(1% SECTION 10 ADVANCES IN RADIOGRAPHY After reading this section, you 1 | should be able to answer * What is microfocus, real time and high energy radiography * Principles, ‘advantages and typical applications of these techniques(75 Chapter 10.1 Microfocal Radiography 10.4.1 What is Microfocal Radiography? ‘The technique of radiography is based on the prifciples of differential absorption and shadow projection. Thus, one of the main parameters which determine the image quality and the detectability of features is the arca from where the X-rays originate commonly known as the “focal spot”. The effect of focal spot on radiographic sensitivity has been discussed in earlier sections. It can be observed from Fig. 10.1.1 that while @ point source of radiation produces a sharp image, a large source produces a diffused image with a large geometric unsharpness. This geometric unsharpness U, primarily depends on the focal spot size as given by the relation x OFD SOD += (10.1.1) whete OFD is the object to film distance and SOD the source to object distance. In conventional radiography units, the size of the focal spot ranges from 1 to 5 mm. Hence to keep U, as low as possible, the film is placed in intimate contact with the object (minimizing OFD) and the source to object distance is increased. However, the SOD cennot be increased beyond a limit, since this would make the exposure times impractical. An alternative method is to reduce the focal spot. X- ray eqiiipment in which the size of the focal spot is between 0.11 mm, is commonly referred to as minifocus unit while X-ray equipment in which the focal spot size is less than 0. 1 mm or 100 micrometers is referred to as microfocus unit. This small focal spot is achieved by focussing the electron beam on to the target. Present day mictofocus units have focal spots in the range of 5 ~ 15 micrometers. The fundamental physical processes such as the Te" Te cacunie. electron scattering in the target makes it difficult to achieve focal spots better than 5 micrometers. X-ray equipment in hich fal spot isles than 100 10.1.2 Advantages and Limitations slerometers Pans Smaller focal spot makes| ‘Once the focal spot size is reduced, a number of advantages can be identified. These include: @ Projection magnification : The object need not be in | rete magnification contact with the film during exposure as in conventional |" lose of dfisiton radiogtaphy. Thus one can obtain enlarged primary | Improves radiographic image radiographs with magnifications greater than 2X (Fig, | dsfintion 10.1.2). Magnification reduces the number of features that | Microfocal radiographs is masked by the background image noise thus enhancing | are excellent in contrast the detection sensitivity of microdefects and sensitivity possible7 ee ee 176 Practical Radiograhy Point source \ @) “object ee | 5 p2fif PDD pdf ‘aif tau Dua 2a aad Fig. 10.11 Image due to Point source of radiation and line source of midiaion Line fous Focal spot Microfoous Ee | 2 & 8 d | ed alll Conventional radiography, Microfocal radiography Fig. 10.12 Microfocal spot makes it possible to have projective magnification and high contrast tadiographs due to decreased scatter radiation. | | |Chapter 10.2 Fluoroscopy and Real Time Radiography Real time radiography (RTR) oF fluoroscopy differs from conventional radiography in that the X: ray image of the object is observed directly on a screen rather than recorded on a film. 10.2.1. Fluoroscopy In the earlier days, fluorescents screens such as Zinc Sulphide or Calcium Tungstate was used. ‘The X-ray beam after passing through the object falls on the fluorescent screen, The X-rays are converted to light photons and the radiographic image could be directly viewed. Fluoroscopie systems had the advantage of high speed and low cost. The main disadvantages of these systems were 7 @ only low energies could be used (due to problems of radiation exposure), the range of thickness that could be examined was also low. (©) the high screen unsharpness of the fluorescent screens resulted in poor-radiographic contrast and sensitivity © the low brightness of the images led to operator fatigue quite quickly and (@) there was a lack of permanent record. 10.2.2 Real Time Radioscopy ‘The advent of image intensifier tubes in the 1950s led to the development of real time radioscopy systems which overcame all the problems of fluoroscopic systems. Present day real time systems use image intensifiers, video camera and monitor. The image intensifier converts X-ray photons to electrons, accelerates the electrons and then reconverts them to light which is picked up by the CCD camera and displayed on a'monitor. Figure 10.2.1 shows a block diagram of a typical RTR setup. 10.2.2.1 Principle of Operation The RTR system essentially consists of an image intensifier tube, a zoom lens, CCD camera, image processor and a monitor. When a beam of X-rays is incident on the input screen of the image intensifies, the X-ray photons are converted into light photons by the detector — Caesium iodide. A photocathode converts the light photons to electrons which are accelerated and impinge on the output phosphor. The ousput phosphor converts the electrons to light photons which ate picked up by the CCD camera and after image processing displayed on the TV monitor.a | | lll ah tall | Microfocal Radiography 177 (&) Improved radiographic contrast : It is well known that in conventional eadiogeaphy, scattered: radiation especially generated from within the object reduces radiographic contrast to the maximum. Once the object is placed away from the film, the amount of scattered radiation teaching it is drastically reduced. Thus, microfocal radiographs have much better contrast compared to conventional radiographs. (©) Possibility of object manipulation : Since the object and the film can be separated without sacrificing image definition, real time radiography of dynamic/temporally _ changing, events is possible. Further the object can be rotated / translated within the radiation beam making stereo and micro tomography possible. These techniques allow better detection of planar defects ahd greater resolution of detail within the section thickness. Limitations Projection magnification has its inherent disadvantages. (@) Since the object is placed closed to the source, a smaller volume of the object is inspected at any one time as can be seen from Fig, 10.1.1. This means more number of exposures and more number of films. (b) Since the electrons are focussed on to the target, the heat is concentrated in a very small and localised spot. Hence the target cannot be loaded to a great extent which limits the tube current. However, both of these are not very setious limitations. 10.1.3 Applications ‘The main areas of application of microfocal radiography can be classified as: (@) those where conventional radiography cannot be applied due to problems of access such as evaluation of tube to tubesheet welds of steam generator, mode couplers etc (&) those where conventional radiography can be applied but cannot resolve the fine defects necessary to be detected example @ detection of microdefects such as voids, microcracks and inhomogenous distribution of tnaterial in ceramics and (i detection of defects in microelectronic components (©) for real time and computed tomography applications where microfocal radiography is an essential requirement due to higher unsharpness of the real time systems example online evaluation of automotive components. a EP eS helFluoroscopy and Real Time Radiography 179 Motorised shutter video printer Fig. 10.2.1 Block Diagram of real time radiography setup 10.2.3 Advantages, Limitations and Application Areas Improvements in electronic gain, fluorescent and photo cathode layer efficiency and electron optics have made modem X-ray image intensifiers very useful in industrial applications. The main advantages of RTR include aq overall savings both with respect to man-hours spent, cost and archiving the radiographic image. Accept-or-teject decisions can be made immediately without the delay in film development. This has been found to be cost effective in the long run. Limitations of RTR are its higher inherent screen uasharpness, which limits the overall radiographic sensitivity as compared to that of film radiography. However, through the use of image processing, the sensitivity levels can be-improved to those obtainable in film radiography. RTR is presently applied to objects on assembly lines for rapid inspection. It finds extensive applications in real time evaluation of automotive components such as wheel castings, valves, and online inspection of seam welds, canned foods and in a variety of other industries. Fig, 10.2.2 shows a typical real time image of a weld with lack of penetration and porosities.s Real time radiography Based on image intensifier stems Provides online evaluation and image archiving Cost effective Used for antomated inspections Fig, 10.2.2 Real time image of weld after image processing and edge enhancement indicating lick of penetration and porosities.Chapter 10.3 High Energy Radiography Radiography using X-ray energies of 1 MeV or greater is commonly considered as high energy radiography. The application of high energy radiography for NDT is a natural outcome of the use of conventional radiography. The basic principles of this technique are similar to those of conventional radiography. The arrangement of the source, object and film, the scatter reduction techniques, use of penetcameters and identification markers are all similar to those adopted with conventional radiography. Standard types of commercial X-ray films with lead or other intensifying screens are used to produce the radiographic image of the object being eximined. ‘The difference between high and low energy radiography arise from several distinctive characteristics of a high energy X- radiography source many of which prove to be advantageous. 