Py Pearly Years Final Report

Early Years Education in the Primary Years
Programme (PYP): Implementation

Strategies and Programme Outcomes
Final Report
April 2014
International Baccalaureate Organisation
Prepared by the School of Education, Deakin

University
AUTHORS
Anne-Marie Morrissey, Elizabeth Rouse, Brian Doig, Edlyn Chao and Julianne Moss
Contents
Executive Summary ............................................................................................... 5

1. Introduction and Background....................................................................... 9
2. Research Design ......................................................................................... 10
2.1 Recruitment............................................................................................. 12
2.2 Data Collection ........................................................................................ 12
3. Participating Sites ....................................................................................... 15
3.1 Introduction to the Sites........................................................................... 16
3.1.1 Singapore Site 1 (S1) .......................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Singapore Site 2 (S2) .......................................................................... 18
3.1.3 Australian Site 1 (A1) .......................................................................... 21
3.1.4 Australian Site 2 (A2) .......................................................................... 23
4. Researcher Observations: Analyses and Comparisons of Programmes 25
4.1 Programme Approaches, Philosphy and Goals ....................................... 26
4.1.1 IB PYP Early Years Programme .......................................................... 26
4.1.2 Inquiry-based and conceptually driven curriculum ............................... 28
4.1.3 Inquiry-based learning and the importance of relationships ................ 33
4.1.4 The PYP and Reggio Emilia ................................................................ 35
4.2 Learning Environments ........................................................................... 40
4.2.1 The place of the visual arts.................................................................. 40
4.2.2 Child choice and ownership ................................................................. 42
4.2.3 Outdoors and the natural world ........................................................... 43
4.3 Play and play-based curriculum .............................................................. 49
4.4 Discussion............................................................................................... 59
5. Measures of Literacy ................................................................................... 62
5.1 Early Literacy in English Tools ................................................................ 63
5.1.1 Concepts of Print ................................................................................. 67
5.1.2 Reading ............................................................................................... 67
5.1.3 Early Writing ........................................................................................ 67
5.1.4 Tool Administration.............................................................................. 67
5.1.5 Overall Literacy Levels ........................................................................ 69
5.2 Singaporean Sites – S1........................................................................... 70
5.3 Singaporean Sites – S2........................................................................... 71
5.4 Australian Sites – A1 ............................................................................... 73
5.5 Australian Sites – A2 ............................................................................... 74
5.6 Summary................................................................................................. 76
6. Developmental School Readiness ............................................................. 77
6.1 The Who am I developmental assessment tool ....................................... 78
6.2 The Sample............................................................................................. 78
6.3 Scoring Who am I?.................................................................................. 80
6.4 Analyses ................................................................................................. 80
6.4.1 Sub-scale results ................................................................................ 83
6.4.2 Comparisons between Programmes................................................... 88
6.5 Summary................................................................................................. 89
7. Teacher Assessment of Children’s Learning Skills .................................. 90
7.1 The Learning Skills Measure ................................................................... 90
7.2 Analyses ................................................................................................. 91
7.2.1 Sub-group analyses ........................................................................... 94
7.2.2 Comparisons ...................................................................................... 95
IB Early Years Project Final Report (April, 2014). Morrissey, Rouse, Doig, Chao & Moss (Deakin
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7.2.3 Comparisons on a larger scale ........................................................... 98
7.4 Summary............................................................................................... 100
8. Educator Perspectives .............................................................................. 101
8.1 Interview procedures ............................................................................. 101
8.2 Inquiry-based learning ........................................................................... 102
8.3 The Learner Profile Attributes................................................................ 103
8.4 Reggio Emilia and the PYP ................................................................... 105
8.5 Working with Local Frameworks............................................................ 106
8.6 Play-based learning .............................................................................. 107
8.7 Academic learning and school readiness .............................................. 108
8.8 Learning Environments and Child ‘Ownership’ ...................................... 110
8.9 Relationships with Families ................................................................... 111
8.10 Summary .................................................................................................. 112
9. PYP Coordinator Perspectives ................................................................. 113
9.2 Inquiry based learning ........................................................................... 114
9.3 Learner Profile ...................................................................................... 115
9.4 Connections with the Reggio Emilia Approach ...................................... 115
9.5 Engaging families .................................................................................. 117
9.6 Literacy and numeracy development ..................................................... 118
9.7 Issues and challenges ........................................................................... 119
9.8 Summary............................................................................................... 120
10 Children’s Perspectives ............................................................................ 121
10.1 Child perspectives at S1........................................................................ 122
10.2 Child perspectives at S2........................................................................ 124
10.3 Summary............................................................................................... 125
11. Family Perspectives .................................................................................. 126
11.2 Socio-Emotional & Life Skills Development ........................................... 127
11.3 Individualised Learning.......................................................................... 129
11.4 Family Engagement .............................................................................. 131
11.5 School Readiness & External Expectations ........................................... 133
11.6 What is an ‘IB School’? ......................................................................... 134
11.7 Summary............................................................................................... 135
12. The Early Years Programmes and National Frameworks ....................... 136
12.1 The Australian sites and the VELDF ......................................................... 137
12.2 The Singapore sites and the NEL ............................................................. 138
13. Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................... 140
Recommendations ............................................................................................ 145
14. References ................................................................................................. 146
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Tables
Table 1. Diverse perspectives on the programmes as data sources 11

Table 2. AusVELS Levels 63
Table 3. Early Literacy in English Tools (ELET) 65
Table 4. ELET Administration (by site, literacy tool and level) 68
Table 5. Overall literacy levels (by research site and tool) 69
Table 6. Sample sizes 79
Table 7. Sample size by sex 79
Table 8. Ages by Programme 80
Table 9. Mean percentage of highest scores by Australian norm group (Adapted
from de Lemos & Doig, 1999) 86
Table 10. Percentage of top scores by Programme 87
Table 11. Number of top scores by country 88
Table 12. Item statements for Learning 91
Table 13. Means and Standard Deviations for all groups 94
Table 14. Performance of Boys and Girls 96
Table 15. Effect Sizes for paired groups 97
Figures
Figure 1. Scaled total scores on Who am I? 81

Figure 2. Total raw scores on Who am I? 82
Figure 3. Sub-scale scores on Copying items 84
Figure 4. Sub-scale scores on Symbols items 85
Figure 5. Sub-scale scores on Picture of Me item 85
Figure 6. Wright Map of IB students on SEW Learning strand 93
Figure 7. IB students’ logit scores by Programme 95
Figure 8. Australian pre-schools performance against all schools 99
Figure 9. Singapore Programmes’ performance against all schools 99
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Executive Summary
While there is a growing body of evidence on the processes and outcomes of

International Baccalaureate (IB) programmes, the Early Years stage (for
preschool children aged 3-6 years) of the Primary Years Programme (PYP) is
a new area of research. There is a sense that the best way (or ways) to do
Early Years programmes is still an open question. This reflects the wider
picture of early childhood education, where new policies and frameworks, and
challenges to traditional approaches, are evident in many countries.
Researchers in the School of Education at Deakin University were contracted
by the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) to conduct a study into
implementation strategies and programme outcomes in Early Years
programmes.
The study involved evaluating processes and outcomes in four Early Years
programmes, two in Singapore and two in Australia, through intensive mixed
methods case studies. Using a Mosaic approach, the researchers aimed to to
create a detailed picture of each programme from different perspectives. They
collected rich qualitative data on programme processes and outcomes through
classroom observations and discussions with educators. Children’s
perspectives on learning and activites within their programmes, as expressed
through drawings and writing, were collected from the two Singapore sites.
There was a particular focus on the following: children’s inquiry-led and play
based learning; development of Learner Profile Attributes; the quality of the
indoor and outdoor learning environments, and their role in supporting
children’s learning and development. Interviews were conducted with
educators, coordinators, and parents, to explore their perspectives on the
programmes. Quantitative data was also collected through assessments of
children’s literacy (Early Literacy in English Tools), developmental school
readiness (Who am I?: Developmental Assessment (de Lemos & Doig, 1999))
and learning skills (Learning Skills section of the Social-Emotional Wellbeing
Survey (ACER, 2013)). These data were used for comparison of outcomes
between sites and with larger population samples. The study also evaluated
how each of the Early Years programmes aligned with relevant national
curriculum frameworks.
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Key findings of the study included the following:
• Three of the preschools (two in Australia and one in Singapore) ran Early
Years programmes that appeared to support the development of Learner
Profile Attributes through inquiry-led learning and play-based approaches.
Learning environments at these preschools were rich and stimulating, and
integrated the outdoors and the natural world.
• One of the Singapore preschools (S2) had only recently moved to offering
the Early Years stage of the PYP, and appeared to be still grappling with
the complexities and demands of implementing inquiry led and play based
approaches. Researcher observations and staff comments suggested that
further professional development and support from IBO would better
enable staff to fully implement IB PYP principles in their programme.
• Using selected Early Literacy in English Tools (ELET) the research team
was able to obtain a gauge of the overall literacy skills of the students
across the different sites and see how these levels might compare across
sites and national setting.Broadly speaking, the literacy levels at all sites
were fairly developed. Students from all sites operated at literacy levels at
or better than what would typically be expected for their age groups.
Preschool students from the Singaporean sites with the average student
age of 6 were performing at Prep (5-6 years old, AusVELS Foundation) or
Year 1 (6-7 years old, AusVELS Level 1) levels. The pre-school students
from the Australian sites with the average student age of 5.5 were
performing at pre-school (4-5 years old, towards AusVELS Foundation) or
Prep (5-6 years old, AusVELS Foundation) levels. The differences
between the Singapore and Australian programmes are at least partly
attributable to age differences, with Singapore students being on average
6 to 10 months older than the Australian students. Qualitative data,
however, suggests that the greater emphasis on literacy in the Singapore
programmes also played a role in these findings.
• On a test of developmental school readiness, the Who am I:

Developmental Assessment (de Lemos & Doig, 1999), children in the PYP
Early Years component in both Australia and Singapore performed at
levels equal to or better than expected for their age, in comparison with
the Who am I Australian normative sample. However, results were not
equal across all four programmes, with higher outcomes from the
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Singapore programmes. Based on qualitative data from classroom
observations and educator interviews, the researchers hypothesise the
greater emphasis on literacy and numeracy in the Singapore programmes
as a factor in this finding.
• Teachers’ assessments of children’s learning skills, using a section of the

Social-emotional Wellbeing Survey (ACER, 2013) showed that children in
both the Australian and Singaporean Early Years programmes were
significantly more likely than an All Schools sample to be assessed as
having high levels of learning skills. It is notable that the Australian
preschool children performed particularly strongly on this measure,
designed for children in the first two years of school with a typical age
range of 5-7 years.
• Educators at three of the preschools were articulate and reflective about

their Early Years programmes, valuing inquiry led and play based learning,
and confident that they were supporting Learner Profile Attributes, and
preparing children for entry to school. Educators at one of the Singapore
preschools (S2) were positive about the PYP Early Years programme and
inquiry led learning, but expressed some uncertainties about implementing
it in practice.
• Many of the educators had experience of the Reggio Emilia approach, and
saw the PYP Early Years programme and Reggio Emilia as very much
aligned. Coordinators, with one exception, held similar views.
• Through their drawings and writings, children at one of the Singapore

preschools (S1) demonstrated awareness of their own learning and were
able to articulate where they were acquiring specific Learner Profile
Attributes through programme activities.
• Educators described some challenges in their programmes. These

included perceived tensions between meeting PYP requirements around
implementing units of inquiry, and a desire to be responsive to children’s
emerging or changing interests. One educator also raised the issue of
having to meet multiple demands in regard to requirements of the PYP
and local curriculum and quality frameworks.
• Educators and parents noted that there was some parental concerns
around the capacity of inquiry and play based approaches to develop
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children’s formal academic skills in literacy and numeracy, skills that some
parents felt were necessary in preparation for entry to school. Educators
discussed how they informed parents of the rationales for their programme
approaches to literacy and numeracy, but also how they responded to
these concerns with practical measures in their programmes. By and
large, parent interviewees expressed trust in the educators and
programmes to adequately prepare their children for school. This issue
was of particular concern in Singapore where children are expected to
have some basic academic skills on school entry. The researchers argue
there is a role for the IBO in supporting their staff in addressing parent
concerns around the effectiveness of Early Years programmes in
preparing children for successful transition into formal schooling.
• The study found that three of the sites (S1, A1 and A2) demonstrated
evidence of strong alignment with relevant national curriculum
frameworks in Victoria and Singapore (Victorian Early Years Learning and
Development Framework; Nurturing early learners: A currciulum
framework for kindergartens in Singapore). Researcher observations and
educator interviews indicated that the Early Years programme at S2 was
not fully aligned with all aspects of the Singapore framework, particularly in
regard to principles of play-based and inquiry-led learning, and
appropriate organisation of the learning environment.
• While there were limitations to the research, the mixed-method Mosaic

approach did appear to be an effective strategy to study the four Early
Years programmes. The different perspectives appeared complimentary to
each other in building a coherent ‘picture’ of the individual programmes
and their contexts. The researchers consider that the use of standardized
assessment measures alone would have presented a limited picture of
processes and outcomes in the four programmes. The qualitative data
from the researcher observations and stakeholder interviews provided a
more in-depth view of how three of the programmes in particular used
inquiry based approaches to support children’s progress in the Learner
Profile. The interviews also enabled the identification of stakeholders’
views of the programmes’ achievements and challenges.
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1. Introduction and Background
Researchers in the School of Education at Deakin University were contracted
by the International Baccalaureate organisation (IBO) to conduct a study into
implementation strategies and programme outcomes in Early Years
programmes in schools running the International Baccalaureate Primary Years
Programme (PYP). The PYP is a curriculum framework designed for students
3-12 years. The Early Years component is for children in their preschool years,
according to the typical age for starting formal schooling in the country in which
the PYP programme is being run.
While there is a growing body of evidence on the processes and outcomes of

International Baccalaureate (IB) programmes, the Early Years stage of the
Primary Years Programme is a new area of research. Not all schools that offer
the Primary Years Programme (PYP) include the Early Years stage. In
Australia, while PYP offerings are increasingly being offered in state-run
primary schools, Early Years Programmes are run almost exclusively in early
learning centres, or as part of PYP programmes within private schools. There
is a sense that the best way (or ways) to do Early Years programmes is still an
open question. This reflects the wider picture of early childhood education,
where new policies and frameworks, and challenges to traditional approaches,
are evident in many countries.
Further evidence that educators in Early Years programmes are actually in a

creative and reflective process of exploring the possibilitites for what Early
Years programmes can be, is the fact that many of Early Years Programmes
combine the PYP with a Reggio Emilia inspired approach. Teachers in these
programmes percieve an alignment between the goals and visions of the PYP
and Reggio Emilia (Cancemi, 2011). In addition, it is interesting to speculate
whether Early Years teachers see the approaches of the Early Years Stage of
the PYP and of Reggio Emilia as enhancing each other, and enabling them to
create a rich and appropriate programme for children in the years before
school, programmes that are aligned with the later stages of the PYP, but also
uniquely ‘early childhood’ in focus.
This study investigated implementation strategies and outcomes in Early Years

Education in the Primary Years Programme of the IB, through a mixed-
methods approach using both quantitative and qualitative data. It is based on
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intensive case studies of four Early Years Stage programmes within the IB
Primary Years Programme, at two sites in Melbourne, Australia and two sites
in Singapore (Sharp et al., 2012).
While there are a number of approaches that could have been used for this
study, the researchers felt that given the small-scale nature of the evaluation,
as well as the complexity and variety of approaches of early childhood
settings, that an in-depth case study approach was an effective way to
investigate the implementation of the Early Years Stage in a small number of
selected sites, across two very different cultural and geographic contexts. The
‘Mosaic’ approach (Clark, 2010) has been adopted as a way of capturing the
varied perspectives of different stakeholders. As well as researcher
observations and standardized assessments, this approach involves exploring
the views of families, staff, and children on the programmes. According to
Clark:
The Mosaic approach is a research framework which

aims to play to the strengths of research participants,
drawing on expressive languages to facilitate thinking
about experience and communicating these ideas with
others….This is designed to be an active research
process where meanings are constructed from a
variety of sources and by different individuals in order
to compile a picture or series of pictures. (Clark, 2010,
p. 31)
It was considered that the Mosaic approach would be highly suitable as a

means of exploring stakeholder and researcher perspectives on their views
and experiences of the Early Years programmes (Clark, 2010, 2011).
2. Research Design
The project used mixed methods within a ‘Mosaic’ approach. This provided
data on the four programmes as case studies, and focused on children’s
learning and development, and educator practice, from a number of different
perspectives. The aim was to bring this data together to build up a rich and
detailed ‘picture’ of each site. The diverse perspectives included those of staff,
children, families and researchers (see Table 1). The project design also
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aligned with a sociocultural perspective that seeks to account for family,
community and relationships as significant influences on programme quality,
and children’s learning and development. The inclusion of programme
documentation and self-reflective processes as data sources is also congruent
with the Reggio Emilia approach (Rinaldi, 2005), one which is commonly used
within the Early Years stage of the PYP (and at the four study sites), and which
aligns with IB principles and goals (Cancemi, 2011).
Table 1. Diverse perspectives on the programmes as data sources
Perspective Focus Data Source
Researcher Observer Programme philosophy Observations: field notes,

processes & outcomes video/audio, photographic,
artefacts, etc
Learning Environments: Interviews/discussions with

quality (space, aesthetics, educators
resources, natural
elements); role in
supporting programme
processes & outcomes
Formal Assessments Child outcomes in areas of:
Literacy Early Literacy in English Tools

(ELET)
Who am I?: Developmental

Developmental school Assessment (de Lemos & Doig,
readiness 1999)
Learning skills Learning Skills section of the

Social-Emotional Wellbeing
survey (SEWS) (ACER, 2013)
Educator Qualifications, experience, Questionnaire administered to all

education educators on each site
Pedagogical philosophy & Staff interviews (2 educators per

curriculum approaches site)
Programme strategies & Analysis and reflections on their

processes own programme documents
Children’s Outcomes vis-à- Educators reflections on

vis programme goals researcher in-class observations
of activities & interactions
The learning environment
Relationships with parents
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Coordinator Social-cultural context Document analysis
Programme philosophy, Questionnaire administered to all

processes & outcomes educators on each site
Relationships with families Interviews with EY/PYP

leader/principal re overall
programme philosophy, goals, etc
(1 per site)
Child Perspectives on programme Educator/child discussions with

activities & environment, photos, drawings, writing.
and their own learning
Family Family perspectives on Interviews with family members.

programme, including
outcomes for their own
children
Relationships &
engagement in programme
2.1 Recruitment
The initial aim was to recruit two particpating schools in Singapore, and three
in Australia, in Sydney and Melbourne. The IBO assisted with identifying and
the initial contact of potential participant schools. The two Singapore sites were
recruited quite quickly, allowing a month to collect data before the school break
commencing at the end of June. The Australian sites took longer to confirm,
with several schools in Sydney and Melbourne declining to participate. Two
schools withdrew at the last minute, making it difficult to recruit replacement
sites. In the end, the Australian sites consisted of two schools in Melbourne.
2.2 Data Collection

Data were collected at the two Singapore sites in June. At the two Australian
sites, data was collected at two time points: September/October and
November/December. Analyses included the following comparisons: within
programmes; between sites; and on some measures, in relation to learning
and development outcomes in the general child population. The findings were
also considered in relation to research findings in the literature, and relevant
Australian and Singapore national curriculum and quality frameworks.
The study involved conducting an in-depth investigation of the following

aspects of each programme: philosophies and values; contextual influences;
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classroom processes; child outcomes; educator, child and family perspectives
of curricula and settings; researcher observations of programme settings,
curricula and activities (see Table 1). The project’s sociocultural and reflective
practice approach to evaluation was designed to be in tune with the
educational philosophy and values of both the IB and the Reggio Emilia
approach used in many IB schools Early Years Stage programmes (Cancemi,
2011). The stated aims of these programmes represent the commencement of
experiences and opportunities in the classroom that allow students to become
genuine inquirers, and develop empathy, compassion and respect for others in
line with the programme standards and practices that are common to all IB
programmes. Data collection and analysis also included reference to relevant
national and state standards in Australia and Singapore (A Framework for a
Kindergarten Curriculum in Singapore (Republic of Singapore, 2008), the
Australian Early Years Learning Framework (Australian Government, 2009),
the Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework (State of
Victoria, 2011b), the National Quality Framework (Australian Children’s
Eduation and Care Authority, 2012).
The project also used several assessment tools that allowed comparison of
child outcomes both between programmes, and with larger populations, in the
areas of developmental school readiness, literacy and social-emotional
development. The ‘Who am I Developmental Assessment’ (de Lemos & Doig,
1999) provided data on children’s developmental progress, and enabled
comparisons between programmes, and in relation to typical age-related
expectations for the general child population. The selection of Early Literacy in
English Tools (ELET), developed by Victoria’s Department of Education and
Early Childhood Development (State of Victoria, 2011a), are part of the
Diagnostic Assessment Tools in English, a suite of validated assessment tools
that enable teachers to attain additional information about students’ learning
strengths and challenges in English (V. Hall, personal communication, May 21,
2013). Children’s development of learning skills was assessed through the
Learning Skills measure that is part of the Social-Emotional Wellbeing Survey
(SEW), an on-line tool used by teachers to report on children’s development in
these areas (ACER, 2013). This tool provided data on children’s social and
emotional development, particularly in relation to learning, and for comparison
to ACER’s data set on larger populations.
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In this study, the evaluation of outcomes was linked to the following:
• IB goals for the Early Years Stage of the Primary Years Programme,
with particular  focus on the Learner Profile attributes as they relate
to this stage of education
• Specific programme goals of individual sites
• National and state-based Australian and Singapore Frameworks for

early years programmes.  
The research used six areas of focus, or six ‘lenses’, for investigating the
selected programmes: institutional, environmental, educational, and the
perspectives of educators, children and families (Curtis, 2010, 2011). This
approach required the use of a range of methods, including child-centred
approaches. The methods and data collection approaches were appropriate
for the evaluation of outcomes in respect to the ethos and aims of IB
programmes. There was an emphasis on the collection and analysis of data
that reflects the processes of professional self-reflection and improvement that
are an integral part of IB programme evaluation processes. This approach also
fits with the Reggio Emilia emphasis on ‘learning made visible’ through
documentation. In Reggio Emilia inspired programmes, the process of
documentation is regarded as an essential component of both teaching and
learning. The role of the environment is also emphasised, where it is regarded
as ‘the third teacher’. On the other hand, data was also collected that allowed
for comparison of learning and development outcomes with the general child
population.
In this project, researchers also observed children’s play, both in terms of play
outcomes and to enable the investigation of play as a context for children to
demonstrate IB PYP Learner Profile attributes. Play episodes provide
authentic and natural contexts for observation of children’s social interactions
and thinking processes (Bergen, 2002; Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Hughes, 2010).
When children engage in dramatic or constructive play, they are required to
engage in activities that can demonstrate Learner Profile attributes, such as
planning, problem solving, co-operation, and use of knowledge (IBO, 2013).
Observations of play provided data on the opportunities provided for play
within each programme, the type and quality of children’s play, and the extent
to which children demonstrate the Learner Profile attributes in the play context.
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The data on children’s play has also been linked to other observations on the
quality of interactions, curriculum and the environment within the programme.
Two researchers conducted in-class observations, and collected data in the

form of field notes, photographs, audio and video recording, collection of
artefacts, and discussions and interviews with educators. The audio and
videorecordings were used as a memory prompt for the researchers, and as a
basis for educator reflection. They were not coded for analysis. Researcher
observations of the learning environment involved both indoor and outdoor
spaces, including the role of the outdoors in the each programme, and the
extent of access to natural elements available to children. This is in line with
growing evidence on the importance of children’s access to the outdoors and
the natural world for health, learning and wellbeing (Cosco, Moore & Islam,
2010; IBO, 2013; Nedovic & Morrissey, 2013; Trost, Ward & Senso, 2010;
Waters & Maynard, 2010; Wells & Evans, 2003). The Australian National
Quality framework also now mandates that early childhood programmes must
provide opportunites for children to interact with the natural world (ACECQA,
2012). Consideration was also given to the geographical and sociocultural
contexts of the sites, and how these influenced and were reflected in the
programmes.
3. Participating Sites
The project involved Early Years programmes in Singapore and Australia.
These two countries were chosen as presenting opportunities to explore the
interplay of diverse cultural and geographic factors within the context of the
international IB PYP. In consultation with the IBO, a number of potential
particpating schools in both countries were identified and contacted. The Early
Years programmes in four schools were recruited to participate—two in
Singapore and two in Melbourne. Two of the researchers were responsible for
the collection of observational data and teacher interviews at the four sites.
One of the researchers had extensive experience of the Singapore context,
and in addition a local research assistant was recruited to assist with data
collection for the Singapore sites. The local knowledge of both greatly assisted
with the liaison with the Singapore sites, and in data collection processes such
as document collation and interviews.
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It needs to be noted that because children in Singapore start school later than
in Australia, that the child participants in the Early Years programmes in
Singapore, were on average at least half a year older than their counterparts in
the Australian programmes. A further difference was that both sites in
Singapore involved international pre-schools on their own sites, serving a mix
of expatriate and local families, while the Australian sites were both in private
schools, co-located with primary and secondary levels, and serving a
predominantly local population.
3.1 Introduction to the Sites

