SULPHURIC ACID

H4SO4

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries (accumulators)

Sulfuric acid is important in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate (sulfate
of ammonia), (NH4)2SO4, and superphosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, which is formed when rock
phosphate is treated with sulfuric acid.

Sulfuric acid is used to remove oxides from iron and steel before galvanising or
electroplating

 Concentrated sulfuric acid (18M) is used as a dehydrating agent, that is, to remove
water, since it has a tendency to form hydrates such as H2SO4.H2O, H2SO4.2H2O, etc.

Sulfuric acid is often used to dry neutral and acidic gases such as N2, O2, CO2 and
SO2

Sulfuric acid will "suck" water out of carbohydrates and some other organic
compounds which contain oxygen and hydrogen. For example, sulfuric acid will
"suck" water out of sucrose, C12H22O11(s), (cane sugar) to produce a spongy mass of
carbon:

C12H22O11(s) + 11H2SO4 -----> 12C(s) + 11H2SO4.H2O

 Sulfuric acid is used in the production of nitroglycerine, an inorganic ester & organic
nitrate, which is used as an explosive but can also be used as a vasodilator, a
substance that dilates blood vessels and can be used in the treatment of certain
types of heart disease:

CH2ONO2
|
CHONO2
|
CH2ONO2
Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

Most of the sulfuric acid manufactured is produced using the Contact Process.

Absorption Tower
Combustion Chamber Converter Hydration of Oleum
--> --> (sulfur trioxide absorbed  -->
(combustion of sulfur) (conversion of sulfur dioxide) to produce sulfuric acid
into the sulfuric acid mist

The Contact Process is a process involving the catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide, SO2, to
sulfur trioxide, SO3.

I. Solid sulfur, S(s), is burned in air to form sulfur dioxide gas, SO2

S(s) + O2(g) -----> SO2(g)

II. The gases are mixed with more air then cleaned by electrostatic precipitation to
remove any particulate matter
III. The mixture of sulfur dioxide and air is heated to 450oC and subjected to a pressure
of 101.3 - 202.6 kPa (1 -2 atmospheres) in the presence of a vanadium catalyst
(vanadium (V) oxide) to produce sulfur trioxide, SO3(g), with a yield of 98%.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) -----> 2SO3(g)

IV. Any unreacted gases from the above reaction are recylced back into the above
reaction
V. Sulfur trioxide, SO3(g) is dissolved in 98% (18M) sulfuric acid, H2SO4, to produce
disulfuric acid or pyrosulfuric acid, also known as fuming sulfuric acid or oleum,
H2S2O7.

SO3(g) + H2SO4 ------> H2S2O7

This is done because when water is added directly to sulfur trioxide to produce
sulfuric acid

SO3(g) + H2O(l) -----> H2SO4(l)

the reaction is slow and tends to form a mist in which the particles refuse to
coalesce.

VI. Water is added to the disulfuric acid, H2S2O7, to produce sulfuric acid, H2SO4

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) -----> 2H2SO4(l)

SULPHURIC ACID EFFECT IN ENVIROMENTAL:

main sources of sulphur dioxide

sulphur dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula SO2. It is

produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and
petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a
catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the
causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels
as power sources.

effects of sulphur dioxide towards human health

 Coughing
  Wheezing
 shortness of breath
 tight feeling around the chest

effects ofacid rain

Acid Formation in the Atmosphere

     First, let us review some basic chemistry as it applies to acid precipitation.

 Carbonic acid forms naturally in the atmosphere due to the reaction of

water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2),

H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3

while the burning of coal and other organics adds sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Nitrous oxides (NOx) to the atmosphere where they react to form sulfuric

acid and nitric acid,

2SO2 + H2O + O2 -> 2H2SO4

4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 -> 4HNO3

All of these acids will be buffered by reacting with rocks, minerals, etc. on the earth's surface.  The most important (and fastest) buffering comes

from the reaction with (weathering of) calcite in the form of limestone, dolomite or marble.

H2CO3 + CaCO3 -> 2HCO3- + Ca+2

 When this reaction occurs, the acid is neutralized and the calcite dissolved. 
While the reaction with calcite is very fast (the standard test for calcite in
introductory geology labs is to put very dilute acid on a sample to see if it
bubbles (reacts)), the reaction with other rocks is very slow, so most of the
acid is not affected.  This is why ponds in the Adirondacks became acidified
(non-calcite rock in those areas), while Lake Champlain (abundant calcitic
bedrock) did not.

 The degree of acidification is the pH of the water, which is defined as the

negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+), or

pH = -log [H+]. 

(This to a certain degree comes from the old definition of an acid as a proton donor. 
A hydrogen ion is little more than a proton, so think of it as the amount of free
protons floating around).

     A pH of 7 is considered neutral, while a pH less than 7 is considered acidic.  For

example, wine has a pH of about 3.5 and your stomach digestive fluids have a pH of
about 1.9.
 AMMONIA
Use of ammonia
 
Agricultural industries are the major users of ammonia, representing nearly 80% of all
ammonia produced in the United States.  Ammonia is a very valuable source of nitrogen that
is essential for plant growth.  Depending on the particular crop being grown, up to 200 pounds
of ammonia per acre may be applied for each growing season.
 
Ammonia is used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of ammonia,
ammonium nitrate, urea and aqua ammonia.  It is also used by the fertilizer industry to
produce ammonium and nitrate salts.
 
Ammonia and urea are used as a source of protein in livestock feeds for ruminating animals
such as cattle, sheep and goats.  Ammonia can also be used as a pre-harvest cotton defoliant,
an anti-fungal agent on certain fruits and as preservative for the storage of high-moisture
corn.  
 
Dissociated ammonia is used in such metal treating operations as nitriding, carbonitriding,
bright annealing, furnace brazing, sintering, sodium hydride descaling, atomic hydrogen
welding and other applications where protective atmospheres are required.
 
Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid; certain alkalies such as soda ash; dyes;
pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs, vitamins and cosmetics; synthetic textile fibers such as
nylon, rayon and acrylics; and for the manufacture of certain plastics such as phenolics and
polyurethanes.
 
 
The petroleum industry utilizes ammonia in neutralizing the acid constituents of crude oil
and for protection of equipment from corrosion.  Ammonia is used in the mining industry for
extraction of metals such as copper, nickel and molybdenum from their ores.
 
Ammonia is used in several areas of water and wastewater treatment, such as pH control, in
solution form to regenerate weak anion exchange resins, in conjunction with chlorine to
produce potable water and as an oxygen scavenger in boiler water treatment.
 
Ammonia is used in stack emission control systems to neutralize sulfur oxides from
combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, as a method of NOx control in both catalytic and non-
catalytic applications and to enhance the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators for particulate
control.
 
 Ammonia is used as the developing agent in photochemical processes such as white printing,
blue printing and in the diazo duplication process.
 
Ammonia is a widely used refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems found in the food,
beverage, petro-chemical and cold storage industries.
 
Ammonia is used in the rubber industry for the stabilization of natural and synthetic latex to
prevent premature coagulation.
 
The pulp and paper industry uses ammonia for pulping wood and as a casein dispersant in
the coating of paper.
 
The food and beverage industry uses ammonia as a source of nitrogen needed for yeast and
microorganisms.
 
The decomposition of ammonia serves as a source of hydrogen for some fuel cell and other
applications.
 
Ammonia is used by the leather industry as a curing agent, as a slime and mold preventative
in tanning liquors and as a protective agent for leathers and furs in storage.
 
Weak ammonia solutions are also widely used as commercial and household cleaners and
detergents
 Physical properties

 (boiling point -28.03°F [-33.35°C]) can be made in the laboratory by

heating ammonium chloride with lime, and the gas collected by
downward displacement of air, or displacement of mercury
 Ammonium hydroxide exhibits the characteristics of a weak base,
turning litmus paper blue, and neutralizing acids with the formation of
ammonium salts

 Transition metal ions are either precipitated as hydroxides (iron [II],

iron [III]) or converted to ammonia complexes (copper [II], nickel [II],
zinc [II], silver [I]). The copper (II) ammonia complex, in solution, is
deep blue in color, and serves as a qualitative test for copper. It also has
the ability to dissolvecellulose, and has been used in the process for
making regenerated cellulose fibers, or rayon.
 type of motion called inversion, in which the nitrogen atom passes
through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms like an umbrella
turning inside out in the wind
 hen ammonia acts as a base, the nitrogen atom bonds either to
a proton (to form ammonium ion) or to a metal cation
 It is often found that considerable heat is absorbed when ammonium
salts dissolve in water, leading to dramatic reduction in temperature.

Ammonium salts containing anions of weak acids (carbonate, sulfide) easily

liberate ammonia owing to the tendency of a proton to break off
the nitrogen atom and be bound by the weak acid anion.
HABER PROCESS

The Haber Process is a method of producing ammonia developed in WWI.  The

Germans needed nitrogen to for making their explosives.  When the Allies blocked off
all trade routes going to and from Germany, they lost all source of sodium
nitrate and potassium nitrate, their source of nitrogen.  They found their source
of nitrogen in the air, which was 80% nitrogen. The chemist Fritz Haber developed
the Haber Process in WWI, which takes molecular nitrogen from the air and combines
it with molecular hydrogen to form ammonia gas, which the chemical formula
is NH3.The equation for the reversible reaction is: 
                       N2(g) + 3H2(g) <--> 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ. 
Below is a diagram of an iron oxide catalyst used in industries to
produce ammonia economically. 
Uses of Ammonia in industry

Industry Use
Fertilser production of:

 ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4

 ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
 ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
 urea, (NH2)2CO,also used in the production of
barbiturates (sedatives), is made by the reaction of
ammonia with carbon dioxide

CO2  2NH3  H2NCOONH4  heat, pressure  (NH2)2CO 

+
carbon dioxide ammonia ammonium carbonate urea

Chemicals synthesis of:

 nitric acid, HNO3, which is used in making explosives

such as TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerine
which is also used as a vasodilator (a substance that
dilates blood vessels) and PETN (pentaerythritol
nitrate).
 sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate),
NaHCO3
 sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
 hydrogen cyanide (hydrocyanic acid), HCN
 hydrazine, N2H4 (used in rocket propulsion systems)

Explosives ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Fibres and Plastics nylon, -[(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO]-,and other polyamides

Refrigeration used for making ice, large scale refrigeration plants, air-
conditioning units in buildings and plants

Pharmaceuticals used in the manufacture of drugs such as sulfonamide which

inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria that require p-
aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for the biosynthesis of folic acids,
anti-malarials and vitamins such as the B vitamins
nicotinamide (niacinamide) and thiamine.