103.1 High Energy Radiography Sources ‘The main types of high energy sources include: - (@) Resonant transformer:The 1 MeV resonant transformer was the first commercial high energy X-ray source introduced by the General Electric of USA in 1939. A few years later, a 2 MeV version of the Resotron was fabricated. This kind of unit operates on the basis of a coupling berween tuned primary and secondary windings and a sectionalized X-ray tube, The electrons are accelerated by application of the full d-c potential across the tube. These units are seldom used today. () Van De Graff Generator: Though conceived earlier, the Van De Graff style clectrostatic generator also became commercially available around 1939 in the 1 and 2 MeV range. In this unit, electric charges obtained from a d-c potential of about 30kV are. transported by means of a moving belt to the high potential electrode, The full potential of 1 to 2 MeV is applied across a sectionalized X-ray tube (©) Linear Accelerator: Also popularly called as “Linacs”, these are machines that are based on the wave guide technique. A high-frequency wave passes down a hollow conducting ~ tube. Electrons injected into the tube at about SKY are accelerated to energies of the order of 3 to 40 MeV, by transfer of energy from the high-frequency wave. Apart from X-radiographic applications, Linaes can also be used as a source of neutrons by the addition of a Uranium Be target. Of all the high energy equipments, Linac is the most widely used high efergy source for radiography. With linacs, radiography of steel upto 500 mm(20 inches) is possible. They will produce better radiographs than almost any other equipment for steel thicker than 100mm. (@) Betatron: This is basically a combination of an electromagnet and a transfornier. It is designed to guide and accelerate electrons in a circular orbit to energies of the order of 15 to 10 MeV using an electrical field induced by a time-varying magnetic field. The beam J (247 4) 49 fr fy gro gy fh fy fr 7 | ef ef fr {2 {> {> 4 mt el bf bd oh gy10.3.2 Advantages of High Energy Radiography ‘The major advantages of high-energy tadiography include (@) Itis possible to examine thicker sections economically due to the greater penetration by the higher energy photons. . (b) Large distance over thickness ratios (D/T) can be used with correspondingly low geometrical distortion, (©) Short exposure times and high production rates are possible, (@ The wide thickness latitude, good contrast, reduced amount of high angle scatter reaching the film, small focal spot sizes (1 - 2 mm) results in radiographs with excellent sensitivity, contrast and detail resolution. ‘Thus high energy radiography is an attractive choice for the inspection of thick metal castings, weldments and examination of high density materials like Uranium alloys etc. However, the overall cost of the equipment is quite high compared to conventional radiography. scat te alec hana High rgy Radiography 181 currents are very small of the order of few microamperes while the focal spot is less than 1 mm. The’ small focal spot and highly collimated beam makes it possible to obrain radiographs with very high contrast and sensitivity (better than 1%). Steel thickness that can be tadiographed using these machines range from 50 mm - ~400 mm. [Summary Radiography using radiation energies > 1 MeV called high energy radiography Sources for high energy radiogeaphy include Resonant transformers * Van De Graff generators * Betatrons * Linear accelerators (roost widely used) Advantages of high energy * Wide thickness latitude con be examined * Short exposure times * Bscellent contrast and sensifvityA Absorption, gamma ray 34 Xonay 34 Acedlerstr, linear 180 Acetic acid 77 Activity 24,152 Alloys, radiographic equivalence factors for 100 Anode 45, 46 Automated processing 78 ‘Avtotransformer 48 Average gredlane, ok gradient, cvenag? B Backscatter 91 Base, film 63 Betatron 180 Bromide, silver 64 Blackening, see density 65 e Caesium 55, 178 Cassettes, film 71 Cathode 45 z Characteristic curve 67 Chants, exposure, ee exposure charts 98, 99 Cobalt, see gamme-ray sources 54 Compton seattering 32 Contrast film 69 Contrast, radiographic 87 Curie 24, 65 D D log E curve, see characteristic curve 67, 68 Darkroom 73 Decay, radioactive 24 Decay curves of gamma-ray sources 57 Index Density(cadiographic) 68 Developers 75 DIN pentrameter 93 Distance, source-film 86 Distance-Exposure relation 101 Dosage rates, gamma-ray sources 154 Drying 78 Duty cycle 50 . E Electromagnetic radiation 27 Electroh-volt 27 Emission, gamma-ray sources 29 Emulsion, 64 Equivalence factors, radiographic 100 Excitation 30 Exposure 65, 152 Exposure, calculation of graphical methods 101 Exposuce charts 98 Exposure-distance relationship 101 F Filament 45 Film 63 Films, packaging of 70 Fixer 77 Fixing 77 Fluoroescent screens, see screens, fluorescent 72 Fluoroscopy 178 Focal spot 46, 52 Fog 52 Fog density 68, 69 G Gamma-ray radiography, cameras 56 Gamma-ray sources 53 i a Q ppp, A>? 242424217 7? all ad Bad Bad Bd 2A edGamma-ray spectrom 56 Gamma-rays, Properties of 25 Gas Filled Detectors 35 Generators, X-ray 48 Geometric unsharpness 124 Generator, Van De Graff 180 Gradient average 69 H H and D curve, see characteristic curve 67, 61 Half life, gamma-ray sources 58 Hardener 77 High-Energy radiography 180 Hood 47 Hypo, see fixer 77 I Ilumination 105 Mluminator 105 mage, latent, see latent image 64 mage quality indicators (IQ) 91- 96 Tonisation 30 i Intensification factor of screens 72 Intensifies 178 Intensifying screens, see screens, fluorescent; 71 screens, lead 71 Intensity 29, 47 Inverse square law 28 Interaction of Alpha particles 30 Beta particles 31 Neutron 31 Gamma ray and X-rays 31 Inidium 192, see gamma-ray sources 54 Isotopes 24 K Kilovoltage (see also quality of radiation) 49,51,89 7 Latent image, photographic 64 Index Law, Inverse Square 28 Law, reciprocity 28 Lead sereens 72 Linear accelerator 180 Line focus 176 Layer, half value, tenth value 34 + M Magiiicauoa, Pojesion 175 sn lar prcesing 78 Mats, ace 80 Mas 125 i ak ei 7 Microfoeal radiography 175 Minifocus 52 Milliamper 65 N Number, atomic 23 ° Ourput, gamma-ray sources 151 Output, X-ray, see X-ray intensity 51 P Particles, alpha 25 Beta 26 Gamma 26 Packages 166 Penetrameters 91 Persognel, protection, monitoring 161 Photographic exposure 105 Photographic density 65 Preservative in developers 75 Processing (see also development; fixation; ‘washing; drying) 74 automatic 78 manual 74 Q Quality 51 (es 185186 Practical Radiogeahy R Radioactive materials(see also gamma-ray sources), 54 Radiation quality 101 Radiation Intensity 29 Radiographic contrast 87 Radiographs, artifacts in 73 Viewing of 107 Radioisotopes, see gamma-iay sources 54 Radium, see gammacray sources 54 Rectifier 50 Replenishment, developers 76 ‘System in automatic processing 78 Restrainer in developers 75 Roentgen 152 s Safelights 76 Scattered radiation 90, 125 Screens, fluorescent 72 Self-absorption 90 Sensitivity, Radiographic 87 Shielding, radiation 165 Shipping, gamma-ray sources 166 Silver bromide 64 Slope( of characteristic curve), see contrast 68 Sourcescfilm distance 124 Sources, gamma-ray, see gamma-ray source $4 Specific activity 29 Speed, film, see film speed 68 Static marks 80 Steel, radiographic equivalence factors for 100 Stop bath 76 Subject contrast, see contrast, subject 88 T ‘Thulium-170 55 Target 43 Time temperature chatt 76 ‘Transmittance of film, see density 65 Transporation of gamma-ray sources 166 Tube current, see milliamperage 50 Tube voliage, see kilovoltage 49 u Undereut, see also (scattered radiation) 15-~— Underexposed radiographs 65 Unsharpness 124 Umbra 86 v ‘Viewing room 106 Visibility of details 106 Voltage, see kilovoltage, quality of radiation 51 w Washing 78 ‘Water spots 78 ‘Wavelength, effect on characteristic curve 52 ‘Wetting agents 78 x Xerays, absorption of 33, films, see films 63 Generator 48 Iatent image 64 nature 27 production of 8 properties of 26, 27 tube 43, 48, rrr | ed ae 1 ical RecadosRadiograph Interpretation ; of Welds Weld Terminology 2s xm gl, Cis " Buttweld Fillet weld Spot weld Edge weld Plug weld Compound weld \ Qatnieg. Scot gga fino Seid pahsle ios wot Aye Joga DM + (ake Bor Legis Butt Preparations — Sizes 2. ~ we wes) ¥ ~ (wr = ae Partial Penetration Butt Weld ee 3 Retual Throat, Thickness ne Full Penetration Butt Weld Root! A,B, C & D = Weld Toes ee ee eee i i A I i Bl Bt i BhWeld Preparation Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints bevel angle \~——+ / \— 1 —yineluded angle ‘Tupical Dimensions bevel angle 30 to 35° root face ~1.8t0-2.5mm root gap ~2t0 “4mm Double Sided Butt Preparations::. Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted Double-Bevel Double-Vee Double-J Double- U \A0Welding Imperfections ». All welds have imperfections + Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard Aetect san unacceptable impertection / + Aweld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance ‘Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard and require removalrectification Li a, Welding Imperfections = Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely: 1Cracks 2 Cavities 3 Solid inclusions 4 Lack of fusion and penetration 5 Imperfect shape and dimensions 6 Miscellaneous imperfections ‘neat Read head ail pd peal nied aid iid aid ied id DD DDD Dae eal = * 6) a eel Deel al eadCracks :: Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal Longitudinal weld metal Lamellar tearing Cracks s; i Transverse crack Longitudinal crack 2oEbEEEEELEWELELEETELELELIULCECT VAR5 ol Gas Cavities s. Gas pore Cluster porosity 46. sLoss of gas shield ‘Damp electrodes +Contamination Blow hole ‘Arc length too large Herringbone porosity sDamaged electrode flux +Moisture on parent material ‘Welding current too low Gas pore <1.5mm_7 Root pipirlg Blow hole.