Based on researcher observations and narratives, audio, video and
photographic data, staff questionnaires, and staff and principal/lead teacher
interviews, the following intoductory descriptions and observations are
provided of the four sites.
3.1.1 Singapore Site 1 (S1)
S1 is situated in a lovely old building in large attractive grounds. The building is

clean and bright, while still maintaining the original features. It is part of a
larger organisation that runs several other international preschools and
schools. The Coordinator and the two participating teachers hold UK or
Australian qualifications, and many of the children are from expatriate families.
The K1 class undertakes four of the IB PYP units, and the K2 class does all 6
units. The programme is strongly inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach.
The Learning Environment
Indoors
In the central areas there is a library on the Ground Floor, and an atelier on the
first floor. Ateliers are a feature of the Reggio Emilia approach, being seen as
studios or workshops where children work on documented projects that
represent their learning and thinking (Vecchi, 2010). Both these areas are
carefully decorated with aesthetically attractive objects and materials, as befits
the Reggio Emilia approach (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 1998). The older
children in K2 are able to access the Library independently. In the atelier, there
is an extensive range of carefully organised art materials and resources, where
children work on long-term projects.
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On the first floor near the stairs there is a ‘Reggio inspired’ (Coordinator’s
words) collection of recycled materials on shelves. On the stair landing there is
a display of paper mache self-portraits made by the children, as part of a
project exploring paper mache as a technique. At the bottom of the stairs,
there is a ‘light exploration’ area.
Outdoors
The grounds comprise a large expanse of well-kept lawns, with trees and
bushes dotted around. Outdoors, staff have responsibility for different areas
and activities. The outside playground for the younger children is at the side,
separated by a gate. It consists of an expanse of lawn, with bushes round the
side, and a gazebo that contains bikes, balls, and other equipment. This
gazebo used to function as an outdoor atelier, but new regulations meant that
the preschool could not have a roofed structure in this area, and so it became
a storage area.
The larger outdoor play area contains a large roofed sandpit, and swings, as
well as a ‘mud kitchen’, where children can work with mud on rainy days.
There is also a well-maintained vegetable and fruit garden, with a scarecrow.
K2 Programme
The K2 programme involves children working across two rooms, with 4-5 staff,
including two teachers, a Chinese language teacher, and an aide for a child
with additional needs. There had originally been two separate groups, but
numbers had dropped so the two groups were combined into one, and the staff
now collaborate together in working with the combined group.
Children begin the mornings with half an hour of reading to each other. This
half-hour of reading was in response to parental and other concerns that
children moving on to local schools would have sufficient literacy skills to meet
the expectations of the Singapore school system. Children then spend much of
the rest of the morning working in small allocated groups on projects. If they
have finished project tasks they are free to move to other activities. Twice each
morning when the researchers were there, the class would come together as a
whole group, to either plan what the childen were going to do, or to discuss
and evaluate what they had done.
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On the two days of the researcher’s visit, children were working on preparing
for their graduation celebrations and were divided into work groups with
responsibilities such as invitations, posters, organizing table settings, and
decorating the space where the celebration would take place. For much of the
time, each group had an adult with them supporting them in their work. There
were also other projects running concurrently, based on children’s interests. In
the rooms where the researcher was observing, the focus of these other
projects were around living in extremes of cold and hot and dry, and the
specific topics included the Arctic (with a special interest on animals living
there), and deserts. There was also a group working on camping in cold and
hot climates.
From the researcher’s perspective, the project work appeared as aligned with
the Reggio Emilia approach and PYP, in that teachers took on the role of co-
learners, and allowed the children to take control of the long term projects.
When questions or issues arose, teachers did not provide solutions, but would
pose questions and encourage children to come up with their own solutions,
demonstrating PYP attributes of problem-solving, cooperation and use of
knowledge. A number of examples were observed of children working out the
spelling of unfamiliar words, and other examples of problem solving. A long
length of canvas cloth was stretched across the floor in one of the rooms. This
was divided into sections for individual children to work on with various art and
craft materials, as part of a long term project. Teachers would sit near the
cloth, and offer assistance with materials if needed. Several children were
observed working in a concentrated and collaborative manner on different
areas of the cloth over the two days.
3.1.2 Singapore Site 2 (S2)
S2 is situated in a bright and attractive new building, with windows offering

views of greenery. The preschool is located in a pleasant and well-off suburb,
with low-rise housing. There is a Library, and a large room for gatherings or
meetings. There is also a large space in the entry area, with some blocks and
construction equipment, toy trucks and a ‘Home corner’ area. The researchers
did not observe this space being used by children over the period they were
there.
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Staff at the preschool, including teachers and coordinators, were locals, and
the teachers had obtained their qualificationsin Singapore. Children were from
mainly local families, but with some expatriate families. The school website
states that the programme is also inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach.
Indoors
The K2 room, like all the rooms, is bright and airy. There is a tiered bench area
where children often sit for ‘lessons’ such as maths and Mandarin. There are
some tables, shelving, a book area, and shelves containing constructive play
materials and puzzles (based on Disney characters). The walls and shelves
contained displays of children’s work. Teachers have also displayed posters
and other materials, based on literacy, maths and Mandarin curriculum
content. Down some steps in the open corridor, a pretend ‘shop’ has been set
up for dramatic play, with ‘merchandise’ displayed (empty boxes and
containers), and a ‘cash register’.
Outdoors
Outside, the K2 class accesses the flat central lawn area, neatly edged by
plantings, and a paved area. The class has to go down a flight of stairs to
access outside. There are a large number of tricycles available for the children
to ride, and other equipment promoting gross motor activity, such as balls,
hoops, skipping ropes, skittles, etc. Most of these are stored in a cupboard,
and children can select at will from the cupboard while they are outside. Other
outdoor areas of the preschool, with fixed musical and climbing equipment,
appeared to be for the younger children.
K2 Programme
The K2 group includes 17 Children, and three staff, including a Mandarin

teacher.
The programme includes project work, and there was a wall display from a
recent project based on the theme of ‘How we express ourselves’, and ‘story
bags’ and ‘quilts’ that children had made as part of this project, using a
selected range of materials such as felt pieces and plastic eyes to put on
faces, etc. There was also a portfolio documenting a project on ‘Sharing the
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Planet’ and ‘Sustainable Products’. These projects involved excursions and
visitors to the preschool, such as a well-known children’s book illustrator. At
the time of the researcher’s visit, the K2 class was between projects, and were
doing ‘revision’ for several weeks.
The programme in K2 class, as observed by the researchers, was quite

structured, with a strong emphasis on literacy, numeracy and Mandarin
teaching. There were formal ‘lessons’ with children sitting on the tiered
benches for extended periods, while the teacher sat at the front. On the first
day of the researcher’s visit, the morning programme was as follows:
9.00-10.30 Working on the ‘Who am I’ booklet (part of the research

project)
10.30-11.00 Outdoor time
11.00-12.00 Mandarin
12.00-1.00 Maths (Big Group)
1.00 Lunch
The timetable for the morning of the second day was as follows:
9.00-10.00 Mandarin
10.00-11.00 Free play (in response to researcher’s request)
11.00-11.30 Phonics
11.30-1.00 Special farewell to a boy who was leaving, and some outdoor
play
Overall, the programme at S2 appeared to the researchers as structured and

teacher-directed, similar to a classroom in the early years of school. Children
experienced instruction, and were then assigned tasks to complete. They
appeared to complete these tasks successfully in the main, although there
were some exceptions who appeared to struggle with completing tasks ‘on
time’. The teachers assisted the children in these tasks where necessary.
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3.1.3 Australian Site 1 (A1)
A1 is a co-educational Early Learning Centre (ELC) within a private girls

school. It is situated in a bright and attractive seven-year old building, next to
the Junior School. The location is a pleasant and well-off suburb, with
renovated ‘period’ housing and tree-lined streets. The teacher told me that the
staff were able to have a say in the design of the building. Talking to the
architects, they expressed a desire for features found in Reggio Emilia centres
in Italy, including ‘transparency’ between rooms and across the building, and a
large ‘piazza’ space with the individual rooms opening off it. There were also
the characteristic Reggio ‘ateliers’, specialist art spaces located and shared
between two rooms. Staff are Australian, with Australian qualifications. The
children come from affluent, middle-class families, with some diversity of
cultural background. The participating class were the ‘Platypus’ group of 4-5-
year-olds in their year before school.
Programme Philosophy
As well as being a PYP Early Years programme, the teachers are very much
inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach. The leading teacher talked of how she
felt that the staff were able to integrate the two approaches, as well as
addressing the Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework
(VEYLDF). The environment strongly reflected Reggio features in the activities
and approaches of the programme, the displays around the centre, and of
course the architectural design of the centre.
Indoors
The Platypus classroom, like all the rooms in the ELC, is bright and airy. It is
entered through the Piazza. On one side, a bank of windows looks out on a
long narrow gravel courtyard, lined with trees. At the time of the visit, these
trees were in blossom, and a table with art materials and blossom in a vase,
had been set up facing one of the windows. Other activities included a general
high work table, clay, art easels, construction materials (although no set of unit
blocks), story telling corner (with the Gruffalo book and dress ups linked to the
story), a book area, and an area dedicated to ‘letter writing to fairies’. As well
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as low child-sized chairs and tables, there is an adult-sized couch, two high
tables/benches, and adult-sized stools and chairs.
Outdoors
There are two outdoor areas used by the ELC. One is at the back of the block.
This is a newly developed area, covered in loose bark material with a range of
features including a cubby house, a rock climbing wall, sandpit, and a wooden
deck area. There are plantings of trees and bushes, and some plants in pots,
but all the plantings are quite small as they have only recently been planted by
students in another group. The group accesses this area by going out through
the Piazza and down a path. The teacher noted that she likes to take the group
out first thing, when there is more chance of them being able to use the space
on their own.
There is a second outdoor area, just outside a door of the Bilby room, facing
the road. This space is also accessible from a door in another room, and so is
shared. It is called the ‘tranquillity garden’and has plentiful vegetation with a
tunnel of plants, winding paths, and nooks and crannies. There is a chicken
pen (and children save scraps for them), and a vegetable garden. There is
also a set of wooden unit blocks under cover just outside the other room.
Researchers were informed that the Platypus group uses this area at particular
times during the week.
Programme
The day often starts outside for half-an-hour or so. Children then come in for at
least two hours, working on self-selected activities. During the morning there
are several whole group discussions on the mat, looking at the day ahead, or
reviewing what has happened. Children take responsibility for putting out their
own bedding for rest time after lunch. What happens after lunch is flexible, and
sometimes there is a specialist session such as music, or children may go
outside. On some days, there will be an ‘inside/outside programme, with
children having access to the ‘tranquillity garden’ accessible from their room
(teacher communication).
In the first data collection visit to A1, researchers observed that children
engaged in self-selected projects and activities. On a number of occasions, the
teachers were observed asking for children’s input on planning the
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programme. For example, in one group discussion, one of the teachers told
the children that they could work out for themselves how many should be in
the story corner at any one time, and how they would take turns. The teacher
also asked the group: “Are we still interested in writing letters to the fairies?”
(one child indicated they were) the teacher then asked the group: “Shall we
leave it out a bit longer?”.
In short conversations with the teachers through the day, such as when the
researchers asked for clarification of something that was happening, teachers
often talked of teaching and learning goals for the children (group and
individual). An excerpt from a researcher’s observation follows:
The teacher talked with the group about investigating

dinosaurs: “We need to have lots of experts on dinosaurs.
First we need to find out what we know about dinosaurs”.
Teacher then asks “Is there anywhere I can find a live
dinosaur?” After some discussion, the group eventually
concluded that you couldn’t—“Only fossils” said one girl. To
break up the group, the teacher asked each child where they
were going to work. Later the teacher talked to the
researchers about the children’s interest in dinosaurs. She
noted that the children had ‘done’ dinosaurs in the 3-year-old
group, but she wanted to see what they knew, so that she
could “take them to a higher level” with the topic.
3.1.4 Australian Site 2 (A2)
A2 is a church run, lower fee co-eductional school in a middle to outer area of

suburban Melbourne. It is located in 100 acres of bush surrounds that include
a lake. The Early Learning Centre at the school caters for children from 3-5
years of age in two rooms, offering full-time and part-time placements in
extended day programmes. The participating group were a class of 4-5 –year-
olds in the year before school. Families are predominantly of middle-class
background from surrounding suburbs. Staff were Australian with Australian
qualifications.
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Programme Philosophy
As with A1, the Early Learning Centre at A2 states that as well as being a PYP
Early Years programme, the teachers also follow the Reggio Emilia approach.
The school’s ELC Handbook also states that the programme is aligned with
the Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework (VEYLDF)
and the National Quality Framework (NQF).
Indoors
The ELC was located in two large, bright rooms, plus a large multi-purpose
space where specialist classes such as movement were held, and which also
held displays of children’s work. There were also a staff room, kitchen and
offices. An extensive covered verandah ran along one side of all the rooms.
Windows looked out on the outdoor space on one side, and on bush and open
countryside on the other.
The ELC4 room contained a number of tables where children were engaging in
various projects. There was a ‘stage’ area, enclosed by sheer curtains, with a
platform and seating. There was also an unusual indoor cubby house with two
levels, constructed of branches and sticks that children helped to build. Other
areas included easels and tables for art, a book area, a ‘tinkering’ area, and a
block area. There were extensive displays of children’s past and current work.
Outdoors
The two rooms shared a large outdoor area accessed via the verandah. This
outdoor area included plantings of trees, bushes, grasses, rocks and flowers.
There were also beds and pots of edible plants such as vegetables and herbs
that the children helped to look after. Other features outdoors included: swings;
climbing frames; large tyres; a cubby house; a set of outdoor blocks and other
construction materials; a carpentry bench; a large sandpit with adjacent water
tank; a compost bin; a frog bog; and paths that wound between bushes.
Children spent extensive blocks of time outdoors, and outdoor activites were
integrated into the programme.
As well as the ELC outdoor area, the staff and children also accessed the
larger 100 acre bush space surrounding the school buildings. Weekly
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excursions into the bush were a regular part of the programme, happening in
all weathers (except when unsafe). Family members regularly particpated in
these excursions
4. Researcher Observations: Analyses and

Comparisons of Programmes
The following analysis and comparisons of the participating programmes are
based on data collected by one of the researchers during visits to the four
sites, with assistance from another research team member and a Singapore
based research assistant. The researcher has many years of professional
experience as an early childhood teacher, and as an academic in early
childhood teacher pre-service preparation programmes. This means that she is
highly familiar with early childhood curricula and programmes, and how they
work. Her own educational philosophy and values reflect her background and
experience as an Australian early childhood teacher, with an emphasis on the
value of play-based learning, natural outdoor learning spaces, and the
promotion of children’s dispositions for learning through inquiry–based
learning, and curricula based on children’s interests. These values align with
the stated prinicples of the IB PYP Early Years Programme (IBO, 2013). It
needs to be acknowledged, however, that the researcher’s background may
have led to unintended subjective bias in the selection and interpretation of
data gathered in the Singapore context, and in particular from one of the
participating sites where there appeared to be more of an emphasis on formal
academic learning, reflective of the dynamics of the history of the programme
and a different sociocultural context.
In Singapore, the researcher, the other team member, and the research
assistant spent time over two days at each of the two sites. In Australia, the
researchers were able to spend four days at each site, in September/October
and November/December. While at each site, they made field notes, took
photographs, and made audio and video recordings. The researchers also
looked at programme documentation and conversed with staff as a way of
clarifying what was being observed, or by way of gaining further information
(Rinaldi, 2005). After discussion and consultation with fellow research team
members, the data was organised and analysed according to three main
themes: programme approaches, philosophies and goals; learning
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environments; and play and play-based curriculum (including play outcomes).
Through descriptions, narratives and visual data, the researcher aimed to
describe and give evidence of programme processes and outcomes in relation
to PYP principles and goals, and in relation to programme specific goals.
The Mosaic approach and associated visual research methods, represent

multiple perspectives or different ways of ‘seeing’. ‘Seeing’ in this context
involves more than mechnical apprehension, but is part of an approach that
acknowledges that ‘interpretation is part of the process’ (Clarke, 2010, p. 6).
The data analysis in this section represents the researcher’s ‘seeing’, her
interpretation and perspectives on what she observed. Clarke (2010)
describes how the researcher perspective is included in the Mosaic approach,
and how they can be ‘acknowledged as a meaning maker within the research
process rather than an invisible pair of hands or eyes’ (2010, p. 28).
It was decided to use photographs in the writing up of the findings in this

section, as a way of supporting and illustrating the researcher’s descriptions
and interpretations. This also provides the reader with their own opportunity to
‘see’ what is being described and interpreted, albeit through photographs that
represent both decisions about what was to be captured through the iPad
camera, as well as what has been selected to be used from the photographs
that were available to be used (Berger, 1972). The selection of photographs
was also circumscribed by concerns to maintain the confidentiality of both
children and schools.
4.1 Programme Approaches, Philosphy and Goals
4.1.1 IB PYP Early Years Programme
In conversations with researchers, staff at all four sites described their

programmes as firmly based in, and meeting the requirements of, the
philosophy and approaches of the Early Years stage of the Primary Years
Programme. This appeared supported by the programme documentation that
was seen by the researchers, and the evidence of projects and units of inquiry
observed in the learning spaces at the sites. A1 for example, had a display on
the wall of six posters for six Learner Profile Attributes (risk taker, caring,
inquirers, open-minded, thinkers, communicators). Children were encouraged
to place a star sticker on the relevant poster if they feel that they had
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demonstrated one of the attributes. There were a number of stickers on the
‘communicator’ poster, possibly because this was an attribute that was being
emphasised in project work at the time.
A1 also had posters and project books in the common piazza area displaying
information on the units of enquiry that the different groups had been working
on. For example, the participating preschool group had a display about their
unit of enquiry on ‘patterns’, explaining the ‘lines of enquiry’, photographs of
children working on the unit, and examples of children’s work. S2 had displays
on lines of enquiry based on the transdisciplinary theme of “how we express
ourselves”. This included photographs and children’s art work related to an
excursion that the group had been on, and their work with a local artist. At the
time of the researcher observations, A1 and S2 had the displays that most
explicity outlined programme activities and children’s work in relation to the
PYP terms and structures (units and lines of enquiry, transdisciplinary themes,
learner profile attributes, etc) (see Photo 1). S1 and A2 however, also showed
extensive displays of children’s projects and units of inquiry, and explicitly
linked these to learner profile attributes and transdisciplinary themes.
Photo 1. PYP display at S2
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4.1.2 Inquiry-based and conceptually driven curriculum
The taught curriculum of the IB PYP is described as ‘inquiry-based and

conceptually driven’ (http://www.ibo.org/pyp/taught/). Researchers observed
strong evidence of this pedagogical approach in the programmes of S1, A1
and A2, but less so in S2. At the S1, A1 and A2 sites, the daily routines
included whole group, small group and individual discussions where concepts
and issues were explored, and questions and provocations posed for the
children to think about and explore more deeply. These discussion were linked
to projects and units of inquiry that children were working on, had worked on,
or were about to start working on. Following are some examples of inquiry-
based and conceptually driven pedagogy observed at the sites.
Example: S1
Observation Day 1: Invitation Committee (1)
This group (5 boys) had been working over a number of days on designing and
producing the invitations for the Graduation Ceremony. In doing this, a number
of questions and challenges would arise for the group. On the first day that the
researcher was there, the group was grappling with questions of what
information was needed, and how that information would be presented.
The teacher posed questions, such as ‘What information do people need to

have?”. The group worked out that invitation recipients would need information
about place, time, date, etc. At that time, each boy appeared to be writing up
their own version of the invitation. Questions about the spelling of words would
arise, and teachers would assist the children to work out the correct spelling by
sounding out the words. One boy was observed sounding out the word ‘library’
to himself, writing ‘librery’.
Observation Day 2: Invitation Committee (2)
Work on the invitations continued the second day that the researcher was at
the preschool. Three boys sat a high table on stools with their teacher. The
question arose about whether the invitations should be formatted vertically or
horizontally, and a vote was taken by the three boys and the teacher. They
were deadlocked on the issue (2 votes to 2), and the researcher was invited to
provide the deciding vote. However, members of the group were not happy
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with this, and decided to take children’s votes only, which came out 2 to 1 for
vertical formatting. But, the group was still not happy, and decided to ‘ask
everyone’. After discussion between themselves about how they could record
the votes, they created a sheet on a clipboard, divided in two columns (one for
vertical and one for horizontal formatting). They then went round asking
children which format they preferred, and asking people to write their names
down in the appropriate column.
The teacher commented that it was interesting that the processes of deciding
this question about the formatting had become more important than the
invitation itself. He further commented that he thought this could become the
focus of an inquiry, as the children had been concerned recently with issues of
fairness and equity. The teacher also commented that there had not so far
been a lot of ‘primary sources’ for the current project on ‘Our World’.
Example: A1
The K4 group were doing a unit of inquiry on How the world works, focused on
the key concepts of Form and Reflection. The central idea was ‘The properties
of patterns help us to interpret the world’. The lines of inquiry were: the
properties of a pattern; where we find patterns; ways to make patterns.
As part of this unit of inquiry, children were asked to go and look for patterns in
the natural and built environments. In their documentation, the educators noted
that “Following on from our conversation yesterday about patterns, the children
came to school bursting with ideas about where they had seen a pattern and
where else you might find a pattern.”
As part of the unit, children also created their own patterns. As well as
documentation and displays of the patterns that children had created in various
media, a triangular space had been created in the room, bounded on two
sides by mirrors for children to create kaleidoscopes (see Photos 2 & 3) .
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Photo 2. The kaleidoscope created in the mirrored space at A1
Photo 3. Children working on creating a kaleidoscope at A1
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The researcher made the following notes:
Children are making kaleidoscope patterns. Teachers

decided rather than making individual kaleidoscopes (too
structured), they would make a big one with mirrors. Current
pattern (see photo) is a work in progress, over a week or
more. Note there is a sign up alerting other children that it is
a work in progress, and the teacher says other children have
respected that.
Example: A2
Some of the group were working on a long term project making nests. At one
point in the morning, they gathered for a group meeting and the researcher
noted the following discussion:
Children had made a ‘nest’ of chairs—“made it round”.
The teacher (T) asked “Are nests always round?”.
Child commented that one child was the mother bird and others were
babies—“We had to crack out of our eggs”.
T .”How would you do that?”
The children talked of using beaks.
T. “What other creatures come out of eggs?”
Children identified turtles, sea dragons.
T. “If birds use beaks to come out of eggs, how do sea dragons crack out
of eggs?” The children suggested they could use claws, scales, their
heads.
T. I see some of you have ideas. How could we find out?”
Children’s responses include: “On the internet”, “We could research how
do sea dragons hatch from their eggs”.
T. looks up on iPad, typing in search terms, asked children what would

be the first letter of ‘sea dragons’. Some children said ‘c’.
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T. “What else makes that sound—how about the sound in Siena?”
Children then responded “s”. T. noted that children had noted that sea
dragons are also called sea monkeys. Children were excited to see a
photo of ‘leafy sea dragons’ on the iPad.
T. reading from iPad: “…called leafy because their appendages—their

legs and things—look like leaves”
One child mentioned sea horses.
T. “Are sea horses the same as sea dragons?”
T. “Why are they called sea dragons? Is it because they look like
dragons? Do you think they look like dragons?”
After some further discussion the group broke up with a teacher working with
four children, continuing to look at information on the iPad. The children then
moved on to drawing sea monkeys based on pictures on the iPad.
Example: S2
As noted above, the researchers observed less evidence of inquiry-based and

concept driven pedagogy in the S2 programme. The programme was run
according to a timetable based on curriculum areas such as ‘Maths’ and
‘Chinese’. Researchers were also informed that at they time they were
observing the programme, it was a ‘revision’ week. At the time, researchers did
not observe evidence of current units of inquiry, nor did they see the sort of
inquiry-based group discussions or child-led activity that they observed in the
other three programmes. Following is an example of a researcher’s notes of a
‘lesson’ type session observed at S2, involving the whole class. While the
children showed good concentration during the hour-long session, and
exhibited examples of cooperation amongst themselves, the activity was
teacher-directed and focused on right and wrong answers. The children
appeared as focused but passive most of the time.
Maths Lesson at S2
The focus of the lesson was on revision of telling the time. The lesson
was conducted in the tiered bench area, and children stayed seated
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there throughout. After preliminary revision on ‘minutes past’ and
‘minutes before’, the teacher held a large clock, and moved the hands to
various times and asked the group to say what time it was (6.00; 6.30;
6.45; etc.). The teacher then asked them to go into groups of three, and
gave each group a clock. The teacher then said various times, and each
child in each group had a turn at turning the hands to the time said by the
teacher. The other children in the group were asked to check if it was the
right time, and to help each other get it right. Bonus points were to be
awarded for children who helped each other. At the end of the lesson,
the teacher set a problem: “If I go to the market and buy peaches for
$4.60, and bananas for $5.00, how much money have I spent?”. Some of
the children answered correctly $9.60.
4.1.3 Inquiry-based learning and the importance of relationships
Inquiry based and conceptually-driven learning aligns with the focus on

relationships in the Early Years, as enunciated in the Early Years Resource
published by IBO (2013). The relationships focus derives from the sociocultural
co-constructivist approach that accounts for family, community and cultural
contexts, and acknowledges the important role of relationships in children’s
learning. This leads to an emphasis on collaborative learning between children
and educators, based on children’s interests and the use of teaching strategies
such as sustained shared thinking. Sustained shared thinking is defined as:
an episode in which two or more individuals ‘work together’ in

an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept,
evaluate activities, extend a narrative etc. Both parties must
contribute to the thinking and it must develop and extend.
(Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002)
Researchers observed an example of children working together to complete a

task during a Mandarin lesson at S2:
Mandarin Lesson S2
This was conducted in the tiered bench area, and had a focus on creating
sentences. The Mandarin teacher had some children at the front, and stuck
paper with Chinese characters on their backs. The other children then had to
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organize the children at the front, so that the characters on their backs made
sentences. It was presented as a game, and children were laughing. The
lesson finished with children writing out sentences in Mandarin, on a sheet with
Chinese characters to be copied.
Researchers observed many examples of collaborative learning based on

children’s interests, sustained shared thinking, children cooperating and
helping each other in their learning, and projects and units of inquiry that
acknowledged families and communities, and actively involved family
members. This was particularly the case with S1, A1 and A2. For example, at
the time of researcher observations, children at S1 were planning for their
families to attend their Graduation ceremony, and having to think about
organising chairs, food, invitations, etc. The teachers encouraged them to take
the perspective of the invitees in designing the invitations (“What information
do people need to have?”). At A1, a Father’s Night had just been held, where
the children made puppets with their fathers, which were displayed in the room
along with photographs. At A2, family members, including grandparents, went
along on the regular ‘bush walks’. This family involvement brought educational
benefits as parents came to understand and appreciate the benefits of
children’s experiences in the bush.
There were also examples of raising children’s awareness of their place in the
wider community. Researchers noted the following discussion at a group
meeting at A1:
Children brought in presents to go under the Kmart Christmas Tree (for

disadvantaged children). One child had brought in a writing set. The
teacher asked children to think about what age child would like the
writing set. Another had brought in two books. The teacher asked the
group if they thought the books were for boys or girls or both, and
whether they should be wrapped together. She then asked them what
age they thought the books were for. One boy said ‘Five’. The teacher
responded: “How old are you?”. The child answered “Five”. The teacher
then said: “Look at the words in this book. Could you read these words?”
The children said no and as a group decided that the books would be for
older children, 8-9 yrs old.
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At S2, documentation and photographs from an earlier unit of inquiry, showed
the group had travelled out into the city, and had also invited a children’s book
illustrator into the school, to talk to the children (see Photo 1 above).
The researchers observed many examples of children being encouraged and

expected to think of others, to be helpful, to show kindness and care, and to
contribute and take responsibility for tasks within the programme. At A2,
chidren took on the roles of ‘water monitors’, ‘light monitors’, ‘worm monitors’
and ‘compost monitors’. At A1, children were expected to correctly dispose of
their rubbish in three different rubbish buckets: one for rubbish, one for the
worms, and one for the chickens. The children at A1 were also responsible for
getting out and putting away their own beds.
Children would offer to help each other, work cooperatively towards a common
goal, and display care for each other. Researchers observed the following at
A2:
Drawing Table
Several children were at the drawing table with the teacher. The children were
drawing pictures of flowers and writing messages for their classmate Tom who
was in hospital. One child found Tom’s name labels and said he would glue
one on his picture. The teacher transcribed the children’s messages, including
these two:
“Dear Tom, I hope you get better. I love you. Love James”
“Dear Tom, Are you feeling better?”
4.1.4 The PYP and Reggio Emilia
Staff at all four of the sites stated that they saw their programmes as aligned
with the principles of the Reggio Emilia approach. The reflective, inquiry based
approach to teaching and learning that is the basis of the PYP programme is
also in line with the Reggio Emilia approach. Researchers observed numerous
examples of such approaches in the written, taught and assessed curriculum
in the programmes of S1, A1 and A2. The extensive documentation as part of
the planning, implementation and evaluation processes of these three
programmes, and the view of the child as an active learner, with respect for
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children’s thinking and ideas, could also be seen as reflective of the Reggio
Emilia approach within these three programmes.
The S1 and A1 programmes appeared particularly strongly influenced by

