On a large scale, landscapes and oceans change slowly over time, through

tectonic processes, weathering, and erosion. This slow process also presents
change and the dangers associated with it. The movement of the earth's plates
causes earthquakes to trigger or volcanic explosions. Landslides are a local
hazard but a natural process of change and therefore need to be understood in
this context. Humans are also modifying the environment and can increase the
dangerous risk of rapid movement of soil and rock.

This chapter is the first of two to study the geomorphology of the Earth
(i.e. the processes and patterns that make up the landscape) and one that
examines slow, moderate, and rapid processes of landscape change. In this
chapter we begin by discussing the tectonic processes that build and destroy
landscapes on a large scale. This chapter then focuses on weathering and
erosion which may seem small in scale but can produce overall effects that are
global in nature. While weathering, erosion and deposition can also build
landscapes (e.g. sand dunes on the coast or in deserts), the overall effect on
the continents in total is that tectonic processes build up the landscape and
weathering and erosion including the action of rivers, glaciers and ice sheets
(which are discussed in Chapter 4), sculpt and ultimately destroy landscapes.
The environment we see today represents a single point in the overall
evolution of a landscape that changes over time. This chapter has a special
section on soil, which is essential for our lives. Soil is a product of weathering
and biological inputs and slowly accumulates over time. Soil can also undergo
further weathering and erosion as part of larger-scale Earth cycles, but these
processes can be affected by human actions.
 TECTONICS: CONTENT AND SEA

Plate tectonics theory

Detailed maps of the seabed show that there are large mountains that
run through the center of the world's major oceans and that there is a valley in
the middle of these mountains. It was also found that the deepest part of the
ocean is located much closer to the edge of the sea than in the middle. The
seabed was found to have 'magnetic stripes'. It is known that the Earth's
magnetic field reverses every few hundred thousand years and the direction of
the poles is recorded as volcanic lava forms and cools. The alternating north or
south magnetic lines occurring directly across the ocean and oriented parallel
to the midoceanic ridges indicate that the seafloor had formed in the middle of
the ocean and then moved slowly on both sides of the mediterranean towards
the continents. This provides the first tangible evidence that the large masses
of rock on Earth can slowly drift away.

There are several rigid plates moving across the earth's surface that
grind or rub against each other (Figure 3.3). Most earthquakes occur at the
boundaries of these plates. Continents are fairly passive features of these
moving plates because they only rise above them and, unlike the ocean floor,
they don't sink into the mantle. Earthquakes happen because when plates
move slowly, you can imagine them having rough or bumpy sticking points.
Over time enormous forces build up and eventually the plates move in the jolts
experienced as earthquakes.

Movements at the boundary between two plates can explain the nature
of the landscape found in the area. Where plates move apart there are
divergent plate boundaries (e.g. at the mediterranean ridge) where new crust
is formed. Lava that forms in the mid-ocean ridges is hot and very watery,
forming a gently sloping shield volcano. Volcanic eruptions with this type of
lava (for example in Iceland on a mid-ocean ridge) tend to be non-explosive
because gas bubbles can easily escape through dilute liquid, although
sometimes large gas bubbles appear creating a scene with watery lava flying
into it. . air. Eruptions may be in the form of walls of molten lava escaping from
linear fissures in Earth. The most distinct boundaries are in the middle of the
ocean but there are some within the continents. The Syria-Africa Rift Valley is a
good example of distinct plate boundaries on land. As the valley continues to
deepen, it is now below sea level and some of it has filled with water (e.g. the
Dead Sea is 339 meters below sea level).

Transformation faults occur where plates slide past one another (eg the
San Andreas Fault, California). Here there is often little creation or destruction
of the lithosphere and very few volcanoes at the transformation boundary.
However, these limits can be attributed to frequent large and destructive
earthquakes. The rate of movement can be from a few centimeters in a small
earthquake to two meters in a major event.