>4.6mm,, Gas Cavities ;- (a Deaf baad baa Maal ta Poh A 2A ADA AAD DDD DL a a d =Gas Cavities »» Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity Solid Inclusionss.o Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion caused by some welding process Causes: 3 +Slag originates from welding flux ck oF sidewall +MAG and TIG welding fusion with’ process produce silica associated slag inclusions *Slag is caused by Inadequate cleaning -Other inclusions include ‘slag lines Lack of interun tungsten and copper Paraliet slag lines Fysion + slag inclusions from the TIG and MAG welding process Slag inclusionsSosy fog Nevo") CS, Soa, Shed asks (ingen ivcsion Gapds Glows ond obs. baie Solid Inclusions ::; Interpass slag inclusions _+Elongated slag lines. Lack of Fusions.» # Causes: *Poor welder skill Incomplete filed groove +“ ieorrect electrode Lack of sidewall fusion mt *Are blow + Incorrect welding currentivoltage + Incorrect travel speed 4. Lack of sidewall fusion _* Incorrect inter-run cleaning 2, Lack of inter-run fusion ” Sraer Ba) VAS anc baad bid gy » gh gvg al al i ak ed a Bd of Eb Bo gd {dd gd fh 5d gdbb bob ab bbad bbb b Welding Imperfections :.: ‘Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion: +welding current too low bevel angle too steep + root face too large (single-sided weld) + root gap too small (single-sided weld) incorrect electrode angle + linear misalignment + welding speed too high -welding process related — particularly dip-transfer GMAW. “flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out) Lack of Fusion 2: Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled grooveWeld Root Imperfections’ ss Lack of RootFusion —_|_ack of Root Penetration Cap Undercuts.» Intermittent Cap Undercut d il a el Ss ee, ee ee ee ee eeee Undercut s:» Root undercut Cap undercut oo Surface and Profile >» Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile Poor cap profiles and excessive-cap reinforcements may leadto stress ‘concentration points at the ‘weld toes and will also contribute to overall poor toe blend Excessive cap height= a » Surface and Profile =. Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove Weld Root Imperfections:.. Excessive root penetration 8 tT liad ad iad ad asad asa asad ial baad Pal Peal aid of Bf Ph of APD Ab Ti 2 DS adSet-Up Irregularities: (ape) Linear Misalignment Set-Up Irregularities:.. Linear Misalignment Doo20 Incomplete Groove: Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove Weld Root Imperfections; shallow grodve, which may occur in the root of a butt weld Causes: Excessive back purge pressure during TIG welding Excessive root bead grinding before the application of the second pass Concave Root welding current too high for 2nd pass overhead welding root gap too large - excessive ‘weaving’ roan eeWeld Root Imperfections 5. Concave root Excess root penetration Weld Root Imperfections »2 A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive penetration resulting in a hole in the root run Causes: High Amps/volts ‘Small Root face Large Root Gap + Slow Travel Burn through SpeedWeld Root Imperfections:: ‘Burn Thro Oxidized Root (Root Coking) PE causes - Loss or insufficient back purging gas (TIG) . Most commonly occurs when welding stainless steels - Purging gases include argon, helium and occasionally nitrogen Vy ; ‘neil ead head dead deal head tad al jell eal oad aad asd’, hela, led ae efPOROSITY"SLAG INCLUSIONS INCOMPLETE PENETRATION Inadequate or Lack of Penetation Vv hee ee ee ee ee ee ee Tee Lee Pee Peep ae Le Loe ee Dee Dee | esfadema wlINCOMPLETE FUSION {DY INTERNAL cone OR SUCK wa] emMi i i INTERNAL OR ROOT ' . UNDERCUT EXTERNAL OR CROWN UNDERCUT I) te x 8 ef 20h 2a Zeal od od ocd AD A Dod De DsOFFSET OR MISMATCHEXCESS WELD REINFORCEMENT i ‘ell iad Dil Bisel aad bet i Bi DD i oe aed we a wv og 2 8gnats A Bapcds - / DISCONTINUITIES IN TIG WELDS- TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS im Aco fedecedlon Speed « OXIDE INCLUSIONS Dm DAD| BURN-THROUGH IN GMAW 7%, fcc RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION PETIT _ eee CONFIGURATION / DESCRIPTION: Elongated voids along the I between S i i i es i i ll ld ee BsRADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION Lack of Penetration RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: A darker density wide Tine running lengthwise in the center of the wold. ‘Tho edges of the line are very distinct and straight. conriaurarion’ DESCRIPTION: The edges of the segments have not been waded together. Found rormaly atthe bottom of ‘ingle Vgroove welds. RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION Lack of Penetration RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: A darker density wide line running lengthwise in the ‘center of the weld. The ‘edges of the line are very distinct and straight ‘CONFIGURATION! DESCRIPTION: 26RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION Cluster Porosity RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: Elongated or rounded voids randomly grouped together and found both in the parent or weld metal. ‘CONFIGURATION! DESCRIPTION: Elongated of rounded voids randomly found together in clusters. A ate RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRE TATION Cluster Porosity RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: Elongated or rounded voids randomly grouped together and found both in the parent or wold metal. eee ee CONFIGURATION | DESCRIPTION: iach wane Elongated or rounded voids randomly found together in clusters. / i v y 8 iRADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION Random Porosity RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: Random darker density spots. Usually more centralized in the ‘middle of the weld although still random In location and size. + CONFIGURATION? DESCRIPTION: Elongated or rounded voids randomly ‘scattered through the main weld body. RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION >. Wormhole Porosity RADIOGRAPHIC MAGE: Elongated or rounded voids fandomly grouped together and found both in the parent or wold metal. CONFIGURATION: DESCRIPTION: Elongated voids in the wold metal due to.cooling while ‘gas pockets were floating to the surface. 27RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION Slag Lines RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE: CONFIGURATION! Impure that {Shed and havent ‘moved oucreen weld. RADIOGRAPHY FILM INTERPRETATION . Slag inclusions RADIOGRAPHIC iiaces Dark elongated or ‘corners that are randomly located. CONFIGURATION! DESCRIPTION: Weld slag or other | ed Bah iD Do Di Ded ld ed Dd x 8 i ie i Bd id 8 rf Be Bid hh Pf Bh Ph aACCEPTANCE CRITERIA | All indications shown on radiographs characterized as imperfection are unacceptable as given below: Any indication characterized as a crack or zones of incomplete fusion or penetration. Any other elongated indication on the aa which has length greater than: / : pein Crkeaieao, a). 6mm(1/4”) for t upto 19mm(3/4”) / ut, b). 1/3 t for t from 19mm(3/4”) to 57mm(2 4”) c). 19mm(3/4”) for t over 57mm(2 YA”) t = the thickness of the weld excluding any allowable reinforcement. For butt weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, t is thinner of those two thicknesses. If a full penetration weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the throat of the fillet shall be included in t. Any group of aligned indications that have an aggregate length greater than t in a length of 12t, except when the distance between the successive imperfections exceeds 6L where L is the length of the longest imperfection in the group. _Note:- Appendix-4 of ASME Code Section-VIII Division-I shall be referred for yp rounded indications. / enaq 4 feflerance Material tor RT Training Section No Topics * ASME Section- V Codes (RT), ° + ASME Section- VIII- Div-1 (UW-51,52and Appendix 4 ) + Interpretations of Weld Radiographs. + Interpretations of Casting Radiographs. JSNT Technical Services Course Faculty Flat No.: 51-B, Apna Enclave, Mr. D.K. Jain Railway Road, Near Railway Station, B.E.- Metallurgy ( 1.l.Sc. Bangalore) Gurgaon -122001 NDT Level Ill (RT,UT,PT,MT,VT) TeleFax: 0124-2307194 4: 098115 80926 £2: [email protected] ;[email protected] www jsntservices.com2013 SECTION Y 223 annie? ARTICLE 2 RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 7-210 SCOPE ‘ the radiographic method described in this Article for examination of materials including castings and welds shall be used together with Article 1, General Require- ments. Definitions of terms used in this Article are in Mandatory Appendix V of this Article. Certain product-specific, technique-specific, and application specific requirements are also given in other Mandatory Appendices ofthis Article, as listed inthe table of contents. These additional requirements shall also be complied with when an Appendix is applicable to the radiographic or radioscople examination being conducted, 1-220 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 7-221 PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS. T-221.1 Written Procedure. Radiographic examina tion shall be performed in accordance with a written pro: cedure, Bach procedure shall include at least the following Information, as applicable: (a) material type and thickness range (8) isotope or maximum X-ray voltage used (6) source-to-ebject distance (D in T-274.1) (@ distance from source side of object to film (d in 12741) (2) source size (Fin T-274.1) () film brand and designation (g) screens used 1-221.2. Procedure Demonstration, Demonstiation of ~ the density and image quality indicator (1QH) image re- quirements of the written procedure on production or technique radiographs shall be considered satisfactory evidence of compliance with that procedure. 1-222 SURFACE PREPARATION 1-222. Materials Including Castings. Surfaces shall satisfy the requirements of the applicable materials spect fication or referencing Code Section, with additional con- ditioning, if necessary, by any sultable process to such a ‘degree that the images of surface Irregularities cannot ‘ask or be confused with the image of any discontinuity on the resulting radiograph. 7-222.2 Welds. The weld ripples or weld surface irre- aularities on both the inside (where accessible) and out- side shal be remuved by any suitable process to such a degree that the images of s ‘mask or be confused with the fon the resulting radiograph. ‘The finished surface ofall butt-welded joints may be flush with the base material or may have reasonably uni- form owns, with reinforcement not to exceed that speci- ‘ied in the referencing Code Section face irregularities cannot nage of any discontinuity 7-223 BACKSCATTER RADIATION ‘lead symbol “B” with minimum dimensions of Y in. (13 mm) in helght and "4g in, (1.5 mun) in thickness, shall be attached to the back ofeach film holder during each ex- posure to determine if backscatter radiation is exposing the film. + 1-224 SYSTEM OF IDENTIFICATION ‘Agystom shall be used to produce permanent identifica: tion on the radiograph traceable to the contract, compo- nent, weld or weld seam, or part numbers, as appropriate. In addition, the Manufacturer's symbol or fname and the date ofthe radiograph shall be plainly and permanently included on the radiograph. This identifica: tion system does not necessarily require thatthe Informa: tion appear as radiographic images. In any case, this {information shall not obscure the area of interest. 