Reggio Emilia, especially apparent in the design and/or layout of their
builidings, and in their emphasis on expression through the arts, and a sense
of aesthetics and beauty in their programmes. Photographs of these sites
show, for example: carefully arranged displays of children’s papier mache
heads, with a quote from Malaguzzi about the 100 languages of children (S1)
(Photos 4 & 5); a Library decorated with beautiful objects (S1) (Photo 6); a
display of branches of blossom as an inspiration at an art table that mirrors the
blossom trees in a courtyard outside; (Photo 7); carefully arranged displays of
children’s artwork in a piazza area (A1) (Photo 8).
Photo 4. Paper mache masks made by children at S1
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Photo 5. Comments displayed on wall next to paper mache masks at S1
Photo 6. The Library at S1
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Photo 7. Blossom as inspiration at A1
Photo 8. Display of children’s artwork in the piazza at A1
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While staff at S2 also stated that their programme was influenced by the
Reggio Emilia approach, researchers did not observe explicit evidence of this,
as they did at the other sites. While there was evidence of children’s artwork
(mostly drawings), expression through the arts did not appear to have a major
role in the everyday programme of S2. For example, unlike the other sites,
there was not a a range of artistic materials readily accessible to children,
apart from basic drawing materials. As part of a line of enquiry ‘exploring art
forms’, children had been offered the choice of making ‘quilts’ or ‘treasure
bags’. However, the treasure bags appeared to have been decorated using
pre-cut and stereotyped materials, such as felt shapes and plastic eyes (see
Photo 9). While attractive, they contrasted with the child-directed, often long-
term and individual or group-based arts projects observed in S1, A1 and A2.
For example, in S1, a length of material was spread out on the floor, with
paints, glue, and a variety of materials. This material was laid out each day of
the week that the researchers were observing, and was regarded as a long
term project to be carried on over several weeks. Children could choose to
work on the material, and while educators sat with children and discussed with
them what they were doing, ensuring that needed materials were available, all
art activity was child-directed.
Photo 9. Treasure Bags’ made by children at S2
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4.2 Learning Environments
The learning environment, both indoors and outdoors, is regarded as a crucial
factor in children’s learning, both in the PYP Early Years curriculum (IBO,
2013) and in the Reggio Emilia approach (Millikan, 2003). The learning
environment refers not just to the physical space and resouces, but also less
tangible elements such as the social and emotional climate (Curtis & Carter,
2003). The learning environment can be regarded as reflecting a programme’s
philosophy, values and pedagogical approaches.
Observation of a learning envrionment can reveal for example how much

children are given choice and responsibility in the set up of a space, or the
choice of resources or equipment. It can reveal whether the outdoors and the
natural world are regarded as places where learning occurs. A learning
envrionment will reflect whether, for example, sustainability or a sense of
aesthetics and beauty, or play-based learning are valued in the programme.
The researchers sought to describe the learning environments of the four sites,
and analyse how they reflected and supported the programmes’ philosophies,
goals and pedagogical approaches. In this section, we describe how the
researchers understood the learning environments of the four programmes as
reflecting the programmes’ philosophies, goals and values in relation to three
areas: the role of the visual arts; evidence of child choice and ‘ownership’ of
the learning environment; and the value placed on the outdoors and the
natural world as environments for learning.
4.2.1 The place of the visual arts
The resercher observations of S1, A1 and A2 indicated that children’s learning

and expression through the arts, particularly the visual arts, was an important
part of all three programmes. Both S1 and A1 had separate atelier areas, an
abundance of art materials available to children, and carefully aranged
displays of children’s artwork.
There was also evidence that educators worked to foster a sense of aesthetics
and artistic sensiblity in these programmes. At S1, the K1 group were
observed working over several days on a colour wheel, working with the
specialist art teacher to mix their own paints to exactly match the shades and
tones on the wheel (see Photo 10). At A1, windows down the side of the room
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looked out on to an attractive courtyard with blossom trees in flower. The
teachers encouraged the children to use the blossom outside, and displayed in
vases, as inspiration for their art work. (see Photo 7 above)
Photo 10. Colour Wheel at S1
At both A1 and A2, there were numerous displays of artistic creations related
to units of inquiry, accompanied by children’s and educators’ commentary.
Many of these were 3D models in materials such as clay, wire, sticks, fabric,
tiles, etc that expressed children’s thinking about the concepts they were
exploring (see Photo 11).
At S2, however, apart from displays of children’s drawings and documentation

related to the visit of the children’s book illustrator as part of a unit of inquiry,
and the display of quilts and treasure bags, observations of the learning
environment suggested that, unlike the other sites, the arts did not play a
substantial and integral role in that programme.
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Photo 11. ‘Nests’ created by children at A2
4.2.2 Child choice and ownership
The observations of the learning environments at S1, A1 and A2, showed they
were organised to give children choices, and a ‘sense of ownership’ of the
environment, aligning with the goals and values of the PYP Early Years
Programme (IBO, 2013). Children at all three sites exercised choice and
decision-making through the units of inquiry, projects and play activities. At S1,
the older children were able to move freely within the building, including on
different floors, independently accessing the Library, for example, as part of
working to prepare for their Graduation ceremony. At S1, A1 and A2, the
researchers frequently observed the children deciding with their teachers on
what materials, resources, or activities, would be available for the day. At
these three sites, children were expected to make decisions and take
responsibility for the learning environment, including outdoors. For example, at
A2 children collaborated with a teacher to build new frames for climbing beans,
and took responsibility for watering plants. They also had free access to a
water tank in the sandpit, and were trusted to decide for themselves when to
run the tap into the sandpit, beng aware that the supply was limited.
Children at S2 did not appear to have the same opportunites for choice and
decision-making as at the other three sites. On the days of the researcher
observations, the teachers had a pre-planned timetable of activities that
children were expected to complete. Once children completed these tasks,
they were able to choose to engage with activities or materials that were
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available in the room, such as books, puzzles, drawing, etc. A teacher did
describe, however, how the children had been involved in a project where they
had decided on improvements that they wanted to see made to a stairwell
area, and were involved in implementing those. She pointed out to the
researchers where fluorescent strips had been added to the stairs on
children’s suggestion, as well as decoration of the stairwell.
4.2.3 Outdoors and the natural world
All four school sites had attractive outdoor spaces, and three of the
programmes (S1, A1 and A2) made extensive use of their outdoor space
through their planned teaching, as well as for children’s self-directed and free
play and exploration. At S1, the programme included regular blocks of time
outdoors, and children were free to utilise the large, expansive outdoor space.
On the two days of observation, the researchers saw children engaging in self-
directed play including: physical play such as running and swinging;
constructive play in the sandpit; and dramatic play in various places. One
group of girls had been involved in a project indoors on ‘Camping’, part of an
inquiry into extremes of climate. Outside, they started to integrate this project
into their dramatic play:
On the first day of the researcher’s observations, several girls from the
Camping Project Group, began to create a campsite outside, making a
pretend fireplace from a tyre, leaves, sticks etc. A teacher asked ‘What
could we use as a tent?’. One child remembered a small tent stored in
the gazebo in the other playground, and this was brought out. The girls
then created ‘food’ out of leaves and sticks, for cooking on the ‘campfire’.
One said ‘I need salt’, and picked up some sand and sprinkled it over the
pretend food.
The coordinator also showed researchers a structure in the vegetable garden

that children had created as part of a unit of inquiry (see Photo 12):
There is a well-maintained vegetable and fruit garden, with a scarecrow.

This garden was linked to a project on “Sharing the Planet”, focused on
where food comes from. Children were concerned about ‘making a
difference’ and the concept that ‘my actions cause environmental
change’. They started in their classroom then moved out to the garden.
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They made paper, created the garden, investigated the sustainable
collection of water, and worked on raising awareness. For example they
used rain gauges to measure and track water usage. As part of raising
awareness, they created a frame in the garden with buckets with holes in
them and rain gauges. This structure was used to demonstrate to
parents how the children had used rain gauges to assist the sustainable
use of water in the garden (see photo). The children themselves thought
of using the bucket with holes as a way of demonstrating what they did
for their parents.
Photo 12. The vegetable garden at S1
A1 children had access to two outside areas. One was a well-resourced but
fairly standard pre-school playground. A second outdoor area, accessed
directly from two of the rooms, contained trees and bushes, and a focus on
sustainability with vegetable gardens, compost bins, and a chicken coop (see
Photo 13). This area was called the ‘Tranquillity Garden’. Children take
responsibility for managing the collection of scraps for the compost and to feed
the chickens. Both teacher comments and programme documentation
indicated that the outdoors and the natural world were regarded as important
sites for learning in the programme, such as the search for patterns in nature
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as part of a unit of inquiry, and an investigation of frog anatomy in collaboration
with the science department from the Senior School.
Photo 13. The ‘Tranquillity Garden’ at A1
The programme at A2 had a large, well-resourced, and attractive outdoor area,

as well as access to the school’s extensive bushland surrounds. Children were
allocated reponsibilities for the outdoor space, such as looking after the
compost and the worm farm. The outdoors was also integrated into various
projects and units of inquiry, as observed by researchers on arrival the first
day:
Children had started working on a project on building nests. They had

gone outside to look for signs of nests e.g. droppings, a dead bird had
been found. Children worked on designing and creating nests,
discussing with teachers what materials birds would use to build their
nests. Researchers arrived as one of the teachers was with children
outside, collecting materials to build a ‘nest’ in a big tyre. Children had to
use only their ‘beaks’ (mouths) and ‘claws’ (toes) to pick up materials.
Children had bare feet (despite the rain and cold). Lots of laughing as
they tried to pick up and carry things with their mouths and toes. At one
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point a crow started calling and the teacher said “I think the bird is
interested in your nest”. Children then called back to the bird.
A unique feature of the programme at A2 was the weekly excursion into the
extensive bushland that was part of the school grounds. Children were
encouraged to take responsibility for preparing for these excursions, such as
by dressing appropriately (such as with waterproof boots and clothing, sun
hats, etc), and helping to prepare the trolley which carried drinks, snacks, and
other appropriate supplies. Staff educated the children on safety and other
protocols, such as ‘catch-up points’ on the paths, staying in sight of educators,
and helping with pushing the trolley. A regular feature of the walks is visiting
the chicken coop to interact with the chickens and collect any eggs.
Parents, siblings, grandparents and other family members also go on these

excursions (see Photo 14). Family involvement in all aspects of the
programme is emphasised in the A2 programme, and this includes the weekly
outdoor excursions. The teachers explained that some parents had initial
reservations about the children getting dirty, wet, etc on the excursions. But
after actually coming on the excursions themselves, they would tell her that
they now understood why the children got wet and dirty and how much the
children enjoyed the experience. The researchers had the opportunity to
attend one of the weekly excursions:
The group spent about two-and-a-half hours in the bushland, walking to

the lake. Although it was a hot sunny day, with high temperatures even
at 9.30am when the group set out, the children were happy and
enthusisastic about going. On arrival at the chicken coop, children
demonstrated care and skill in checking for eggs and handling the birds.
When the group arrived at the lake, older students from the school were
collecting tadpoles. Some of the ELC children joined in to look at what
they had found. Even after the older students left, the children continued
examining the water that had been collected from the lake.
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Photo 14. Children and family members setting off for the bush at A2
To the researchers, the programme at A2 had a special emphasis on the

outdoors, and appeared to place a high value on children’s engagement with
the natural world. This provided the children with some unique and enjoyable
experiences, illustrated by the following observation from the bushland
excursion:
The children were allowed to go into the lake. The researchers at first
thought that this was because of the heat, but a grandfather explained
that the children go in to the water even if it is cold. But perhaps because
it was so hot, most of the children were eager to go in. They ran down a
muddy slope and leapt into the lake (nearly all fully dressed), where they
laughed and splashed and immersed themselves in the water. One boy
came out dripping wet and beaming, ran up the slope and shouted with
glee: “That was the best thing ever!”
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Photo 15. Children at the lake at A2
While S2 had extensive and attractive grounds, the researchers did not
observe the outdoors being integrated into teaching programme in the same
way as happened at the other three sites. The timetable allotted certain times
for children to go outside such as half-an-hour in the morning, and then more
time late in the afternoon. While there was some fixed play equipment dotted
round, the researchers did not observe these being used, and did not see
other groups of children outside on the days that they were there. When the S2
group went outside, they used only a section of the outside area, some of it
surfaced in concrete, as well as a corner of the grass (see Photo 16 below).
Around 11.00am, children went outside. A group of boys went to the

storage cupboard and took out balls, hoops, and a scoop to catch balls,
and took them to the central lawn area to play. A couple of children rode
bikes. All activity was gross motor. Children independently packed up
when it was time to go back inside.
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Photo 16. The outdoor area used by the children at S2
The teachers at S2 did not mention any use of the outdoors in their teaching,
and researchers’ observations suggested that the outside space was regarded
as a place for children to engage in physical activity, and as a break from the
indoor programme, rather than as a site for learning that was integrated into
the overall programme.
4.3 Play and play-based curriculum

The researchers sought to observe the four sites to investigate the place of
play and play-based curriculum in their programmes. Observations focused on
the provision of opportunities for children to engage in play, such as in the set-
up of learning environments and provision of time and resources, as well as
‘play outcomes’ in terms of the frequency and quality of children’s play, in
particular their dramatic and constructive play.
The place of play in the programmes
The way early childhood learning environments are set up, indoors and
outdoors, reflects the view of the role of play in the programme, and
influences whether opportunities for children’s play are supported or
constrained. To engage in rich, sustained and complex play, children need
blocks of time, plentiful resources, including open-ended materials, and
supportive interactions with educators (Curtis & Carter, 2003; Dockett & Fleer,
1999; Fleer, 2013; Johnson, Christie & Yawkey, 1999). S1, A1 and A2 all
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demonstrated evidence of supporting children’s play, and of using play-based
curriculum and play activity for teaching and learning purposes. Their learning
environments were set up for play, and they provided time and resources for
children to engage in both child-directed free play, and integrated play activity
in their units of inquiry.
At S1, a generous space in one of the classrooms had been resourced with a
variety of construction materials such as blocks, sections of bamboo piping,
and industrial cast-offs such as tile samples. Children used these materials to
create a ‘car wash’ that then became the scene of some dramatic play:
‘Car Wash’
Children had created a ‘car wash’ from these materials. Later two boys
(B1 and B2 (a child with additional needs)) came along to rebuild the car
wash. They took a shiny object and calling it a ‘diamond’ hid it in the
hollow of a block, then pushed another block next to it, and B1 talked of
‘camouflaging ‘ it with the block. B1 explained to the researcher that it
was a car wash and ‘these are the guns’. When asked why guns were
needed, he replied that they were for ‘the zombies’. He also said that
‘this is our petrol station, more is allowed to come—it is under
construction’. (see Photo 17 below)
Photo 17. ‘Car Wash’ built by children at S1
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Both A1 and A2 placed an emphasis on play in their programmes. This aligned
with the play based approach outlined in the IBO online resource (IBO, 2013),
but also fits with the traditional valuing of play in preschool programmes for 4-5
year-olds in Australia. At A1, researchers observed that dramatic and
constructive play were regarded as an integral part of the planned curriculum
for each day, with children having access to space and materials for play
throughout the day.
Researchers observed particularly high levels of activity in dramatic play at A1.

This may have been related to an emphasis on ‘communication’ at the time,
and a line of inquiry on ‘stories’. A generous space had been set up around the
book corner, and costumes and props based on the story ‘The Gruffalo’, and
children were encouraged to act out the story, taking turns as actors and
audience. Groups of children were observed engaging in this activity in the
book corner for around two hours on the first morning of observations at A1.
A2 had similar provisions of time, space and resources for play and play-based
curriculum in their programme. As well as a ‘stage’, and a cubby house and
cooking area outside, there were strong provisions for constructive play, in
particular with wooden unit blocks, both inside and outside. On the observation
days, the block area inside was consistently occupied with groups of children
engaged in mostly collaborative block construction.
Teachers regularly interacted with children, talking about what they were
building and extending on children’s ideas. For example, a small group of boys
were creating a ‘city’ of skyscrapers, and the teacher asked them what their
city was called (‘Silly Billy City’ was decided on). She then encouraged them to
go to the writing table to write up a sign for their city, extending the play into a
literacy activity (see Photo 18). Children’s block constructions were regularly
allowed to stand for days at a time, and children would return to them and build
further with them.
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Photo 18. Children at A2 writing a sign for their block city
S2 differed from the other three sites in that the programme there appeared to
place little emphasis on play or play-based curriculum. While there were some
construction and other play materials on some shelves, and a neat ‘shop’ set
up for dramatic play in an adjoining corridor (see Photo 19 below), there was
no specific time allocated for play apart from physical play in the outdoors time,
and an hour at the very end of the day. While the shop was well-resourced
with ‘props’, it did not appear to offer children an opportunity to change the
layout, create their own props or materials, or even create a different
imaginative play space.
Photo 19. The ‘shop’ at S2
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Apart from the shop, there were no specific areas of the room set up for play
as part of the programme, as there was for example at A1 and A2. A
researcher recorded the following:
In preparation for Day 2, the researcher asked the teachers if the

children had a time of extended play. The teacher said that there was
free play timetabled between 5.00-6.00pm each day. The researcher
indicated that she would come back to the centre to observe then. The
teacher then queried the researcher as to why she was interested in
observing children’s play. The researcher replied that aspects of
children’s learning and development could be observed through
children’s play. The teachers offered to give the children an hour of free
play on the second day, noting that the children would be very happy
about that, and that they would be able to do that as they were not
involved in a project at the time. When the teachers announced on Day 2
that there was to be an hour of free play, the children cheered. The
teacher then said that the children should thank the researcher, and the
children applauded. During periods of free play, the teachers worked on
various tasks and did not involve themselves in the children’s play.
Play outcomes
The researchers made descriptive observations of the quality and level of

children’s dramatic and constructive play. According to theory, and to research
evidence collected over decades, children exhibit typical developmental
progressions in both their dramatic and constructive play. These progressions
are seen as both reflecting and supporting children’s skills in abstract thinking,
communication, and collaboration. A number of play scales and measures
have also been developed, as a means of assessing and evaluating children’s
play (Hughes, 2010; Johnson, Christie & Yawkey, 1999). In observing
children’s play, the researchers used one of these, Smilansky’s Sociodramatic
Play Inventory (Smilansky, 1968) as a lens for observing children’s dramatic
play. Smilansky’s Inventory can be used to assess the presence of the
following elements in children’s dramatic play:
• Role playing
• Make-believe transformations
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• Social interaction in relation to the play episode
• Communication
• Metacommunication to organise, plan and evaluate the play
• Pretend communication ‘in character’ as part of role playing
• Persistence
Four-to-five year olds can be expected to demonstrate the capacity to engage

in role play, transformations, social interaction, pretend communication, and to
be able to sustain play episodes for at least 10 minutes. They can also be
expected to be demonstrating increasing metacommunication skills, and to
collaborate with other children in developing increasingly elaborate scripts for
extended episodes of dramatic play (Hughes, 2010; Johnson, Christie and
Yawkey, 1999). It was these latter aspects, as sign of increasing maturity in
dramatic play, that researchers were particularly interested in observing in the
play of children at the different sites.
Forms of construction play, including block play with wooden unit blocks, are
common play activities in preschool programmes, and have been linked to
later outcomes in areas such as mathematics and literacy (Hanline, Milton &
Phelps, 2010; Wolfgang, Stannard & Jones, 2001, 2003). For the observation
of block and construction play, the researchers drew on traditionally
recognised ‘stages of block building’ that appear from infancy to around seven
years of age, as described by Hirsch in the 1970’s, based on work by Harriet
Johnson (Hanline, Milton & Phelps, 2010; Hirsch, 1975). Progress through
these stages is regarded as being linked to children’s experience with blocks
and construction materials (Hirsch, 1978). In the age period relevant to this
study (4-7 years), children with opportunities to engage in block and
constructive play, can be expected to be moving on from simple towers,
enclosures and unnamed structures, to increasingly detailed and decorated
structures that start to be representative of other other things, such as houses,
buildings, ships, vehicles, farms, etc. (Hanline, Milton & Phelps, 2010;
Wolfgang, Stannard & Jones, 2001). A further stage is where they represent
fantasy themes, and constructions begin to be used as a basis for dramatic
play. At the highest levels of development, children may create detailed
representations of real or fantasy structures. For example they may create an
airport, with control towers, runways, car parks and airport buildings, or a
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castle with towers, stairs and rooms (Hirsch, 1978). The researchers were also
interested in children’s capacity to communicate and collaborate in their
constructive play, as this can also be regarded as a marker of development in
both constructive play and social skills, and also aligns with Learner Profile
Attributes (IBO, 2013) .
Researchers observed dramatic and constructive play in all four programmes,

but there were differences in the quality and focus of the two types of play
across the sites. The most sustained and high level dramatic play was
observed at A1, based on the book ‘the Gruffalo’. Here children engaged in
lengthy episodes of play, some individual children for over an hour. The play
involved high levels of communication, including many examples of
metacommunication (“You have to walk fast”, “You need a deep voice”). The
children also collaborated in organising and structuring the ‘drama within the
drama’, in taking on the roles of performers and actors. These children more
than met the typical age expectations in relation to Smilanski’s dramatic play
inventory for 4-5 yr olds. Children at S1 were also observed engaged in
extensive dramatic play.
At S2, dramatic play was observed around the play ‘shop’ during the period of
play granted for researcher observation. This play involved the basic skills of
role taking, transformations, social communication and pretend
communication, but there was minimal metacommunication, and play was
sustained for only about five minutes at a time. In the A2 programme, children
were observed engaging in sustained dramatic play around the stage, but on
the days of observation, dramatic play was more often observed in conjunction
with block play.
As with dramatic play, constructive play was observed at all four sites, but also
varied in quality and focus between programmes. Block play appeared to be
particularly well supported at A2, and children exhibited sustained focus and
sophistication in their block constructions. They exhibited the highest forms of
block play, often not seen until 6-7 years of age. In one example, a researcher
observed several boys looking at a book containing a photo of a Tokyo
skyscraper (see Photo 20 below). They then proceeded to recreate this
building through block construction, returning frequently to the book, and
focusing on detailed features of the building, both from the photo and from
their imagination. This building also became a focus for dramatic play:
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Looking at photos in a book on skyscrapers, one child picks up some
cardboard shapes—“These could be on top” (points to features on the
top of the building in the book). “This is best building ever Jack”. “Yes,
we’re going to work all night”. “We still need long blocks. Look at the
instructions.” He then tells the teachers: “We’re making a big building.
That one” (Points to photo in book). Other boy says “Then we can make
that one”. Teacher points to the photo of the building and asks where
they’re up to. Boy points to halfway up the building—“We’re up to there”.
The teacher tells the boys the building in the book is in Tokyo. Boy says
“We haven’t finished it, it needs to be taller”.
Photo 20. Building a Tokyo skyscraper at A2
At A1, children also engaged in constructive play involving collaboration,

planning and dramatic play. On the first day of observations there, several
boys and a girl worked collaboratively for an extended time on constructing a
Lego pirate ship, with detailed features and associated dramatic play scripts
(see Photo 21 below). This had apparently been started the day before and
was put on a table to be continued the next day. The construction was
documented, and at group time the teacher talked of what good work had been
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done in the construction of the ship, how photos had been taken, and some
words recorded from the builders. Children at S1 also collaborated to use a
variety of materials to make detailed constructions used as a basis for
dramatic play (see earlier example of the ‘car wash’).
Photo 21. Building the Lego pirate ship at A1
The programme at S2 provided only a limited supply of unit blocks, plus some
sets of construction materials such as lego, duplo, mobilo, struts, etc. Unlike
the other programmes, there was no specific area of the classroom specifically
set aside for construction activity. The researchers were interested to observe
whether the limited materials and space for construction activity, and the
apparent absence of time allocated to constructive play in the normal
programme, would affect the quality of children’s constructive play. On the first
day of observation, when children were given some time for ‘free play’, the
researcher made the following observations:
The boys chose constructive equipment, such as blocks and mobilo. The
blocks were a small collection of small coloured wooden blocks. The
block structures were very basic. There was little extended collaborative
play apparent, apart from two girls who were arranging objects and
materials in a basket. Two boys made a simple car with mobilo. One boy
crated a number of items with mobilo. In the beginning of the play period,
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the boys playing with the wooden blocks displayed little construction
activity, and a lot of knocking down followed by super hero poses
(possibly part of representation of computer game—see later).
Eventually these boys settled down to more construction activity. A
couple of boys constructed a simple ‘launcher’ of several blocks, where
they would put objects on a block and flip the end, thus launching the
object resting on it. Another boy worked on creating a more complex
closed structure. Another child came along and knocked it over. I
wondered why he wasn’t upset at having his structure knocked over, but
I was later told by the research assistant that his structure represented
an ‘Angry Bird’ structure, as found in a computer game where the player
has to knock down structures to let the birds out.
This observation indicates that the constructive play of children at S2 was not
as collaborative or developed in terms of planning and symbolic representation
as that of children at the other sites. While there were some basic
representational elements to the structures (the ‘car’, the ‘Angry Birds’), there
was not the sophistication and detail, the links to extended narratives, that
were observed in children’s constructive play at S1, A1 and A2. Children’s
collaboration and communication was also much less at S2.
The children at S2 were given another hour of free play on the second day of
researcher observations. Interestingly, this extra time for play appeared to
enable the boys to extend their constructive play, and enage in more
cooperative group planning and building:
Two of the boys carefully recreated the ‘launching pad’ that they had built
the day before. A photo shows the launch pad, with a line of blocks
ordered by colour. Two boys worked together on and off over the whole
hour, building a mobile aeroplane and ‘flying’ it around the room. A
group of mostly boys used the very small ‘Plus Plus’ materials to create
effective spinning tops. The boys working on the launch pad then
experimented with launching different materials, such as blocks, ‘Plus
Plus’ pieces, etc. One boy suggested making a giant square with the
wooden blocks, and other children took this up and worked together over
several minute. They then made spinning tops and used them in their
square. One of them suggested making a bigger square, and they then
made two joined squares.
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4.4 Discussion
Researcher observations provided evidence that the programmes at S1, A1
and A2 were meeting goals for the Early Years Stage of the Primary Years
Programme, and were supporting the development in children of the relevant
Learner Profile Attributes. In all three programmes, teachers were observed to
be promoting inquiry-based learning, encouraged creative and critical thinking,
and engaged in challenging interactions and sustained shared thinking with
children. Children were active participants in the organisation of the
programmes, and projects and units of inquiry were based on their interests,
while also being vehicles for teachers to extend children’s thinking and
understanding.
In implementing their Early Years programmes, these three schools were also
observed to have a strong focus on what is described as the ‘three features of
effective early years education’ in the IBO’s ‘Early Years in the PYP’ resource:
relationships, environment and play (IBO, 2013). There was an emphasis on
collaborative group work, and of taking responsibility and showing care and
respect for others. Relationships with families were regarded as important, and
active family involvement in the programme was observed in action or through
documentation, particularly at A1 and A2. The environments of the three sites
were all of a high standard, both indoors and outdoors. These were
aesthetically attractive, reflected a sense of child ‘ownership’ and
responsibility, and provided spaces and resources that supported inquiry-
based curriculum. The outdoor environments were regarded as learning
spaces to be integrated into the curriculum. They supported children’s
understanding and appreciation of the natural world, and promoted awareness
and thinking about sustainability. The bush setting of A2 was a particularly
remarkable and valuable resource for staff, children and families at the school.
S1, A1 and A2 were all observed to use play-based curriculum, and to provide
environments and resources that valued and supported children’s play. This
produced positive play outcomes for children, and sustained, high level and
complex play was observed in all three programmes (Dockett & Fleer, 1999;
Fleer, 2013; Johnson, Christie & Yawkey, 1999). Interestingly, the programme
at A1 appeared to provide particular encouragement for children’s dramatic
play, while at A2 researchers observed particularly high level and complex
block play. This may be an example of how children’s play reflects the focus of
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their programme. At the time of observations, the programme at A1 was
emphasising the Learner Profile Attribute of ‘communicator’, and engaging in a
line of inquiry on ‘stories’. On the other hand, of the four sites, A2 provided the
most space and resources for block play, and teachers there were observed to
be very supportive of this activity and to take it seriously.
In their play, children at the S1, A1 and A2 sites demonstrated a range of

