Crop Water Requirement
Crop Water Requirement
Crop Water Requirement
All field crops need soil, water, air and light (sunshine) to grow. The soil gives stability to the
plants; it also stores the water and nutrients which the plants can take up through their roots.
The sunlight provides the energy which is necessary for plant growth (Fig. 1). The air allows
the plants to "breath".
Without water crops cannot grow. Too much water is not good for many crops either. Apart
from paddy rice, there are only very few crops which like to grow "with their feet in the
water". The most well-known source of water for plant growth is rain water. There are two
important questions which come to mind: What to do if there is too much rain water? What to
do if there is too little rain water?
If there is too much rain, the soil will be full of water and there will not be enough air. Excess
water must be removed. The removal of excess water - either from the ground surface or
from the root zone - is called drainage (see Volume 1, Chapter 6).
If there is too little rain, water must be supplied from other sources; irrigation is needed (Fig.
2). The amount of irrigation water which is needed depends not only on the amount of water
already available from rainfall, but also on the total amount of water needed by the various
crops.
With respect to the need for irrigation water, a distinction can be made among three climatic
situations:
1. Humid climates: more than 1200 mm of rain per year. The amount of rainfall is sufficient
to cover the water needs of the various crops. Excess water may cause problems for plant
growth and thus drainage is required.
2. Sub-humid and semi-arid climates: between 400 and 1200 mm of rain per year. The
amount of rainfall is important but often not sufficient to cover the water needs of the crops.
Crop production in the dry season is only possible with irrigation, while crop production in
the rainy season may be possible but unreliable: yields will be less than optimal.
3. Semi-arid, arid and desert climates: less than 400 mm of rain per year. Reliable crop
production based on rainfall is not possible; irrigation is thus essential.
The two major factors which determine the amount of irrigation water which is needed are:
In other words: the irrigation water need is the difference between the total water need of the
crops and the amount of rainfall which is available to the crops.
In Chapter 2 the crop water needs are discussed; Chapter 3 discusses the contribution from
the rainfall while in Chapter 4 the determination of the irrigation water needs is explained
(Fig. 3).
In many countries it is already well known what the crop water needs and irrigation water
needs are of the most commonly grown crops. Such data can usually be obtained from the
Extension Service, the Irrigation Department or Ministry of Agriculture. It is then not
necessary to determine the crop and irrigation water need. However, there may be situations
where it is not possible to obtain these data and it would thus be necessary to determine them
on the spot.
Part I of this manual allows the reader to make a rough estimation of the crop and irrigation
water needs - without using any complicated calculations.
Part II of this manual allows the reader actually to calculate - be it in a fairly simple manner -
the crop and irrigation water needs. These calculations obviously lead to a greater accuracy,
but they also require more time and background knowledge.
CHAPTER 2: CROP WATER NEEDS
Crops need water for transpiration and evaporation (see Volume 1, Section 4.2).
The plant roots suck or extract water from the soil to live and grow. The main part of this
water does not remain in the plant, but escapes to the atmosphere as vapour through the
plant's leaves and stem. This process is called transpiration. Transpiration happens mainly
during the day time.
Water from an open water surface escapes as vapour to the atmosphere during the day. The
same happens to water on the soil surface and to water on the leaves and stem of a plant. This
process is called evaporation (Fig. 4).
The water need of a crop thus consists of transpiration plus evaporation. Therefore, the crop
water need is also called "evapotranspiration".
Suppose the water need of a certain crop in a very hot, dry climate is 10 mm/day. This means
that each day the crop needs a water layer of 10 mm over the whole area on which the crop is
grown (Fig. 5). It does not mean that this 10 mm has to indeed be supplied by rain or
irrigation every day.
It is, of course, still possible to supply, for example, 50 mm of irrigation water every 5 days.
The irrigation water will then be stored in the root zone and gradually be used by the plants:
every day 10 mm.
Fig. 4 Evapotranspiration
Fig. 5 A crop water need of 10 mm/day
The crop water need mainly depends on:
• the climate: for example, in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than
in a cloudy and cool climate (see Section 2.1)
• the crop crops like rice or sugarcane need more water than crops like beans and
type: wheat (see Section 2.2)
• the growth grown crops need more water than crops that have just been planted (see
stage: Section 2.3).
2.1 THE INFLUENCE OF THE CLIMATE ON CROP WATER NEEDS
A certain crop grown in a sunny and hot climate needs per day more water than the same crop
grown in a cloudy and cooler climate. There are, however - apart from sunshine and
temperature - other climatic factors which influence the crop water need. These factors are
the humidity and the windspeed (see Fig. 6). When it is dry, the crop water needs are higher
than when it is humid. In windy climates the crops will use more water than in calm climates.
The highest crop water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny.
The lowest values are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind.
From the above it is clear that one crop grown in different climatic zones will have different
water needs. For example, a certain maize variety grown in a cool climate will need less
water per day than the same maize variety grown in a hotter climate.
It is therefore useful to take a certain standard crop or reference crop and determine how
much water this crop needs per day in the various climatic regions. As a standard crop or
reference crop grass has been chosen.
Table 2 indicates the average daily water needs of this reference grass crop. The daily water
needs of the grass depend on the climatic zone (rainfall regime) and daily temperatures.
For example, the standard grass crop grown in a semi-arid climate with a mean temperature
of 20°C needs approximately 6.5 mm of water per day. The same grass crop grown in a sub-
humid climate with a mean temperature of 30°C needs some 7.5 mm of water per day.
This daily water need of the standard grass crop is also called "reference crop
evapotranspiration".
What will be discussed in the next section is "how do the water needs of the crops grown on,
for an example, an irrigation scheme relate to the water need of the standard grass".