7-225 MONITORING DENSITY LIMITATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHS Either a densitometer or step wedge comparison film shall be used for judging film density. 7-226 “EXTENT OF EXAMINATION The extent of radiographic examination shall be as spe- ‘ified by the referencing Code Section. 7-230 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 1-231 FILM F-231.1 Selection. Radiographs shall be made using industrial radiographic film, F-2512 Processing. Standard Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Film Processing. SE-999, or paragraphs 23 through 26 of Standard Guide for Radiographic Examination SE-94 shall be used as a guide for processing film.apnea 2 2013 SECTION V 7-232 INTENSIFYING SCREENS Intensifying screens may be used when performing radiographic examination In accordance with this Article 1-233 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR (IQl) DESIGN 7-233. Standard 101 Design. 1Qfs shal be either the hhole type or the re type. Hole-type 1Qls shall be manu: fared aed Ueniied acoschare wintaremiee. | 2 OH Z| amt mens or alternates allowed in SE1025. Wirewype gis | mE, (NB 3} tae al ‘Mol bemaaufscuned and ended rsocorance wih | goon fu ¢ | pms- fay thereqrements or alternates alowed nSE747, except | own easy 6 | ani? feat that the largest wire number or the identity number may be omitted, ASME standard IQIs shall consist of those S26, in Table 7-238. for bole tye and those in Table T-233.2 | Wire ay ne fiche Gp Diameter, in, {oum) Identity | Diameter in “e oo oat) om | 0200 7-2332 Alternative 1Q1 Design. 1Qis designed and | cox (az) | atte ‘manufactured in accordance with other national or inter- | 0050 (127) 13 | 60 national standards may be used provided the require- | 9062 (160) 14 | 0200 rents of either (a) or (b) below, and the material | 90 GOH 18 | ase squirements of T-276.1 are met. {a Hole Type 1s. The calculated Equivalent 10h Sensi vity (EPS), per SE-1025, Appendix X1, is equal to or bet- * ter than the required standard hole type 1Q1 (b) Wire Type IQls. The alternative wire 1QH esseni wire diameter is equal to or Tess than the required stan- dard 10 essential wire Table T-233.1 Hole-Type 1Qi Designation, Thickness, and Hole Diameters ‘aie OU Thickness, in. AT Hole Dlameter, ja. 27 Hole Diameter Diameter, in | | ‘9005 (013) ‘9010 (025) ‘e020 (0st) 0080207) ¢ 0075 (039), ora (025) ozo (est) 0010 (142) » 0910 025) 010 (025) euro (ast) ao4o (202) 2 0125 (032) 12 (032) ors (ost) 095012 5 2015 (038) ais (038) 9030J076) 0060 (152) a 00175 (044) 017s 048) (9035 (088) 0070(178) 20 020 (asi) * 0020051) oro (292) 80 (203) 25 0025 (064) 0025 (064) eso (n27) 0100 (258) 30 0030 (076) 1.030 (076) ‘060 (252) 0170 (805) | 35 a5 (289) 2935 089) g70(078) 0140 (56) ” 9040 (102) ‘040 (202) Goon (20m) 0360 (406) 6 04s (138) 015 (119) osa229) aan (457) so 9050 (127) 0080 (127) e100 (254) 0200 (5.08) o 9060 (152), (9060 (152) 420,05) 0240 (610) 70 070 0.78) 4070 (1.78) x40 (ase) 0200 (731) oo 11990 (203) ‘080 (203) 360 (408 0320813) 100 00 (259) 100 (258) 2200 s08) 000 (1016) | 120 0.320 (3.05) 0.320 (3.05) 0240 (6.10) 480 (22.19), 40 0.190 (356) 040 (358) zen 71x) 0860 (1422) 1a 0160 (408) 60 (4.08) 0320 (i) 0640 (1525) 200 0200 (08) 11200 (5.108) oo (016) 20 0240 (6:0) 1240 (610) 480 (1219) | oso gay zeo(7a1) 001422) nose (008) ooo (025) (ox), 250) (20) (495, (s09) (a3) ay) ome (em (eo rameter. (mm) entity | Diameter, to. (rm) ent u entity = |2013 SECTION V 7-234 FACILITIES FOR VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS. ‘Viewing facilities shall provide subdued background Ipiting ofan infensity that wail not cause reflections, sha- dows, or glare on the radiograph that interfere with the in- terpretation process. Equipment used to view radiographs for interpretation shall provide a variable light source si: ficient for the essential 1QH hole or designated wire to be visible forthe specified density range. The viewing cond tions shall be.such tat light from around the outer edge of the radiograph or coming through low-density portions of the radiograph does not interfere with interpretation 7-260 CALIBRATION 7-261 SOURCE SIZE T-261.1 Verification of Source Size. The equipment ‘manufacturer's or supplier's publications, such as techni- cal manuals, decay curves, or written statements docu: menting the actual or maximum source size or focal spot, shall be acceptable as source size verification. ¥-261.2 Determination of Source Size. When manu facturer’s or supplier's publications are not available, souree size may be determined as follows: (a) X-Ray Machines. For X-ray machines operating at 500 RV and less, the focal spot size may be determined by the pinhole method,° or in accordance with $E-1165, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Focal Spots of Industrial X-Ray Tubes by Pinhole Imaging, (9) Iridium-192 Sources. For Iridium-192, the source slee may be determined In accordance with SE-1114, tan- dard Test Method fér Determining the Focal Size of 2 Industrial Radiographic Sources. 7-262 DENSITOMETER AND STEP WEDGE ‘COMPARISON FILM 7-262.1 Densitometers. Densitometers shall be cali brated atleast every 90 days during use as follows: (i) Anationat standard step tablet ora step wedge cali- bration film, traceable to a national standard step tablet and having at least 5 steps with neutral densities from atleast 1.0 through 40, shall be used. The step wedge ca- bration film shall have been verified within the last year by comparison with a national standard step tablet unless, prior to first use, it was maintained in the original light- tight and waterproof sealed package as supplied by the manufacturer. Step wedge calibration films may be used without verification for one year upon opening, provided ‘is within the manufacturer's stated shelf life. (2) The densitometer manufacturer's step-by-step tn- structions for the operation of the densitometer shall be followed (¢) The density steps closest to 1.0, 2.0, 20, and 4:0 on the national standard step tablet or step wedge calibration fin shall be read 220 annias2 (i) The densitometer is acceptable ifthe density read- ings do not vary by more than £0.05 density units from the actual density stated on the national standard step ta- blet or step wedge calibration film. 7-262.2, Step Wedge Comparison Films. step wedge comparison films shall be verified prior to first use, unless performed by the manufacturer, as follows: (a) The density ofthe steps on a step wedge comparison film shall be verified by a calibrated densitometer (2) The step whdge comparison film is acceptable ifthe density readings do not vary by more than #0.1 density units from the dénsity stated on the step wedge compari- son film, 1-223. Periodic Verification. (a) Densifometers. Periodic cablibration verification checks shall be performed as deseribed In 262.1 at the beginning of each shift, after 8 hr of continuous use, or after change of apertures, whichever comes first (t) Step Wedge Comparison Films. Verification checks shall be performed annually per T-2622. ¥-262.4 Documentation. (a) Densitometers. Densitometer calibrations required by 7-262.1 shall be documented, but the actual readings for each step do not have to be recorded. Periodic densit- ‘ometer verification checks required by T-262.3(a) do not have to be documented (2) Step Wedge Calibration Films. Step wedge calibra: tion film verifications required by T-262.1(a) shall be documented, but the actual readings for each step Jor not have to be recorded. o (@ Step Wedge Comparison Films. Step wedge compari- son film verifications required by T-262.2 and 1-262.3(b) shall be documented, but the actual readings for each step do not have to be recorded. 1-270 EXAMINATION T-271 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE® [A single-wall exposure technique shall be used for radiography whenever practical. When itis not practical to use a single-wall technique, a double-wall technique shall be used. An adequate number of exposures shall be made to demonstrate thatthe required coverage has been obtained. T-271.1 _Single-Wall Technique. inthe single-wall technique, the radiation passes through only one wall of the weld (material), which is viewed for acceptance on the radiograph. T-271.2- Double-Walt Technique. When itis not prac- tical to use a single-wall technique, one of the following ouble-wal techniques shall be used. (@) Single Well Viewing. For materials and for welds in components a technique may be used in which the radia- tion passes through two walls and only the weld (materi- al on the filin-sde walls vlewed for acceptance on the 3}Anricus 2 radiograph. When complete coverage is required for er ‘aamferential welds (materials), a minimum of three expo sures taken 120 deg to each other shall be made. (0) Double- Wall Viewing. For materials and for welds in components 34 in, (89 mm) or less in nominal outside diameter, a technique may be used in which the radiation passes through two walls and the weld (rpaterial) in bath ‘walls is viewed for acceptance on the’same radiograph For dovble-wal viewing, only source-side 1QH shall be used, (1) For welds, the radiation bear may be offset from the plane ofthe weld atan angle sufficient to separate the Images of the source-side and film-side portions of the ‘weld so that there is no overlap of the afeas to be inter preted. When complete coverage is required, a minimum ‘oftwo exposures taken 90 deg to.cach other shall be made for each join. (2) As an alternative, the weld may be radiographed with the radiation beam positioned so thatthe images of both walls are superimposed. When complete coverage is required, minimum of three expasures taken at either 60 deg or 120 deg to each other shall be made for each joint {Additional exposures shall be made ithe required radiographic caverage cannot he obtained using the mini sum numberof exposures indicated in (1) ar (2) above 7-272 RADIATION ENERGY ‘The radiation energy employed for any radiographic technique shall achieve the density and IQl image require- ments ofthis Article 7-273 DIRECTION OF RADIATION ‘The direction of the central heam of radiation should be centered on the area of Interest whenever practical T-274 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS 1-274. Geometric Unsharpness Determination. Geometric unsharpness of the radiograph shall be deter ‘mined in accordance with: ource size: the maximum projected dimension of ‘the radiating source (or effective focal spot) in the plane perpendicular to the distance D from the weld or abject being radiographed D = distance from source of radiation to weld or object being radiographed distance from source side of weld or abject being radiographed to the film D and ¢ shall be determined at the approximate center of the area of interest. 2013 secriON v NOTE; Alternatively, a nomograph as shown in Standard Guide for Radiographic Examination SB-94 may be wed 1-2749/ Geometric Unsharpness Limitations. Re- commended maximum values for geometric unsharpness are as follows: Material Thexoess, im com) 0, Maxtoury, noo Under 2 (50) 020 (051) 2edvouph 3 50-75) 070 076) ver 3 tvowph 4 (75-100) 0040 (1.02) Greater than 4 (100) 070 (178) NOTE: Material thickness Is the thickness an whlch the 11 base 1-275 LOCATION MARKERS Location markers (see Figure T-275), which are to ap pear as radiographic images on the film, shall be placed on the part, not on the exposure holder cassette. Theit io cations shal be permanently marked on the surface ofthe part being raiographed when permitted, or ona map, in a manner permitting the area of interest on a radiograph to be accurately traceable to its location on the part, for the required retention period of the-radiograph. Bvidence shall also be provided on the radiograph that the required coverage of the region being examined has been obtained Location markers shall be placed as fllows 7.275. Single-Wall Viewing (0) Source-Side Markers, Location markers shall be placed on the source side when radiographing the following: (2) flat components or Jongitdinal joint in eylingr cal o conical components (2) curved o spherical components whose concave side is toward the source and when the “source-to material” distance is less than the inside radius of the component; (@) carved or spherical components whose convex side is toward the source (8) Film Side Markers (2) Location markers shall be placed on te film site when radiogeaphing either curved or spherical compo nents whose concave side Is toward the source and when the source-to-matelal” distance is greater than the inside radius. @) As an alternative to source-side placement in 7.275.1(@)(1),Jocation markers may be placed on the im side when the radiograph shows coverage beyond the lo cation markers to the extent demonstrated by Figure'T-275, sketch (¢), and when this alternate is docu- rented in accordance with T-291, ; (6) Bither Side Markers. Location markers may be placed * oneeither the source side o film side when radiographing either curved or spherieal components whose concave side is toward the sonree and the “source-to-matera” dis tance equals the inside radius of the component.ARTICLE? -275.2Double-Wall Viewing, For double-wall view: ing at lest one location marker shall be placed adjacent to the weld (or on the material in the area of interest) for each radiograph. : iy T-275.3 Mapping the Placement of Location Mar- kers. When inaccessibility or other limitations prevent the placement of markers as stipulated in T-275.1 and ‘F-2752, a dimensioned map of the actval marker place~ ‘ment shall accompany the radiographs to show that full coverage has been obtained. 1-276 /10l SELECTION 7-276.1 Material, 1Q1s shall be selected from either the same alloy material group or grade as identified in ‘SE-1025, or SE-747, as applicable, or from an alloy mate- rial group or grade with less radiation absorption than ‘he material being radiographed. 7-276.2 Size. The designated hole 19! or essential wire shall be as specified in Table 7-276. A thi thicker hole-type IQI may be substituted for any section thickness listed in Table 1-276, provided an equivalent QI sensitivity is maintained. See T-283.2. (a) Welds With Reinforcements. The thickness on whic the IQ] is based is the nominal single-wall thickness plus the estimated weld reinforcement not to exceed the max: ‘mum permitted by the referencing Code Section. Backing rings of strips shall not be considered as part ofthe thick- ness in Ql selection. The actual measurement of the weld reinforcement is not required. 2013 SECTION Y (0) Welds without Reinforcements. The thickness on which the lis based isthe nominal single wal tices Backing igs or strips shall not be consiered as part of the weld thickness in IQ! selection T-216:3 Welds Joining Dissmiar Materiats or Welds With Dissimitar Filler Metal, When the weld metals of an ally group or grade that has a radistion attenuation that, differs from the base material, the 1Q} material selection Shall be based on the weld metal and be in accordance ‘vith 1-2762. When the density limits of 282.2 cannot be met with one 0H, and the exceptional density area(s) is atthe interface of the wold metal and the bise metal ‘the materia selection fr theaditonal Qs shall be based ‘on the base material and be in accordance with 7-276. T-277 USE OF IQIS TO MONITOR RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION T-277.1 Placement of 1s. (@) Source-Side 1QH{s). The 1QI(3) shall be placed on the source side of the part heing examined, except for the con dition described in (b) When, due to part or weld configuratioa or size, itis not practical to place the 1Qi(s) on the part or weld, the Qi(s) may be placed on a separate block Separate blocks shall bbe made of the same or radiographically similar materials (05 defined in SE-1025) and may be used to facilitate 1Q) positioning. There is no restriction on the separate block thickness, provided the IQl/area-oF interest density toler ance requirements of T-282.2 are met (1) The 1Q1 on the source side of the separate block shall be placed no closer to the film than the source side of the part being radiographed. Table T-276 1Q1 Selection J, Sowres Side ree ssn Single Wal Material Thickness —_HloleType Essential WireType | Holetype Essential WireType ange, mm) Desiguatio’ Hole Essential Wire| Designation tole _Essentil Wire ‘Up 025 tak (64) 2 2 10 7 4 (Over 025 theagh 0.375 (64 through 95) as ar ‘ 2 a 5 ‘Over 0375 through 250 (25 thoogh 12.7) ”, ar a 5 7 ‘ Ove O50 thangh 0.75 (12.7 trough 19.0) 2» ar a ” a 7 (ret 07 threogh 1.00 (190 trough 25.) 25 Fa ° 0 a 8 Over 1.00 ehrouph 180 (254 rough 30.1) 20 wr Ww 8 ar ° (ver 150 through 2.0 (28. erough S08) = a rs 2» ar 10 ‘ver 200 ehroagh 250 (50 through 62.5) “0, ar 2 s Ea 0 (ver 250 through 4:00 (685 through 101.6) so ar Be “ a a (ver 90 ehroogh 600 (1016 rough 1524) o 0 4 so 2 n ‘er 00 though 800 (524 ehough 2032) 0 u 6 0 ar ™ ‘er 200 evough 10.0 (2032 through 2560) 100 a ” o a 6 ‘Over 10.00 ehrngh 12.00 (2540 through 3098) 120 ar 8 100 ar ” Over 12.00 though 1600 (2088 rough 4064) 160 wr n 0 2 8 (vee 1600 though 2000 (406.4 trough S080) 200 a 02ovs secTiON v (2) The separate lock shall be placed as lose as pos sible to the part being radiographed. (3) When hole-type IQs are used, the block dimen- sions shall exceed the IQ] dimensions such thatthe outline ofa least three sides ofthe IQ! image shall be visible on the radiograph. 4 (6) iim Side 101(). Where inaccessibility prevents Wand placing the 1QH(s) on the source side, the 1QKs) shall be placed on the fl side in contact with the part being ex- amined, A Jead letter “F shall be placed adjacent to or on the 1Q1(s), but shall nt mask the essential hole where hole 1Qls are used. (0101 Placement for Welds —~ Hole IQs. The 1{s) may be placed adjacent to or on the weld. The identification number(s) and, when used, the lead letter “F” shall not be in the area of interest, exeept when geometric config uration makes it impractical. (4) 1Q1 Placement for Welds — Wire 1s. The 1Q\s) shall be placed on the weld so that the length of the wires is per penidicular to the length ofthe weld. The 101 identification and, when used, the lea letter “F” shall not be inthe area Of interest, except when geometric configuration makes it impractical (6) IQ! Placement for Materials Other Than Welds. The 1QI{S) with the 19 identification and, when used, the lead letter "E may be placed im the area of interest. T-277.2 Number of 1QIs. When one or more film holders are used for an exposure, at least one 1Q] image shall appear on each radiograph exeept as outlined in (0) below. (a) Multiple 10Is.F the requirements of 1-282 are met by using more than one 1QH, one shall be representative ofthe lightest area of interest and the other the darkest area of interest; the intervening densities on the radio- ‘raph shall be considered as having acceptable density. (2) Special Cases? (2) For cylindrical components where the source is placed on the axis of the component for a single exposure, at least three IQs, spaced approximately 120 deg apart, are required under the following conditions: (a) When the complete circumference is radio- graphed using one or more film holders, or; 5) When a section or sections of the circumfer- ence, where the length between the ends of the outermost sections span 240 or more deg, is radiographed using one ‘or more film holders. Additional film locations may be re- auired to obtain necessary 1Q} spacing. (2) For cylindrical components where the source is placed on the axis of the component fora single exposure, at least three IQs, with one placed at each end of the span of the circumference radiographed and one in the approx: Imate center ofthe span, are required under the follo conditions: a) When a section of the elreumference, the length of which is greater than 120 deg and less than 240 deg, is radiographed using just one film holder, or; 13 annie 2 (2) When a section or sections of the circumfr: ence, where the length between the ends of thesitermost feciona open hes han 240 dls adbegPaphed sng moye than one film hélder. ya {3)'n (1) and (2) above, where sections of longitud nal welds adjoining the circumferential weld are radio- graphed simultaneously with the circumferential weld, an additional IQ shall be placed on each longitudinal weld atthe end of the section most remote from the junction ‘with the circumferential weld being radiogrephed (4) For spherical components where the source is, placed at the center of the component for a single expo- sure, at least three IQls, spaced approximately 120 deg. ‘apart, gre required under the following conditions: (a) When a complete circumference fs radio- graphed using one or more film holders, or, Cb) When a section or sections ofa circumference, ‘where the length between the ends of the outermost sec: tons span 240 or more deg, is radiographed using one or more film holders. Additional film locations may be re- ‘quired to obtain necessary 191 spacing, (5) For spherical components where the source is. placed at the center of the component for a single expo- sure, at least three IQIs, with one placed at each end of the radiographed span of the circumference radiographed and one in the approximate center of the span, are re ‘quired under the following conditions: a) When a section of a circumference, the length of which is greater than 120 deg and less than 240 deg, is radiographed using just one film holder, or; (€) When a section or sections ofa circumference, where the length between the ends of the outermost sec- sions span less than 240 deg is radiographed using more than one film holder. (6) 1n (4) and (5) above, wihere other welds are radio- graphed simultaneously with the circumferential weld, ‘one additional IQ] shall be placed on each other weld (7) For segments of a flat or curved (ie, ellipsoidal, torispherica,toricomical, elliptical ete) component where the source is placed perpendicular tothe center of alength ‘of weld fora single exposure when using more than three ‘lm holders, atleast three IQls, one placed at each end of the radiographed span and one in the approximate center of the span, are required. (@) When an array of components ina circle is radio~ graphed, at least one 1QI shall show on each component Image. 2) In order to maintain the continuity of records in volving subsequent exposures, all radiographs exhibiting 1Qls that qualify the techniques permitted in accordance. ‘with (1) through (7) above shall be retained. 7-273. Shims Under Hole-Type 1QIs. For welds, a shim of material radiographically similar tothe weld metal shall be placed between the part and the IQ], f needed, so that the radiographic density throughout the area ofARTICLE? interest is no more than minus 15% frown [lighter than) the radiographic density throngh the designated IQI adja- cent to the essential hole ‘The shim dimensions shall exceed the 1QE dimensions such that the outline ofa least three sides ofthe 1Q) image shall be visible inthe radiograph. 7-280 EVALUATION 7-281 QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHS Al radiographs shall be free from mechanical, chemical, br other blemishes to the extent that they do not mask and are not confused with the image of any discontinuity in the atea of interest of the object being radiographed. Sueh blemishes inchude, but are not limited to: (4) fogging: (6) processing defects such as streaks, watermarks, oF cherieal stains; () scratches, finger marks, crimps, dirtiness, static marks, smudges, or tears; {4 false indications due to defective screens 7-282. RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY T-282.1 Density Limitations. The transmitted film density through the radiographic image of the body of the designated hole-type 1Q1 adjacent to the essential hole or adjacent to the essential wire ofa wire-type IOI and the area of interest shall be 1.8 minimum fr single film view: ing for radiographs made with an X-ray souree and 2.0 ‘minimum for radiographs made with a gatnma ray souree. For composite viewing of multiple flm exposures, each film of the composite set shall have a minimum density (of 13, The maximurp density shall be 4.0 for either single tr composite viewing, A tolerance of 0.05 in density is al- lowed for variations between densitometer readings. ¥-282.2 Density Variation. (a) The density ofthe radiograph anywhere through the area of interest shall not ‘ {{U) vary by mote than minus 15% or pilus 30% from the density through the body of the designated holesype 1Q1 adjacent to the essential hole or adjacent to the essen- tial wire ofa wire-type IQ), and @) exceed the minimum/maximum allowable den- sity ranges specified in T-282,4 ‘When calculating the allowable variation in density, the calculation may be rounded to the nearest 0.1 within the range specified in T-282.1, (2) When the requirements of (a) above are not met, {hen an additonal 10f shall be wsed for each exceptional area or areas and the radiograph retaken. {@) When shims are used with oletype 1s, the plus 30% density restriction of (a) above may be exceeded, and the minimum density requirements of T-282.1 do not apply forthe 1QL, provided the required 10] sensitivity of 7-203. is met ‘ors seCTIONY 7-283 101 SENSITIVITY 1-283.1 Required Sensitivity. Radiography shall be performed with a technique of sufficient sensitivity to dis, play the designated hole-type IQ] image and the essential hole, or the essential wire of a wire-type IQ. The radio: ipraphs shall also display the IQI identifying numbers And letters. Ifthe designated hole-type 1Q) image and es ‘ential hole, or essential wire of a wire-type 1QH, do not ‘show on any film in a multiple film technique, but do show sn composite film viewing, interpretation shall be per mitted only by composite film viewing 7-203.2__ Equivalent Hote-Type 10} Sensi ner or thicker hole-type 1QI than the designated IQ! may be substituted, provided an equivalent or better 101 sensi tivity, as listed in Table T-283, is achieved and al other re: quirements for radiography are met. Equivalent 1Qr ‘sensitivity is shown in any row of Table 7-283 which con- tains the designated IQ and hole. Better 1Q! sensitivity is shown in any row of Table 1-283 which is above the tquivalent sensitivity row. Ifthe designated IQ! and hole are not represented in the table, the next thinner 1Q) row from Table T-283 may be used to establish equivalent {Ql sensitivity. T-284/ EXCESSIVE BACKSCATTER A alightimage of the "Bas deserbed in 7-223, appears coma darker background ofthe radiograph, protection from backscatter is insuficent and the radiograph shall be con sidered unacceptable. dark image ofthe “I” on a ighter background isnot cause for rejection, Buia Bock (8), Caprese, Table 1-283 Equivalent Hole-Type IQh Sensitivity Hote Type Designation __Eauvaleat HoleType Designations | | "ariote 1TH AT Hole 10 6 5 n 2 7 5 20 w ” 35 2 2 0 1s 2% 35 ” 2. ‘0 0 Ps so as 6 0 70 35 a0 40 m0 ry 140 0 160 a0 200 10& 2013 SECTION V ‘T-285 EVALUATION BY MANUFACTURER “The Manufacturer shall be responsible forthe review, interpretation, evaluation, and acceptance of the com: pleted radiographs to assure compliance withthe requie- ‘ments of Article 2 andthe referencing Code Section, As an sid to the review and evaluation, the radiographic techn ‘que documentation required by 7-291 shall be completed prior to the evaluation. The radiograph review form re- ‘quired by 7-292 shall be completed during the evaluation ‘The radiographic technigbe details andthe radiograph re view form documentation shall accompany the radio- graphs. Acceptance shall be completed prior to presentation of the radiographs and accompanying docu- mentation tothe Inspector. 1-290 DOCUMENTATION 7-291 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE DOCUMENTATION DETAILS. ‘The Manufacturer shall prepare and document the radiographic technique detafls. Asa minimum, the fllow- {ng information shall be provided. (a) the requirements of Article 1, T-190(2) * (@) identification as required by T-224 (¢) the dimensional map (if used) of marker placement ‘in accordance with T-275.3 { wamber of radiographs (exposures) 1s ARG anmicus 2 (6) Kray voltage oF sotope ype ted 0) source size (Fn 7-274.) {q)base material type and thickness, weld thickness, ‘weld reinforcement thickness, as applicable (h) source to-object distance (Din T-274.1) {9 distance from source side of ebject to film (din 1-274.) @) film manufacturer and Manufacturer's type/ designation (4) mummber off in each film holder/cassette ) single- or double-wall exposure * {m) single or doable-wall viewing 7-292 RADIOGRAPH REVIEW FORM ‘The Manufacturer shall prepare a radiograph review form. As a minimum, the following information shall be provided. {) listing ofeach radiograph location (6) the information required in 7-291, by inclusion of the information on the review form or by reference to an attached radiographic technique details sheet (6) evaluation and disposition of the material(s) or weld(s) examined : (4) Wdentification (name) of the Manufacturers repre- sentative who performed the final acceptance of the radiographs (@) date of Manufacture’s evaluationAe a a aa | | +... Figure A-210-1 Sinigle-Walt Radiographic Technique223 zorastcrony anus | Figure A-210-2 Double-Wall Radiographic Techniques Sy Soe] peewre (raters rer oo,_| tenes | erie | __Biaviee sieve | secon | raceme | remot Onont Sop Sie 3x Nous SE Tone pt iad ec wat . rant a ae ta oe 76nd ~ ay | rrodegte [Seer Table 276] iniside | 127510) lf Each Other for| T2710) m aay Yoda am epitnagaen | Opionet eae | soe ronal Fan. 20) teats Res rm se say |B loge at ead rs) mage Tasctarlrimsie | 2 eer Ta) Conia cones wie eae wa Tz) | te sum | tet | fet (tam) Exposures at | Offset |7-276 and —|Source’Side | fither Side ma] scertozaa| Sere Taevnas| Tariaty | Tee cose | sored Compce | Fumie Seis’ | sa aEPS ar TEE EP Pe Pe Pee ry ee Oe eeeMANDATORY APPENDIX 4 4 ROUNDED INDICATIONS CHARTS ACCEPTANCE STANDARD FOR RADIOGRAPHICALLY DETERMINED ROUNDED INDICATIONS IN WELDS 44 APPLICABILITY OF THESE STANDARDS ‘These standards are applicable to ferrtic, austenitic, ‘and nonferrous materials. 