Learner Profile Attributes, and appeared as inquirers, knowledgeable, thinkers,
communicators, caring, risk-takers and reflective. Children were observed as
able to play both independently, and collaboratively with others. Teachers
were seen to observe children’s play, and to engage in sustained shared
thinking with children about their play.These three programmes also supported
children’s emerging literacy and numeracy. This was largely done through
integration of literacy and numeracy into projects and units of inquiry, and
through play-based learning. Challenges and expectations for literacy and
numeracy appeared higher in the S1 programme, than in the progammes of
A1 and A2. This could be explained by the older average age of the Singapore
children, as well as particular dynamics of the Singapore context. At A1 and
A2, for example, literacy was very much based in play or as arising out of
projects and lines of inquiry. On the other hand, S1 had established a
designated half-hour for reading, in response to concerns that children should
graduate from the programme with the literacy skills expected in Singapore
mainstream school entrants. Otherwise the researchers observed the teaching
of literacy and numeracy to be integrated into the inquiry-based learning that
underpinned the programme.
The researchers were struck by the differences between the programmes at

the two Singapore sites. In fact, the researchers who observed at the sites,
found that there was more similarity between programmes at S1 and A1 and
A2, then there was between the programmes at S1 and S2. This was despite
the the fact that S1 and A1 and A2 were in different countries and contexts
(international school vs local private school) and involved children of different
ages. S2 appeared to provide an effective, structured academic programme for
its learners, with an emphasis on formal and teacher-led lessons in literacy,
numeracy and Mandarin. There was evidence that children in the S2
programme were being given opportunities to develop Learner Profile
Attributes such as being caring, knowledgeable and communicators. However,
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compared to the other three programmes, there was less support for creative
and critical thinking, inquiry-based learning, and risk taking. The researchers
found limited evidence of PYP Early Years practices in the S2 programme, and
from their perspective the S2 programme resembled the formal lesson-based
approach typically found in mainstream, non-IB primary school classrooms.
At the time of observations at S2, researchers saw little inquiry-based learning,

minimal use of the outdoors as a learning environment, and an apparent
absence of play-based curriculum and limited opportunities for child-directed
play. The apparent lack of a role for play in the S2 contrasted strongly with the
integral role for play and play-based learning observed in the other
programmes. The lack of value placed on play appeared to be reflected in the
lack of opportunities for play, and the play outcomes of the children. Although
on average a year older than the children at A1 and A2, the dramatic and
construction play of the children at S1 was at a lower level, less sustained, and
considerably less complex than that of children at the two Australian sites.
Interestingly though, when given time to play over the two days of the
researcher observations, by the second day the children at S1 appeared to be
engaging in more collaborative and complex construction play, reflecting the
view that given time and opportunity, older children can quickly acquire
construction play skills (Hanline, Milton & Phelps, 2010; Hirsch, 1975).
The researchers also noted the pressures that the two Singapore sites faced
to prepare their children in formal literacy and numeracy. This was apparently
due to the expectations on children to be competent in these areas on entering
the Singapore school system. Staff at S1 talked about the challenges of these
expectations, as well as the apparent devaluing of play-based learning by
parents and traditional cultural attitudes prevalent in Singapore (Fung &
Cheng, 2011). The views of the staff at S1 on play-based pedagogy were in
contrast to the approaches of the teachers at S2. At S2 play appeared to be
recognised as something that children enjoyed, possibly used as a reward for
work accomplished, but was apparently not regarded as a basis for learning in
itself (Dockett & Fleer, 1999; Fung & Cheng, 2011).
Another interesting contrast between the programme at S2 and the

programmes at S1 and the two Australian sites, was in the use of the outdoor
environment. While all four sites had attractive outdoor environments, the
outdoor space at S2 was dominated by manicured lawn and several pieces of
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fixed play equipment. It did not appear to offer the same opportunities for
learning, play and child ‘ownership’ evident in the outdoor spaces at the other
three sites. There was no sense that the outdoors was an integral part of the
programme, providing a context for promoting the Learner Profile Attributes,
and creating opportunities for children to engage with the natural world and
use the outdoors as a context for play. According to the timetable, children at
S2 were provided with far less outdoor time than at the other three sites, and
staff appeared to regard the time as an opportunity for children to engage
primarily in motor activity, such as bike riding and playing with balls. It was
hard to see how either staff or children could access the necessary resources,
or have opportunties to ‘act on’ the space, to transform the outside
environment at S2 into a site for inquiry, critical thinking, creativity or risk-
taking. It should be noted that researchers spent only two days in the
Singapore sites, and that S2 was in what they called a ‘revision’ period.
However, the different set up of the outdoor environments at the two
Singapore centres indicated ongoing contrasting staff perspectives on the role
of the outdoors in the two programmes.
All four programmes declared that they were inspired by the Reggio Emilia
approach. S1, A1 and A2 all presented programme features and learning
environments that reflected the principles of Reggio Emilia including: the child-
centred and child-directed programmes; the crucial role of the learning
environment (‘the third teacher’); the emphasis on beauty and aesthetics; the
integration of the arts into the programme; the extensive documentation
(involving children); the utilisation of the outdoors; the valuing of play and of
play-based pedagogy. The principles of Reggio Emilia practice were not so
evident to the researchers in the S2 programme.
5. Measures of Literacy
In employing the selected Early Literacy in English Tools (ELET) the research
team was able to obtain a gauge of the overall literacy skills of the students
across the different sites and see how these levels might compare across sites
and national setting.
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5.1 Early Literacy in English Tools
One of the instruments utilised to assess children’s development level and to
indicate their learning outcomes, more specifically in literacy, is the suite of
Early Literacy in English Tools (ELET). Developed by Victoria’s Department of
Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD), the ELET, as part of
the Diagnostic Assessment Tools in English, are a suite of validated
assessment tools that enable teachers to attain additional information about
students’ learning strengths and challenges in English (State of Victoria,
2011a). The diagnostic tools are designed to be used with students working
towards AusVELS Foundation level.
The AusVELS reflect a curriculum incorporating the national Australian

Curriculum within the existing curriculum framework developed for the
Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS). The AusVELS is based on a
triple-helix structure of three interconnected areas of learning called strands.
These strands include: Physical, Personal and Social Learning; Discipline-
based Learning; and Interdisciplinary Learning. The strands are further
delineated into domains and dimensions 1, and each domain is structured by
eleven levels, Foundation to 10. These levels are broadly associated with the
years of schooling (refer to Table 2) and represent the typical progress of
students at key points in their learning development.
2
Table 2. AusVELS Levels
Nominal school level AusVELS Level Approximate Age (yrs)

Pre-school Towards Foundation (A) 4-5
Prep Foundation (B) 5-6
1 1 6-7
2 2 7-8
3 3 8-9
4 4 9-10
5 5 10-11
6 6 11-12
7 7 12-13
8 8 13-14
9 9 14-15
10 10 15-16
1
Refer to the AusVELS official website for further information: http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/
2
Table modified from available table from the AusVELS website:
http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Overview/Levels
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The ELET tools assist teachers to plan for, and monitor the effectiveness of,
literacy interventions throughout the school year and help keep track of student
progress in their development of early literacy. Initially, the tool considered for
this aspect of the data collection was the English Online Interviews (EOI).
Widely used by prep teachers in Victorian government schools, the EOI is
utilised to assess early literacy. However, due to unforseen IT issues, it was
not possible to use this instrument and the ELET was suggested by DEECD as
an appropriate alternative.
Comprised of nine assessment tools, the ELET are skill specific and target the
emergent literacy skills that develop reading, writing, and speaking and
listening capabilities. The suite of tools include: alphabet letters,
comprehending text, concepts of print, phonemes, listening and recall, oral
language, phonological awareness, reading and writing. The tools provide
students with small, achievable tasks that focus on one component of literacy.
These tools are designed for students progressing towards AusVELS
Foundation Level (ranges from ages 4-6 years old) and are divided into three
tiers: 1. Foundation Level A (beginning, lower end of Foundation Level), 2.
Foundation Level B (progressing, upper end of Foundation Level), and 3.
progressing towards AusVELS Level 1 (typically around ages 6-7).
Table 3 outlines the complete suite of tools and identifies the specific skills that
are assessed by these tools according to the three levels 3. Completing all
tasks within an assessment tool would provide an indicative AusVELS score
for a student’s literacy level.
For the purposes of this study and practicality, being mindful of time
constraints, three of the nine tools were selected to be implemented. These
included: concepts of print, reading, and early writing. As only a subset of the
suite of literacy tools were implemented, this must be considered when
gauging the overall literacy levels of the students across the research sites.
3
This table is publicly accessible through the following link, but note headings have been
modified for the purposes of this report:
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/support/Pages/date.aspx
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Table 3. Early Literacy in English Tools (ELET)
Diagnostic Skill * 1. Foundation Level A 2. Foundation Level B 3. Progressing towards AusVELS Level 1
Tool (ages 4-6) (ages 4-6) (ages 6-7)
5
Alphabet RLCL Identify letters of own name Name and give a sound for some upper Name and give a sound for all upper and lower case
letters RUCL and lower case letters letters
Comprehend RC Listen to Ella and Luke (book) Listen to The Magic Pants (book) and Listen to Crab and Fish (book) and answer questions
Text and answer questions answer questions
Concepts of CP Front of book Where does the story begin? Name and purpose of quotation marks & question marks
Print P Where is title Which way to go
Trace around a word/letter Name and purpose of full stop
Listening and CR Repeat sequence of digits Repeat sequence of digits Repeat sequence of digits
recall Repeat sentences Repeat sentences Repeat sentences
Follow simple directions with Follow instructions to construct a figure
common positional language
Phonemes PA No phonemes task at this Identify initial phoneme Segment words into phonemes
SW level. Identify same initial phoneme Delete phonemes
Identify final phoneme Substitute phonemes
Blend phonemes
Phonological WS Identify syllables in words Blend onset and rime Generate words that rhyme
Awareness Identify words that rhyme Identify words that rhyme
Oral OL:C Name objects in a picture Use positional language to describe Engage in conversation with the teacher with a picture
Language OL:R Describe actions in a picture objects in a picture prompt
Describe clothing in a picture - extent of utterance
- coherence
- vocabulary
- clarity
Reading RA Read environmental print Listen to text and match words back to the Read a story well supported by illustrations with a simple
RF text repetitive structure
RC Identify common sight words in text - fluency
- accuracy
Answer questions about the story
IB Early Years Project Final Report (April, 2014). Morrissey, Rouse, Doig, Chao & Moss (Deakin University)
65
Early Writing W Distinguish writing from Write high frequency words Spell some common words
S pictures and numbers Write and read back own sentence Write a dictated sentence
WB Write own name Write and read back own sentence
Write other known words Build words with common spelling pattern
Orally dictate a sentence
* The second column of Table 3 shows the skills that are assessed in the Early Literacy in English Tools.
The abbreviations are listed below in the order in which they appear in the table:
RLCL: recognition of lower CR: comprehension of retell RA: reading accuracy

case alphabet letters PA: phonemic awareness RF: reading fluency
RUCL: recognition of upper SW: segmenting words W: writing
case alphabet letters WS: words and sounds S: spelling
RC: reading comprehension OL:C: oral language WB: word building
CP: concepts of print conversation
P: punctuation OL:R: oral language retell
IB Early Years Project Final Report (April, 2014). Morrissey, Rouse, Doig, Chao & Moss (Deakin University)
66
5.1.1 Concepts of Print
The tool focusing on concepts of print assesses:
Students’ experience with books, knowledge about how to read books

and the specific terms used when referring to books and other print, such
as the ‘cover’ and ‘front’ of a book, a ‘word’ and a ‘letter’. It also assesses
students’ ability to read from left to right with a return sweep and from top
to bottom, their understanding of some other conventions in the
construction of printed texts, their ability to match written to spoken
words and to name and give a purpose for a full stop; and their
knowledge of other common punctuation (State of Victoria, 2011a).
5.1.2 Reading
The tool focusing on reading assesses:
Students’ ability to match print and spoken text in their immediate

environment, read aloud simple print texts that include some frequently
used words and predominantly oral language structures, use title,
illustrations and knowledge of a text topic to predict meaning and use
context, information about words and the sounds associated with them to
make meaning as well as using illustrations to extend meaning (State of
Victoria, 2011a)
5.1.3 Early Writing
The tool focusing on early writing assesses “the early development of students’
writing skills through a brief snapshot of some key skills” (State of Victoria,
2011a). For example, distinguishing words from drawing and numbers, being
able to write their own name or some other known words, attempts to spell
words and so on.
5.1.4 Tool Administration
An Administration and Marking Guide is provided for each tool providing

relevant information required to select, administer and mark the tasks. Across
both the two Singaporean sites and two Australian sites the appropriate level
for each tool was selected in consultation with the classroom teachers.
IB Early Years Project Final Report (April, 2014). Morrissey, Rouse, Doig, Chao & Moss (Deakin 67
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Appropriate times and spaces during the school day to administer the various
tools with the students were also negotiated with the teachers. In S1, the ELET
tools were integrated as another activity the students engaged with during their
work time periods. In S2, the ELET tools were incorporated as more of an
external activity where the participating students were pulled out of some after-
school activities. At both A1 and A2 the ELET tools were mostly integrated as
another activity the students engaged with during their work time, though in
some cases students were also pulled out of some specialist classes (ie.
music).
Each of the ELET tools were administered one-to-one and took about 10-15
minutes to complete all three instruments with each student. Although initially
there was some concern with regards to the age difference between the
students in the Singaporean and Australian sites (with the Australian students
being significantly younger), and whether the 10-15 minute time frame would
also be suitable, it was found that this timing also worked with the Australian
students. The tools were also administered by a single member of the
research team for consistency. The order of administration was as follows: 1.
Concepts of Print, 2. Reading, and 3. Early Writing. Below, Table 4 displays an
overview of student numbers by site, literacy tool and level of each literacy tool
administered.
Table 4. ELET Administration (by site, literacy tool and level)
Site: S1 S2 A1 A2
Number of 13 14 17 23
students
Average Age 6:03 5:11 5:06 5:05
(years: months)
Concepts of Print:
1.Foundation A 9 0 17 19
2.Foundation B 4 14 0 4
3.Level 1 NA NA NA NA
Reading:
1.Foundation A NA NA 17 21
2.Foundation B 6 8 NA 2
3.Level 1 7 6 NA NA
Early Writing:
1.Foundation A NA NA 17 23
2.Foundation B 6 8 2* 1 **
3.Level 1 7 6 NA NA
*Based on their performance at level I, 2 students were also assessed at level II.
** Based on teacher recommendation
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5.1.5 Overall Literacy Levels
In employing the ELET tools the research team was able to gain a sense of the
overall literacy skills students had across the different sites, as measured by
the selected tools. These literacy levels were also compared across sites (or
programs) and national setting to see whether any patterns emerged. Drawing
on how students at each site performed individually against the Administration
and Marking Guide for each tool, the general performance of each group for
each selected tool, and taking into consideration researcher notes on the
interactions with students during the administration of the tools, an overall
standing for each group was estimated. Again, do note that only three of the
nine ELET tools were administered in this study and that the estimated overall
standings for each site are based on these tools. These are summarised in
Table 5.
Table 5. Overall literacy levels (by research site and tool)
Site Concepts of Print Reading Early Writing Overall Expected

Standing Standing (by
age)
S1 Foundation A* Between Level 1 Between Foundation B

Foundation B (5- Foundation B (5-6 yrs)
(4-5 yrs) (6-7 yrs)
6 yrs) & Level 1 (5-6 yrs) &
Level 1
(6-7 yrs)
(6-7 yrs)
S2 Level 1 Between Level 1 Level 1 Foundation B

Foundation B (5- (5-6 yrs)
(6-7 yrs) (6-7 yrs) (6-7 yrs)
6 yrs) & Level
1(6-7 yrs)
A1 Foundation A Foundation B Foundation B Between Foundation A

Foundation A (4-5 yrs) &
(4-5 yrs) (5-6 yrs) (5-6 yrs)
(4-5 yrs) & Foundation B
Foundation B
(5-6 yrs)
(5-6 yrs)
A2 Foundation A Foundation B Foundation A Between Foundation A

Foundation (4-5 yrs) &
(4-5 yrs) (5-6 yrs) (4-5 yrs)
A(4-5 yrs) & Foundation B
Foundation B
(5-6 yrs)
(5-6 yrs)
*S1 students were all administered the tool at the first level (Foundation A) as per teacher
recommendation. However, the students are likely to be operating at a higher capability in this literacy
skill.
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Based on these approximations the site with the most developed set of literacy
skills was S2, followed by S1, with A1 next and A2 with the least developed set
of literacy skills (particularly in their writing). As mentioned earlier, this is likely
to be at least partially attributable to the older age of the students in the
Singaporean sites compared to the Australian sites. As shown in Table 4
above, students at A1 and A2 were almost a year younger than those at the
Singapore sites.
Overall, the literacy levels at all sites were fairly developed. Students from all
sites operated at literacy levels at or better than what would typically be
expected for their age groups. Pre-school students from the Singaporean sites
with the average student age of 6 were performing at Prep (5-6 years old,
AusVELS Foundation) or Year 1 (6-7 years old, AusVELS Level 1) levels. The
pre-school students from the Australian sites with the average student age of 5
years 5 months were performing at pre-school (4-5 years old, towards
AusVELS Foundation) or Prep (5-6 years old, AusVELS Foundation) levels.
Despite the age difference, the literacy levels of the students at the Australian
sites were not that far behind that of the students in the Singaporean sites.
These approximations are discussed further in the subsequent sections.
5.2 Singaporean Sites – S1
A total of 13 students participated in the literacy assessments in S1. Following

the classroom educators’ recommendation, all students at S1 were
administered the tools at the first tier (i.e. Foundation A) for the concepts of
print tool, and at second and third tiers (i.e. Foundation B and Level 1) for the
other tools. Overall, this group of students’ literacy levels were quite developed
with the majority of the students positioned between AusVELS Foundation
Level B and Level 1. This corresponds to performance expectations of
students between Prep (5-6 years old) and Year 1 (6-7 years old). With an
average student age of 6 years and 3 months, S1 students were performing at
and better than what would typically expected for their age (also refer to Table
4).
Based on the concepts of print tool, students were clearing the first and
second tier tasks, indicating that they were performing beyond AusVELS
Foundation A . One student undertaking the second tier did not know what a
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‘full stop’ was called, but knew what to do when she saw it in a text (ie. ‘You
stop reading’ or ‘End of sentence’).
With regards to the reading tool, approximately half the students were
demonstrating skills in the AusVELS Foundation Level. Of this group of
students a few indicated skills in the boundary between AusVELS Foundation
Level and Level 1. The other half of students at SI were displaying skills in
AusVELS Level 1. Almost all students in this half achieved all items, including
reading a short story with word-for-word accuracy, self-correcting skills and
fluency, and also responding appropriately to reading comprehension
questions.
In the early writing tool most of the students in S1 were displaying skills at
AusVELS Level 1. All students were able to write their names and all but 2
students could also write sentences, indicating most of these students have
developed beyond the AusVELS Foundation Level. Students who can write a
recognisable sentence that they generate, not by copying, and also read the
sentence with a recognisable correspondence are likely to be close to being
able to work in AusVELS Level 1 Writing in AusVELS Level 1 (State of
Victoria, 2011a). Some examples include: ‘I love you’, ‘this is the Bet school’,
‘the cat waNt oN the BaD’.
While most items in the early writing tool were achieved by S1 students, their
misses were around making new words with the same base (ie. words ending
with /at/ and /un/). These questions were included to identify the emergence of
some spelling strategies and the results suggest that perhaps this is an area
for development.
5.3 Singaporean Sites – S2
A total of 14 students participated in the literacy assessments in S2. Based on

the classroom educators’ recommendation all students at S2 also were
administered the tools at second and third levels (i.e. Foundation B and Level
1).This group of students’ literacy levels were also quite developed with most
students broadly operating at AusVELS Level 1, corresponding to Year 1
students (6-7 years). With an average student age of 5 years and 11 months,
S2 students were performing better than what would typically be expected for
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their age and demonstrated the most developed literacy skills among the
school sites (also refer to Table 4 above).
With the concepts of print tool students were indicating skills at the AusVELS
Level 1, with about half of them achieving all tasks. With regards to the items
students missed, some were still experiencing some difficulty in demonstrating
1-1 correspondence when the researcher was reading a short story out loud
and they were to follow along the text with their finger. Interestingly, in contrast
to some of the students in S1 who did not know what a ‘full stop’ was called
but recognised its function, some students at S2 knew it was called a ‘full stop’
or ‘period’ but had misconceptions about what it indicated to readers. Some
examples include: ‘You turn the page’ or ‘You keep reading’.
Based on the reading tool approximately half the students were demonstrating
skills in the AusVELS Foundation Level. From this group a few students
demonstrated skills in the boundary between AusVELS Foundation Level and
Level 1. The other half of students at S2 were displaying skills in AusVELS
Level 1. According to DEECD (2013c, p.1) students working at this level
should be able to easily identify 5 words they know in a set passage of text,
which these students were able to achieve. Items that were missed by these
students were more around the reading comprehension tasks, suggesting that
this group have some strengths (ie. recognising or decoding words) but also
have some areas to develop (ie. reading comprehension) in their overall
reading skills.
In the early writing tool most of the students in S2 were displaying skills at
AusVELS Level 1. All students were able to write their names and all but one
student could also write sentences, indicating most of these students have
developed beyond the Foundation Level. This is also supported by the fact that
all students achieved items 12 and 14 4, which would have indicated as
operating in the boundary between Foundation Level and Level 1. Some
examples of sentences include: ‘I Hav NiNJa Paur.’, ‘I liKce to Play everyday’,
‘I like to Pay fotBol ave daY’. Interestingly, in the sentences students were
requested to generate about half of the students mentioned liking play. This
reflects the findings on children’s perspectives in Chapter 10, where children
4
Item 12 requested students to write a dictated sentence (‘I went to the park’); Item 14
requested students to read aloud a self-generated sentence they had written down.
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were asked to write about their favourite activity in their programme, and
children at S2 wrote overwhelmingly about play.
5.4 Australian Sites – A1
A total of 17 students participated in the literacy assessments in A1. Based on

the classroom educators’ recommendation, all students at A1 were
administered the tools at the first and second tiers (i.e Foundation A and
Foundation B). Most students were generally positioned between AusVELS
Foundation Level A and Foundation Level B, corresponding to performance
expectations of students between pre-school (4-5 years old) and Prep (5-6
years old). Although this group of students’ literacy levels are not as developed
when compared to the Singaporean sites, this could be at least partly
attributed to the significant age difference between the children in the
Singaporean and Australian sites. With an average student age of 5 years and
6 months, and a wider age range than other sites (4 years, 7 months – 5
years, 11 months), A1 students were performing at or better than what would
typically be expected of their age (also refer to Table 5 above).
In the concepts of print tool students were indicating skills at Foundation A.

However, 10 of these students achieved all items and could possibly be
progressing closer towards Foundation B. Two students experienced difficulty
in tracing a word and a letter with their finger (on the cover of a booklet) and
this could be due to their developmental progress in their fine motor skills.
There was also some confusion between what a letter or a word was for a
couple of students. It is likely that this subgroup of students were operating at
AusVELS Foundation B.
According to the reading tool, overall the students demonstrated skills in the
AusVELS Foundation Level . All the students had successfully achieved the
first 3 items, signifying that they had progressed past Foundation A’. A total of
14 students achieved all items, with the remaining 3 missing only 1 item which
asked what the writing on the toilet sign said (‘MEN’ and ‘WOMEN’). The last
item would have indicated skills in the boundary between Foundation Level
and Level 1, asking the student to look at a picture of a ‘Danger’ sign
(deliberately selected to be visually busy to see if students can still identify the
word ‘danger’) and give a plausible explanation of what the other words might
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mean. However, unfortunately, in the preparation of the tool copies of this
particular page was accidentally left off and therefore not assessed.
Based on the early writing tool all students in A1 were displaying skills at
AusVELS Foundation Level B. A number of students indicated skills in the
boundary between the Foundation Level and Level 1 and one student seemed
to be working towards AusVELS Level 1. All students were able to write their
names and all but one student could also compose sentences (recorded by
researcher) to describe a picture selected from a book. The oral composition of
sentences reveals student’s understand of what a sentence is and the variety
of ways in which sentences can be constructed (State of Victoria, 2011a,
p.10).
Some examples of dictated sentences include: ‘They are so bored. They’re

really messy. They are really…their made up colors are falling off’ (S3 -2),
‘They tried to make themselves fancy but it doesn’t work. There is paint that is
their skin, but the rain comes’ (S4-3). Interestingly, about half of the students
were not able to write down words that they knew, but were able to compose
sentences that scored 1 of 2 5. For example: ‘They’re all wet in the rain and all
the animals are sad’ (S6-2). This seemed to indicate while some of the
students may have more limited skills in their writing, they have an
understanding of what a sentence is and some ways in which sentences can
be constructed.
5.5 Australian Sites – A2
A total of 23 students participated in the literacy assessments in A2. Following

the classroom educators’ recommendation all students at A2 were also
administered the tools at first and second levels (i.e. Foundation A and
Foundation B). Overall, the students of this group were positioned between
AusVELS Foundation Level A and Foundation Level B, again corresponding to
performance expectations of students between pre-school (4-5 years old) and
Prep (5-6 years old). Although in comparison to the other sites the literacy
levels at A2 were the least developed, however, with an average student age
5
The sentences dictated by students were scored using the following guide: 0- no sentences,
strings of words or phrases; 1- gives one or two simple sentences; 2- joins simple sentences.
with common conjunction, ‘and’, ‘and then’; 3- constructs a complex sentence, eg. includes a
phrase or clause.
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of 5 years and 5 months A2 students are still performing at what would
typically be expected for their age (also refer to Table 4 above). Although the
significant age difference with the Singaporean sites should be considered,
A2’s literacy levels are still generally lower than those at A1. Based on the
concepts of print tool students were indicating skills at the AusVELS
Foundation Level A. The majority of the students (19) undertook the tool at
level one and 7 students achieved all items. Most of the group can indicate the
title of a book and trace a letter with their finger. The items missed by students
ranged, though many of them missed the tracing of a word task. Similar to
students in A1, there seemed to be an unclear distinction between ‘word’ and
‘letter’ with some students responding to both requests by tracing a letter. For
the few students who completed the tool at level two, all of them missed the
items that would have indicated skills in AusVELS Level 1 thereby supporting
the notion that overall the students at A2 are operating at Foundation A level.
However, again the ages of the students need to be considered in terms of
their development progress.
With the reading tool, overall the students demonstrated skills at the AusVELS
Foundation Level B . Almost all the students had successfully achieved the
tasks signifying that they had progressed past Foundation Level A. The
majority of the group undertook the tool at level one and 16 students achieved
all items and a few indicated as operating at Foundation Level A.
Unfortunately, again the question that would have indicated skills in the
boundary between Foundation Level and Level 1 was not assessed due to
preparation error.
In the early writing tool most of the students in A2 undertook the tool at tier one
and all displayed skills at Foundation Level B. About four students indicated in
the boundary between AusVELS Foundation and Level 1. All students were
able to write their names and distinguish writing from numbers and scribbles. A
few students had difficulty distinguishing numbers when asked to point to
some numbers on the same page. About half of the students could also
compose sentences to describe a picture selected from a book. For example:
‘They were picking flowers. They were watering the garden and then it started
to rain and they got their umbrellas’ (S7-2).
Similar to an interesting pattern that emerged at A1, about half of the students
were not able to write down words that they knew, but were able to compose
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sentences that scored 1 or 2. For example: ‘When it rains and the sun goes
on, you put an umbrella so it doesn’t go on your head’ (S4-2), ‘There’s a tree
house and there’s a boy planting some seeds and a boy climbing the tree
house’ (S6-2), ‘There’s some people in the tree house and there’s someone on
the swing. This lady has an umbrella ‘cause it’s too hot’ (S16-2). Again, this
seemed to indicate that although some of the students may have more limited
skills in their writing, they have an understanding of what a sentence is and
some ways in which sentences can be constructed.
5.6 Summary
In utilising the selected ELET tools the research team was able to obtain a
gauge of the overall literacy skills of the students across the different sites and
see how these levels might compare across sites and national setting. Based
on the approximations developed from the groups’ general performance in the
selected literacy tools, the site with the most developed set of literacy skills is
S2, followed by S1, with A1 next and A2 with the least developed set of literacy
skills.
While the overall standing of the groups can be compared or ranked in this
way, it is important to note that there are also smaller nuances that make these
distinctions less clear. Upon closer inspection of the data some interesting
contrasts emerged. In general, it seemed while the students at S1 recognised
and could articulate the function of a period (ie. ‘You stop reading’ or ‘End of
sentence’), they did not necessarily know it was called a ‘period’. In contrast,
students in S2, who were assessed to have more developed literacy skills,
often identified a period as ‘a period’ but when asked about the function of
period there were some misunderstandings or misconceptions (ie. ‘You turn
the page’ or ‘You keep reading’). Also, in the Australian sites while there were
a significant number of students who were unable to write down words that
they knew, they seemed to have a good understanding of sentence
construction and were verbally quite expressive.
Broadly speaking, the literacy levels at all sites were fairly developed.
Students from all sites operated at literacy levels at or better than what would
typically be expected for their age groups. Pre-school students from the
Singaporean sites with the average student age of 6 were performing at Prep
(5-6 years old, AusVELS Foundation) or Year 1 (6-7 years old, AusVELS Level
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1) levels. The pre-school students from the Australian sites with the average
student age of 5.5 months were performing at pre-school (4-5 years old,
towards AusVELS Foundation) or Prep (5-6 years old, AusVELS Foundation)
levels. Despite the age difference, the literacy levels of the students at the
Australian sites were not that far behind that of the students in the
Singaporean sites. It is also worthy to note that although literacy development
was raised as an important concern by parents, particularly for some parents
in Singapore (refer to Family Perspectives in Chapter 11), students across all
sites were performing either at or better than age appropriate expectations.
As discussed, the differences in the literacy outcomes of children at the