The influence of the crop type on the crop water need is important in two ways:
1. The crop type has an influence on the daily water needs of a fully grown crop; i.e. the peak daily
water needs: a fully developed maize crop will need more water per day than a fully developed crop
of onions.
2. The crop type has an influence on the duration of the total growing season of the crop.
There are short duration crops, e.g. peas, with a duration of the total growing season of 90-
100 days and longer duration crops, e.g. melons, with a duration of the total growing season
of 120-160 days. And then there are, of course, the perennial crops that are in the field for
many years, such as fruit trees.
While, for example, the daily water need of melons may be less than the daily water need of
peas, the seasonal water need of melons will be higher than that of beans because the
duration of the total growing season of melons is much longer.
The influences of the crop type on both the daily and seasonal crop water needs are discussed
in the sections below.
In the previous section it has been indicated how the daily water need of standard grass can
be estimated. In this section it will be explained how the daily water needs of other crops can
be estimated using as a basis the daily water need of the standard grass.
It will be easy to understand that a fully grown maize crop - with its large leaf area - will use
more water per day than, for example, a fully grown crop of radishes or onions; that is when
the two crops are grown in the same area.
When determining the influence of the crop type on the daily crop water needs, reference is
always made to a fully grown crop; the plants have reached their maximum height; they
optimally cover the ground; they possibly have started flowering or started grain setting.
When the crops are fully grown their water need is the highest. It is the so-called "peak
period" of their water needs.
For the various field crops it is possible to determine how much water they need compared to
the standard grass (Fig. 7). A number of crops need less water than grass, a number of crops
need more water than grass and a number of crops need more or less the same amount of
water as grass.
Fig. 7 How much water does maize need, compared to the standard grass?
Table 3 indicates five groups of crops. The crops in column 1 need 30 percent less water than
grass in their peak period. The crops in column 2 need 10 percent less water than grass. The
crops in column 3 need the same amount of water as grass. The crops in columns 4 and 5
need respectively 10 and 20 percent more water than grass in their peak period.
EXAMPLE
Suppose in a certain area the standard grass crop needs 5.5 mm of water per day.
Then, in that same area, maize will need 10% more water. Ten percent of 5.5 mm = 10/100 ×
5.5 = 0.55 mm. Thus maize would need 5.5 + 0.55 = 6.05 or rounded 6.1 mm of water per
day.
QUESTION
Estimate the water needs of citrus, bananas, onions, cucumber, clean cultivated apple trees
and millet for an area where the water need of standard grass is 6.0 mm/day.
ANSWER
Citrus: -30% (compared to grass); thus the water need of citrus is 6.0 - 30% = 6.0 -
1.8 = 4.2 mm/day
Bananas: +20%; thus the water need of bananas is 6.0 + 20% = 6.0 + 1.2 = 7.2
mm/day
Onions: same as grass; thus the water need of onions is 6.0 mm/day
Cucumber: -10%; thus the water need of onions is 6.0 - 10% =6.0-0.6 =5.4 mm/day
Apples same as grass; thus the water need of clean cultivated apples is 6.0 mm/day
(clean):
If the apples have a cover crop in between the trees, the water need would
be 20% higher than grass and thus: 6.0 + 20% = 6.0+1.2 = 7.2 mm/day.
Millet: +10%; thus the water need of millet is 6.0 + 10% =6.0+0.6 = 6.6 mm/day
2.2.2 Influence of Crop Type on the Seasonal Crop Water Needs
The crop type not only has an influence on the daily water need of a fully grown crop, i.e.
the daily peak water need, but the crop type also has an influence on the duration of the total
growing season of the crop, and thus on the seasonal water need.
Data on the duration of the total growing season of the various crops grown in an area can
best be obtained locally. These data may be obtained from, for example, the seed supplier, the
Extension Service, the Irrigation Department or Ministry of Agriculture.
The duration of the total growing season has an enormous influence on the seasonal crop
water need. There are, for example, many rice varieties, some with a short growing cycle
(e.g. 90 days) and others with a long growing cycle (e.g. 150 days). This has a strong
influence on the seasonal rice water needs: a rice crop which is in the field for 150 days will
need in total much more water than a rice crop which is only in the field for 90 days. Of
course, for the two rice crops the daily peak water need may still be the same, but the 150
day crop will need this daily amount for a longer period. The time of the year during which
crops are grown is also very important. A certain crop variety grown during the cooler
months will need substantially less water than the same crop variety grown during the hotter
months.
Table 4 gives some Indicative values or approximate values for the duration of the total
growing season for the various field crops. It should, however, be noted that these values are
only rough approximations and it is much better to obtain the values locally.
As can be seen from Table 4 there is a large variation of values not only between crops, but
also within one crop type. In general it can be assumed that the growing period for a certain
crop is longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is warm.
2.3 INFLUENCE OF THE GROWTH STAGE OF THE CROP ON CROP WATER NEEDS
A fully grown maize crop will need more water than a maize crop which has just been
planted.
As has been discussed before, the crop water need or crop evapotranspiration consists of
transpiration by the plant and evaporation from the soil and plant surface. When the plants are
very small the evaporation will be more important than the transpiration. When the plants are
fully grown the transpiration is more important than the evaporation.
Figure 8 shows in a schematic way the various development or growth stages of a crop.
At planting and during the initial stage, the evaporation is more important than the
transpiration and the evapotranspiration or crop water need during the initial stage is
estimated at 50 percent of the crop water need during the mid - season stage, when the crop is
fully developed.
During the so-called crop development stage the crop water need gradually Increases from 50
percent of the maximum crop water need to the maximum crop water need. The maximum
crop water need is reached at the end of the crop development stage which is the beginning of
the mid-season stage.
