secunde
erscheint. Ein trochäisches Versmaßliegtjeder Gruppe zu Grunde, erste Note schwer u.
lang, fünfte aber weniger.
Attention must be paid to the accent of the fifth note of each group, which mostly appears
as a minor second. Trochaic measure forms the basis of each group: the first note
accentedand long, but less so the fifth.
No. 23
Die Melodie im innigsten Zusammenhangeflührtdie erste Notejeder Gruppe, darum darf

derfünfte Finger die Taste nicht eher verlassen, bis die nächste Melodienote anzugeben
sit. Nur so wird die Bindung im Zusammenhang erzielt.
141
The first note of each group bears the melody in closest connection5 hence the finger
ought not to leave the key until the next melody-note is to be struck. Only thus will
proper binding be achieved.
No. 24
In denfünf ersten Takten ist die erste Note der Iten Triole mit der dritten der 2ten Triole
bestenszu verbinden, damit die Melodie so hervortrete:
Der Finger darf sich daher von der

langen nicht heben. Ubrigens gilt die Regel des Vortrags der Triole, hier aber wird die
zweite Triole weniger stark accentuirt.
In the first five bars the first note of the first triplet and the third note of the secondtr1plet
must be connected together in the best possible manner, so that the melody may stand out
thus: The finger therefore must
remain on the long note. For the rest, the rule for the rendering of the triplet holds good;
but here the second triplet must be less strongly accentuated.
No. 27
Zunächst ist die Melodie aufzusuchen,die ungleich vertheilt liegt. Sie beginnt mit es, as,
c, as, u. s. f Ferner ist das Ganze mit Längen u. Kürzen vorzutragen, die sich fortan
verfolgen. Die Hand muß sich hier mehr als gewöhnlich fest auf die Tasten legen, fast
darauf stemmen.
The melody, which is unequally distributed, must first be sought out; it begins with E flat,
A flat, C, A flat, etc. Further, the whole must be rendered with longs and shorts, which in
fact follow one another. The hand must lie more firmly than usual over the keys, almost
press on them.
No. 29
Zweck ist, die Hand leicht abziehen zu lernen,- er wird erreicht, wenn sie sich stets auf die
Note der beiden verbundenen stellt u. im fast senkrechten Aufheben die zweite Note
erste
berührt.
142
The aim is to learn to withdraw the hand lightly: this will be accomplished if it is placed
firmly on the first of the two connectednotes, moving almost perpendicularly upwards as
the second note is struck.
No. 30
Die Accentuation betreffend, gleicht diese Etude den Nummern 14 und 21, es muß ein
Trochäus hörbar werden.
In the matter of accentuation this Study is similar to Nos 14 and 2 1. The trochaic measure
must be audible.
No. 41
Zweck ist die Führung der zweiten Stimme im 4stimm. Satz mit Beobachtung aller Längen
u. Kürzen. Diese Etude ist eine der schwierigsten. Strenge Bindung durchgehends.
The aim is the management of the second voice in the four-part writing, with due
attention to all the longs and shorts. This Study is one of the most difficult and most
important. Strict binding throughout.
143
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PIANO STUDIES: CONTEXT AND ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

'Doctor of Musical Arts' (DMA)

Chapter 1: John Baptist Cramer and the Studio per il Pianoforte 10

Chapter 2: Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies 32

Chapter 3: The Allegretto of Op. 54: Suggestionsfor performance based on Beethoven's

annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies..................................... 116

Appendix: Beethoven's annotations to Cramer's twenty-one piano studies, translated into

English by John Shedlock 136

masterworks for the piano.

copies made for study purposes, subject to non-nal conditions of acknowledgement'.

Modem scholarship has devoted a great deal of attention to problems of

performance practice in Beethoven's piano music. Issues such as tempo, articulation,

phrasing, dynamics, fingering have been discussed extensively by Charles Rosen,

information in diverse sources (Beethoven's letters, his contemporaries' writings,

attracted only sporadic attention.

The original Haslinger edition of Cramer's studies with Beethoven's annotations

Anton Schindler in another Haslinger edition. Schindler entered Beethoven's annotations

Scholars have argued in favour of its authenticity by using contemporary evidence -

including evidence from Beethoven's manuscripts, sketchbooks and music - that

In 1893, the British Beethoven scholar John Shedlock discovered Schindler's

translating Beethoven's annotations into English, quoting Schindler at length and

the great composer's music. ' 3

Sandra Rosenblum devotes a whole section to the annotations in her Performance

perfonnance - correct prosody, proper accenting, legato playing, and alertness to

pseudopolyphony; and lastly, that they include occasional suggestions on keyboard

Newman's clarification of the annotations is all too brief, he contributed greatly to

them to Beethoven's own piano 9

protect his works from being in

von Breuning's testimony on p. 23 of Wegeler's Supplement to the biographical notices:

different lines. "o

regarding technique as the sole requirement, would have taken no notice of so

will it be possible to clear a way to the understanding of Beethoven's intentions.

can confirm that the is

Thus, Schindler confines the significance of Beethoven's annotations to the

However, a thorough examination of the annotations reveals that Beethoven is occupied

longs and shorts.

" John Baptist Cramer, Selection Studies

Cramer Study No. 16/1-4

Within the passagework, Beethoven's annotations emphasize three aspects of

Were, however, the latter as follows: still the

the upper voice. The meter reveals itself to be trochaic'.

By examining Beethoven's annotations, this thesis will cletennine how Beethoven

polyphony predominant in many of the studies that Beethoven so admired. Other

Chapter 2 representsthe heart of my thesis and discussesBeethoven's annotations

per il Pianoforte. In Temperley's editorial policy 'the first is

reproduced edition have been consulted to elucidate doubtful passages.The examples