Pulp and Paper ammonium hydrogen sulfite, NH4HSO3, enables some

hardwoods to be used

Mining and Metallurgy used in nitriding (bright annealing) steel,

used in zinc and nickel extraction
 Cleaning ammonia in solution is used as a cleaning agent such as in
'cloudy ammonia'

EXPERIMENT
Apparatus and Chemicals
Eye protection
Each working group will require:
Retort stand, boss and clamp
Boiling tube with stopper and delivery tube – see diagram. This apparatus must be dry (see note 1) 
Boiling tubes, 2 – must be thoroughly dry (see note 1)
Beaker (100 cm3) 
Beaker (250 cm3) or larger
Bunsen burner
Heat resistant mat
Spatula
Students will need access to:
Ammonium chloride (Harmful) (see note 3)
Calcium hydroxide (Irritant) (see note 3)
Calcium oxide (Irritant) - (optional) (see note 3)
Concentrated hydrochloric acid (Corrosive) (see note 2)
Red Litmus paper
Blue Litmus paper
Universal indicator paper
Technical notes
Ammonia gas (Toxic, Dangerous for the environment) Refer to CLEAPSS Hazcard 5
Ammonium chloride (Harmful) Refer to CLEAPSS Hazcard 9A
Calcium hydroxide (Irritant) Refer to CLEAPSS Hazcard 18
Calcium oxide (Irritant) Refer to CLEAPSS Hazcard 18
Concentrated hydrochloric acid (Corrosive) Refer to CLEAPSS Hazcard 47A
1 Ammonia (Toxic, Dangerous for the environment) is a very soluble gas. If the preparation and collection
apparatus is not dry, the solubility experiment will not work.
2 Two drops of the acid in the bottom of a stoppered, labelled test-tube are sufficient. A small number of prepared
tubes could be arranged around the laboratory so that students can access them only under supervision.
3 Small quantities of the solid chemicals should be provided in stoppered bottles. Use lumps or granules of calcium
oxide (optional).
Procedure
HEALTH & SAFETY: Eye protection must be worn at all times. Ammonia gas is Toxic and Dangerous for the
environment and pungent-smelling and must not be inhaled. The experiments must only be carried out in a fume
cupboard or in a well-ventilated laboratory.
a In a small beaker, mix 2 spatulas of the ammonium chloride with 2 spatulas of the calcium hydroxide together. The
two solids begin to react immediately on mixing.
b Hold a piece of each colour of Litmus paper over the mixture and observe the colour change. Test also with a piece
of Universal indicator paper.
c Transfer the mixture of ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide into a boiling tube and set up the apparatus as
shown in the diagram.
d Optional step - put the lump of calcium oxide into the boiling tube containing the ammonium chloride/calcium
hydroxide mixture. The calcium oxide will absorb the water produced in the reaction and ensure that the ammonia
gas is dry.
e Gently warm the reaction mixture.
f Collect a test-tube which contains a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Remove the stopper from this test-
tube and hold the open end near the end of the ammonia gas delivery tube. Observe what happens. Replace the
stopper on the test-tube of hydrochloric acid and return the test-tube to its original place.
g Two-thirds fill a large beaker with water. This is needed for step j.
h Continue to gently warm the reaction mixture. Hold one of the dry boiling tubes in position as shown in the second
diagram. Notice that the ammonia is collected with the boiling tube upside down. This is because ammonia is less
dense than air.

i Test around the open end of the collecting boiling tube with Universal Indicator paper to check that the collecting
tube is full of ammonia.

j Hold the tube of ammonia upside down then quickly put it, mouth still downwards, into water in a beaker. The
ammonia dissolves in the water and the level of the water should rise up inside the test tube. If you want to try this a
second time, use a fresh dry boiling tube.
Teaching notes
Ammonia is a very soluble gas. 1 cm3 of water dissolves about 800 cm3 of ammonia at room temperature. A few
drops of water will easily dissolve a test-tube of ammonia. This is why it is essential that the apparatus is dry.
The reaction to produce ammonia also produces water. The purpose of the calcium oxide is to help to prevent this
water from coming out of the delivery tube as water vapour.
The equation for the generation of ammonia is:
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(g)
Calcium oxide reacts with water to produce calcium hydroxide:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
Ammonia is one of the very few common alkaline gases. When it dissolves in water it reacts reversibly according to
the equation:
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
There is generally enough water on the surface of indicator papers to dissolve ammonia without having to moisten
the paper.
The white fumes ('smoke') produced with the hydrogen chloride given off by the concentrated hydrochloric acid
consist of fine particles of solid ammonium chloride.
The equation is
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s