With respect to the late season stage, which is the period during which the crop ripens and is
harvested, a distinction can be made between two groups of crops:
Fresh harvested crops: such as lettuce, cabbage, etc. With these crops the crop water need remains
the same during the late season stage as it was during the mid-season stage. The crops are
harvested fresh and thus need water up to the last moment.
Dry harvested crops: such as cotton, maize (for grain production), sunflower, etc. During
the late season stage these crops are allowed to dry out and sometimes even die. Thus their
water needs during the late season stage are minimal. If the crop is indeed allowed to die, the
water needs are only some 25 percent of the crop water need during the mid-season or peak
period. Of course, no irrigation is given to these crops during the late season stage.
In the previous sections it has been explained on which factors - the climate, the crop type
and the growth stage - the crop water need depends.
To calculate the water needs for the various months during which the crop is grown is fairly
complicated and explained in Part II of this manual.
As stated before, it is often possible to obtain data on crop water needs locally and it is thus
not necessary to calculate them. However, to give the reader some idea on values of seasonal
water needs for the most important field crops. Table 5 can be used as a guide.
This water can be supplied to the crops by rainfall (also called precipitation), by irrigation or
by a combination of rainfall and irrigation.
If the rainfall is sufficient to cover the water needs of the crops, irrigation is not required.
If there is no rainfall, all the water that the crops need has to be supplied by irrigation.
If there is some rainfall, but not enough to cover the water needs of the crops, irrigation water
has to supplement the rain water in such a way that the rain water and the irrigation water
together cover the water needs of the crop. This is often called supplemental irrigation: the
irrigation water supplements or adds to the rain water.
As has already been explained in Volume 1, section 4.1.4, not all rain water which falls on
the soil surface can indeed by used by the plants.
Part of the rain water percolates below the root zone of the plants and part of the rain water
flows away over the soil surface as run-off (Fig. 9). This deep percolation water and run-off
water cannot be used by the plants. In other words, part of the rainfall is not effective. The
remaining part is stored in the root zone and can be used by the plants. This remaining part is
the so-called effective rainfall. The factors which influence which part is effective and which
part is not effective include the climate, the soil texture, the soil structure and the depth of the
root zone. These factors have been discussed in some detail in Volume 1, section 4.1.4.
Fig. 9 Part of the rain water is lost through deep percolation and run-off
If the rainfall is high, a relatively large part of the water is lost through deep percolation and
run-off.
Deep percolation: If the soil is still wet when the next rain occurs, the soil will simply not be
able to store more water, and the rain water will thus percolate below the root zone and
eventually reach the groundwater. Heavy rainfall may cause the groundwater table to rise
temporarily.
Run-off: Especially in sloping areas, heavy rainfall will result in a large percentage of the
rainwater being lost by surface run-off.
Another factor which needs to be taken into account when estimating the effective rainfall is
the variation of the rainfall over the years. Especially in low rainfall climates, the little rain
that falls is often unreliable; one year may be relatively dry and another year may be
relatively wet.
In many countries, formulae have been developed locally to determine the effective
precipitation. Such formulae take into account factors like rainfall reliability, topography,
prevailing soil type etc. If such formulae or other local data are available, they should be
used.
If such data are not available. Table 6 could be used to obtain a rough estimate of the
effective rainfall.
P Pe P Pe
(mm/month) (mm/month) (mm/month) (mm/month)
0 0 130 79
10 0 140 87
20 2 150 95
30 8 160 103
40 14 170 111
50 20 180 119
60 26 190 127
70 32 200 135
80 39 210 143
90 47 220 151
100 55 230 159
110 63 240 167
120 71 250 175
EXAMPLE
Estimate the effective rainfall in mm/month if the rainfall is 60 mm/month. From Table 6 it
can be seen that the effective rainfall is 26 mm/month. This means that out of 60 mm/month,
some 26 mm can be used by the plants; and it is estimated that the remaining (60 - 26 =) 34
mm is lost through deep percolation and run-off.
QUESTION
Determine the effective rainfall for the following monthly rainfall figures: 65, 210, 175 and 5
mm.
P (mm/month) Pe (mm/month)
65 29
210 143
175 115
5 0
CHAPTER 4: IRRIGATION WATER NEEDS
The irrigation water need of a certain crop is the difference between the crop water need and
that part of the rainfall which can be used by the crop (the effective rainfall).
For each of the crops grown on an irrigation scheme the crop water need is determined,
usually on a monthly basis; the crop water need is expressed in mm water layer per time unit,
in this case mm/month.
The effective precipitation is estimated on a monthly basis, using measured rainfall data and
Table 6 (or local information, if available).
For all crops and for each month of the growing season, the irrigation water need is
calculated by subtracting the effective rainfall from the crop water need.
EXAMPLE
Suppose a tomato crop grown in a certain area has a total growing season of 150 days and the
following monthly crop water needs:
This means that in February the tomatoes need 69 mm of water, in March 123 mm of water,
etc. The water need of tomatoes over the total growing season (February-June: 150 days) is
786 mm.
Suppose the following rainfall data for the area where the tomatoes are grown have been
obtained from the Meteorological Service or Ministry of Agriculture.
This means that the average rainfall for February is 20 mm, for March 38 mm, etc. The
rainfall over the total growing season of tomatoes (February-June: 150 days) is 194 mm.
Only part of this rainfall is effective, and the effective rainfall is estimated using Table 6.
Now the Irrigation water need for the tomatoes can be calculated on a monthly basis, as
follows:
Looking at the example for the month March, it can be seen that tomatoes need 123 mm
during March. Of this 123 mm, 13 mm is supplied by the rainfall. The remaining (123 -13 =)
110 mm have to be supplied by irrigation. The total water need of tomatoes over the entire
growing season is 786 mm of which 68 mm is supplied by rainfall. The remaining quantity
(786 - 68 = 718 mm) has to be supplied by irrigation.