Singaporean sites and the Australian sites, is at least partly attributable to age,
with the students in Singapore being older. However, the qualitative data from
researcher observations and educator interviews (see Chapters 3, 4 and 8)
also shows a greater emphasis on the teaching of academic literacy in the
Singapore programmes, particularly in S2 which had the most formal and
structured approach to the teaching of literacy. The researchers propose this
focus on literacy teaching as another factor in the between country differences.
The different approaches to the teaching of academic literacy in the

programmes in Singapore and Australia can be considered as reflective of
contextual influences. In Singapore, expectations that children will have
acquired literacy skills before entering school lead to cultural and parental
pressures for formal literacy instruction, as experienced by both Singapore
programmes (see Chapters 8 and 11). These pressures were an influence on
the Singapore preschools to include the formal eaching of literacy in their
programmes. On the other hand, the Australian educators, working with
younger children, did not see it as part of their role to teach academic literacy
within their preschool programmes. This position is reflective of the general
attitude of preschool educators in Australia in regard to the formal teaching of
literacy.
6. Developmental School Readiness
This section describes the quantitative tool used in the evaluation of children’s
performance on a measure of developing competency seen as reflective of
aspects of school readiness. The tool provides a general perspective on
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cognitive development, and children’s abilities to undertake a number of tasks
reflective of school readiness.
6.1 The Who am I developmental assessment tool

Who am I? (de Lemos & Doig, 1999) is a developmental assessment
instrument that asks children to write their name, copy a picture of a circle,
cross, square, triangle, and diamond, write some numerals, letters, words, a
sentence, and finally, draw a picture of themselves. Responses to each item
are scored from 0 to 4 based on research-based criteria.
Who am I? provides a child-friendly and reliable assessment of young

children’s development. In particular, Who am I? assesses the underlying
cognitive processes that under-pin early literacy and numeracy. The Who am
I? developmental and normative scales are based on the responses of some
4000 Australian children, that included children from both Government and a
large number of private schools across Australia. It therefore provides a good
basis for comparisons with the Programmes in this study.
The tasks that make up Who am I? fall into three categories: copying tasks,
symbols tasks, and a drawing task. The copying tasks are based on research
into copying tasks for assessing developmental level, and which have been
shown to be valid across different cultural groups. The symbols tasks are
measures of spontaneous writing that have been shown to provide good
indications of children’s growing understanding of the uses of print. The
drawing task is based on the use of drawings for assessing development, and
has a long history in educational research, where the stages of children’s
artistic development are well known.
Who am I? is designed to be administered to individual children, or to small

groups of children, without affecting the validity of the results. In the present
instance, the assessment was conducted either individually or in small groups.
For example, at A1 assessment was administered to groups of three children.
6.2 The Sample

Who am I? was administered to a total of seventy children across four
Programmes. Table 6 shows the number of children assessed in each of the
Programmes.
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Table 6. Sample sizes
Number of
Programme
children
A1 17
A2 23
S1 15
S2 15
Total 70
The sample of 70 children was divided almost evenly between the sexes (34
boys and 36 girls), and Table 7 shows the distribution of boys and girls
assessed at each Programme.
Table 7. Sample size by sex
Programme Number of boys Number of girls
A1 8 9
A2 13 10
S1 4 11
S2 9 6
Total 34 36
Of the seventy children, only eight were left-handed. This is approximately ten
per cent, and is below the normal proportion of 15% being left-handed.
However, of the eight left-handed four of these were boys and four were girls,
whereas the population proportion has twice as many boys as girls being left-
handed.
The age ranges of children assessed are shown in Table 8. The children
attending the two Australian Programmes were of commensurate ages as can
be seen in the table. A similar pattern can be seen in the age ranges at the two
Singaporean Programmes. However, the children attending the two
Singaporean Programmes were older, on average, than their Australian
counter-parts by at least half a year, although as can be seen in Table 8, there
was some over-lap in the ages of the four groups of children.
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Table 8. Ages by Programme
Average age Age of eldest child Age of youngest child

Programme
(years:months) (years:months) (years:months)
A1 5:06 5:11 4:07
A2 5:05 5:10 4:11
S1 6:03 6:08 5:08
S2 5:11 6:04 5:03
6.3 Scoring Who am I?

Children’s responses to Who am I? items are ranked on a scale of 0 to 4, with
four being the highest possible ranking. All responses were scored by one of
the Who Am I? authors using processes to ensure rater consistency with the
protocol set out in the Who am I? Manual.
A total raw score for each child was calculated by adding the item rank scores.
In addition to the total, three sub-scales also were calculated: Copying,
Symbols, and a Picture of Me. The total score was also transformed, through a
Rasch model analysis (Rasch, 1960), to provide interval data for statistical
analysis and reporting on a scaled score.
6.4 Analyses
As noted earlier in this report, for the purpose of anonymity each Programme
site has been given a code: A1 and A2 are the two Australian sites, and S1
and S2 the two Singaporean sites. The overall performance for all children is
shown in Figure 1, based on the (Rasch) scaled total scores. Note that the
Rasch scaled scores for WAI? range from –4 to +4, although in Figure 1 the
scale has been re-scaled for the purpose of clarity. In Figure 1 the children
have been ordered by their overall WAI? scaled score thus showing the range
of scores in an orderly manner.
It is interesting to note that the children in the two Singaporean Programmes

have a very similar pattern of response to the Who am I? items, whereas the
Australian children are more varied in their responses. Note also that, although
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A1 had fewer children (n=17) in the study than A2 (n=23), the scores of the
best performing children from A1 were very similar to those from S1 (n=15)
and S2 (n=15), despite students at A1 being younger than those at S1 and S2.
Figure 1. Scaled total scores on Who am I?
Scaled WAI? total scores
5
4
Scaled scores
3 A1
2 A2
1 S1
0 S2
-1
-2
Children
More detailed information on overall performances in the different Programmes

is in Figure 2 below, where children’s performance is represented by their
WAI? raw scores. Thus, the scores range from a raw score of 16 up to a raw
score of 44. The median (middle) raw score is shown by a ‘–‘ in Figure 2. it is
clear that A1, A2, and S1 have a greater proportion of their children below their
medians, but that S2 has the majority at, or above, its median. This indicates
that the S2 scores are less spread than those of the other Programmes.
In Figure 2 we see that the lower performing Programmes have larger spreads
of raw scores. A Mann Whitney U test on these data showed that A1 and A2
performances were not statistically significantly different from one another (U =
241.5, p = 0.208) and nor was the difference between S1 and S2
performances (U = 101, p = 101). This result is not unexpected when one
looks at Figure 1. Further, a Mann Whitney U test comparing the Australian
Programmes with the Singaporean Programmes showed that the difference
was statistically significant (U = 341, p = 0.003). Again, this is evident in Figure
1.
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Figure 2. Total raw scores on Who am I?
Who Am I? scores by Programme
50
40
Total Score
30 Max
Min
20 Median
10
0
A1 A2 S1 S2
Max 42 38 43 44
Min 22 16 31 36
Median 33 30 39 38
Programme
The raw score ranges were compared with the Who am I? norm sample (de
Lemos & Doig, 1999) which are based on the responses of some 4000
Australian children, in a range of prior-to-school settings. These norms provide
a means of comparing any sample to Australian children at a range of
educational levels. These comparisons, with the norm group, show that:
• A1 children’s performance on the WAI? ranged from a minimum raw score

of 22 to a maximum raw score of 42. This was slightly better than that of
the Australian norm sample of prior-to-school children, whose scores
ranged from 20 to 42. This latter raw score (42) is more typical of
Australian children in Year 2, which suggests that some of these children
are benefitting greatly from their prior-to-school experiences.
• A2 children’s performance on the WAI? ranged from a minimum raw score

of 16 to a maximum raw score of 38. While 16 is lower than the minimum
of the Australian norm sample of prior-to-school children, the A2 maximum
raw score (38) shows that the A2 children whose raw scores are in this
upper part of the raw score range are benefitting very much from their
educational experiences.
• S1 children’s performance on the WAI? ranged from a minimum raw score

of 31 to a maximum raw score of 43. While 31 is higher than the maximum
of the Australian norm group of prior-to-school children, the S1 maximum
raw score is better than best performing children of the Australian norm
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group at Year 2. Thus, the S1 children, whose raw scores are in this upper
part of the raw score range, are benefitting very much from their
educational experiences.
• S2 children’s performance on the WAI? stretches from the maximum of

the Australian norm sample of Year 1 children (35) to beyond that of the
Australian norm sample of Year 2 children (42). Given that the age of the
S2 children is lower than that of Australian Year 2 children, this result may
be evidence of the strong impact of their prior-to-school educational
experiences.
In summary, not only do S1 and S2 have overall higher performers, but also
they have a smaller spread of performance. That is, they appear to have
supported all their children to do well, rather than simply some of them. This, of
course, is exactly the same result as seen in International studies such as
Trends in Mathematics and Science Studies (TIMSS) and the Programme of
International Student Assessment (PISA), where Singaporean students have a
higher mean score and a smaller standard deviation, than students in Western
countries. However, there are at least two caveats: first, the Singaporean pre-
schools in this study have a mix of local and expatriate children, and second, a
group of younger children may be more likely to have a greater spread of
scores than those of a higher age. These factors would need further
investigation to be sure of the causes of these strong performances.
6.4.1 Sub-scale results
To provide a more nuanced picture of the WAI? results, outcomes for each of
the instrument’s sub-scales were examined. The first of these, the Copying
sub-scale, is based on children’s responses to the WAI? items requesting a
copy of a circle, cross, square, triangle, and diamond. The maximum score is
20.
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Figure 3. Sub-scale scores on Copying items
Copying sub-scale by Programme
40
Max
Score
20 Min
Median
0
A1 A2 S1 S2
Max 20 18 19 20
Min 10 10 14 13
Median 16 15 16 16
Programme
As can be seen in Figure 3, there is little difference between the results of

children in any of the Programmes. The higher minimum score for children at
S1 and S2 is most likely due to the higher age of these children. The summary
raw score statistics (Mean = 15.64, SD = 2.33) for the four Programmes fall at
the upper-most level of the Australian pre-school norm group’s distribution.
This is expected as the norm group had a mean age of 4 years and 9 months,
compared to the four Programmes’ mean of 5 year and 6 months.
The Symbols sub-scale includes responses to write your name, write some
numbers, letters, words, and a sentence. The maximum score is 20. In a
similar manner to the Copying sub-scale, the Symbols sub-scale results show
a slightly higher performance by children at S1 and S2 (see Figure 4). These
differences appear to be slight, and, again, age may be a contributing factor.
The summary raw score statistics (Mean = 14.89, SD = 3.99) for the four
Programmes fall close to the same as the Australian Year 1 norm group,
whose average age is 5 years and 11 months, nearly a half year more than the
mean age of the children in the four Programmes.
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Figure 4. Sub-scale scores on Symbols items
Symbols sub-scale by Programme
30
Max
Score
20
Min
10
Median
0
A1 A2 S1 S2
Max 18 18 20 20
Min 8 6 12 17
Median 12 12 18 19
Programme
The final sub-scale, a picture of oneself, has one item. The maximum possible score
is four. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the results for this sub-scale is that
more than 50% of children’s responses at S2 were 4, as shown by the median score
(see Figure 5). This result is interesting given the lesser emphasis on art experience,
apart from drawing, in the S2 Programme, compared to the other Programmes, as
described previously in Section 4.4.
Figure 5. Sub-scale scores on Picture of Me item
Picture of Me sub-scale by Programme
5
Max
Score
Min
Median
0
A1 A2 S1 S2
Max 3 3 4 4
Min 1 0 2 2
Median 3 2 3 4
Programme
Further, to put these results into a perspective, the percentage of top results was
compared with Australian normative information from the Who am I? administration
manual (p. 22), which is shown in Table 9 below. That is, results were compared
with Australian norm sample of children. Table 10 provides the results for each of the
Programmes.
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Table 9. Mean percentage of highest scores by Australian norm group (Adapted from
de Lemos & Doig, 1999)
Norm Groups
Task Pre-school percentage Year 1 percentage

(Mean age = 5:0) Mean age = 5:11)
Name 42 72
Diamond 11 53
Numbers 17 45
Letters 39 66
Words 11 27
Sentence 6 18
Drawing 3 3
For the Name item, A2 had results (70%) better than the Australian Pre-school
norm sample (42%). Moreover, as illustrated in Table 8, students in the
Australian norm group were, on average, only 5 months younger than students
at A2. This result is similar to A1, where 64% received a top score compared
with the Australian norm group (42%). Again, it can be seen that the age of the
Australian norm group was, on average, 6 months older than students at A2.
Meanwhile, 100% of children at S1 and S2 received a top score, which was
significantly above the Australian norm group of pre-school results (42%) and
better than the Australian norm group for Year 1 (72%). This is remarkable as
the mean age of the S1 and S2 children was 5:8 years, and the mean age of
the Year 1 Australian norm group was 5:11.
The draw a Diamond item results for the two Australian Programmes were
comparable (A1 12%, A2 13%) to the pre-school Australian norm group results
(11%), however the Singaporean pre-schools’ results (S1 33%, S2 27%) were
lower than that of the Year 1 Australian norm group (53%).
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Table 10. Percentage of top scores by Programme
Programme Name Diamond Numbers Letters Words Sentence Pic
A1 48 12 29 47 29 0 0
A2 70 13 22 43 0 22 0
S1 100 33 100 93 60 80 33
S2 100 27 100 87 80 87 53
The results for the writing Numbers item were similar for the two Australian
Programmes (A1 29%, A2 22%), and well above that of the Australian Pre-
school norm group (17%). The Singaporean Programme results (S1 100%, S2
100%) were better than the Australian norm group of Year 2 children (97%)
who are on average 7:5 years of age.
On the writing Letters item, the Australian pre-schools children (A1 47%, A2
43%) performed better than the Australian norm group of pre-school children
(39%), while the Singaporean responses (S1 93%, S2 87%) were better than
those of the Year 1 Australian norm group (66%).
The writing Words item produced a range of very different performances. A1

children’s performance (29%) was much better than the Australian Pre-school
norm group (11%), but A2 children’s performance (0%) much lower than the
Australian pre-school norm group (11%). S1 children performed much better
(60%) than the Year 1 Australian norm group (27%). S2 children had results
(80%) very much better than the Australian Year 1 norm group (27%).
The writing a Sentence item also produced a wide range of results. Children
from A2 were very much better (22%) than the Australian pre-school norm
group (6%), while A1 children’s performance (0%) was very much less than
that of the Australian pre-school norm sample results (6%). S1 had results
(80%) very much better than the Australian Year 1 norm group result (18%),
while S2 had results (87%) slightly better than S1. Both of the Singaporean
Programmes’ performances were commensurate with the Australian Year 2
norm group performance (83%).
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Finally, the Draw a picture item had no child from A1 or A2 able to succeed at
Level Four, the top score. This was less than the Australian Pre-school norm
group result (2%). S1 children’s performance (33%) was similar to the
Australian Year 2 norm sample (34%), and S2 children performed better (53%)
than the Year 2 norm sample (34%).
6.4.2 Comparisons between Programmes
In order to compare Programme results a series of non-parametric statistical

tests were conducted on the Who am I? data. First, the two Australian
Programmes were examined for any significant similarity or difference in their
children’s response patterns. The results of a Chi-square test, with five
degrees of freedom, was 10.57, with p>0.06, which is larger than the criterion
alpha value of 0.05. This result indicates that differences in the response
patterns of the children at the two Australian Programmes were not statistically
significant.
Second, the same test was used to examine the similarity, or not, of the two
groups of Singaporean children. The results of the Chi-square test, with six
degrees of freedom, was 1.38, with p>0.96 which is larger than the criterion
alpha value of 0.05. This result indicates that differences in the response
patterns of the children at the two Singaporean Programmes were not
statistically significant.
While these results show that the children in the two Programmes in each
country are performing in a similar manner, the question of difference in
performance between countries remains. Therefore, the data from each
country were aggregated to give an overall Australian and Singapore score for
the highest level of performance on the key items, and these were subjected to
a Chi-square test of significance. Table 11 shows these aggregate scores.
Table 11. Number of top scores by country
Country Name Diamond Numbers Letters Words Sentence Pic
Aust 27 5 10 18 5 5 0
Sing 30 9 30 27 21 25 13
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The results of this analysis was a Chi-square value of 20.27, with 6 degrees of
freedom, giving a p-value of 0.003. This is lower than the criterion alpha value
of 0.05, and therefore the Programme aggregate scores of the Singapore
Programmes are significantly different from those of the Australian
Programmes. An examination of the data suggests that this difference occurs
across all of the items.
Effect size comparison

Returning to the full dataset of 70 children, a Cohen’s d Effect Size measure
was calculated. This measure provides an unbiased, unit free, estimate of the
relative difference in performance of the Australian and Singaporean children
on Who am I? The result for the full dataset, Cohen’s d was 1.92 (Hedge’s un-
biased version 1.87), and for the reduced (age-matched) dataset, Cohen’s d
was 2.26 (Hedge’s un-biased 2.16). In both cases the Singaporean children,
as a group, out-performed the Australian children on the Who am I? items.
6.5 Summary
Generally, children in both countries performed at levels commensurate with,
or better than, expected for their age compared with the Who am I? Australian
normative sample. This indicates that, in general, these children were
receiving benefit from their socio-cultural background and their pre-school
education over and above the general Australian normative population.
However, these results were not spread evenly over the children in the four
Programmes, with children in the Australian Programmes appearing not to
benefit as much as those in the Singapore Programmes.
A possible explanation for these differences in outcomes between the

Australian and the Singaporean Programmes lies in the qualitative data
derived from the researcher observations and the staff interviews. This data
shows that S1 and S2 included a stronger focus on numeracy and literacy in
their Programmes (see Chapters 3, 4, 8 and 9), which may have contributed to
stronger outcomes on the Who am I?. Educators at A1 and A2 on the other
hand, did not see it as part of their role to teach formal academic skills to
children, and such instruction was not observed in their Programmes. This is in
line with the typical view of early childhood educators in Australia that the
formal teaching of academic skills is not usually an appropriate component of
pre-school programmes.
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It should also be noted, however, that children from S1 had the highest mean
scaled score, and the narrowest spread, of all the Programmes. While both S1
and S2 included elements of academic literacy and numeracy in their
Programmes, their pedagogical approaches were quite different. It was the
play-based inquiry-led S1 Programme rather than the more structured
academic programme at S2 that produced the best outcomes on the Who am
I?, suggesting that factors other than the teaching of basic literacy and
numeracy may also have played a role.
7. Teacher Assessment of Children’s Learning Skills

This section deals with children’s development of skills that underpin
successful learning. An on-line assessment tool was used, based on teachers’
perceptions of individual children’s learning skills. This tool facilitated both the
collection of the data and its analysis.
7.1 The Learning Skills Measure

Perceptions of children’s learning capabilities, such as work confidence (e.g.
raising their hand to answer a difficult question), persistence, organisation (e.g.
planning time), and work co-operation was assessed through the Learning
Skills measure that is part of the Social-Emotional Wellbeing Survey (SEW), an
on-line tool developed by the Australian Council for Educational Research
(ACER, 2013). The Early Years version of the survey was used, designed for
children in the first two years of school, in a typical age range of 5-7 years.
This version involves teachers completing 50 on-line survey items on aspects
of each child’s social and emotional development.
Results from the completed surveys can then be compared with ACER’s ‘All
Schools’ data which includeds results from more than 32,000 surveys (ACER,
2013). This tool provides data on children’s social and emotional development,
including in relation to learning, and for comparison to ACER’s data set on
larger populations.
The researchers were concerned, however, at the burden that would be placed
on participating teachers in asking them to complete a 50 item survey on each
participating child. It was decided therefore to inquire of ACER if it was
possible to conduct the survey using only items from the ‘Learning Skills’ area,
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as it was felt that skills in this area would be most relevant to a study
evaluating processes and outcomes of educational programmes. ACER
agreed this was possible, and participating teachers were instructed to
complete the identified Learning Skills items, and mark all other items as
‘Strongly Disagree’. These other items were not included in the analysis.
Because three of the four participating sites were not able to submit the
necessary minimum 10 surveys for each sex, to generate the automatic online
analysis and result, ACER also agreed to provide the researchers with the raw
data from the surveys, to enable comparative analysis between Programmes.
7.2 Analyses
The raw scores from a sample of 69 students were analyzed using a Masters
Partial Credit Model (Masters, 1982) a member of the Rasch (Rasch, 1960)
family of Item Response Theory (IRT) models. The Quest (Adams & Khoo,
1996) was used to perform the Masters Partial Credit Model analysis. This
analysis provides information about both the students and the items against
which they were rated. The Wright Map, Figure 6 below, shows the details in a
graphical form. The SEW has twelve items in the Learning strand, that are
interspersed among the other items, and are shown in Table 12. Each
statement is scored for how well the statement characterises the student.
These ratings run from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree). Note that
items 17, 22, and 26 are reversed. That is, the best ranking for these is
Strongly Disagree in Table 12 below.
Table 12. Item statements for Learning
Item
Item statement
Number
When learning something new or difficult, show independence by not

1
immediately asking for teacher help.
4 Want to do his/her very best.
Raise his/her hand to answer a difficult question even when unsure if the
8
answer is correct.
10 Put in lots of effort when something is hard to do until it is completed.
12 Put away materials, toys or other items in the appropriate storage areas.
Possess co-operation skills when working in small groups (e.g., doesn't insist
13
on going first, asks before grabbing things, shares).
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Display confidence when trying new activities, using new equipment,
15
exploring new places or when venturing out on a planned outing.
Become easily frustrated and give up when attempting a new task that
17
he/she finds to be difficult.
Be unaware of time (e.g., late in putting things away, being ready to start a
18
new activity).
22 Lose concentration easily when faced with demanding learning tasks.
Remember to pack his/her bag with everything to take home at the end of the
23
day.
Have a hard time settling down after participating in an exciting or physical
26
activity.
In a Wright map (Figure 6), there is a scale in logits on the left-hand side and a
vertical line in the centre dividing the Map into two columns. The left-hand
column shows the distribution of students along the logit scale (where an X
denotes 1 student in this case). The students are ordered from the least
positive overall rating at the bottom up to the most positive at the top.
On the right-hand side of the Wright map the items are ordered from the least
positive ratings (Strongly Disagree) at the bottom to the most positive (Strongly
Agree) at the top (remember that items 17, 22, and 26 are reversed). The
items are described on the Wright map by a numeric code as follows: the
number indicates the item number (Table 12, left-hand column) followed by a
period (.) and a rating numeral (1, 2, 3, or 4) where 1 indicates Strongly
Disagree, to 4 indicating Strongly Agree, but reversed, of course, for the three
reverse items. The point at which a student moves from a lower rating to a
higher rating is called a threshold and it is these that are represented on the
Wright map. Thus, there are no ratings of 1 visible, as rating 2 indicates at
what point on the scale the likely rating is 2, and no longer 1. For example,
22.4, represents the threshold where ratings change from 3 to 4 for item 22. As
this is a reversed item, 4 is the least likely rating to be assigned to a student:
that is, a rating of Strongly Disagree, (the student loses concentration easily
when faced with demanding learning tasks). Clearly many students do lose
concentration easily as only four students were ranked at this level.
The Rasch analysis has a unique characteristic in that both the students and
the rating levels are placed on the same scale. In effect, this means that it is
possible to estimate the likelihood of a student with a particular scale score
being rated in a particular category (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, or
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Strongly Agree) for each item. For example, a student with a scale score of 1
logit has a likelihood of having been rated as Strongly Agree for item 13,
Possess co-operation skills when working in small groups (e.g., doesn't insist
on going first, asks before grabbing things, shares), but is more likely to be
ranked as Agree (Rating 3) for item 1: When learning something new or
difficult, show independence by not immediately asking for teacher help.
Figure 6. Wright Map of IB students on SEW Learning strand
--------------------------------------------------------------
X |
4.0 |
|
|
XXX |
| 22.4
|
3.0 XX |
|
| 17.4
|
XX |
2.0 XXXXX | 18.4 26.4
| 1.4 8.4 10.4
X | 15.4
XXXX |
XXXX |
XXXXXX | 23.4
1.0 X | 13.4
XXXXXXX | 4.4
XXXXXXXXX | 22.3
XXXXXXXXX | 8.3 12.4 17.3
XXX |
.0 XXX | 10.3
XXXXXX | 18.3 23.3
XX | 1.3 26.3
| 15.3
|
| 13.3 23.2
-1.0 | 17.2
| 12.3 13.2 22.2
| 4.3
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| 8.2 18.2
| 15.2
-2.0 | 1.2 4.2 12.2 26.2
X | 10.2
----------------------------------------------------------
Each X represents 1 student
In fact, as the item ratings are positioned lower on the scale than the student’s
position, the likelihood of the student being given these ratings decreases. In an
opposite manner, item ratings on the scale above this student’s scale score, of 1
logit, are less likely to be assigned to that student, and the likelihood of non-
assignment increases as the distance above their position on the scale increases.
Thus, as we can see on the Wright map that only four students (X) are ‘in’ the rating
four area of the scale, thus, losing concentration is a common issue for most of the
students
7.2.1 Sub-group analyses
All sub-group analyses used item estimates anchored on all student data and thus
are all on the same scale. Descriptive statistics for the sub-groups are shown below
in Table 13.
Clearly, although the Singapore Programmes had a slightly better mean score (-
0.09) than the Australian Programmes (-0.29), the large Standard Deviations
indicate that these differences are not significant (Singapore 1.12; Australia 1.30).
These small differences are apparent, too, in Table 13 below.
Table 133. Means and Standard Deviations for all groups
Group Statistic Value
All Mean -0.21

SD 1.22
A1 Mean -0.30
SD 1.37
A2 Mean -0.28
SD 1.26
S1 Mean 0.03
SD 1.08
S2 Mean -0.21
SD 1.18
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Group Statistic Value
A1 + A2 Mean -0.29
SD 1.30
S1 + S2 Mean -0.09
SD 1.12
The student logit scores were sorted in ascending order to show more clearly
the patterns in performance. As can be seen in Figure 7, student performance
across all Programmes was mixed, and the majority of students from all
Programmes performed in a very similar manner. However, there are two
outliers, both Singapore students, whose scores were the same, and the
highest of all. In Figure 7 the symbols for these two students, a dot and a
triangle, are super-imposed.
Figure 7. IB students’ logit scores by Programme
3
2
1
A1
Logits
0 A2
0 5 10 15 20 25 S1
-1
S2
-2
-3
-4
Student
7.2.2 Comparisons
Table 14 provides details for the performance of both sexes on the SEWS
Learning scale, showing performances are not even across Programmes. For
example, the mean scores of the boys ranges from a low of –0.47 (S1) to a
relative high of –0.15 (A2). The girls, on the other hand, range from a low of –
1.06 (A2) to a relative high of +0.05 (S1). Not only do the scores differ between
the sexes, but also within them, with the girls from S1 having the highest mean
score, and the girls from A2 having the lowest.The question arises whether or
not any of the differences between sub-groups of students has any real
meaning.
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Table 144. Performance of Boys and Girls
Group Statistic Boys Girls
Mean -0.21 -1.09

All
SD 1.90 2.52
A1 Mean -0.32 -0.83
1.26 -1.37
SD
A2 Mean -0.15 -1.06
SD 1.11 1.06
S1 Mean -0.47 0.05
SD 0.60 1.26
S2 Mean -0.18 -1.10
SD 0.92 1.08
An Effect Size (Cohen’s d) was calculated for pairs of sub-groups and revealed
mainly small effects, with some exceptions. The Effect Sizes are presented in
Table 15, where the more interesting Effect Sizes are highlighted. Non-
highlighted rows are not discussed in the text. In Table 15, Effect Sizes are in
favour of the first named group or Programme.
The first highlighted row in Table 15 shows that the difference in performance
between boys and girls (over all four Programmes) is d = 0.39, which Hattie
(2008) suggests is likely to be teacher effects. That is to say, that overall, boys
appear to be benefiting more than girls from the Programmes, with the
assumption being that all educators were equally effective. Alternatively, it is
possible that the IB, however implemented, is providing a larger benefit for
boys, an issue that bears further investigation on a larger scale.
The next highlighted row, a comparison of Singaporean and Australian girls

shows a difference (0.49) in favour of the Singaporean girls. This is greater
than expected from teacher effects, and may well indicate that the socio-
cultural differences between Singapore and Australia are having an impact on
the results on the SEWS for the girls. Implementation of the IB Programme, for
example, may differ between the two countries, with a greater emphasis in
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Singapore on aspects of the SEWS such as Item 4 (Want to do his/her very
best) and Item 10 (Put in lots of effort when something is hard to do until it is
completed), having a particular influence on the girls in one or both of the
Singapore Programmes. Also, a further factor to consider is that the
Singaporean students are, on average, up to a year older then those in the
Australian Programmes.
Table 155. Effect Sizes for paired groups
Sub-groups Effect Size (d)
Sing vs Aust 0.16
Aust2 vs Aust1 0.02

Sing1 vs Sing2 0.21
Boys vs Girls 0.39
Sing vs Aust -0.04
(Boys)
Sing vs Aust 0.49

(Girls)
Aust2 vs Aust1 0.2

(Girls)
Sing1 vs Sing2 0.93

(Girls)
Aust2 vs Aust1 0.14

(Boys)
Sing2 vs Sing1 0.34

(Boys)
While the difference between performances of girls in the two Australian

Programmes is low, and possibly a teacher effect, the largest d value (0.93) in
Table 15 is that between S1 Girls performance and that of S2 Girls. This large
effect size indicates that the S1 IB Programme is having a much greater
benefit for their girls, on the assumption that socio-cultural factors for the two
Singapore Programmes are similar (it should be noted that S1 had a larger
number of expatriate children).
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The difference between the two Singaporean Programmes for boys, is again,
in the range of Hattie’s (2008) teacher effect, as the difference between S2
Boys and S1 Boys was 0.34.
A further interesting effect in Singaporean Programmes, is that the S1 students

are benefiting slightly more (d=0.21) from their experience than those students
at the S2 Programme. As with the girls, this suggests that the educators at S1
are providing a programme of more benefit for their students in terms of the
SEWS Learning scale. This is supported by the qualitative data collected,
which showed characteristics of the S1 Programme which included an
emphasis on inquiry-based learning, challenging learning experiences, and
encouragement of child autonomy and self-direction (see Chapters 3,4,8 & 9).
The findings on the perspectives of children at S1 on their programme and
their own learning, also indicated a programme that supported children’s
awareness and sense of efficacy in their own learning (see Chapter 10). These
findings contrasted with the qualitative data on S2, where the Programme was
more teacher-directed, less focused on children’s interests and less
encouraging of child self-direction.
7.2.3 Comparisons on a larger scale
Comparisons of the four Early Years Programmes with the All Schools results
is complicated by the fact that, for reporting purposes, there are set minima for
the number of students involved. In the case of this study, one Singaporean
and one Australian Programme did not satisfy the SEWS requirements for
automatic on-line generation and reporting of results. However, the combined
responses from each country do satisfy the requirements and so these
combined groups have been used to provide some idea of how well the two
countries compare with the SEWS All Schools results in the area of Learning
Skills.
In the following two figures (Figures 8 and 9), comparisons are shown between
the Australian pre-schools’ performance, the Singaporean pre-schools’
performance and All schools performance. Figure 8 shows that the Australian
pre-schools’ performance is different, and better, than the All schools’
performance. A Chi-square test performed on these responses showed that
the difference was significant (Chi-square = 11.94, df = 2, p-value = 0.003, less
than the α value of 0.05).
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Figure 8. Australian pre-schools performance against all schools
80
Level of Learning
70 Skills
60
50 Low
%
40 Moderate
30 High
20
10
0
Australia All
The same procedure was conducted on the results for the Singaporean pre-schools.
While the results were not quite as dramatic, it showed that similar to the Australian
Programmes, they too were perfoming significantly better than the All Schools
students (Chi-square = 6.35, df = 2, p-value = 0.04, less than the α value of 0.05).
Figure 9. Singapore Programmes’ performance against all schools
80
Level of Learning
70 Skills
60
50 Low
%
40 Moderate
30 High
20
10
0
Singapore All
Finally, a Chi-square test of Australian versus Singaporean performance

showed that, although different, the difference was not statistically significant
(Chi-square = 1.58, df = 2, p-value = 0.454, greater than the α value of 0.05).
However, as noted above, children in the four Early Years pre-school
Programmes in both Singapore and Australia are peforming better than the All
Schools sample.
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7.4 Summary
There would appear to be benefit for IB students in the four Early Years
Programmes in this study, although as shown earlier, the benefit is not even
across Programmes. All four Programmes are benefiting their students more
than are the overall schools. This is particularly interesting in light of the fact
that the targeted age range of the Early Years version of the SEW is children
in Prep to Year 1, around 5-7 years of age, whereas on average children at the
Singapore sites were aged 5-6 years, and at the Australian sites were aged 4-
5 years.
Comparing the Singapore and Australian sites, the composite Australian

Programme performance was better than that of the composite Singaporean
Programme.This contrasts with the results of the WAI and, drawing on the
qualitative findings of this report, this may reflect the different emphasis of the
Australian and Singaporean Programmes. Again it is interesting to note that
the Australian children were, on average, a year younger than the
Singaporean children. It is possible that different implementations of the IB
Programme, and social and cultural factors play a role in these differences.
What the findings do indicate is that, particularly for the very young children at
A1 and A2, a strong play-based and inquiry–led programme within a PYP
framework appears a significant support to the development of children’s
learning skills.
This finding is important in light of the findings from the educator, co-ordinator
and parent interviews (see Chapters 8, 9 and 11). These interviews indicated
an underlying concern for some parents about the effectiveness of the Early
Years programmes to prepare their children for formal schooling. The
interviews also suggested some pressure on educators, particularly at the
Singapore sites, to introduce more teaching of formal academic skills into the
Programmes. While educators were understanding and responsive to parent’s
anxiety that their children should demonstrate basic academic skills that they
(parents) perceive as essential preparation for entry to formal schooling, these
findings provide evidence that these Early Years programmes are equipping
their children with the basic learning skills essential to their future academic
success (Bernard, Stephanou & Urbach, 2007). By informing and educating
parents about the important role of these learning skills in preparing children
for school, and the success of their Early Years programmes in supporting the
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development of these skills, educators are in a position to allay some of these
parental concerns.
These issues need to be investigated further, and in more detail, as a caveat,

for the results presented here, is that the number of children, and
Programmes, was small. Clearly a larger study would provide a more refined
and precise examination of the development of children’s learning skills in
Early Years programmes. A further limitation was the lack of comparison
between Programmes in the same country. For example, it was not possible to
compare development of learning skills in the quite different Programmes at
S1 and S2.
8. Educator Perspectives
As part of building a ‘Mosaic’ picture of the four Early Years programmes, the
researchers sought the perspectives of educators on their programmes this
was done through interviews that explored educators’ teaching philosophies
and values, and their views on issues and challenges they encountered in
implementing their programmes.
8.1 Interview procedures

Two educators were interviewed from each site by a member of the research
team. Interviewees had a range of teacher and other qualifications and
experience. Teacher qualifications of interviewees included a three-year
Diploma of Teaching, four-year teaching degrees, and Master of Education
postgraduate degrees. Educators had acquired their qualifications from
universities or institutes in Singapore, the United Kingdom or Australia. They
were asked about their perspectives on the programme, their own educational
philosophies and values, and any challenges they felt they faced. The
interviews were ‘open-ended’ in that, while the researchers had certain topics
they wanted to explore with the educators, the direction of the interview was
also influenced by questions and issues that arose out of the conversations.
There were two educator interviewees at each site, designated as E1 or E2

(for example E1 at A2, or E2 at S1). The researcher conducted the interviews
in person at the sites, and the length of the interviews ranged from 7.48
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minutes for E2 at S2, to 56.19 minutes for E1 at A2. Other interviews ranged
between twenty-three and thirty-six minutes. Each interview was transcribed,
and then analysed and coded according to a number of themes. These
included: interviewees’ perspectives on inquiry-based learning; learner profile
attributes; the Reggio Emilia approach, and other relevant curriculum
frameworks; play-based learning; learning environments and child ownership
of these; academic learning and school readiness; and issues and challenges
they faced.
8.2 Inquiry-based learning

Educators at S1, A1 and A2 were experienced in working with the PYP and
inquiry-based learning, and all strongly articulated their support for it. They
also provided detailed examples of how they implemented this approach. They
talked of how they saw inquiry-based learning as both effective, and reflective
of their own educational values. The two teachers at S1 expressed what they
saw as the value of inquiry-based learning:
…it’s quite amazing in the sense that …all the curriculum areas permit
and encourage inquiry. It just makes it so much more powerful than, like
in traditional classes, like maths class, history classes, English class. E1
(S1)
…I think the PYP places the learner right at the centre…it says that we
believe that children learn best through structured inquiry…. E2 (S1)
The educators at A1 and A2 also saw inquiry-based learning as in tune with

their early childhood pedagogy of planning teaching and learning based on
children’s interests: ‘…and so the idea then is to reinforce the fact that if they
know something that they want to inquire about, you can do that’ (E1, A2).
The two educators at S2 talked of how they had only recently started to work
within the IB and the PYP, and with inquiry-based learning. They described
how since the school had adopted the PYP, they now had a say in their
planning objectives: ‘Before that was more like “these are the objectives…work
the curriculum into the objectives’ (E1, S2). The comments of E1 at S2
reflected her experience of transitioning into the inquiry-based approach:
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I grew up in Singapore and I’ve been exposed to the local system, so I
guess it will be a lot more top down, “Hey listen to me, I am your
teacher”….I guess if I wasn’t here I wouldn’t have seen this perspective
of what you want to do, what do your want to learn…
While supportive of inquiry-based learning, the educators did raise some

issues they saw in implementing some aspects of inquiry-based learning within
the PYP. Marrying the organisation of PYP units of inquiry, to an early
childhood pedagogy based on an evolving curriculum and children’s interests,
sometimes created tension for teachers. E1 at A1 commented that the PYP
units could be ‘quite prescriptive’:
I even mean things like having the freedom to, if the children have an
interest, to be able to devote the whole time to that instead of thinking
about, well we’ve got this unit of inquiry that needs to be begun, so we
need to introduce that at some time, and sometimes my unit gets pushed
aside a little bit while something else happens, it’s just that feeling in the
back of my mind, we have to do this… E1 (A1)
E2 at S1 had similar concerns:
These are going to be the concepts that drive [the inquiry]…how we’re
going to have this curriculum driven by these concepts plus stay true to
what we want to do…without becoming too directed with what we’re
trying to do, without saying, “Well, let’s talk about form…thinking about
form”, all the time, you know, how we do it kind of more naturally.
Several of the educators talked of developing strategies to work within units of

inquiry while still being actively responsive to children’s interests (group and
individual). These included ongoing fine tuning of the focus of inquiry, dropping
in and out of a unit of inquiry, or stretching it out over time. Overall there was a
sense that the educators strongly valued inquiry-based learning, saw it as
providing a valuable framework for teaching and learning, and as being in tune
with their own pedagogical values. However, they also perceived challenges.
8.3 The Learner Profile Attributes

Educators referred to the Learner Profile Attributes, throughout their
interviews. They related them to their examples of units of inquiry, as well as
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their teaching philosophies and values, and in examples of children’s learning
and development within the programmes. Several of them emphasised that
support for the Learner Profile Attributes was infused throughout their
programmes, both in their formal planning and in spontaneously arising
interactions and activities:
I guess the Learner Profile happens everyday and all the time. When we
have a project like that –yes we have a couple of learner profiles we
would like to focus on, but sometimes you don’t feel that it is that
specific. When you are with the children and you see something
happening it may not be the Learner Profile that you planned for, but it is
still happening. Sometimes it just takes you two minutes to say that “Hey
I like the way you are caring, or so and so is being knowledgeable about
this topic and so let’s learn from it”. E1 (S2)
…one of the main things that I’ve learned from PYP is the notion of
risktaking and promoting that in children, and we are active everyday in
promoting our risk taking, of children rolling down ramps and making
billycarts….the sawing and hammering…. E2 (A2)
E2 at S1 raised the question of how specific Learner Profile Attributes might

appear in young children in an Early Years programme. The following
discussion occurred in the interview:
E2 (S1) …if you think about something like reflection… it’s very high
order thinking, and I’m not saying the children cannot do that, young
children; I believe that young children can do anything, I really do. But at
the same time there needs to be some kind of way that you bridge the
gap between what they might do internally and how you’re going to shine
a lens on that thinking that they’re doing, how you’re going to say, “Okay,
so this is what you’re doing here; you’re being reflective…I guess what
I’m trying to say is that I’m trying to work out what reflective looks like at
this age.
Interviewer:Yes, so do you think they are reflecting internally, but it’s a

difficult thing for them to, you to…to articulate and you to document in a
way…?
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E2 (S1) Yeah, I think it’s both. I mean if you look at a child who’s
constructing blocks, for instance, and you watch them over a number of
days, and you watch how the block play is changing because they’re
gaining understanding about the way that blocks fit together and the
stability of towers for instance. Right, they’re being reflective, they have
to be being reflective to do that. But for me to find a way to show them
and talk to them, and have that conversation about what you’re doing
here is being reflective, has been something I haven’t, I feel I haven’t had
a skill to do yet. Not that I feel that that’s not possible, just, [laughs] and
that’s why I mean, the PYP to me seems so big and brilliantly big, but it
is so big that you just can’t do everything.
8.4 Reggio Emilia and the PYP

While all four sites identified their programmes as inspired by the Reggio
Emilia approach, only staff at S1, A1 and A2 discussed how they drew on
Reggio Emilia prinicples and practices in their planning. Staff at these three
sites were uniformly positive about what they saw as the value of the Reggio
Emilia philosophy and approach, which was an approach they had experience
with prior to working within a PYP programme:
I think what probably underpins everything that we do, or my belief, is the

Reggio Emilia philosophy. So it’s something I believe very strongly with
and have been working with it for probably fifteen years now, and have
had two visits to Reggio Emilia, so I think that’s the basis of my thinking.
And I guess that impacts on the way that we view the children, and how
we work with the children, and then the other things build on top of that…
E1 (A1)
All interviewees at S1, A1 and A2 stated that they were able to effectively
combine both a Reggio Emilia approach and the PYP in their programmes,
emphasising that Reggio Emilia was also an inquiry based approach. There
was a sense that the Reggio Emilia philosophy and approach both inspired
and supported them in implementing their Early Years programmes, even
helping to resolve some of the tensions that could arise between implementing
units of inquiry and following children’s emerging interests. For example, E1 at
the A1 site, described how the Reggio Emilia approach helped her in dealing
with what she saw as a degree of prescriptiveness in the PYP:
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…so our PYP units, which I guess initially are quite prescriptive in what
we need to do with the children, or what we’re inquiring about, we can
use our Reggio brains, if you like, in how we take that unit further…
Further on in this conversation, E1 at A1 also discussed how the PYP could

provide a constructive framework in conjunction with a Reggio Emilia
approach:
So I guess the PYP almost puts another layer on it, and if you think
about it, in Reggio Emilia, they do have research questions that the
teachers would begin with or any question that they’d begin with at the
beginning of the year, so maybe PYP is our way of having that research
and that beginning, that question. So that’s just sort of how it can go
together in another layer.
8.5 Working with Local Frameworks

Educators at both Australian sites are also required to work within the
Australian (EYLF) and Victorian (VEYLDF) curriculum frameworks (Australian
Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations
for the Council of Australian Governments, 2009; State of Victoria (Department
of Education and Early Childhood Development), 2011). Only E1 at A1
specifically talked about working towards these local frameworks within a PYP
programme. Although she perceived alignments between the PYP and the
VEYLDF, she also noted the challenges of simultaneously juggling the
demands of both the PYP and the VEYLDF:
I guess the thing that we’re facing with PYP and the introduction to the
Framework is how they can work together, because I guess of the extra
requirements of the documentation from the new Framework, as to how
we can marry the documentation from the PYP units with that framework.
So I guess that’s just one thing to consider, and how the Framework can
be reflected in the PYP? E1(A1)
E1 at A1 went on to say that she didn’t see it as a ‘big drama’ working with the
different frameworks and philosophies.
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The Singapore Kindergarten Framework (Republic of Singapore, Ministry of
Education, 2012) was not raised as a topic of discussion in any of the educator
interviews in Singapore, either by interviewer or interviewees.
8.6 Play-based learning

While all the educators talked about the value of play and play-based learning,
there were some variations in perspectives on the place of play in their
programmes. E2 at S1, appeared to regard play as an integral part of the
programme, and a context for supporting children’s development of the
Learner Profile Attributes (see interview excerpt above, where E2 discussed
children demonstrating being ‘reflective’ in their block play). The Australian
educators were the most vocal about what they saw as the benefits of play,
and the role of play-based learning in their programmes. E2 at A1 commented
that:
They’re only little ones and they’ve really got to play and be children
before they go to school’.
E1 at A2 stated that:
I think play is what they need to be doing, and that is where their
learning takes place. And you know whether or not it’s unstructured or
whether or not we put a provocation there, they’re still playing.
Educators at A2 also discussed how they worked to inform parents about the
value of play and play-based learning, including doing curriculum nights on
play. They also reflected and researched on play as a team: “…part of that
was our own research—how do we articulate what it means to us?”.
Educators at S2 talked of play as being important for ‘many learnings’ (E2) and
in particular for the learning of social skills (E1). However, educators at S2 also
perceived a dichotomy between play and learning, and a tension around
allocating time between them, that wasn’t apparent at the other three sites.
Educators at S2 described their programme as ‘packed’, so that play was
squeezed into any time left over, or added as a specific teaching strategy
where possible:
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I think the programme here sometimes is quite packed during curriculum
days that there is not enough time for them to actually you know free
play. So what we try to do is integrate play and like games and things
like that into the curriculum, so that they are playing as well as learning’
E1 (S2)
8.7 Academic learning and school readiness

Educators in the Australian preschools did not see it as their role to teach
children formal literacy and numeracy skills. Nevertheless, they noted that
parents could be concerned about their children learning basic academic skills,
and were prepared to be responsive to that. E2 at A1 stated that:
If a parent came to me and said: “I'm really worried because such-and-

such can’t count to ten and it’s really concerning me”, then I would go,
“Okay, we need to really work on doing that”, and then I would make it a
goal for the child simply because I know it would be important to the
parent…
Educators in Singapore also noted parental concerns, and there were

suggestions of some pressure from parents in relation to children’s academic
skills:
I guess sometimes the parents don’t realise that if the child is not ready
then the child is not ready. You can’t force a child to learn to read if he is
not ready. E1 (S2).
The Singapore educators discussed how they respected and responded to

these concerns from parents:
…we work in an environment here with children with parents who are
paying huge amounts of money, and they expect outcomes…what they
come in and ask us for is “Tell us about reading, tell us about writing, tell
us about maths”, which is probably the same all over the
world….because those are the ones that seem most important. E2 (S1)
Researchers were informed by educators at S1 that children entering the

Singapore school system were expected to have basic reading or writing, or
risk being placed in remedial classes on school entry. As a response to the
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dynamics of this wider cultural context, S1 had instituted a half-hour reading
session every morning, where children would select books and read with a
partner, with teachers monitoring the progress of each child. E2 at S1
described this programme as a success in terms of children progressing with
their reading in an organic fashion, avoiding formal structured lessons:
Often kids are really observant when they’re reading and they’ll notice,
they’ll read something and they won’t know why it is like that, and they’ll
ask you about it and then maybe what I do is I bring that back to the
group, I’d say, “Well, you know, he noticed the ‘phone’ was spelt with a
‘ph’ and we didn’t really, couldn’t really work that out.” And then we’d
have a conversation around that. So there’s some elements of phonics in
there, but not kind of, it wasn’t something, we didn’t sit around going,
“This is ‘a’,” every day.
E1 at A1 also valued the integration of basic academic skills in a natural and

organic fashion, rather than as formal structured lessons:
It’s not our role to teach the children to read, and it’s not our role to teach
the children to write, but if a child shows a readiness for it, we will not
formally teach them, but we’ll provide opportunities for them to extend
those skills further, and that’s what we can do. And even with some
children, I had one little boy two years ago who was reading chapter
books by the end of the year, so we just provided those books and
provided the materials for him. He couldn’t write, but he could read, so
just the opportunities for him to extend…
Educators themselves, particularly at S1, A1 and A2, were not concerned

about the development of children’s academic skills, and saw the children as
‘capable’ and well prepared to manage the transition to school. They were
confident in the effectiveness of their programmes, including teaching and
learning based on inquiry and play. They spoke of working towards informing
and persuading parents towards their view. The Australian educators also
noted that the expectations for children as they moved up into the Prep class
(the first year of school in Victoria) within their school, were not about putting
pressure on children for ‘school readiness’, but involved only very basic
academic skills such as being able to count to ten, or recognise letters of the
alphabet. Educators at all sites emphasised that prime objectives of their
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programmes were for children to be happy, and to develop a love of learning,
and inquiring attitudes.
It is interesting to consider the concerns of parents and the responses of

educators around early academic learning and school readiness, in relation to
the findings on children’s performance on the assessments undertaken of their
literacy, developmental school readiness, and learning skills. Children in all
four programmes were found to be performing at equivalent or higher levels for
age expectations on all three measures. These findings suggest that the play-
based and inquiry-led approaches of three of the Early Years programmes
were not disadvantaging children in their preparation for formal schooling. In
particular, children in the four programmes were significantly more likely to
show high levels of learning skills, the sort of skills that are crucial for school
success (Bernard, Stephanou & Urbach, 2007).
8.8 Learning Environments and Child ‘Ownership’

Educators at the Australian sites in particular, discussed their learning
environments, both inside and outside, and how they reflected their teaching
philosophies and approaches. Educators at both A1 and A2 sought to
encourage children’s sense of ownership and responsibility for the learning
environment. This involved allowing children to make decisions about how the
learning environment was organised, and what resources and materials were
available. E2 at A1 spoke of how she went to take down a decorative feature
involving two poles that had been hanging from the ceiling since the beginning
of the year. The children objected, and E2 came to a compromise with them
involving leaving up one of the poles:
But they weren’t very happy with that. Like we had done it. I said to [E1]
“We should have asked them first before we took it down”….we’ve got to
remember it’s their room.
At S1, E1 talked of how the school was a ‘community’. One of the children’s
research projects involved children walking freely around the school,
interviewing members of their ‘community’.
The educator interviews indicated that the outdoor learning environment was
seen as an integral part of the programme at S1, A1 and A2. Educators at A2
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particularly, talked in detail of how their outdoor environment was integrated
into their projects:
But I think that, talking about the environment and how it really supports
the inquiry, because they know the resources are there to support that
and there’s that culture that developed of the environment supports
inquiry learning. So because it’s nesting, there’s a lot of birds nesting
around, they went out looking for nests… E1 (A2).
In contrast, educators at S2 did not see time in the outdoor learning

environment as an integral part of the programme in the same way, but more
something additional that was fitted in where there was time in the academic
programme. E2 at S2 noted that “for [the children] going outside is a luxury”,
explaining:
Because of the limited playtime we don’t really have a fixed time for
outdoors. So usually it’s free play unless we…say “let’s go out to take out
some leaves and so sorting and stuff.
8.9 Relationships with Families

Educators at the Australian sites emphasised the important role of families in
their programmes. They also spoke of the respect that they felt for families and
their views (as did E2 at S1):
We have a really great relationship with our parents, so it’s definitely one
of the things we pride ourselves on here….we really appreciate their
feedback and value their feedback and we are open all the time, so they
can come in whenever they want and spend time here. So we definitely
work with them rather than two separate entities (E2 at A2)
Educators at both A1 and A2 described how they communicated with parents,

and kept them informed of what was happening in their programmes. They
also stated that they valued parent input, and provided opportunities and
encouraged parents to contribute, although parents did not always take this
up: “…hoped in doing it [journal] this way that parents would actually have an
input more into what we do and where we can go from here. But they tend not
to, it’s quite interesting” (E1at A2). Educators at A1 and A2 also discussed how
they tried to inform and ‘educate’ parents about their pedagogical approaches
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and programme philosophy, and explain why, for example, they are not
teaching formal literacy in their programmes:
And we talk a lot to families. We have an information night the year

before they come, and then we have a curriculum night in the first few
weeks….and in both of those we talk about the fact that you know
literacy is all around…it’s doing all of those pre-reading skills, all the
time, we are doing the beginnings of literacy (E1 at A2)
8.10 Summary
Educators at all sites valued inquiry-based learning as a basis for their PYP
Early Years programmes. There were some concerns raised, however, about
the effects of what one educator called the ‘prescriptiveness’ of the units of
inquiry within the PYP on educators’ ability to develop curriculum and projects
that were flexible and responsive to children’s evolving interests. This was one
area where educators saw the Reggio Emilia approach as having an
advantage. Indeed, educators at S1, A1 and A2 strongly endorsed the Reggio
Emilia approach (with which they were very familiar), and described how it
complimented their PYP programmes. Only one educator (E1 at A1)
specifically discussed a local curriculum framework (the VEYLDF). This
educator felt that the PYP and VEYLDF worked well together, but raised the
issue of having to meet two sets of requirements, such as in documentation.
She wondered whether the PYP Early Years curriculum could ‘reflect’ the local
framework and thus lighten the documentation load for educators.
Educators were confident that their programmes were effective in promoting

children’s learning and development. This included the role of play and play-
based pedagogy in the programmes of S1, A1 and A2. Educators at these
three sites were articulate and thoughtful in their rationales for their play-based
pedagogy. In contrast, educators at S2, while valuing play, did not see it as
integral to their academic programme. Opportunities for play activity were
limited to breaks in the programme, or time left over from structured
programme actitvies.
Educators faced some challenges around issues of teaching children basic

academic skills and children’s preparation for the transition to formal schooling.
At the Australian sites, educators noted some concern from some parents
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about teaching basic literacy and numeracy, and whether their individual
children were ready for school. Educators in Singapore faced similar parental
concerns, as well as pressures arising from expectations of children to be
reading and writing on entry to mainstream Singapore schools. Educators
described how they responded to these concerns by talking with parents about
the pedagogical bases of their programmes, and where appoprriate, by
providing children with opportunites to develop basic academic skills, within
the parameters of their programmes. At S1, this involved a formal half-hour
reading session each day, implemented in response to parental concerns, but
using what one educator described as an ‘organic’ and individualised
approach.
Educators at S1, A1 and A2 emphasised the importance of children having

‘ownership’ of the programme and the learning environment, in line with PYP
Early Years principles (IBO, 2013). They also described the significant role of
outdoor learning environments in their programmes, particularly the educators
at A2. Educators at the Australian sites also described the importance of
relationships with families, and how they worked to involve them in their
programmes.
9. PYP Coordinator Perspectives

While the educators working in the programs were interviewed to gain their
insight and perspectives, it was also felt important to seek insight into the Early
Years programmes from the perspectives of the program coordinators, who
have leadership roles in the implementation of the programmes.

Across the four sites leading educators in coordination roles were interviewed
by a member of the research team. In S1, S2 and A1 this was the Early Years
coordinator and in A2 it was the PYP coordinator. With the two Singapore
sites this was undertaken via telephone interview and with the Australian sites
this was a face-to-face interview. Each interview lasted approximately 45
minutes. The interviews focused on gaining their perspectives into what they
saw as the outcomes for children in this age range and how the Early Years
program from the PYP supported this, and how effectively they felt the goals
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and the learning attributes were being met. Each interview was then
transcribed and coded according to a number of themes.
9.2 Inquiry based learning

Each of the four coordinators saw the strengths of the program as coming from
the inquiry based approach that underpins the PYP Early Years stage:
I think that the inquiry model of learning is very successful for young
children’ (S1); ‘The inquiry approach has really supported the program
very well’ (S2); ‘It is inquiry based, and it’s not too prescriptive’ (A1); ‘It is
about inquiry, it is about building confident learners and engaged
communicators (A2).
It is interesting to note that while the coordinator at S2 felt that the inquiry
approach was really supported in their Early Years program, the participant
researcher notes that she felt this to be less supported at this site.
Two of the coordinators also felt that the PYP Early Years stage programme
supported child centred learning in that is built from and engaged with
children’s interests as a starting point for the units of inquiry: “the children’s
interests really do drive what you’re looking at’ (S1); ‘we base them (the units
of inquiry) on things that children are very naturally interested in” (A1).
The inquiry approach was seen as supporting and enhancing children’s

learning and development as ‘children have that responsibility of their own
learning …. (and) … are able to talk about their own learning. …They bring a
different level of confidence to their next environment’ (S1). Through the
inquiry based approached the children are able to ‘articulate with the kind of
questions that they want to ask… they are more forward, you know, with their
contributions and the ideas and all that’ (S2). The PYP Early Years stage was
identified by the PYP coordinator at A1 as also building attributes for learning:
‘The children are confident, assertive, they can make a decision, they
can select and choose, they don’t procrastinate ….They are …‘confident,
articulate, all those things I said before, assertive, capable … they could
make decisions’ .
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9.3 Learner Profile
The Learner Profile was discussed by each of the coordinators as key to the
development and implementation of the PYP Early Years stage, and at the
heart of the program (S1; A1). The Learner Profile was seen as instrumental in
building positive outcomes for the children:
With the Learner Profiles, they have managed to see this very huge
improvement in the children. You know, the way they speak and the way
they work with their friends … Children (are) displaying the attributes of
the Learning Profiles and we are using the language of the learning
profiles with them (S2).
When we’re introducing the Learner Profile it’s about just getting them
used to the language, so using any part of, as part of our conversations
in the classroom, such as “Oh, you’ve been such a risk taker today
because you did this” (A1).
The level of engagement that’s promoted with the adults and between
the children through the Learner Profile, you know they actively, they
actively promote the children being risk takers, being communicators
(A2).
The PYP Early Years stage as supporting children in building a sense of

community was highlighted strongly by the coordinator from A1. She saw this
sense of community as supporting the children, especially those in the three
year old programme to:
feel safe and secure… until they feel like they're part of the community,
until they feel safe, until they, we’re connected with them, until they,
we’re connected with them, until they’re connected with others, you
know, nothing else will happen. I think the PYP really reinforces that idea
of community, working together, that collaborative learning which is
something that we feel really strongly about.
9.4 Connections with the Reggio Emilia Approach

This sense of community features heavily in the pedagogical approaches
taken from the philosophy of the preschool programs in Reggio Emilia, and the
coordinators saw strong links between the Early Years Stage of the PYP and
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the Reggio Emilia approach. Many of the positive aspects of the PYP Early
Years stage such as the inquiry based learning, the sense of community and
the engagement with families are also key to the philosophy underpinning the
pedagogical approaches used in Reggio Emilia preschool programmes:
We take a lot of inspiration from Reggio … It’s a really seamless sort of

connection between that sort of collaborative nature and dialogue out of
Reggio Emilia and the PYP … but done with thought around how (this)
can offer support for inquiry learning for the children (S1)
I’ve been very influenced by the Reggio Emilia approach, which is very
inquiry based and child-centred …we have our morning meetings, so
creating that culture of respect, which is very Reggio as well (A1).
While the other two sites also drew on the approach taken from Reggio Emilia,
the coordinator from the second Singapore site (S2) felt that she needed to
know more about this and how it connects with the PYP, feeling that perhaps
some of the ways this approach had been used in the programme had been
lost since becoming an IB school:
our programme is very much influenced by Reggio. I have yet to really

figure out how connected IB and Reggio is. We want to find the
connection and you know, how both can be joined together… when they
were preparing the school for IB, I would say that we have actually put
aside the Reggio approaches, for the IB. (I want to) find the best way to,
without compromising either one, but I think it is not easy (S2).
The PYP coordinator at A2 also had some concerns with what she saw as the
nexus between the PYP and the Reggio Emilia approach. While she
considered the PYP Early Years stage fitted in well in many aspects with the
Reggio Emilia approach, she also felt there to be tensions between the two:
They (the educators) look at what sort of things that they need their
students to do without taking away from what the philosophies of the
Reggio are, you know things like using documentation to make children’s
thinking visible and having the environment as a third teacher and, you
know, the child, the image of the child as a powerful learner. One of the
tensions (that) has always been is that the child being at the centre of
learning (according to Reggio Emilia approach) and the documentation
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for PYP is that the learner profile is at the centre and not necessarily the
individual child (A2).
9.5 Engaging families

The study sought to gain an insight into how the coordinators viewed the role
of families in their children’s learning, and the involvement of families in the
program. Particpation by families is ‘desired in the learning process, especially
during the early years’ (IBO, 2013). Relationships with families is also a strong
emphasis of the Reggio Emilia approach. Previously the participant researcher
had noted that she felt within the sites that relationships with families were
regarded as important, and active family involvement in the programme was
observed in action or through documentation, particularly at A1 and A2.
However during the interview with the Early Years coordinator at A1,
relationships the programme had with families were not discussed. This was
also the case with the coordinator at S2, who related the role of parents to
evaluating the programme and noted that at the time of the interview she had
not included them as a source for feedback.
It was the coordinators at S1 and A2 who discussed the importance they hold
for families in greatest detail. The Early Years coordinator from S1 stated that:
We invite parent participation as much as possible. We think about the

possibilities for parents to be involved when we’re doing our initial
planning around units, we look at the resources and the people that we
think might be able to offer something in our inquiries, so that might be
parents that have specific talents, or coming to read stories in other
languages, or cooking experiences and things like that. And of course
they help out on the field trips that we plan for the children (S1).
At A2 parents and families are seen as having a significant role in the program:
They want to be involved but they don’t just want to be involved outside
the classroom, they want to be inside the classrooms, and they’ve got
the opportunity to do that. In the Early Learning Centre they have
everything from, you know, parents coming in and just working in the
room with them each day, so there’s often a parent in there, they don’t
just come in and cut up fruit and then go home they’ll they, you know
they’ll come in, settle the children, and then a couple of them will stay on
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for quite a few hours…They have their walk, their weekly walk, and they
have grandparents, neighbours, you name it. You know if you come on a
day when there’s a walk there’s a whole community that goes on the
walk’ (A2). At A2 they also have what is described as a ‘visiting families
programme’ – ‘The family might have something to share and so with the
visiting families program they’ll come in and then they might bring
something traditional from their family or if they’ve got a different cultural
things happening, they might bring things in and share it with the whole
group so that’s one way of really bringing them in.
The coordinator shared an anecdote about one child’s grandfather who taught
the children how to pick olives and put them in brine.
While the Coordinator at S1 believed that the parents were integral to the
programme, she also felt that this needed to occur within parameters posed by
the educators:
a lot of the time parents independently want to come in and do things in

our class, and sometimes we have to very carefully consider whether
that’s authentic to the inquiry that’s going on…we explain to them that we
would like it to be authentic, that we’re not into commercially produced
materials and those kinds of things… I think parents kind of take liberties,
that’s a very strong way of putting it, but sometimes it’s a bit above and
beyond.
None of the coordinators interviewed discussed a role of parents in decision

making regarding the units of inquiry. While each of the coordinators discussed
the value of the building on children’s interests in developing their programme,
parents’ ideas and understandings of their child’s interests were apparently not
sought.
9.6 Literacy and numeracy development

The inquiry approach through the units of work was seen as strongly
supporting the children’s literacy and numeracy development, and the children
were seen as articulate in their use of oral language: “The children are more
articulate with the kind of questions that they want to ask” (A1). The
coordinator at A2 noted that she doesn’t “really ever see any children who
come through the ELC into Prep that are not confident, articulate”.
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The PYP Early Years stage was seen particularly by the PYP coordinator from
A2 as allowing for more authentic opportunities for literacy and numeracy
development to be a focus:
all of their experiences are so experiential and real and because people
are engaging with them on a daily basis their oral language I find is
actually, you know I find the children quite articulate (A2).
The Early Years coordinator from S1 suggested that as a result of the PYP,
“they’ve got a real love for what they’re learning about”. The PYP coordinator
from A2 suggested that the pedagogies used in the PYP Early Years stage
should be an approach used in other grade levels:
Language and number, it’s in their daily language, in fact we could learn
from the Early Learning Centre in the classroom. We should be saying
use the language of mathematics all the time in your daily language.
It is the implicit learning of literacy and numeracy that was seen as building
authentic understanding:
they’ve got to find ways of recording things like, you know, who the
monitors are for the week and how many people are allowed in the
cubby and those sorts of things so you’ll find all those functional
language things that’s just done as a matter of course (A2).
Mandarin is a core language taught in Singapore schools. The coordinator

from S1 felt that the children transitioning into the Singapore schools needed
to have more targeted Mandarin lessons in their final preschool year, with a
specialist Mandarin teacher.
9.7 Issues and challenges

The Early Years and PYP coordinators interviewed overwhelmingly saw
strengths and advantages in the PYP Early Years stage for children. However
S2 had only recently gained accreditation as an IB school and so staff were
still grappling in some aspects with the transition. There was a sense that with
this school they were still trying to find the nexus between the academic
expectations of Singapore parents and the IB approach:
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(In) Singapore, we very much believe that children need some form of
skills, learning, in order to get them ready for schools … But other
parents may not prescribe to an IB curriculum at first, because they may
feel that the IB curriculum may not fully prepare their children for school,
for the skills and learning that the children are supposed to have
acquired, being a very academic’.
This pressure to meet academic expectations had also been noted by the
researchers during their observations at the sites. The coordinator from S2
also felt that while the teachers who had been with the programme from the
start were more able to take on board the PYP, “very new teachers may be
quite lost in the PYP”. However she also noted that “the teachers who are
familiar with the programme are the ones who are coaching the newer ones”.
9.8 Summary
All four coordinators valued inquiry-based learning. They saw the Learner
Profile as key to their programmes, and as building positive outcomes for
children. Educators at S1, A1 and A2 viewed Reggio Emilia approaches as
aligned with the PYP, and the coordinators from S1 and A1 also took that
perspective on the relationship between the two. The coordinator at S2
hesitated to make links between Reggio Emilia and the PYP, wanting to ‘know
more’. She noted that at S2, they had ‘put aside’ Reggio Emilia approaches
when moving to the PYP, and felt aligning the two would not necessarily be
easy.
Like many of the educators, the coordinators at S1 and A1 had been strongly
influenced by Reggio Emilia in their own practice. The coordinator at A2, on
the other hand, saw some tensions between Reggio Emilia approaches and
the PYP. In particular she saw the child as being at the centre of Reggio Emilia
approaches, whereas for the PYP the Learner Profile was at the centre. This
comment raises some interesting questions regarding Reggio Emilia
approaches and early childhood education pedagogy in general, in relation to
the PYP. It may be that many IB educators would envisage as their ideal an
Early Years curriculum that is both child-centred and effective in supporting the
Learner Profile. The researchers would argue that in fact three of the four
programmes involved in this study have already effectively taken on the
challenge of creating such a curriculum (S1, A1 and A2). It is also worth noting
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that in their interviews, parents expressed appreciation for the child-
centredness and individualisation of their children’s Early Years programmes
(see Chapter 11).
Only the coordinators at S1 and A2 discussed relationships with families, and

their involvement in the programme, at any length. The coordinator at A2 in
particular talked of how family involvement was important in all areas of their
programme. The S1 coordinator also welcomed family involvement, but
considered it needed to be within parameters and appropriate to programme
goals.
The coordinators at S1, A1 and A2 all saw their programmes as supporting

children’s development of literacy and numeracy. The A2 coordinator also saw
the ‘authentic’ literacy and numeracy practices in the PYP Early Years stage
as valuable approaches for other grade levels at the school. Overall, the
coordinators saw the PYP Early Years stage as having strengths and
advantages. There were challenges however, articulated by the S2
coordinator, who noted the tensions between running an inquiry-based
programme and meeting the academic expectations of parents and of the
Singapore educational context. She also commented that teachers new to the
PYP could ‘get lost’, and needed support.
In light of the positive outcomes on assessments of the children’s literacy,

school readiness and learning skills, it would be useful for the IBO to support
Early Years and PYP coordinators in articulating for families the pedagogical
rationale for the Early Years play-based and inquiry-led approach. Certainly
the coordinators of these four programmes will be able to share the positive
assessment outcomes from their own programmes.
10 Children’s Perspectives
One of the aims of the project was to gather data on children’s perspectives on
their Early Years programme. The researchers asked the educators in each
programme to ask the children to express what they liked about their
programme, and also what they had learnt, in drawings, paintings, writing,
interviews, etc. Both S1 and S2 provided drawings and writing about children’s
responses to these questions. Unfortunately, we did not receive any thing from
A1 or A2, possibly because of end-of-the-year demands on the staff.
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10.1 Child perspectives at S1
There were 17 responses from children at S1, most in the form of a drawing
with accompanying writing, usually an educator’s transcription of what the child
had said, but sometimes in the child’s own handwriting (see photo 22). The
responses indicated that the children had been asked to write and/or draw
about what they liked about the programme, and what they had learnt. The
responses were analysed according to what children ‘liked’ and what they had
‘learnt’.
Photo 22. Drawing and writing from a child at S1 on “What I liked’ and ‘What I learnt’
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Of the17 responses, all but one identified at least one thing they liked about
their Early Years programme, and all but two identified at least one thing they
had learnt in the programme. For the ‘like’ responses, 7 children identified their
graduation, which was an important event happening at the time. Interestingly,
several children (4) also liked the singing involved in the graduation. Three
children mentioned the exhibition, and two an excursion to Chinatown. Other
likes identified included PE (physical education), drawing, meetings, Jackson
Pollock (sic), making a cake, and private reading time.
Fifteen of the children described things they had learnt in the programme, with
most of them identifying more than one thing. A few children talked about
specific skills or content areas, such as learning how to jump, paint, sing or
draw. Most of the responses however, focused on inquiry, knowledge
acquisition, and self-awareness, and could be understood in relation to one or
more of the Learner Profile Attributes. Below are some examples of children’s
statements about what they saw themselves as learning from their EY
programme, with relatable Learner Profile Attributes in brackets:
…we learn more inquiry and to get answers (inquirers)
…how cars work (knowledgeable)
We share new things and share our ideas (communicators)
We leant about who we are and what we can do (reflective), and

‘Sharing the Planet’ and taking care of the planet (caring)…learnt about
what’s happening in the countries when we read the news
(knowledgeable)
We saved the planet by not wasting water and planting trees….(caring,

thinkers)
…learnt how to show what we learnt (reflective)
I leant how to bake. I learnt how to crack eggs properly. Learnt drawing
and learnt to draw desert. I did not draw desert before (inquirers)
We were learning about structures, we know all the structures on the

earth’ (knowledgeable)
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…learnt about painting (knowledgeable), learnt different people had
different perspectives (open-minded). I learnt to write by practicing (risk-
takers)
I loved the Exhibition and learnt not to be shy (risk-takers, reflective). I

learnt to work hard and do science and art (knowledgeable, reflective)
In summary, the responses of the children at S1 indicate that they enjoy the
learning activities in their programme, and that they are able to identify their
own learning, both of specific knowledge and skills, and in terms of the IB
Learner Profile Attributes.
10.2 Child perspectives at S2

There were responses from 11 children at S2, in the form of writing with an
accompanying drawing (see Photo 23). The children seem to have been asked
to respond to and continue a beginning phrase: ‘My favourite activity in school
is…’. The educators appeared to have transcribed children’s responses in
pencil, and children then wrote over the penciled words in texta pen. Unlike
S1, the children do not appear to have been asked to talk about what they had
learnt in the programme.
Photo 23. Drawing and writing from a child at S2 on ‘My favourite activity at school
is…’
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All but one of the children identified play as their favourite activity at school.
Four children identified the game of ‘corners’ as their favourite activity. This
was presumably played outside, as researcher observations indicated that the
indoor classroom at S2 was not set up in a way that would allow the sort of
physical movement involved in the game. In addition, those identifying
‘Corners’ also mentioned other play involving pretence, such as pretending to
be ‘Powerpuff Girls’ and fighting monsters, or ‘Super Girls’. Four of the children
specifically identified playtime outdoors as their favourite activity. Boys
mentioned football and ‘playing ‘Star Wars’. One girl identified her favourite
activity as ‘Show and Tell’, when ‘I tell all my friends about how I love them’. All
the children talked of being with their friends as an integral part of their
favourite activity.
10.3 Summary
The nature of the responses of the children from S1 and S2 about their
perspectives on their EY programme, differ quite markedly between the two
programmes. Children at S1, in describing what they liked about their
programme, focused very much on learning activities within the programme,
with the favourite thing being activities associated with their Graduation and
Exhibition. At S2, the favourite activity was play, outdoors at playtime with their
friends. In regard to children’s perspectives on what they had learnt from their
EY programme, the responses of children at S1 reflected both the learning of
specific knowledge and skills, but also Learner Profile Attributes, including
learning how to be inquirers, knowledgeable, communicators, caring, open-
minded, risk-takers and reflective. What was striking about the responses of
the children at S1, was not only that they identified specific skills and
knowledge they had acquired, but they also expressed a meta-awareness of
their own development as learners.
Because they were apparently not asked to think about what that had learnt
from their EY programme, it is understandable that the children at S2 did not
talk about this. However, even though children at both sites were asked a
similar question about ‘what they liked most’/’their favourite activity’, their
responses of children at S2 were different from those of children at S1.
Children at S1 talked about learning activities within the programme as what
they liked most, while children at S2 talked about play with friends and the
outdoors as their favourite activities.
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With the small number of responses, and the lack of consistency in the manner
of collecting data on children’s perspectives across the two sites, it is not
possible to draw definite conclusions about why there are these differences
between S1 and S2. It is interesting to speculate, however, about whether it
has something to do with the differences between the two programmes,
particularly in relation to the role of play and the outdoors. At S1, play-based
learning, and time outdoors were integrated into the programme. In contrast,
researcher observations of the programme at S2 identified a ‘work-play’ divide
in the programme, and that children had only limited opportunities to play and
be outside. Could it be that the children at S2 identified learning as ‘work’, and
therefore not a pleasurable ‘favourite activity’ like play? If so, this would reflect
the prevailing views of parents in many Asian cultures, who also perceive a
‘work-play divide’ (Fung & Cheng, 2010). On the other hand, if play and being
outdoors are integrated into the learning programme at S1, does this mean
that children there are having their desires for such activities met within the
programme, and are therefore able to focus on their learning as a pleasurable
and rewarding activity?
Finally, the responses from the children at S1 indicate that the programme
there is indeed supporting the children’s acquisition of Learner Profile
Attributes. Children’s responses reflected an awareness of their own learning,
and their own development towards the Learner Profile Attributes. The
responses from the children at S2, while not focused on their learning, did
indicate that their friendships were important to them, and that they had
positive relationships with other children. They also suggested that these
children had good skills in organizing their own play.
11. Family Perspectives

As part of the study, the researchers were interested in the perspectives of
parents and families on the PYP Early Years programmes that their children
attended. These perspectives were elicited via semi-structured interviews that
explored the following ‘starter’ questions:
• How do you see your relationship with the Early Years programme at
the school?
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• Do you consider that the programme supports your child’s learning
and development? In what ways? Can you give examples?
• What is your view of the indoor and outdoor environments of the Early
Years programme?
The response in the Singaporean sites were not as strong as desired with a
total of 5 interviews completed across S1 (2 interviews) and S2 (3 interviews).
These interviews were conducted face-to-face by a member of the research
team based in Singapore and took on average 15-20 minutes to complete.
The response from the Australian sites was stronger with a total of 12
interviews completed from A1 and A2 (6 interviews from each site). Learning
from the Singaporean data collection experience, these interviews were
conducted over the phone for practicality and convenience, particularly for
busy families. The Australian family interviews were completed by another
member of the research team based in Melbourne and took about 10-15
minutes each.
It must also be noted that there were some differences in the interview protocol
between the Singaporean and Australian sites. The Singaporean interviews
were more open-ended and posed slightly different questions. Despite these
differences a number of overarching themes emerged across the interviews
from all sites. The interviews were transcribed and then coded according to
emerging themes.
11.2 Socio-Emotional & Life Skills Development

One of the key themes that arose from the family interviews across the sites
was an emphasis on the development of socio-emotional and broader life skills
in their children. This ranges from confidence building, cultivating self-
expression and the development of specific characteristics such as
perseverance, respect and risk-taking.
A parent from A2 said this about the PYP Early Years stage:
I think it’s given them the best possible start to their education because it
gives them so much confidence in who they are and having their own
ideas and how to express themselves and go along a train of thought.
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A parent from S1 noted the importance of understanding multiple perspectives
and respecting diversity:
She has grown so much, she is learning all the ways, she is respecting,
you know, others…and then also the nationalities, she understand that
the difference if he thinks the one way, and then she has [been] able to
understand that it is okay if you don’t think in my way.
Another parent from S1 highlights relational aspects:
I think the whole social awareness and interaction with his friends,
teachers, for people around him, having the confidence and the ability to
have some good conversations using some of the knowledge that he's
picking up from different aspects.
A parent from S2 also touches on relational aspects:
What I also feel is that Early Years also allow a child to build the bond
with the children, so learning in a group is the kind of thing that gets
inculcated.
A parent from A1 specifically mentioned the IB aspect of the Early Years

programme:
[…] it’s the whole person. I think something, particularly for last year,
one of the things was risk taking and our daughter last year was very
shy. She wouldn’t even really talk to anybody for the first 15 or 20
minutes. She would keep to herself and taking risks and having little …
going to the toilet, she’d do a toilet risk where she’d go to the toilet at the
same time as somebody else instead of waiting for everybody to leave
the room and then go by herself and no one would be in the same room.
Just really building on the whole person. I think the International
Baccalaureate covers those things, which are super important because if
they can’t be confident to function in a room it doesn’t really matter about
some of those other things.
It is evident that the development of socio-emotional skills and wider life skills
are important to parents and families and key outcomes that they look for in
Early Years programmess.
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11.3 Individualised Learning
For families across the sites, the individualised, more child-centered learning
is highlighted as important and often a reason for their choice in the school or
program. Parents across the centres explained some of the strengths offered
by individualised programs that incorporate children’s interests:
There’s an appreciation of the fact the children develop differently, so

one size fits all doesn’t apply with the kids and that’s quite key (S2).
I wanted him to be part of the program which gave him the, which was
not very pre-mandated, which was open-ended and which gave him the
opportunity to explore (S1).
…the interests of the children; and they do that with all the different I
think it definitely works to what your child’s interests are. They really put
a big effort into ensuring that each child learns within a group but
individually as well… The motion group… that started because they were
interested in riding their bikes and someone talked about how they’d
been for a bike-ride with their family on the weekend and so it’s all turned
into this, they are learning from what their interests are. So they take
what the children are interested in and developing the programs within
what they need to do, but definitely interests (A2).
I particularly like their project work and the way that they will focus on a
project with small groups and then that project will go on for maybe six
months, if it takes six months, four months if it takes four months. And
it’s just a small group and they go back and investigate that project and
then they document it and then kids are part of the documentation. So
they’re given cameras. They can draw or they can video. They can do
whatever they like, however way they want to document it. I really like
that. They’re part of their learning and they kind of basically dictate what
they want to learn and how they want to learn it, which I think is the most
important thing at this age (A2).
A striking example of how one centre’s individualised program, child-centred

program impacted a family with twin boys:
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…we’ve got the twins, Jake and Sean, and they’re very different boys
with very different interests. One of the things I really like about the
program is that it does seem to me to be very individualised and they
take the time to find out what each child’s interest is and then nurtures
and fosters that. So Jake, for example, has become really interested in
photography. So they let him use the camera and then they made a
pretend photo studio and he took every child’s photo and the teachers
called him the expert in photography. Then when they said, “Look, it’s
time for the other kids to have a turn with the camera as well, they said,
“If you don’t know how to use it and you’ve got any questions go and ask
Jake.” So he felt confidence and everything around that. It’s just
blossomed. Whereas, Sean is really into Lego and blocks and building
and things like that. In the same way, they’ve really encouraged that and
used that as a way to teach him other things. So I think the
individualisation of the program is one of the things that I’m most happy
with (A1).
Although families have acknowledged the benefits of following children’s

interests, they also consider how the PYP Early Years stage also extends the
children beyond their comfort zones. A parent from A1 explained:
…both [teachers] have developed interests that [my son] didn’t have at
the start of the year […] They started in his comfort zone and now have
developed other areas. So now he loves painting, whereas you know, at
the start of the year, he wouldn’t go anywhere near the paint. So he’s
just, I can’t even describe how many things he’s developed, like, it’s just
amazing.
A number of other families had noted the transformations in their children with
various special needs (eg on the Autism spectrum) that individualised
programs supported. Overall feedback from parents included how
individualised programs following children’s interests were age appropriate,
particularly in the early years to nurture a love for learning. Families also
appreciated the flexibility, openness, and time to engage in projects more
individualised approaches afforded. One parent aptly stated, ‘I think the quest
of learning is a very important part that early education should not kill that
desire to learn’ (S2).
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11.4 Family Engagement
Interestingly, while in the coordinator interviews some Early Years coordinators
did not explicitly raise engagement with families in great length, it was an
aspect highlighted by families.The importance of partnership and sense of
community is more striking in the Australian sites, particularly so in A2:
[The Early Years programme] is very community focused. I would say

it’s a very healthy relationship between the teaching staff and students
and the parents and families; not just the parents, with the whole family,
with the siblings as well…for grandparents and cousins and all sorts of
things.
[The programme] engages the family as well as the children…They're

included with everything. Everyone knows the door's always open, so
we can go in at any time and participate, whether it's cutting up fruit, or
just being in the classroom reading a book, or doing play dough.
I think that if you didn’t have the same level of community and dedication
from the families who are willing to participate at the extent that they do, I
don’t think that the programme would be as successful. I don’t think it
would, I think it makes it what it is to have that relationship between
families and the staff and the students.
Family involvement and participation was also observed by researchers during

the school visits. A number of parents also commented on how the PYP Early
Years stage has helped in their learning as well:
[…] it’s been so rewarding being part of the programme and I think as a
parent, as I said, it’s probably helped me the most of any books or
anything that I tried to learn about being a parent, actually being involved
with them and the Reggio Emilia philosophies and what they’ve actually
taught me about being a parent, about helping the children thrive and
flourish is something I’ll cherish forever.
In the Singaporean interviews the relationship between families and educators

or the learning centre seemed to differ somewhat. While there was a sense of
partnership, this work does not seem to overlap in the classroom space as
described an A2, rather there is a more distinct albeit connected notion of
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programme environment and home environment. A parent from S1 explained
how they perceived their role in their child’s education:
I would say the role of us [is] encouraging. So it's a lot of

encouragement to [our child] to help him sort of build on whatever he is,
all these [IB] attributes that you just mentioned, to be able to bring that
alive in the home environment, be it in simple tasks of sharing, be it in
communication, be it in just exploring on a day-to-day basis, either
routine or non-routine stuff that he's doing. And the learning continues
into the home environment.
There also seems to be a different kind of expectation of the relationship

between families and educators in the Singaporean sites, particularly in S2.
One parent described her surprise in having educators willing to work in
partnership, as opposed to separately:
This year I find it, to be honest, quite different in terms of … this is one of
the first schools that I have seen that they take this ownership for the
child to develop. So when we talk to them the dialogue is more about
“We are doing this, can you help us?” A lot of other schools would say …
[…] So there the feedback is “Please do something about it,” not that
“Can you help us?” kind of thing. This year I find it very different. They
are doing on their own and they are saying, “If you support it, we can do
it even better.” So there’s this ownership which I really love about this
place. In fact, I’m actually getting my daughter also into school.
Some parents may be more wary of partnering or collaborating with teachers

and question potential implications. Another parent in S2 explained:
Maybe because this is Asia. Asian parents, including myself, we will try
to tread on a fine line of, we have always this nagging thought that if we
express ourselves too [candidly] the teacher may not look [upon] my
child favourably. It may not be true, but it’s just the Asian thinking. We
tend to hold back, whereas some parents pull no punches. This is not
right. I probably stop somewhere halfway.
Cultural differences in the conception or understanding of parental

relationships with teachers could be a factor here (Dimmock & Walker, 2000).
However, it must be noted that these views may not be representative of the
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broader views of parents in these sites as only a few interviews were
completed in the Singaporean sites, therefore it is difficult to draw conclusive
comparisons.
11.5 School Readiness & External Expectations

Broadly speaking, most of the parents interviewed across the sites felt that
their child was better prepared for primary school having undertaken the Early
Years Stage of the PYP. School readiness includes socio-emotional
development as discussed in an earlier section. A parent from S1 also noted:
I was looking for… where I can see that my child is having a lot of taking
the responsibility. So she is, yeah, responsible, which is very important,
she’s learning the thinking, the decision making, and so she is learning to
agree and think about her choices, what [are] the consequences. So this
I was really looking for that age before they go to the primary [years].
Literacy development was also a subject parents raised across the sites. A
number of parents admitted to a degree of anxiety and concern but also
discussed trusting the programs they enrolled their children in:
I did have a concern about [no explicit focus on literacy] at the start. But
I, sort of, eased up, and so yeah, you know, that’ll come. (A1)
And I think we need to be very patient to say, "Okay, yes, you can't
write." You can't keep pushing because then it takes the fun away. So
you have to be quite clear as parents to say "I've put [my child] in [the]
PYP [programme] for a reason." And then we make sure that he gets
the best out of it and then we get the best out of it. Let's not try and
muddle things up by saying "Oh, you're not able to write" and then push
him down that track and take that time of exploring and discovery away.
Yes, you can always supplement the learning by some home schooling.
But we need to make sure that the process of inquiry remains the same.
Otherwise the child gets very confused. I tried that initially, being a
traditional mum in terms of getting him to write ABC and getting him to
do spelling and all that. I realised it was ...[…] Like I said, you know, I
learnt my lesson. Being a traditional, coming from a traditional education
system, it's a little bit of a leap of faith actually. So initially I was worried.
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And I realised I was confusing him. So I decided to step back. And I
decided to let him take charge of his own learning process […] (S1)
This type of internal debate or tension also reflects the external expectations
placed on children entering primary schools. The burden of external
expectations weighs heavier upon the Singaporean sites due to a highly
performative culture in education (Fung & Cheng, 2012). A number of local
Singaporean parents raised concerns about particular literacy and numeracy
skills that would be expected of their children:
Yes, I'm a bit concerned whether he will not be able to match up to other
local kids who are very prepared academically because this school is
supposed to focus more attention and efforts on the basic, like the
character building, the fun bits of learning ….That’s my concern,
especially Chinese [language] particularly in this school. (S2)
In selecting more ‘alternative’ early year programs, parents expressed some

concern in the potential consequences of their choices. However, by the same
token there were also parents who questioned the performative culture and
question what schools have become:
To be honest, I’ve spoken to a lot of my friends and wondered is the

school an assessment place where the child is going every day to get a
feedback to say that your child is good at this and your child is good at
that. And have the schools become just that or have the schools actually
taken on that role of actually teaching and taking the responsibility for
that. I need to get this child educated […] Here [in this centre] I get that
feeling. (S2)
11.6 What is an ‘IB School’?

The overall feedback from families regarding the Early Years programmes with
the PYP components was positive. A number of families, across both national
settings, described stories of transformation and growth on the part of their
children. Some parents specifically noted the role of the IB programme in the
strength of the Early Years programme, for example:
…the International Baccalaureate is a great tool as well. I think that’s

been an excellent foundation for all of those things that I’ve said. Yeah, I
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think it’s really, really great. It gives that direction of how to go about
things. I think that makes a massive difference. Obviously execution is
important too but you’ve got to know what you’re trying to achieve and if
what you’re trying to achieve is great then … I’ve looked at it and it’s the
whole person. (A1)
While there was generally positive feedback from the families that came out of
the interviews, there were also some questions that were raised. One
particular parent indicated some concern with the ‘openness’ of the
programme and broached the issue of standardisation and teacher quality
across IB schools. The parent explained:
Yeah, I’m not sure, I would be wary of condoning [the IB programme].

The IB programme is, from what I understand, it leaves a lot open. Right,
to the staff, to the teachers. There’s a lot of creative freedom in how you
impart and the concepts you’re supposed to impart. So a lot of this
depends on the school and the quality of teachers that they hire. For this
reason I would, you know, I would also sort of, if she [my daughter] gets
in to, say, an IB school, if I choose an IB school then I would be very
wary because there’s no standard curriculum. Right, and then there are
advantages and disadvantages of that and how the teaching staff
imparts whatever it is supposed to impart, right? So yeah, I would be,
the lack of standardisation, I would be a bit concerned about. (S2)
11.7 Summary
Overall, parents were very positive about the Early Years programmes that
their children attended. They particularly appreciated the individualised
approaches of the programmes, and described how their own children had
benefited from these approaches. They generally expressed trust that the
programmes would prepare their children for school and to meet academic
expectations, although there were some concerns expressed by Singapore
parents about their children meeting academic expectations associated with
the Singapore cultural context in regard to starting school. While the Singapore
context does raise paticular concerns in relation to academic expectations for
young children entering the Singapore school system, the findings on
assessments of children’s literacy, school readiness and learning skills indicate
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that the parents trust that their children’s Early Years programmes will
adequately prepare them for school are well-founded.
Parents highlighted the importance for them of the relationships and

engagement between families and centres, although the nature of those
relationships differed between the Australian and Singapore sites. The
importance of family involvement was most strongly articulated by the
Australian families, particularly those whose children attended the programme
at A2. This involvement was active and actually included parents’ presence
within the classrooms and programme activities.
In Singapore, the relationship between families and centres was framed more
as a connection between the programme and the home environment. A couple
of the Singapore parents also talked of cultural factors that traditionally did not
encourage active partnerships and collaboration between parents and
educators, and may even lead parents to hold back from expressing their
views to teaching staff. In regard to the programmes as IB programmes,
parents were generally very positive, and identified unique benefits for their
children from participating in an IB programme. One Singapore parent did
however raise concerns about the ‘openness’ of IB programmes, and what
they saw as the lack of a ‘standard’ curriculum.
12. The Early Years Programmes and National

Frameworks
There is an expectation in both Singapore and Australia that early childhood

educators will align their programmes with national learning and quality
frameworks. For the Australian sites in Melbourne, the most relevant
framework is the state-based Victorian Early Years Learning and Development
Framework (VEYLDF) (State of Victoria 2011b).
The VEYLDF in turn is aligned with, and derives from, the national Early Years
Learning Framework (EYLF) (Australian Government, 2009). In Singapore the
national framework is called Nurturing Early Learners: A Framework for a
Kindergarten Curriculum in Singapore (NEL) (Republic of Singapore, 2012).
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12.1 The Australian sites and the VELDF
The VEYLDF provides a common framework and a common language to
guide early childhood educational practice in Victoria. It is strongly influenced
by sociocultural and ecological perspectives on children’s development and
learning, emphasising the importance of family and community contexts. It
identifies five Learning and Development Outcomes for children:
• Children have a strong sense of identity
• Children are connected with and contribute to their world
• Children have a strong sense of wellbeing
• Children are confident and involved learners
• Children are effective communicators
The VEYLDF identifies pedagogy as integrated within the following eight

Practice Principles:
1. Family-centred practice
2. Partnerships with professionals
3. High expectations for every child
4. Equity and diversity
5. Respectful relationships and responsive engagement
6. Integrated teaching and learning approaches
7. Assessment for learning and development
Researcher observations and interview transcripts indicated that the Early

Years programmes A1 and A2 were working effectively to meet the
requirements of the VEYLDF. Those Australian educators who discussed the
local frameworks in interviews reported being able to meet the VEYLDF
requirements while working within the PYP. Evidence for children’s
achievement of the five Learning and Development Outcomes were
documented in the researcher observations, and indicated in the results of the
literacy, school readiness and learning skills assessments.
The Early Years programmes at A1 and A2 demonstrated alignment with the

Practice Principles of the VEYLDF. There was evidence of strong relationships
with famiies, and opportunities provided for their active involvement in the
programmes. Early Years staff in both programmes worked together as a
team, collaborating effectively with primary level staff in their schools and
assisting children’s smooth transition into Prep. The play-based and inquiry-led
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pedagogy of the Early Years programmes reflected curricula that challenged
and supported children. They aligned with both PYP principles and those of
the VEYLDF, including Practice Principles 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Educators in these
programmes also demonstrated reflective practice (Practice Principle 8),
evident in programme documentation, and in their interviews with researchers.
12.2 The Singapore sites and the NEL

The Ministry of Education has recently introduced the NEL as a national
curriculum framework for guiding early childhood programmes (Republic of
Singapore, 2012). The framework draws on the Developmentally Appropriate
Practice model as practised in the Untied States (Ng, 2014), with an emphasis
on the unique charactersitics and opportunities for learning found in the early
childhood period. One of the goals of the framework is the introduction of a
more play-based pedagogy in Singapore preschools: ’…a broadening
endorsement of play as an optimum learning instrument to develop creativity,
thinking, language, independence, social interactions and problem-solving
skills’ (Ng, 2014, p. 11). The NEL states clearly that early years education is
important in itself, not just as a preparation for formal academic learning:
Early years education has been perceived by some as a preparation for

primary school. However, it is not just a preparation for the next stage. It
is vitally important in itself. It should not be confused with trying to
accelerate learning in the kindergarten years by providing children with a
simplified primary school curriculum. (Republic of Singapore, 2012, p.
11)
The Singapore framework is based on six principles for quality practice,

identified as critical features of a quality kindergarten programme (p. 14). They
are:
• A holistic approach to development and learning
• Integrated learning
• Children as active learners
• Adults as interested supporters in learning
• Interactive learning
• Play as a medium for learning
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Based on these priniciples, the NEL also provides guidance for practice in
Practices 1-6, which include guidelines on basing the curriculum on children’s
observed learning and interests, organising the learning envrionment, and
creating a positive climate for learning.
One of the Singapore preschools (S1) appeared to be implementing its Early

Years programme in a way that aligned with the principles of the NEL. The
researcher observations all yielded evidence of what would be regarded as
quality practice under the national framework. However, while the second
Singapore preschool (S2) appeared to be effective as a school-type academic
programme, it is not clear to the researchers whether the S2 programme was
aligned with all guidelines of the Singapore framework, such as in areas
relating to Principle 6 Learning through play, or Practice 3 Preparing the
learning environment. For example, having children sitting on benches with the
teacher out the front conducting lessons appeared to be a regular practice at
S2. Under Practice 3, the Singapore framework document states that:
The physical layout determines the type of learning that is going to take
place. For example, the arrangement of tables and chairs with a teacher
seated at the front of the room will probably result in teacher-directed
and table-bound activities where children are passive and wait to be told
what to do (Republic of Singapore, 2012, p. 30).
In at least some respects therefore, the programme at S2 did not appear to be

completely aligned with all the principles and practices outlined in the
Singapore framework. In this respect, it may be symptomatic of a wider issue
in the Singapore context. Ng (2014) describes how early years teachers in
Singapore experience tensions between following the guidelines of the new
framework, and their own views and those of parents on the purpose of early
years education. She notes how research has shown that both teachers and
parents in Singapore see the purpose of early years education as preparation
for formal schooling, with parents requesting structured academic work for
their children, such as work sheets.
Many Singapore parents also see play as about relaxation and pleasure, and
as separate from work and learning (Fung & Cheng, 2012; Ng, 2014). Ng’s
own study of Singapore early years classrooms showed similar pedagogical
practices and classroom timetabling and organisation to that observed in S2.
University)
Despite the training of educators, traditional Singaporean cultural attitudes
towards academic learning appear to be still a dominant countervailing
influence in the implementation of the NEL.
It needs to be remembered that researchers spent only two days at observing

the Early Years programme in S2, in what they were told was a ‘revision’
period. Nevertheless, the researchers recommend that S2 confirms that their
Early Years programme is meeting local framework requirements.
13. Conclusions and Recommendations
Findings from this study showed that three of the participating preschools (one
of the Singapore preschools and the two in Australia) were implementing
inquiry-led and play-based PYP Early Years programmes that appeared to
effectively support children’s development of Learner Profile Attributes.
Evidence for this came from researcher observations and interviews with
educators, coordinators and parents. Evidence also came from children’s
perspectives on their programme at one of the Singapore preschools, where
children were able to identify their own progress in regard to the Learner
Profile. This evidence from children was intriguing, and suggests that further
research on children’s perspectives on their experience of the Early Years
stage of the PYP could be illuminating.
While implementing an apparently effective academic-based programme, the

second Singapore preschool (S2) appeared to be struggling with some
aspects of implementing a PYP programme, and observations and interviews
indicated that they would benefit from further professional development and
support in their transition from a formal academic model to an inquiry-led and
play-based programme. These findings argue for monitoring to ensure that
new PYP Early Years programmes in particular are provided with the
necessary professional development and support to enable them to align with
essential PYP principles and practices. This monitoring and support should be
sensitive and responsive to any specific challenges arising from the cultural
context in which a programme operates.
All four programmes are achieving good outcomes in terms of children’s

literacy, developmental school readiness, and learning skills, and overall
University)
children were achieving at levels equivalent to or higher than their peers on
these measures. There were some differences between preschools in these
areas. Compared to the Australian programmes, children in the Singapore
preschools achieved at higher levels in literacy and school readiness, with the
S2 programme having the highest literacy outcomes and S1 highest average
scores and narrowest spread of scores on the Who am I.
While some of these differences will be at least partly attributable to age, with
children in Singapore being older than those in Australia, there were also
indications of programme effects. Both Singapore preschools included formal
literacy activities within their programmes, in response to pressures arising
from the Singapore context. Indeed, the programme at S2 was perceived by
researchers as structured around formal academic activities in literacy and
numeracy, similar to a school classroom. S1 had a different approach to the
teaching of literacy. While there was a formal reading period each day, other
literacy activites were integrated into the play and inquiry activities that made
up the rest of the programme. While the approaches differed in S1 and S2,
both programmes included literacy and numeracy activity which may have
played a part in their higher outcomes on measures of literacy and school
readiness. The Australian preschools, on the other hand, did not see the
teaching of formal academic skills as being part of their role, in line with the
general viewpoint of preschool educators in Australia, and also reflective
perhaps of the younger age of the Australian preschool children.
All four programmes appeared to benefit children in their development of

learning skills using the ACER SEW, with outcomes in this area significantly
better than a comparative ‘All Schools’ sample. Children from the two
Australian programmes showed the highest composite scores on this
measure. This was an interesting finding in light of the fact that children in the
Australian programmes were younger than those in Singapore, and also
younger than the Prep-Year 1 age group that the survey was designed for
(ACER, 2013). It suggests that the play-based and inquiry-led approach used
in the A1 and A2 Early Years programmes is strongly supportive of the
development of learning skills in preschool-aged children (4-5 years) in the
Australian context.
University)
Researcher observations and interview transcripts indicated that the Early
Years programmes in the Australian preschools were working effectively to
meet requirements of local frameworks, in particular the local state framework
the VEYLDF (State of Victoria, 2011). Those Australian educators who
discussed working within the VEYLDF in interviews reported being able to
meet the framework requirements while working within the Early Years stage
of the PYP. One educator did raise the issue of extra demands on staff
having to provide two sets of documentation, and wondered if it was possible
to ‘marry’ the documentation to meet two sets of requirements. The IBO may
want to consider if there are ways of streamlining reporting and documenting
requirements of staff, to avoid double loading of requirements under the PYP
and local frameworks, where possible and appropriate.
One of the Singapore preschools (S1) appeared to be implementing its Early

Years programme in a way that would effectively meet requirements of the
national Singapore learning framework the NEL (Republic of Singapore, 2012).
As noted in previous chapters, the second Singapore preschool (S2) appeared
to be effective as a school-type academic programme. On the other hand, the
S2 programme did not appear to be completely aligned with all the principles
and practices outlined in the Singapore framework, particularly in the areas of
play-based learning and organisation and structure of the learning
environment. It needs to be remembered that researchers spent only two days
at the preschool, in what they were told was a ‘revision’ period. Nevertheless,
the researchers recommend that S2 confirms that their Early Years
programme is meeting local framework requirements.
The researchers observed many examples of sustained shared thinking

between children and educators in the programmes at S1, A1 and A2.
Sustained shared thinking has been identified as an indicator of quality in early
childhood programmes (Siraj-Blatchford et al., 2002). There was a sense of a
strong intellectual focus that underlay the inquiry-led and play-based
approaches in these three programmes. This is interesting in light of early
findings from the E4Kids project showing that Australian kindergarten and
childcare programmes scored well on measures of supporting children’s
emotional development, but were not as strong in their support for the
development of children’s conceptual understanding, thinking and language
(Tayler, 2012). Research on processes and outcomes to support children’s
University)
thinking and learning in IB Early Years preschools as compared to mainstream
early childhood programmes in Australia and elsewhere, could make a useful
contribution to understanding what makes early childhood programmes
effective in supporting children’s intellectual development, and whether the IB
PYP has advantages in this respect.
Many of the educators at the preschools had experience of working with

Reggio Emilia in their teaching careers, and spoke positively of it. Several of
them described how using Reggio Emilia approaches helped them in
implementing their PYP Early Years programmes. Some of the educators also
spoke of the tensions that could sometimes arise between what they saw as
expectations around completing PYP units of inquiry, and more flexible
approaches to following children’s evolving interests, such as happens in
Reggio Emilia and other early childhood curriculum approaches. This issue
can be seen as part of a challenge for the IB PYP: How to develop an Early
Years programme that reflects the essential principles and practices of the
PYP, while also being uniquely early childhood in focus, and responsive to the
strengths, interests and needs of young children. The researchers feel it is
important for the IBO to continue to avoid an automatic ‘top-down’ imposition
of primary stage requirements of the PYP onto Early Years programmes. In
the staff surveys, one of the educators made the following comment:
As a school who facilitates an inquiry, play based curriculum we find that

the IB PYP is in direct alignment with our beliefs. It would be wonderful if
the IB could articulate more clearly the early years as this specific time
for learning can be 'lost' within the documents. Four units of inquiry work
well for the 3-5 year olds. Again it would be advantageous if the 5-6 year
olds only had four units.
The researchers were impressed with the general level of articulation and
critical reflection on the part of participating educators and coordinators in the
study, and feel that the early childhood professionals working in Early Years
programmes are making substantial contributions towards developing the
identity of the PYP Early Years curriculum. Parents at all four preschools
demonstrated some concerns around their children’s acquisition of what they
perceived as important basic academic skills, in preparation for entry to school.
This concern was heightened in the Singapore context, where children are
expected to demonstrate basic literacy and numeracy skills on school entry.
University)
Educators responded to these concerns by articulating the rationale for their
teaching approaches, providing parents with information about how children
learn, and engaging in specific teaching of basic literacy and numeracy in a
way appropriate to their programmes. These responses appeared to be
effective, both in producing positive outcomes for children’s literacy, school
readiness and development of learning skills, and in creating trust on the part
of parents that their children’s Early Years programmes would adequately
prepare their children for their educational futures.
In light of some of the issues and challenges identified here by educators,

coordinators and parents, the IBO may want to consider how to support their
schools and communities in addressing the tensions that can exist between
the philosophy and principles underlying the PYP Early Years stage and
concerns of parents, as well as conflicting demands and expectations of
children that can arise in specific social and cultural contexts. There can be
concerns for parents generally about the effectiveness of inquiry-led, play-
based approaches in preparing their children for school, especially in cultures
where there has not been a strong tradition of play-based pedagogy (Fung &
Chang, 2012). Longitudinal follow-up research on academic outcomes for
children who have attended PYP Early Years preschools could inform
programmes, and assist in addressing some of these concerns.
It has been noted that during the recruitment process researchers found that in
the State of Victoria, PYP Early Years programmes appeared to exist only
within private schools. On the other hand, there are an increasing number of
government primary schools in Australia that are offering the PYP (Hill, 2006).
The IBO may like to consider whether it may be feasible to offer PYP Early
Years programmes outside of private schools, in community based preschools
and childcare centres. This could be particularly appropriate for those
preschool centres that ‘feed’ into local government primary schools that offer
the PYP.
There were limitations to this research. A higher number of child participants

would have strengthened the findings from the standardised measures. The
researchers had also hoped for a more diverse range of Australian centres to
be recruited for the study. Classroom observation times were also limited,
particularly at the Singapore sites. However, the mixed-method Mosaic
approach did appear to be an effective strategy to study the four Early Years
University)
programmes. The different perspectives appeared complimentary to each
other in building a coherent ‘picture’ of the individual programmes and their
contexts. The use of standardized asssessment measures alone would have
presented a limited picture of processes and outcomes in the four
programmes. The qualitative data from the researcher observations and
stakeholder interviews provided a more in-depth view of how three of the
programmes in particular used inquiry based approaches to support children’s
progress in the Learner Profile. The interviews also identified stakeholders’
views of the programmes’ achievements and challenges.
Recommendations
• That the IBO ensure that new Early Years programmes in particular receive
sufficient professional development and support in transitioning to the PYP,
and in meeting IB and local framework requirements.
• Continue working with staff and early childhood education experts, to develop
and clarify the PYP Early Years stage principles and practices. This should
include consideration of local contexts and requirements.
• Investigate ways of minimising avoidable doubling up of administrative and

reporting requirements in regard to the PYP and local regulations and
frameworks.
• Look at ways of supporting Early Years staff in addressing parent concerns

around early academic skills and school readiness. This could include the
commissioning of research and dissemination of findings (see following
recommendation).
• The following areas of research could be valuable: longitudinal follow-up

research on academic outcomes of children attending Early Years
programmes; comparative studies of processes and outcomes in IB Early
Years and non-IB preschool programmes; comparative studies of processes
and outcomes between different IB Early Years programmes; research on
children’s perspectives of their Early Years programmes, particularly in
regard to their awareness of their own progress towards the Learner Profile.
University)
14. References
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Early Years Education in the Primary Years

Programme (PYP): Implementation

International Baccalaureate Organisation

Prepared by the School of Education, Deakin

Executive Summary ............................................................................................... 5

Table 1. Diverse perspectives on the programmes as data sources 11

Figure 1. Scaled total scores on Who am I? 81

While there is a growing body of evidence on the processes and outcomes of

• On a test of developmental school readiness, the Who am I:

• Teachers’ assessments of children’s learning skills, using a section of the

• Educators at three of the preschools were articulate and reflective about

• Through their drawings and writings, children at one of the Singapore

• Educators described some challenges in their programmes. These

• While there were limitations to the research, the mixed-method Mosaic

While there is a growing body of evidence on the processes and outcomes of

Further evidence that educators in Early Years programmes are actually in a

This study investigated implementation strategies and outcomes in Early Years

The Mosaic approach is a research framework which

It was considered that the Mosaic approach would be highly suitable as a

Table 1. Diverse perspectives on the programmes as data sources

Perspective Focus Data Source

Researcher Observer Programme philosophy Observations: field notes,

Learning Environments: Interviews/discussions with

Formal Assessments Child outcomes in areas of:

Literacy Early Literacy in English Tools

Who am I?: Developmental

Learning skills Learning Skills section of the

Educator Qualifications, experience, Questionnaire administered to all

Pedagogical philosophy & Staff interviews (2 educators per

Programme strategies & Analysis and reflections on their

Children’s Outcomes vis-à- Educators reflections on

Relationships with parents

Programme philosophy, Questionnaire administered to all

Relationships with families Interviews with EY/PYP

Child Perspectives on programme Educator/child discussions with

Family Family perspectives on Interviews with family members.

2.2 Data Collection

The study involved conducting an in-depth investigation of the following

• Specific programme goals of individual sites

• National and state-based Australian and Singapore Frameworks for

Two researchers conducted in-class observations, and collected data in the

3.1 Introduction to the Sites

3.1.1 Singapore Site 1 (S1)

S1 is situated in a lovely old building in large attractive grounds. The building is

The Learning Environment

3.1.2 Singapore Site 2 (S2)

S2 is situated in a bright and attractive new building, with windows offering

The Learning Environment

The K2 group includes 17 Children, and three staff, including a Mandarin

The programme in K2 class, as observed by the researchers, was quite

9.00-10.30 Working on the ‘Who am I’ booklet (part of the research

10.30-11.00 Outdoor time

12.00-1.00 Maths (Big Group)

10.00-11.00 Free play (in response to researcher’s request)

Overall, the programme at S2 appeared to the researchers as structured and

A1 is a co-educational Early Learning Centre (ELC) within a private girls

The Learning Environment

The teacher talked with the group about investigating

3.1.4 Australian Site 2 (A2)

A2 is a church run, lower fee co-eductional school in a middle to outer area of