42 ‘TERMINOLOGY (a) Rounded Indications. Indications with a maximum. length of three times the width or less on the radiograph are defined as rounded indications. These indications may be circular, elliptical, conical, or imegular in shape and may have tails. When evaluating the size of an indication, the tail shall be included. The indication may be from ‘any imperfection in the weld, such as porosity, slag, or tungsten, (b) Aligned Indications. A sequence of four or more rounded indications shall be considered to be aligned ‘when they touch a line parallel to the length of the weld drawn through the center of the two outer rounded indica- tions. Ac) Thickness t. ris the thickness of the weld, excluding any allowable reinforcement. For a butt weld joining two members having different thicknesses at the weld, ¢ is the thinner of these two thicknesses. Ifa full penetration ‘weld includes a fillet weld, the thickness of the throat of the fillet shall be included in 43 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA (a) Image Density. Density w indication may vary and is not a or rejection. (b) Relevant Indications. (See Table 4-1 for exam- ples.) Only those rounded indications whicia exceed the {following dimensions shall be considere« relevant. in the image of the rion for acceptance (1) Ye for # tess than Ye in, @ mm) (2) Yasin. for # from % ins to % in, mm to 6 mm), incl. (3) Yea in. for greater than Yin, to 2 in, (6 mm ‘0 50 mm), incl. (2) Yee, for # greater than 2 bn (30 com) Ae) Maximum Size of Rounded Indication. (See Table 41 for examples.) The maximum permissible sizeof any indicajion shall be Y4t, oY in, (4 mu), whichever is smaller; except that an isolated indication separated from an adjacent indication by 1 in. (25 mm) or more may be Ya ot Yin, (6 mm), whichever i less. For ¢ greater than in, (50mm) the maximum permissible size ofan isolated indication shall be increased to % in, (10 min). (d) Aligned Rounded Indications. Aligned rounded indications are acceptable when the summation of the diameters of the indications is less than fina length of 121, See Fig. 41. The length of groups of aligned rounded indications and the spacing between the groups shall met ihe requirements of Fig. 4-2 (e) Spacing. The distance between adjacent rounded indications is not a factor in determining acceptance or rejection, except as required for isolated indications or r0ups of aligned indications. (Rounded Indication Charts, The rounded indica- tions characterized as imperfections shall not exceed that shown in the chars. The charts in Figs. 43 though 4-8 iustrate various types of assorted, randomly dispersed and clustered rounded indications for diferent weld hick- nesses greater than % in. (3 min. These charts represent the maximum acceptable concentration limits for rounded inications, The charts for each thickness range represent ful-scale 6 in, (150 mm) radiographs, and shall not be enk rged or reduced. The distributions shown are not necessarily the patterns that may appear on the23s 43 MANDATORY APPENDIX 4 ae as TABLE 4.1 radiograph, but are typical of the concentration and size stomary Ua o indications permitted =—_ lg) Weid Thickness 1 less ghan "A in, (3 mm). For t Maximum’ Sigg of ss ibaa Yin, (3 mm) the maximum number of rounded Ascepatie Roto —yavirun Sie of indications shall not exceed 12 in 6 in, (150 sun length Thickness & Sanaa Narwelevant ‘of weld, A proportionally fewer number of indications s E a) shail be permitted in welds tess than 6 in, (150 mun) in Les tan length 4 oom \h) Clustered Indications. The susteations for elas- one: oe Hons in a local area, as that shown ia the illustrations for 4 oars ono a random indications. The length of an acceptable cluster bon fas oat shall not exceed the lesser of Tin, 25 rum) or 2. Whete Me 009 ate oak more than one cluster is present, the Sum of the lengths ozs On oon ofthe clusters shall not exceed {in 25 mun) ina 6 in "ie. aes eis (150 ram) length weld & 0.156 * 0.210 0.031 Me aase 0.0 o.oan : Yto2, mc, 01560250 os Qu? oases —_0375 duos SI Units Maximum Size of ‘Acceptable Rounded _y4ayimum Size of Thickness & Indication, mm- >" Nowwelevant or oP te 3 is Syuse dhe aa 0.38 sagas aS ap\ Wee 8 at Od . n 2.77 an cra Bie aan 078 14° 361 478 079 ie ase 533 on 1° 396 5.34 0.79 1991050 Ind. 39888" 079 Orso «396 958 60 wore ? (0) Ths Table contains examples ony 369A iia rerererrmarr ener scamMANDATORY APPENDIX 4 {b) Isolated indication (See Note (21) (6) Cluster Notes: (1) Typical eoncontratian and size permitted in dy 6 in. (150 men) length of wel. {2} Maximum size por Table 4-1, FIG. 4-3 CHARTS FOR ¢ EQUAL TO % in. to % in. (3 mm to 6 mm), INCLUSIVE Ps @ (b) Isolated Indication (See Note (2!] (el Cluster Notes: (1) Typical concentration and size permitted in any 6 in. (150 mm) length of weld. (2) Maximurh size per Table 4-1 FIG. 4-4 CHARTS FOR f OVER % in. to % in. (6 mm to 10 mm), INCLUSIVE Mm2005 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1 (a) Random Rounded Indications (Sve Note (1) (e) Cluster (b} Isolated indication [See Note (2)1 Notes: + (1) Typical concentration and size permitted in any 6 i. (160 mm) length of weld. {2} Maximum size per Table 4-1 FIG. 4-5 CHARTS FOR ¢ OVER % in. to % in. (10 mm to 19 mm), INCLUSIVE 5-25 3MANDATORY APPENDIX 4 {a} Random Rounded Indications (See Note (11) [22 (b) lsolated indication ( Hote 21 {el Cluster * NOTES: (1) Typical concentration and size permitted in any 6 in. (150 mm) length of weld (2) Maximum size por Table 4-1 FIG. 46 CHARTS FOR OVER % in. to 2 in. (19 mm to 50 mm), INCLUSIVE ge alae2004 SECTION VIL DIVISION f q * 1 eo . oo? * 7 ‘ eet Oe = . md ee fg ‘ - ¥ *. . ; - 9 ] in. 25 mm) | | 1 in (25 (e) Cluster (b) Isolated Indication (See Note 21} Nores {i) Typical concentration and size permitted in any 6 In, (150 mm) length of wel. (2) Maximum size per Table 4-1. FIG. 4-7 CHARTS FOR f OVER 2 in, to4 in, (50 mm to 100 mm), INCLUSIVE 314 a i i et ace ld al ed a el ee wy wh DD{a) Random Rounded Indications 1880 Note (111 ' J Tasem | |rncsmm| — Caused {p) eolatod inition {S00 Nove (21 {e) Cluster NOTES: NOTES. concentration and sie permitedin any 9% (160 mm longth of wold. {2} maximum size per Table 41. 1G, 48 CHARTS FOR (OVER 4 in 100 mm)Radiograph Interpretation In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the radiographer’s visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the , place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various features in the image. The following material was developed to help students develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph, Discontinuities . Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions may ‘cur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do not ‘meet the requirements of the codes or specifications used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects. General Welding Discontinuities ‘The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding. Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The are does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding. « Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal, Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area. foils Conga mhtml:file:/C:ANDT\Misceemnious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mhtRat graph Interpretation - Welds Page 2 of 7 a ad 4 : Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture. The ‘moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications \ill be grouped close together. Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions. * ‘ i Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LLOP) occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment. mhtml:file://C:\NDT\Mii mious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mbt 14-06-2010Radiograph Interpretation - Welds Page 3 of 7 Ws lll Inadequate or Lack of Penetration 345 Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base ‘metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area. | Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the fine has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image. Suck back Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge. mhtml:file://C:\NDT\Misceernious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mht 9620107Radiograph Interpretation - Welds Ws 4 ST PEE OAS GEMAAIAD. UGIFIG EGS LUTE L DYDD LI Internal Undercut WHyeyyye . SAE? External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area. ' a Offset or mismateh are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area. Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. Itis very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material. j a ee ee eee | mhtml:file://C:\NDT\Misceerious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mhtadiograph Interpretation - Welds Page 5 of 7 Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld, A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements ‘Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that . produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged aind often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tals" on inclusions or porosity Ree Longitudinal Root Crack tac Discontinuities in TIG welds The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities occur {n most metals welded by the process, including aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted. Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. [f improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped mhtml:file:/C:\NDT\Misceernious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mht eineKadiograph Interpretation - Welas rage 001 / in the weld. Radiographically tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows Qe up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph. D Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially : aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dar Discontinuitics in Gas Metal Are Welds (GMAW) The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds. Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the ‘weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like" indications. Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles). oe mbhtml:file://C:\NDT\Misceernious\Radiograph Interpretation - Welds.mht 14-06-2010 a ah hi all Pal Paid Pasi Pa Pf af Pf J dGRadiograph Interpretation - Castings Page | of 5 adioi ‘The major objective of radiographic testing of castings isthe disclosure of defects that adversely affect thé strength of the product. Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. ‘These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the Wefects found in ‘components: The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity types included in existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations). RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air which is trapped by the metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide the necessary heat transfer needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will be trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas cannot escape. Too high a moisture content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes of water vapor away from the casting, ‘Another cause of blows can be attributed to using green ladles, rusty or damp chills and chaplets. Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic oxides, which appear on the radiograph as Quize irregular, dark blotches. These come from A disintegrated portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) . which have not been skimmed off prior to the = introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding, time in the ladle and skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this ‘ source of trouble. Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph. Shrinkage assumes various forms, but in all eases it occurs because molten metal shrinks ast solidifies, in all portions of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the oaks mhtml:file:// DT\Misceernious\Radiograph Interpretation - Castings.mht 14-06-2010Radiograph Interpretation - Castings shrinkage. Shrinkage in its various forms can be recognized by a number of characteristics on radiographs. There are atleast four types of shrinkage: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types by numbers, without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding. Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may be produced when metal solidifies between two original streams of melt coming from ‘opposite directions to join a common front. Cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a time when the melthas almost reached solidification temperature and there is no source of supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities. Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated cavities that may vary in density and are usually unconnected. Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of connected lines or branches of variable length, width and density, or occasionally as a network. Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines, generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears more blurred because it is projected through the relatively thick coating between the discontinuities and the film surface, Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces. Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as cracks ‘or seams with smooth or rounded edges. mhtml:file://(CANDT\Misceemious\Radiograph Interpretation - Cast ngs.mht a Page 2 of 5 238Radiograph Interpretation - Castings Page 3 of S Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an ——_— ‘otherwise solid metallic matrix. They may be : less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph, respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light metal castings. = Core shift shows itself as a variation in section thickness, usually on radiogfaphic views representing diametrically opposite Portions of cylindrical casting portions. Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears as a stress concentration is similar to that of an ordinary crack, and hot tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a casting type, explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required. Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily climinated by specific remedial actions in the process. Mottling isa radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin- n radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling as indications of ‘unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often have to check the ‘condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly in | Appearance. Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective eos mhtmi:file://Radiograph Interpretation - Castings Page 4 of S conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here. The terms 2s2 ‘appear as indication types in ASTM E390, For additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the "Radiographic Control of Welds.” Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and ‘base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark. Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voi cylindrical or elliptical in shape. ‘ in the weld metal, and is generally Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by ‘weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears as a dark indication atthe toe of a weld. Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). Itis located at the center of a weld and is a, wide, linear indication ‘Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld joint with adjacent metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). Ona radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of the weld joint or atthe fusion line. Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized region but without the development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt- through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication, Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused rgot or adjacent base metal. Are strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface ‘contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Are strikes are caused by the heat generated when electrical energy passes between the surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source. ‘Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during ‘welding. These particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter appears as many small, ight cylindrical indications on a radiograph. ‘Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions appear very light radiographic images. Acceptreject decisions for this defect are generally based on the slag criteria : ‘Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere. The condition is also called sugaring. Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into the clearance between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition, Root undereut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root. ose mhtml:file://C:ANDT\Misceernious\Radiograph Interpretation - Castings.mht 14-06-2010 Deaflaitat ir iated alumi 1 ood af of of af Bal Pea Bal rod Da »2S3 635, Okhia Industrial Area = 'Zas S Phase-1, New Delhi-110020 = Ph:2681-7949 / 50/51/52 ANALYTICAL LABS (P) LTD. Sora pr51611000 nseltustegie! ial eee TEST REPORT Web site : www.spectrolabindia.com =] E Pane REETSSSANRESY 7 aT Ou eeu Seo ect onl seaeor Ai ee e eneaenien to) 68. INDL. DEVELOPMENT COLONY MEHRAULI ROAD, GURGAON Phone/Fax 0124-5083878-73 Kind At. YourRef.No.: 117 1) -15294 [RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION REPORT] SHEET No,07 of REPORT/JOB ID No. 1D=15294 DATE OF TESTING [oxo7!2005 ARTICLE NAME” = ‘Welder tes Sample SED “> F207 PON E EXPOSURE TIME. 5.0inA Min, [Size & QUANTITY [16 Lagi’ x 0 mm TE [TECHNIQUE USED. i MATERIAL & GRADE “Alsminiunr _[PENETRAMETER DIN 1ois016 | THICKNESS Osim DEY. TEMPERE! 20°C DRAWING No: oes, DEV. TIME, Minuets REFCODESTANDARDISPEG. | ASME See. V_ FILM DENSITY FILM USED Kodak MX125 (D4) FILM SENSITIVITY 2 5 AB —— INTENSIFYING SCREEN | 108-67) 0 RGY/STRENGTHL 120 Kyp. Es | B= 02mm INTERPERTATION cs feist La SEGMENT | FILM SIZE OBSERVATION REMARKS, ~ 15294 SD. A-B | .3°% 15° | Porosity with intoniplete fusion = BoC a] PES. “Porosity | RESULTS: ‘Abbreviation NSD —Ne Siguiieant Detect “Ax Aarepable Re Repair RT Film Retake Ss, (RT LEVEL-I) inectpfeaiios BY inapeetiod Aino eer Cafe a CE mercading erity *) Fig. 4.5, Image Quality Indicators) —=—=<=$—<=—_=—> a iS TABLE 4.4 ’ Y ‘evel of Penetrameter Minimum Equivalent . (7. iespestion thickness perceptible _penetrameter at (% of specimen hole diameter _ sensitivity ickness) per cent = , LIT 1 IT 0.7 ee 127 1 ar 1 es Lar 1 4T 14 eek we ol el ee a inl tl lal ak lth soc,TABLE 2.2 : DECAY CHART FOR COBALT-60 SOURCE (Half-life : 5.27 years) a Months-> 00 02 04 06 08 to Years 00 - 0.98% 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 OL 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78 02 0.76 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.69 03 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.61 * 0.60 4 0.58 * 0.57 0.56 - 0.55 0.54 0.53 0s 0.51 0.50 0.49 + 0.48 0.47 0.46 06 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40 07 0.39 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.36 0:35 08 034 ~*~ 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.31 09 * 0.30 - 0.29 0.2% 0.28 0.28 0.27 10 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.24" 0.24 0.24 TABLE 2.3 : DECAY CHART FOR IRIDIUM-192 SOURCE . (Half-life : 74.5 days) — Days 0 s 0 1s 2 25 Vol 3 4 45~ 000 - 0.95450.91 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.69" 0.66 050 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.54: 0.52 {0501 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 ; 100 6.39 0.37 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25. 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 200 O15 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 O11 O.11 0.10 30 y. a fot... @ daxu0 — 9 wae ai Me Se x30 Deca wagd- 9 TS day — 9.59 3| \s Cso +as) - ‘— 2.9 SR)DSB TABLE 3.1 : HVT AND TVT VALUES FOR X AND GAMMA RADIATIONS Material Concrete Steel Lead Uranium HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TV Radioisotope cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm Age Vise. AI Iridium-192 46 4 1.25 4.0 048 16 0.31 1.0 Cobat-60 6.6 218 20 66 12 40 0.7 22 zene Van : HVT TVT HVT HVT TVT | X-rays mm om mm omm om mm 100 kv 16 55 12-38 0.25 0.86 IS0kKV 22 1023 7.6 0.29 0.96 9 200 kV 2% 86 «3.8, 127 042 14 250 kV 28 90 5.4 17.7 0.86 2.9 300 kV 30 100 65 215-17 57 Tenth Value Thickness (VT) Tenth value thickness is the thickness of any material needed to reduce the radiation intensity to one tenth of its initial value. Similarly, Two TVT reduces the intensity to 1/10 x 1/10 = (1/10¥ ie., 1/100 of the original intensity. Generally, 3.3 TVT reduces the imensity by a factor of 10, hence ITVT 3.3 HVT HVT and TVT values in different materials, for X and gamma radiations, are given Table 3.1. Example 3.1 ‘The radiation level ava place, due to an iridium-192 source is 10 mR/h. What is the thickness of steel required to reduce the level to 2.5 mR/h? Radiation level at the place 10 mR/h, One HVT reduces the level to 10 5 mRhh. One more HVT reduces the level to 5 +2 = 25mRh ‘Two HVT of steel for iridium-192 = 2x 1.25em = 2.5 cm. 3\n PREP LVI LPL ITIL.