When looking at the calculations above, it is obvious that the month May is the month of
peak irrigation water need (195 mm Irrigation water in May). If the tomatoes would be the
only crop grown on the Irrigation scheme, the canals would have to be designed in such a
way that they allow a flow large enough to supply indeed a net water layer of 195 mm to the
whole area covered by tomatoes during the month May. In other words, for designing an
irrigation scheme, the month of peak water supply is the critical month.
How to go about determining the scheme irrigation water supply and how to divide the
irrigation water between the various crops and fields will be dealt with in Volume 4 of the
Irrigation Water Management Training Manuals.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Part II of this manual describes how the water needs of the various crops, grown on an
irrigation scheme, can be calculated.
The crop water need, or in other words the amount of water needed by a certain crop to
grow optimally, mainly depends on:
• the climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a clouded and
cool climate
• the crop type: crops like rice or sugarcane need more water than crops like beans or wheat
• the growth stage of the crop: fully grown crops need more water than crops that have just
been planted.
The amount of water needed can be supplied to the crops by rainfall, by irrigation, or by a
combination of both. Usually the irrigation water supplements or adds to the rainwater. Only
in desert or arid areas - or in the dry season - will all the water needed by the crops have to be
supplied by irrigation.
The irrigation water need is the difference between the crop water need and that part of the
rainfall which can be used by the plants (effective rainfall). The irrigation water need
calculation provides the basis for the determination of the irrigation schedule (usually by
agronomists) and the design of the irrigation scheme, e.g. canal dimensions (usually by
engineers). An overview of all the subjects that are dealt with in this manual is given.
Overview of the determination of the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), the crop
water need (ET crop) and the irrigation water need
Tree crops: oilpalm, rubber, cacao; shifting cultivation based on root crops (yams, cassava,
etc.). Also some sorghum, maize, banana, sugarcane, rice. Some tropical hard woods.
CHAPTER 3: CROP WATER NEEDS
The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water
needed by the various crops to grow optimally.
The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e. a uniform
crop, actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases, and favourable soil
conditions (including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential
under the given environment.
• the climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a cloudy and cool
climate
• the crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum
• the growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than crops that have just
been planted.
Section 3.1 indicates the influence of the climate on crop water needs: this influence is given
by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). Section 3.2 indicates the influence of the
crop type and growth stage on crop water needs: the influence of the crop is expressed in the
crop factor (Kc).
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Pan Evaporation Method
3.1.3 Blaney-Criddle Method
3.1.4 Calculation Example Blaney-Criddle
3.1.5 Indicative Values of ETo
3.1.1 Introduction
The major climatic factors (see Fig. 4) which influence the crop water needs are:
- sunshine
- temperature
- humidity
- windspeed
Table 3 indicates the effect of the various climatic factors on crop water needs.
Table 3 EFFECT OF MAJOR CLIMATIC FACTORS ON CROP WATER NEEDS
The highest crop water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny.
The lowest values are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind.
The influence of the climate on crop water needs is given by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo). The ETo is usually expressed in millimetres per unit of time, e.g.
mm/day, mm/month, or mm/season. Grass has been taken as the reference crop.
ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area, covered by green grass, 8 to 15 cm
tall, which grows actively, completely shades the ground and which is not short of water
(see Fig. 5).
• the pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known and
the water depth is measured)
• the water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours). For
example, each morning at 7 o'clock a measurement is taken. The rainfall, if any, is measured
simultaneously
• after 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
• the amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured water
depths) is calculated; this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in mm/24 hours)
with:
If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added (see Fig. 9a)
and the water depth is measured before and after the water is added. If the water level rises
too much (due to rain) water is taken out of the pan (see Fig. 9b) and the water depths before
and after are measured.
Fig. 9a Add water when the water depth in the pan drops too much
Fig. 9b Take water out of the pan when the water depth rises too much
Determination of K pan
When using the evaporation pan to estimate the ETo, in fact, a comparison is made between
the evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard
grass. Of course the water in the pan and the grass do not react in exactly the same way to the
climate. Therefore a special coefficient is used (K pan) to relate one to the other.
For the Class A evaporation pan, the K pan varies between 0.35 and 0.85. Average K pan =
0.70.
For the Sunken Colorado pan, the K pan varies between 0.45 and 1.10. Average K pan =
0.80.
The K pan is high if: The K pan is low if:
the pan is placed in a fallow area the pan is placed in a cropped area
the humidity is high (i.e. humid) the humidity is low (i.e. dry)
the windspeed is low the windspeed is high
Details of the pan coefficient are usually provided by the supplier of the pan.
If the pan factor is not known the average value could be used (see box). If more accuracy is
required, the pan factors given in Annex 1 should be applied. These values, however, only
refer to the Class A evaporation pan and the Sunken Colorado pan.
Some examples
* Measuring devices are usually more accurate than the ruler indicated in Fig. 10 and thus allow for
more accurate readings (see Data Sheet 1).
If no measured data on pan evaporation are available locally, a theoretical method (e.g. the
Blaney-Criddle method) to calculate the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo has to be
used. There are a large number of theoretical methods to determine the ETo. Many of them
have been determined and tested locally. If such local formulae are available they should be
used. If such local formulae are not available one of the general theoretical methods has to be
used.
The most commonly used theoretical method is the modified Penman method which is
described in detail in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24. This method, however, is rather
complicated and beyond the scope of this manual.
Here only the Blaney-Criddle method is given. The Blaney-Criddle method is simple, using
measured data on temperature only (see also Fig. 11). It should be noted, however, that this
method is not very accurate; it provides a rough estimate or "order of magnitude" only.