When two plates move toward each other, at a convergent plate

boundary, major physical features are formed. If one plate slides under
another, a subduction zone forms. This occurs where two oceanic crust collide
or where denser oceanic crust meets less dense continental crust and oceanic
crust then becomes part of the mantle at this point. This is why the oceanic
crust is relatively young according to the geological time scale. Often this
process also creates mountain belts as the crust thickens in subduction zones.
For example, the Nazca plate collided with the South American plate and
subducted beneath it creating the Andes Mountains and many volcanoes.

The resulting volcanoes around subduction zones can be highly explosive

and destructive. Oceanic crust is heated as it is carried into the mantle. Water
and other materials carried by the plates are released, resulting in a mixture
that rises to the surface. If the uppermost plate is oceanic, then basaltic
volcanoes are generated that form island arcs. When the oceanic plate collides
directly with the continental crust, the oceanic plate moves under the
continent. The water becomes trapped and causes the basaltic rock to melt
under pressure. The rising magma begins to melt the continental crust from
the plate above it. This magma is very sticky and can result in destructive
volcanic explosions destroying large areas and killing large numbers of people.
Examples of such volcanoes include Krakatoa (Indonesia), Vesuvius (Italy),
Fujiyama (Japan) and Mount Saint Helens (USA). Sticky, slow-moving lava
forms inside this steep volcano and once the lava stops flowing it cools down
producing a plug that allows considerable pressure to build up inside the
volcano ready for the next eruption.
 Convergent boundaries compress rocks and change their shape. This
caused the rock to fold and rumble as if it were a piece of cloth being pushed
together from both ends. This can result in mountain ranges that look like
ripples when viewed from high above. The most powerful mountain building
occurs when two continents collide. This is because they push each other and
one is not subdued under the other. This forces the landmass to rise thus
creating large mountain belts such as the Alps where Italy has moved north
into Europe, or the Himalayas where India has collided with Asia. The
Himalayan continental collision zone appears to have shortened the length of
the continental crust by 1,000 kilometers. Hence, here the crust is thickened
and compressed and as a result, the rocks are folded and deformed, wrinkled
and fractured. The thickened crust sticks like an iceberg floating on the mantle
with deep roots. The ten highest peaks on Earth are found in the Himalayas. As
high mountains erode and lose mass, the roots floating at the bottom move
upwards and expose more rock and minerals that have been altered by high
temperature and pressure.

WEATHER AND EROSION

Weathering is the physical deterioration of rock whereas erosion is the

transport of weathered material. Mountains built by tectonic processes will
eventually be eroded by weathering and erosion. The resulting sediments are
often moved over great distances by water, ice or wind and can be
incorporated back into rock formations again over long periods of time. Thus,
the earth's surface is always in a state of change. The rate of change varies
with rock type, climate, slope conditions, ice and vegetation cover.

Rock type

There are three main types of rock found around the Earth's surface:
igneous rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock. The temperature at the
time of formation, the mixture of minerals present and the pressure all interact
to create the varieties of these major rock types. Igneous rock is formed when
molten lava cools and hardens. If molten rock comes from a volcano, then the
later cooled and hardened basalt rock has small crystals. If the rock is able to
cool slowly then larger crystals can grow to produce coarse-grained rocks such
as granite.
 Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of rocks followed by
erosion and subsequent deposition of material. The deposited sediments can
accumulate and eventually accumulate before being compacted and hardened
over a long period of time by the weight and pressure of the sediment above
and internal chemical changes. Rocks such as sandstone, siltstone or shale are
good examples. These rocks often contain records of the physical conditions
that existed when the rock was deposited, including fossils. Even some rocks
such as limestone or coal are made almost entirely of the remains of animals
and plants.

Metamorphic rocks are formed through the partial melting and re-
formation of existing sedimentary or igneous rocks often under high pressure.
Limestone and shale turn into marble and slate when metamorphosed, for
example. These rocks tend to be more resistant to weathering because they
are harder than other rock types.

The rock cycle means that all types of rock can change into other types.
All rocks can be melted and cooled to form igneous rocks. All types of rock can
undergo weathering and erosion to form sedimentary layers which can
eventually become sedimentary rock. Under pressure and heat, igneous and
sedimentary rocks can turn into metamorphic rocks.

Weathering

Weathering is the decomposition of rock by physical and chemical

processes. These processes often work together and biological processes can
include both of these mechanisms. Some rock types are more difficult to break
down than others so weathering can produce interesting landforms such as
headlands or areas of rock that protrude on a flat landscape (e.g. Ayers Rock –
now known as Uluru Aboriginal name – central Australia) where one rock type
wear out faster than others in the vicinity.

Physical weathering

Physical weathering changes rock by breaking it into smaller fragments

through mechanisms such as freeze-thaw, salt weathering and thermal
cracking. However, physical biological action through roots forcing openings in
rock can be of local importance. Freeze-thaw is a process in which water
freezes in tiny cracks and expands by 9 percent as it happens. This then forced
the crack open further, eventually splitting the rock. This process is more active
where the temperature often fluctuates above and below 0 °C.

Salt weathering is where salt in the environment forms crystals in tiny

cracks under desert conditions. The relatively exposed rock surface in the
desert together with the large daily temperature range, and excessive
evaporation on top of the precipitation, can cause salt to become
concentrated at the surface location and crack or peel off the rock surface.
Crystallization occurs when the temperature increases causing the growth of
salt crystals. The moisture input then causes the salt volume to increase and
thermal expansion also occurs in the salt on heating. This type of weathering is
more common where coastal fog can carry sea salt into desert areas such as
the Namib desert in Namibia.

Thermal weathering may also be important in deserts where the daily

temperature range may be high. This causes regular expansion and contraction
of the stone. Different minerals expand by different amounts when heated.
This creates an internal pressure that weakens the rock and loosens the
particles. Rocks can often crack if you light a fire around them because of this
stress on expansion.

Chemical weathering

Water acts as a solvent to dissolve rocks. Rocks are composed of bases

(calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium), silica and sesquioxides (mainly
with aluminum). Silica, is at least ten times more soluble than bases, but at
least ten times more soluble than sesquioxides. Therefore, chemical
weathering reduces the proportion of bases the most, followed by the
proportion of silica. When exposed material is close to the surface, the
atmosphere can aid in the weathering of minerals. Atmospheric gases such as
oxygen, water vapor and carbon dioxide aid in weathering (eg iron and oxygen
can produce iron oxide (rust)). Small amounts of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere dissolved in rainwater create weak carbonic acid which acts to
weather rocks. Higher rainfall combined with warmer temperatures and higher
carbon dioxide concentrations can increase the rate of chemical weathering
under climate change. However, when carbonic acid reacts with rock in the
weathering process, it produces other dissolved chemicals which are then
transported in solution. This can result in the loss of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere to the oceans via river channels and potentially a negative
feedback loop for climate change.

Erosion

The removal of material in the form of dissolved or particulate matter

can occur through several processes. Solute removal occurs in water. Water
carrying dissolved material moves it off the slope through the soil or over the
surface. Solute concentrations are generally highest in arid climates, but the
total amount of dissolved matter removed is less than in wetter areas. Once
the dissolved material is removed it usually moves further downstream. For
some limestones, 90 percent of the original volume is soluble, often resulting
in dramatic landscapes and caves known as karst landforms. The rapid
development of karst in the wet tropics can produce stunning stone towers.
Hot desert areas have the slowest karst development due to lack of water for
solution weathering. About 15 percent of the earth's surface has some karst
landforms. Soil material transported down a slope may do so as a large mass or
as independent particles. During mass movement (which can be very fast, or
very slow), parts of rock or soil move together. Where large water flows result
in mass movement of sediment, this tends to be faster than movement of drier
sediment mass. The net effect of all forces acting on the mass of the material
controls when the material will move. The forces that drive motion include
gravity, water and wind. Flowing water can release rock or soil debris if it
passes quickly by picking up material from the surface, or by removing soil
grains by impacting raindrops. Friction and cohesion restrain movement. A
material begins to move when the force driving its movement becomes greater
than the resistance force. The factor of safety is the ratio of these forces. In
simple terms, moving material will slow down and stop when it encounters a
lower gradient or where the water carrying the material spreads out and
moves more slowly, or seeps into the ground.

The water moves the particles in what is called a 'washing process'. Rain
sprinkling, rainwater and rillwash are the most important washing processes.
The impact of raindrops can release material which then jumps into the air.
Splashing can cause sediment to move up or down the slope but due to gravity
there is movement down the slope as a whole. The rate at which raindrops
transport material is similar to the rate of transport by soil creep. However,
while soil movement occurs at depths of soil and transports large amounts of
material, raindrops only function on the surface, displacing individual particles.
Ensuring there is good vegetative cover to protect the soil surface from the
force of raindrops is a good way to reduce ground movement by raindrops.

If raindrops land on flowing water that moves over the ground, their
direct impact on the ground surface is reduced. However, running water itself
can carry material. Where the flow over the surface is shallow, the combined
effect of the impact of the raindrops, separating the sediment, and the
transport by the water flowing over the surface, is very effective and this
combined process is called rain leaching. When the water depth above the
surface is deeper than 6 millimeters, the detachment of the raindrops is weak
so that the initial motion of the particles is more related to the flowing water in
a process called rillwash. This process of erosion is common in major storms.
Many poorly vegetated areas develop temporary furrows which are channels
that form during storms. Wetting and drying, or freeze-thaw, collects material
that fills the grooves between storms. However, in a major storm, a channel
can form that is too large to refill before the next event and this is known as a
trench. These canals collect water on subsequent events, rapidly enlarging the
trenches even further.

Wind can be an effective sediment transport agent if the right type of

sediment is available. Transport of sediment blown by the wind is called
aeolian transport. Aeolian transport predominates in arid and semi-arid
environments where there is little water. Strong winds are needed only to
carry small particles. At typical wind speeds, medium-sized grains of sand (up
to 0.5 millimeters) are the largest grains that can be transported. However,
winds can carry finer dust thousands of kilometers. The amount of material
moved from the Sahara by wind transport is estimated to be around 260
million tonnes per year. Dune deposits are a known landform produced by
wind. However, erosional features in rock can also form because airborne sand
and dust particles can be abrasive. Abrasion by sand is usually close to the
ground (within 2 meters) because the sand cannot be transported too high due
to its large size. However, finer particles can also erode at higher rates,
smoothing rock surfaces and even entire hills, often known as yardang.

LAND

Soil composition and formation

Soil consists of minerals, organic matter, water and air. The magnitude
of each of these components affects the properties of the soil. In most soils,
most of the solid material is mineral matter that comes from the weathering of
rocks. Often only 2 to 6 percent of the soil is organic matter but it is still very
important. Soil organic matter consists of the decaying remains of plants and
animals known as litter. It also consists of organic matter that is more resistant
to decay known as humus, and living organisms and plant roots known as soil
biomass. Indeed, soil usually contains billions of bacteria in every handful.
Litter is broken down by soil organisms to produce humus which is a stable
final product, resistant to further decomposition. Plant nutrients, especially
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur are released as the litter decomposes and this
process is known as mineralization. Soil organic matter holds mineral particles
together, stabilizes the soil; increase water holding capacity; increase aeration;
and is a major source of nutrients, essential for soil fertility.

Air and water fill the gaps between solid soil particles. Soil air is very
important because soil animals, plant roots and most microorganisms use
oxygen and release carbon dioxide when they breathe (breathe). For soil
organisms to survive, oxygen needs to get into the soil and carbon dioxide
needs to be able to get out of the soil. Therefore, soil aeration is an important
component influencing biological activity and litter decomposition.

Groundwater contains solutes that are important for plant roots to

absorb and move dissolved chemicals through the soil (both up and down) so
they are available to plants. Interestingly, water is held in the ground even
though gravity is pulling it downwards. Even in very hot and dry deserts, water
is still found in the soil indicating that the forces holding water in the soil must
be strong. This water remains in the soil because the combined chemical
attraction of water molecules to each other and the attraction of water to soil
particles is greater than the force of gravity. If you dip the end of a tissue in a
bowl of water, you can see the water being pulled up onto the tissue,
indicating that the water doesn't always flow downwards. This is capillary
action. Smaller pores exert a stronger pulling force on water than larger pores.
Therefore, the capillary water will be pushed to move from the wetter part of
the soil to the drier part because the drier part has smaller pores which have
less water causing capillary attraction on the water. This capillary action is also
how plant roots draw water into the plant. If the soil is coarse, generally
consisting of many large particles and large pore spaces between the particles,
it will not be able to hold as much water as a finer soil with smaller particles
and smaller pore spaces. This explains why sandy soils don't hold much water
and are not as good as fine-textured soils with smaller pores.

Soil formation takes place over thousands of years. The main input of
soil material comes from weathered rock underground. Mineral particles are
released by weathering and contribute to the subsoil. Surface accumulation of
organic matter from plants and animals is also important, as is dissolved
material in water and particles carried by precipitation and wind. The main
losses of material from the soil occur through wind and water erosion, plant
uptake (but this is usually returned to the soil after death if the system does
not remove plant material from the site) and leaching. Leaching is the removal
of dissolved soil material. The leaching process is most rapid where there is a
large influx of water to the surface and where the soil is well drained (e.g. on
irrigated farmland with coarse soil with under-drainage installed). Percolation
water carries solutes down, depositing some in the lower layers but some
dissolved materials may actually be washed out of the soil.

Factors that influence soil formation include climate, 'parent material' (ie
weathered rock material), slope and organisms. The most influential factor is
climate because it determines the humidity and temperature conditions for
soil development; maps of major soil types often follow climatic zones. Soils at
high latitudes are often very shallow and slowly developing, whereas soils
several meters deep are typical of the tropics. Parent material influences soil
formation through the influence of weathering materials on soil processes
whereas slope steepness, aspect and elevation all affect local climate as well as
drainage and erosion conditions. Vegetation type affects the type and amount
of litter returned to the soil while different soil types support different
vegetation communities. In coniferous forests there will be a deep litter layer
of thin wax needles that only slowly decompose. Vegetation also protects soil
from water and wind erosion by blocking rainfall, reducing the role of rainfall
(see section on erosion above).

Soil physical properties

Soil texture and structure affect how soil works and how it is managed.
Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in the soil.
Clay particles are smaller than 2 micrometers (two millionths of a meter), silt is
between 2 and 60 micrometers, while sand is between 60 and 2,000
micrometers in diameter. Texture controls water holding capacity, aeration,
drainage rate, organic matter decomposition rate, compaction, susceptibility to
water erosion, nutrient holding capacity and pollutant leaching. Figure 3.4
shows how the classification of soil texture is based on the relative proportions
of each particle size. For example, reading an image shows that if a soil is 40
percent sand, 30 percent silt, and 30 percent clay, then the soil will be
classified as loam.

Good soil structure is important to achieve good drainage and aerated

soil. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. Soil particles
usually stick to each other in formations called peds. Where the soil does not
have a ped, as in a sand dune, the soil is described as a structure. Soil structure
is characterized in terms of shape, size and peculiarity of these peds with four
main types: blocky (approximately the same size on each side, almost cuboidal,
but peds can be angular or more rounded), spheroidal (ball-shaped), platy
( horizontal slab) and prismatic (vertical elongated soil column with a flat face).
Clay particles and organic compounds largely hold the ped together. As a
result, coarse-textured soils tend to have weakly developed structures, while
fine-textured soils generally have moderate to strong structures. The strength
of the ped affects resistance to erosion and ease of cultivation.
Soil chemical properties

Soil chemical properties are strongly influenced by the parent material

and organic matter content which provides small amounts of clay and organic
particles. Clay minerals are formed from weathering products of aluminum and
silicate minerals. Because clay minerals are small, a volume of clay will have a
large surface area around all its particles in total compared to the same volume
of sand. To test this, measure the surface area of three soccer balls filling a box
and then measure the surface area of the number of tennis or golf balls
needed to fill the same box. Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that have an
electrical charge (positive or negative). Clay particles have a negative electrical
charge so the ions can attract and hold water and cations (positively charged
particles). Therefore, they have a fundamental influence on the physical and
chemical properties of the soil. The concept of cation exchange capacity is an
important one. It is basically a measure of the soil's ability to hold and release
various elements such as plant nutrients. Experiments during the nineteenth
century showed that if you add ammonium chloride (as part of a nitrogen
fertilizer) to the top of the soil, a solution of calcium chloride will come out of
the bottom. Ammonium and calcium cations are exchanged rapidly in this
process. The process is also reversible. The negative charge on the organic clay
and humus particles is balanced by the positively charged cations that are
attracted to the clay and humus particles. These cations are referred to as
exchangeable cations because the cations in the soil solution can replace the
cations on the clay surface. The exchange between cations in the groundwater
solution and other cations on the surface of the clay particles is called cation
exchange. Cation exchange is a balanced reaction so that if an ion with two
positive charges such as calcium (Ca2+) is washed by a sodium solution (which
has a single positive charge; Na+) it will take two sodium ions to replace one
calcium ion. Cation exchange capacity is the ability of a given amount of soil to
hold cations and it depends on the overall negative charge of the clay particles
present. The cation exchange property controls fertility and acidity and also
means that the soil acts as an important buffer between the atmosphere and
groundwater thereby potentially reducing water flow pollution.
 Soil acidity is important because it affects many processes, what plants
grow and what happens to some pollutants. Many polluting heavy metals
become more soluble in water under acidic conditions and can then move
down with the water through the soil into groundwater or river water. The
concentration of hydrogen ions in a soil solution determines whether a soil is
acidic, neutral or basic. The concentration of these ions is so small that a pH
system was developed. Low numbers (starting from 1) on the pH scale are
acidic, 7 are neutral and large numbers up to 14 are alkaline. On the pH scale, a
change of one unit represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen concentration. So
a pH of 5 means the soil solution has a hydrogen ion concentration 10 times
that of pH 6. Most soils have a pH between 3.5 and 9 and very low values are
often associated with soils rich in organic matter, such as peat.

Green plants cannot grow properly without the 16 essential elements

available in the right proportions. The availability of these essential nutrients
for plants is influenced by soil pH. Based on their concentration in plants, the
16 elements are divided into macro-nutrients (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and chloride)
and micro-nutrients (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron). and molybdenum).
In comparison, the typical amount of potassium in soil is 1.5 percent of the
total mass whereas molybdenum accounts for only one hundred thousandth of
a percentage point. A pH range of six to seven is generally best for plant
growth because most plant nutrients are readily available in this range. High
soil pH causes phosphorus and boron to be insoluble and unavailable to plants.
Most nutrients are more soluble in low pH (acidic) soils, which can result in
high or toxic concentrations. On the other hand, phosphorus and molybdenum
become insoluble at low pH and are not available to plants.

Man and land

Human activities can change the soil. It is estimated that the total global
area of land degraded by humans (over 20 million square kilometers) exceeds
the amount currently used for agricultural land. This degradation is caused by
deforestation, overgrazing and poor agricultural management. Degradation
includes soil erosion, soil acidification, soil pollution, reduction of organic
matter content and salinization.
 Soil pH has been reduced by the burning of fossil fuels which causes
rainwater to become more acidic. Also crop harvesting and excessive use of
nitrogen fertilizers lead to acidification. Soil acidification increases the
solubility of heavy metals in the soil which can be toxic to plants, reduce
growth rates or change the types of plants suitable for the soil (eg forest
decline in central Europe). Soil organisms can also be affected by changing
species to organisms that are more tolerant of acidic conditions, resulting in
slower litter decomposition rates. Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides
and fertilizers can damage the soil and can cause water pollution. Heavy
metals (metal elements with a density greater than six grams per cubic
centimeter) such as copper, lead, zinc, and mercury are naturally present in
soil, but atmospheric pollution and the application of sewage sludge,
agricultural waste, and leaching from landfill sites can add metals heavy to the
ground. The worst areas for heavy metal pollution are around industrial areas
such as in northwestern Europe. Mining, smelting, energy generation,
agriculture and other wear and tear of vehicles and machinery are sources of
heavy metal contamination to the soil. Heavy metals accumulate in the soil
because they are bound to organic matter and clay minerals and are generally
not absorbed by plants. However, if the soil becomes more acidic, this can
result in heavy metals being released into groundwater and available for
uptake by plants, or for leaching into rivers, lakes, and groundwater. This is an
important phase because if this happens then the plants we eat may have toxic
levels of heavy metals, or the water may become dangerous to drink.

Intensive farming has reduced soil organic matter. Soil with less than 1.7
percent organic matter may be nearly as barren as a desert landscape. This is
known as desertification. In the Mediterranean region, 75 percent of the
landscape has a low (3.4 percent) or so low (1.7 percent) soil organic matter
content that desertification is a major cause for concern. Organic matter
content has been reduced by abandoning crop rotation, plowing pastures and
burning stumps (remains of vegetation after planting). These all reduce the
amount of organic matter that is returned to the soil. Reversing this action can
allow some recovery of organic matter content (e.g. plowing hay back into the
soil rather than salinization occurs when sodium, magnesium and calcium salts
build up resulting in reduced soil fertility. This is especially a problem in warm,
dry areas where evaporation and movement of water are the upward
movement of the soil exceeds the downward movement of precipitation and
percolation. Further irrigation of the land with water that is high in salt content
(i.e. much has evaporated before use so that the concentration of salt in the
water is greater) exacerbates the situation. In some countries, by about 10
percent their arable land is affected by salinization burning it and increasing
the proportion of grass cover).

The above human impact on land has led to concerted efforts, laws and
policies to protect and restore land as an important sustaining resource for
human life. However, more efforts are needed especially as the world
population continues to grow, placing more demands on our land resources.

SUMMARY

• Earth is 4.6 billion years old.

• Earth's crust is made up of moving plates; on the edge

Plate earthquakes and volcanic activity occur frequently.

• When continents collide, mountains form.

• In the middle of the ocean a new crust is formed; at the edge of the ocean
the crust sinks back into the mantle. The marine crust is relatively young less
than 200 million years old whereas continental rocks can be billions of years
old.

• Weathering by physical and chemical processes wears out rock. Climate and
rock types are important controls of the rate of weathering processes.

• Erosion transports weathered material by water, wind and slow

and rapid mass movement.

• Soil consists of minerals from weathered rock, organic matter,

water and air.

• Soil formation is influenced by climate, parent material, topography

graphics and organisms.

• Soil particle texture, soil structure and chemistry are very important in
determining water and nutrient exchange capacity and hence their use for
plant growth.

• The vertical and lateral movement of material through water-soluble soils is

an important process for transferring nutrients to plants and affecting river
water quality.

• Careful soil management is necessary because humans have destroyed a

large part of the soil around the Earth through poor agricultural practices and
pollution.