Especially under "extreme" climatic conditions the Blaney-Criddle method is inaccurate: in
windy, dry, sunny areas, the ETo is underestimated (up to some 60 percent), while in calm,
humid, clouded areas, the ETo is overestimated (up to some 40 percent).
The Blaney-Criddle method always refers to mean monthly values, both for the temperature
and the ETo. If, for example, it is found that T mean in March is 28°C, it means that during
the whole month of March the mean daily temperature is 28°C.
If in a local meteorological station the daily minimum and maximum temperatures are
measured, the mean daily temperature is calculated as follows:
Step 2: Determination of the mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours: p
Suppose the p value for the month March has to be determined for an area with a latitude of
45° South. From Table 4 it can be seen that the p value during March = 0.28.
Latitude North Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
South July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
60° .15 .20 .26 .32 .38 .41 .40 .34 .28 .22 .17 .13
55 .17 .21 .26 .32 .36 .39 .38 .33 .28 .23 .18 .16
50 .19 .23 .27 .31 .34 .36 .35 .32 .28 .24 .20 .18
45 .20 .23 .27 .30 .34 .35 .34 .32 .28 .24 .21 .20
40 .22 .24 .27 .30 .32 .34 .33 .31 .28 .25 .22 .21
35 .23 .25 .27 .29 .31 .32 .32 .30 .28 .25 .23 .22
30 .24 .25 .27 .29 .31 .32 .31 .30 .28 .26 .24 .23
25 .24 .26 .27 .29 .30 .31 .31 .29 .28 .26 .25 .24
20 .25 .26 .27 .28 .29 .30 .30 .29 .28 .26 .25 .25
15 .26 .26 .27 .28 .29 .29 .29 .28 .28 .27 .26 .25
10 .26 .27 .27 .28 .28 .29 .29 .28 .28 .27 .26 .26
5 .27 .27 .27 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .28 .27 .27 .27
0 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27 .27
For example, when p = 0.29 and T mean = 21.5°C the ETo is calculated as follows:
ETo = 0.29 (0.46 × 21.5 + 8) = 0.29 (9.89 + 8) = 0.29 × 17.89 = 5.2 mm/day
Given
Latitude - 35° North
Mean T max in April = 29.5°C
Mean T min in April = 19.4°C
Question
Determine for the month April the mean ETo in mm/day using the Blaney-Criddle method
Answer
Thus the mean reference crop evapotranspiration ETo =5.6 mm/day during the whole month
of April.
If only a rough estimate of the ETo value is required. Table 5 can be used.
DATA SHEET 2 Calculation of the mean monthly temperature: T max and T min
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Determination of the Total Growing Period
3.2.3 Determination of the Growth Stages
3.2.4 Determination of Crop Factors
3.2.1 Introduction
In section 3.1 the influence of the climate on crop water needs has been discussed. The
influence of the climate is given by the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo; the reference
crop used for this purpose is grass (see Fig. 13a).
The relationship between the reference grass crop and the crop actually grown is given by the
crop factor, Kc, as shown in the following formula:
ETo × Kc = ET crop
with ET crop = crop evapotranspiration or crop water need (mm/day)
Kc = crop factor
ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Both ET crop and ETo are expressed in the same unit: usually in mm/day (as an average for a
period of one month) or in mm/month.
Fully developed maize, with its large leaf area will be able to transpire, and thus use, more
water than the reference grass crop: Kc, maize is higher than 1. Cucumber, also fully
developed, will use less water than the reference grass crop: Kc, cucumber is less than 1.
The climate influences the duration of the total growing period and the various growth stages.
In a cool climate a certain crop will grow slower than in a warm climate.
Thus, to determine the crop factor Kc, it is necessary, for each crop, to know the total
length of the growing season and the lengths of the various growth stages.
The determination of the Kc values for the various growth stages of the crops involves
several steps:
The 3 steps mentioned above are dealt with in the sections 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 respectively.
Section 3.3 explains how the crop water need or crop evapotranspiration is determined.
The total growing period (in days) is the period from sowing or transplanting to the last day
of the harvest. It is mainly dependent on:
As the growing period heavily depends on local circumstances (e.g. local crop varieties) it is
always best to obtain these data locally. Only if no data are available locally should Table 6
be used.
As can be seen from Table 6 there is a large variation of values not only between crops but
also within one crop type. In general it can be assumed that the growing period for a certain
crop is longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is warm.
Once the total growing period is known, the duration (in days) of the various growth stages
has to be determined.
The total growing period is divided into 4 growth stages (see Fig. 14):
1. The initial stage: this is the period from sowing or transplanting until the crop covers about 10%
of the ground.
2. The crop development stage: this period starts at the end of the initial stage and lasts until
the full ground cover has been reached (ground cover 70-80%); it does not necessarily mean
that the crop is at its maximum height.
3. The mid - season stage: this period starts at the end of the crop development stage and
lasts until maturity; it includes flowering and grain-setting.
4. The late season stage: this period starts at the end of the mid season stage and lasts until
the last day of the harvest; it includes ripening.
Table 7 shows the duration of the various growth stages for some of the major field crops.
For each crop the "minimum" and "maximum" duration of total growing period (see also
Table 6) have been taken and sub-divided in the various growth stages.
Example
Carrots: the "minimum" growing period is 100 days. This growing period corresponds with
the following duration of growth stages:
Should, under certain local circumstances, the duration of the growing period be 120 days,
the duration of the growth stages could be estimated as follows:
1. The table always refers to "sown" crops. When the crop is transplanted, the length of the
initial stage should be reduced. For example:
2. When a crop is harvested "green" or "fresh" the late season stage is short.
Compare, for example, green beans with dry beans (Table 7). The duration of the late season
stage is 10 and 20 days respectively.
3. If a crop is planted in the winter or is growing in the cool season the total growing period is
long. The same is the case with the individual lengths of growing stages. The difference will
be most pronounced for the stage during which the temperature is the lowest.
It should be kept in mind that the influence of variations in the total growing period on the
crop water need is very important. Less important is the choice of the various lengths of
growth stages.
In other words: it is important to obtain (preferably locally) an accurate estimate of the total
growing period. The duration of the four growth stages can be estimated with the help of
Table 7.
Note: The sum of the four growth stages should always equal the total growing period.
SOME EXAMPLES
QUESTION
Estimate the duration of the four growth stages for the following crops: cotton (190 days), lentils
(160 days), sweet maize (100 days), potatoes (130 days), tomatoes/transplanted (140 days from
transplant), etc. (the figures in brackets refer to the total growing period).
ANSWER
Per crop, four crop factors have to be determined: one crop factor for each of the four growth
stages. Table 8 indicates per crop the Kc values for each of the four growth stages.
Table 8 VALUES OF THE CROP FACTOR (Kc) FOR VARIOUS CROPS AND
GROWTH STAGES
The table above shows average Kc values for the various crops and growth stages. In fact, the
Kc is also dependent on the climate and, in particular, on the relative humidity and the
windspeed. The values indicated above should be reduced by 0.05 if the relative humidity is
high (RH > 80%) and the windspeed is low (u < 2 m/sec), e.g. Kc = 1.15 becomes Kc = 1.10.
The values should be increased by 0.05 if the relative humidity is low (RH < 50%) and the
windspeed is high (u > 5 m/sec), e.g. Kc = 1.05 becomes Kc = 1.10.
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Crop Water Need Calculation Example
3.3.3 Special Cases
3.3.4 Indicative Values of Crop Water Needs
3.3.1 Introduction
In section 3.1 the determination of the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo has been
discussed, while in section 3.2 it has been indicated how the crop factor Kc can be
determined.
This section (3.3) explains how the crop water need ET crop is calculated (see Fig. 15) on a
monthly basis, using the formula: ET crop = ETo × Kc.
Although the formula to calculate ET crop is easy to apply, there are still some practical
problems to be overcome, which can best be explained using an example.
QUESTION
GIVEN
CALCULATION
Step 1: Estimate the duration of the various growth stages, using Table 7.
Crop Total growing period Initial Crop dev. Mid-season Late season
(days) stage stage stage stage
Tomatoes 150 35 40 50 25
Step 2: Indicate on table, as per example below, the ETo values and the duration of the
growth stages.
Note: When calculating the crop water needs, all months are assumed to have 30 days. For the
calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo, section 3.1), the actual number of days
of each month is used e.g., January 31 days, February 28 or 29 days, etc.
Step 3: Estimate the Kc factor for each of the 4 growth stages, using Table 8 and bearing in
mind that the humidity and windspeed are medium
Yet the ET crop (= ETo × Kc) has to be determined on a monthly basis. It is thus necessary to
determine the Kc on a monthly basis, which is done as follows:
In summary:
Step 4: Calculate, on a monthly basis, the crop water need, using the formula:
In summary:
The crop water need for the whole growing season of tomatoes is 786 mm. In summary:
3.3.3 Special Cases
In the previous sections it has been indicated how the crop water need is calculated for a
variety of field crops: ET crop = Kc × ETo. However there are some crops that do not
directly fit this model: their crop factor Kc is determined in a different way. The
determination of their crop factor is explained in this section. Once the crop factor Kc has
been determined, the same procedure (as described in the sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2) is used to
calculate the crop water needs.
Alfalfa, pasture and clover are regularly cut during the year. Just after cutting they are in the
"initial stage", while just before the next cutting, they are in the "late season stage". To
determine the crop water need it is best to use an average value of the crop factor Kc. The
average Kc values are given in Table 9.
Bananas
The establishment of a new banana plantation takes approximately 6 months from planting to
full ground cover. One year after planting, the first harvest takes place, after which the shoots
that have produced are removed. Meanwhile young shoots have fully developed and take
over the production.
The Kc values for the first 6 months after planting are indicated in Table 10. After 6 months
the Kc value remains constant: Kc = 1.1.
Citrus
The crop factor Kc for clean cultivated citrus is 0.70 year-round. This value is applicable for
large mature trees, covering some 70% of the ground surface. If there is no weed control, a
Kc value of 0.90 year-round should be used.
Rice
Example: Suppose the total growing season of rice from sowing to harvest =150 days in a
humid climate with strong wind
Kc day 0 to 60: 1.1
Kc day 60 to 120: 1.3
Kc day 120 to 150: 1.0
Sugarcane
Crop coefficients for sugarcane vary widely depending on climate and sugarcane variety. It is
best to use locally available data. If such data are not available. Tables 12a and 12b can be
used.
Table 12a refers to a virgin sugarcane crop from establishment to first harvest, which is
assumed to take 18 months. Table 12b refers to a ratoon crop, which is the regrowth after the
harvest of the virgin crop. The regrowth is assumed to take 12 months. Sometimes,
depending on local practices, a virgin crop is followed by 2 or 3 ratoon crops.
For cacao, coffee and tea the following year-round Kc values are recommended:
Olives
For mature olive trees the following year-round Kc values are recommended:
• wide spacing of trees: Kc = 0.4
• close spacing of trees: Kc = 0.7
Grapes
With the assumption that the grape harvest starts some 5 months after the first leaves appear,
the Kc values indicated in Table 13 can be used for the months starting with the first leaf
appearance.
Table 14 gives indicative values of the crop water needs for the total growing period of
various important field crops.
The values indicated in the table provide a rough estimate and should only be used if the crop
water needs cannot be calculated more accurately due to lack of data.
Table 14 gives for each crop a minimum and a maximum value for the crop water need. As
the crop water needs depend heavily on the duration of the total growing period, the
maximum value should be used in the case of a long total growing period (see also Table 6)
and the minimum value should be used when the total growing period is short. An average
value is to be used with a medium total growing period.
In addition, Table 14 gives an indication of the sensitivity of the various crops to water
shortages or drought. If the sensitivity is high it means that the crop cannot withstand water
shortages very well and such shortages should be avoided. If the sensitivity is low it means
that the crop is relatively drought resistant and can withstand water shortages fairly well.
DATA SHEET 5 Determination of crop water needs (see also Data Sheet 4)
CHAPTER 4: IRRIGATION WATER
NEEDS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE RAINFALL*
4.3 CALCULATION OF THE IRRIGATION WATER NEEDS
4.4 IRRIGATION WATER NEED OF RICE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 3 it has been indicated how the crop water need (ET crop) is determined. This
water can be supplied to the crops in various ways:
• by rainfall
• by irrigation
• by a combination of irrigation and rainfall
In some cases, part of the crop water need is supplied by the groundwater through capillary
rise (see Volume 1, Section 2.5.3). For the purpose of this paper however, the contribution of
capillary rise is not taken into account.
In cases where all the water needed for optimal growth of the crop is provided by rainfall,
irrigation is not required and the Irrigation water need (IN) equals zero: IN = 0.
In cases where there is no rainfall at all during the growing season, all water has to be
supplied by irrigation. Consequently, the irrigation water need (IN) equals the crop water
need (ET crop): IN = ET crop.
In most cases, however, part of the crop water need is supplied by rainfall and the remaining
part by irrigation. In such cases the irrigation water need (IN) is the difference between the
crop water need (ET crop) and that part of the rainfall which is effectively used by the plants
(Pe). In formula: IN = ET crop - Pe.
In summary:
If sufficient rainfall : IN = 0
If no rainfall at all : IN = ET crop
If partly irrigation, partly rainfall : IN = ET crop - Pe
Section 4.2 provides a method to determine the effective rainfall, while Section 4.3 gives a
calculation example for the irrigation water need. As the determination of the irrigation water
need for paddy rice is a special case, it is discussed separately in Section 4.4.
4.2 DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE RAINFALL*
* For general information on rainfall: the amount, the intensity and the distribution, refer to Volume
1, Section 4.1.1, 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 respectively.
When rain water ((1) in Fig. 16) falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the soil (2),
some stagnates on the surface (3), while some flows over the surface as runoff (4).
When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface (3) evaporates to the
atmosphere (5), while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil (6).
From all the water that infiltrates into the soil ((2) and (6)), some percolates below the root
zone (7), while the rest remains stored in the root zone (8).
In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus
evaporation (5) and minus deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8)
can be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective part of the rainwater.
The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater
useful for meeting the water need of the crops.
For the purpose of this manual only 2 simple formulae are provided to estimate the fraction of
the total rainfall which is used effectively. These formulae can be applied in areas with a
maximum slope of 4-5%:
QUESTION
Calculate the effective rainfall for the following monthly rainfall figures: P = 35, 90,116, 5,
260, 75 mm
ANSWER
The following example, which Illustrates the irrigation water need calculation method, is a
continuation of the example from Section 3.3.2:
P (mm/month) 20 38 40 80 16
Step 1: Calculate for each month the effective rainfall using the formulae:
Step 2: Calculate the irrigation water need, both in mm/month and mm/day, using the
formula: IN = ET crop - Pe; e.g. Feb: IN = 69 - 2 = 67 mm, etc.
For all field crops, as has been explained in the previous section, the irrigation water need
(IN) is determined as follows:
Paddy rice, growing with "its feet in the water", is an exception. Not only has the crop water
need (ET crop) to be supplied by irrigation or rainfall, but also water is needed for:
In summary, the determination of the irrigation water need for paddy rice requires the
following steps:
Step 4: Determine the amount of water needed to saturate the soil for land preparation by
puddling: SAT
ET crop is determined similarly to all other field crops as discussed in Sections 3.1 to 3.3
Step 4: Determine the amount of water needed to saturate the soil for land preparation by
puddling: SAT
In the month before sowing or transplanting, water is needed to saturate the root zone. The amount
of water needed depends on the soil type and rooting depth. For the purpose of this manual it is
however assumed that the amount of water needed to saturate the root zone is 200 mm. Thus:
SAT = 200 mm
The percolation and seepage losses depend on the type of soil. They will be low in very heavy, well-
puddled clay soils and high in the case of sandy soils. The percolation and seepage losses vary
between 4 and 8 mm/day.
A water layer is established during transplanting or sowing and maintained throughout the growing
season. The amount of water needed for maintaining the water layer has already been taken into
account with the determination of the percolation and seepage losses. The amount of water needed
to establish the water layer, however, still has to be considered. For the purpose of this manual it is
assumed that a water layer of 100 mm is established. Thus:
WL = 100 mm
The effective rainfall is calculated using the same formulae as described in Section 4.2.
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
QUESTION
Calculate the irrigation water need (IN) of paddy rice for the month of April when given:
• ETo = 6 mm/day
• Kc = 1.1
• the root zone has already been saturated in the previous month
• PERC = 5 mm/day
• the water layer (100 mm) needs to be established during April
• Pe = 135 mm/month
ANSWER
Thus the irrigation water need during April is 313 mm or 10.4 mm/day.
DATA SHEET 7 Determination of Irrigation water need of paddy rice
Figure
CHAPTER 5: CALCULATION EXAMPLE
In this chapter a full calculation example is given. The necessary data are provided below and
the aim is to determine:
GENERAL DATA
CROP DATA
Three crops are grown: onions (dry) followed on the same fields by potatoes, and cotton.
CLIMATIC DATA
Irrigating onions
DATA SHEET 3 Determination ETo: Blaney-Criddle Method
DATA SHEET 4 Determination of crop factors
DATA SHEET 4 - No. 2 - Determination of crop factors
DATA SHEET 6 Determination of Irrigation water needs (see also Data sheet 5)
DATA SHEET 6 Determination of Irrigation water needs No. 2 (see also Data sheet 5)
ANNEX I - PAN COEFFICIENTS FOR CLASS A PAN AND SUNKEN
COLORADO PAN
PAN COEFFICIENT (K pan) FOR CLASS A PAN FOR DIFFERENT GROUND COVER
AND LEVELS OF MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND 24 HOUR WIND
Class A Case A: Pan placed in short green Case B1: Pan placed in fallow area
pan cropped area
RH low medium high low medium high
mean % < 40-70 > 70 < 40-70 > 70
40 40
Wind Windward Windward
km/day side distance side distance
of green of dry fallow
crop m
m
Light 1 .55 .65 .75 1 .7 .8 .85
< 175 10 .65 .75 .85 10 .6 .7 .8
100 .7 .8 .85 100 .55 .65 .75
1000 .75 .85 .85 1000 .5 .6 .7
Moderate 1 .5 .6 .65 1 .65 .75 .8
175-425 10 .6 .7 .75 10 .55 .65 .7
100 .65 .75 .8 100 .5 .6 .65
1000 .7 .8 .8 1000 .45 .55 .6
Strong 1 .45 .5 .6 1 .6 .65 .7
425-700 10 .55 .6 .65 10 .5 .55 .65
100 .6 .65 .7 100 .45 .5 .6
1000 .65 .7 .75 1000 .4 .45 .55
Very 1 .4 .45 .5 1 .5 .6 .65
strong
> 700 10 .45 .55 .6 10 .45 .5 .55
100 .5 .6 .65 100 .4 .45 .5
1000 .55 .6 .65 1000 .35 .4 .45
PAN COEFFICIENT (K pan) FOR SUNKEN COLORADO PAN FOR DIFFERENT
GROUND COVER AND LEVELS OF MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND 24 HOUR
WIND
Class A Case A: Pan placed in cropped Case B1: Pan placed in fallow area
pan short green area
RH low medium high low medium high
mean % < 40-70 > 70 < 40-70 > 70
40 40
Wind Windward Windward
km/day side distance side
of green distance of
crop m dry fallow
Light 1 .75 .75 .8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1
< 175 10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 .85 .85 .85
> 100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 .75 .75 .8
1000 .7 .7 .75
Moderate 1 .65 .7 .7 1 .95 .95 .95
175-425 10 .85 .85 .9 10 .75 .75 .75
> 100 .95 .95 .95 100 .65 .65 .7
1000 .6 .6 .65
Strong 1 .55 .6 .65 1 .8 .8 .8
425-700 10 .75 .75 .75 10 .65 .65 .65
> 100 .8 .8 .8 100 .55 .6 .65
1000 .5 .55 .6
Very 1 .5 .55 .6 1 .7 .75 .75
strong
> 700 10 .65 .7 .7 10 .55 .6 .65
> 100 .7 .75 .75 100 .5 .55 .6
1000 .45 .5 .55
1
For extensive areas of barefallow soils and no agricultural development, reduce K pan by
20% under hot, windy conditions; by 5-10% for moderate wind, temperature and humidity
conditions.
ANNEX II - DATA SHEETS
DATA SHEET 1
Determination ETo: Pan Evaporation Method
Location: ..........
Date: .......
Type of evaporation pan: ..............
Month: .............
Calculate:
K pan = ...........
DATA SHEET 2
Calculation of the mean
monthly temperature: T max and T min
Location: ..........
Date: .......
Month: ..........
Number of days in the month: ..........
Day T max (°C) T min (°C) Day T max (°C) T min (°C)
1 16
2 17
3 18
4 19
5 20
6 21
7 22
8 23
9 24
10 25
11 26
12 27
13 28
14 29
15 30
31
Calculate:
DATA SHEET 3
Determination ETo: Blaney-Criddle Method
Location: ...............
Date: ......
Latitude: ...................º North/º South
Month T min (°C) T max (°C) T mean (°C) P Table 4 ETo mm/day
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Note:
DATA SHEET 4
Determination of crop factors
Location:...............
Date: ...............
Crop: ...............
Planting date: ...............
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St.
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
Crop: ...............
Planting date: ...............
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
Note:
Location: ............
Date: .........
Crop:..................
Planting date:................
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St.
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
P (mm/m)
Pe (mm/m)
IN (mm/m)
IN (mm/day)
Crop: ..................
Planting date: .....................
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St.
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
P (mm/m)
Pe (mm/m)
IN (mm/m)
IN (mm/day)
Note:
Location: .............
Date: ...................
Crop: ........................
Planting date: ...................
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St.
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
SAT (mm)
PERC
(mm/mo)
WL (mm)
P (mm/mo)
Pe (mm/mo)
IN (mm/mo)
IN (mm/day)
Crop: ...................
Planting date: ..............
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo (mm/day)
Growth stages
Kc per gr. St.
Kc per month
ET crop
(mm/d)
ET crop
(mm/m)
SAT (mm)
PERC
(mm/mo)
WL (mm)
P (mm/mo)
Pe (mm/mo)
IN (mm/mo)
IN (mm/day)
Note: