4/21/2011 Basic mechanics of soils

Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package

Back to Soil Mechanics
by Prof. John Atkinson, City University, London

Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain
Strength
Stiffness
Material behaviour

Loads from foundations and walls apply stresses in the ground. Settlements are caused by strains in the ground.
To analyse the conditions within a material under loading, we must consider the stress-strain behaviour. The
relationship between a strain and stress is termed stiffness. The maximum value of stress that may be sustained
is termed strength.

Analysis of stress and strain Back to Basic mechanics of soils

Special stress and strain states

Mohr circle construction
Parameters for stress and strain

Stresses and strains occur in all directions and to do settlement and stability analyses it is often necessary to relate
the stresses in a particular direction to those in other directions.
normal strain
normal stress
ε = δ z / zo
σ = Fn / A

shear stress shear strain

τ = Fs / A γ = δ h / zo

Note that compressive stresses and strains are positive, counter-clockwise shear stress and strain are positive,
and that these are total stresses (see effective stress).

Analysis of stress and strain

Special stress and strain states
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Special stress and strain states

In general, the stresses and strains in the three dimensions will

all be different.

There are three special cases which are important in ground

engineering:
General case princpal stresses

Axially symmetric or triaxial states

Stresses and strains in two dorections are equal.
σ'x = σ'y and ε x = ε y
Relevant to conditions near relatively small foundations, piles,
anchors and other concentrated loads.

Plane strain:
Strain in one direction = 0
εy = 0
Relevant to conditions near long foundations, embankments,
retaining walls and other long structures.

One-dimensional compression:
Strain in two directions = 0
εx = εy = 0

Relevant to conditions below wide foundations or relatively

thin compressible soil layers.

Uniaxial compression
σ 'x = σ 'y = 0
This is an artifical case which is only possible for soil is there
are negative pore water pressures.

Mohr circle construction Back to Analysis of stress and strain Forward to Parameters

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Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to a particular
plane within an element of soil. In general, the stresses on another
plane will be different.

To visualise the stresses on all the possible planes, a graph called

the Mohr circle is drawn by plotting a (normal stress, shear stress)
point for a plane at every possible angle.

There are special planes on which the shear stress is zero (i.e.
the circle crosses the normal stress axis), and the state of
stress (i.e. the circle) can be described by the normal stresses
acting on these planes; these are called the principal stresses
σ'1 and σ'3 .

Parameters for stress and strain Analysis of stress and strain

In common soil tests, cylindrical samples are used in which the axial and radial stresses and strains are principal
stresses and strains. For analysis of test data, and to develop soil mechanics theories, it is usual to combine these
into mean (or normal) components which influence volume changes, and deviator (or shearing) components
which influence shape changes.
stress strain
p' = (σ'a + 2σ'r) / 3 ev = ΔV/V = (ε a + 2ε r)
mean
s' = σ'a + σ'r) / 2 ε n = (ε a + ε r)

q' = (σ'a - σ'r) es = 2 (ε a - ε r) / 3

deviator
t' = (σ'a - σ'r) / 2 ε γ = (ε a - ε r)

In the Mohr circle construction t' is the radius of the circle and s' defines its
centre.

Note: Total and effective stresses are related to pore pressure u:

p' = p - u
s' = s - u
q' = q
t' = t

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Strength Back to Basic mechanics of soils

Types of failure
Strength criteria
Typical values of shear strength

The shear strength of a material is most simply described as the maximum shear stress it can
sustain: When the shear stress τ is increased, the shear strain γ increases; there will be a limiting
condition at which the shear strain becomes very large and the material fails; the shear stress τf
is then the shear strength of the material. The simple type of failure shown here is associated
with ductile or plastic materials. If the material is brittle (like a piece of chalk), the failure may
be sudden and catastrophic with loss of strength after failure.

Types of failure Back to Strength

Materials can ‘fail’ under different loading conditions. In each case, however, failure is associated with the limiting
radius of the Mohr circle, i.e. the maximum shear stress. The following common examples are shown in terms of
total stresses:

Shearing
Shear strength = τf
σnf = normal stress at failure

Uniaxial extension
Tensile strength σtf = 2τf

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Uniaxial compression
Compressive strength σcf = 2τf

Note:
Water has no strength τf = 0.
Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.

Strength criteria Back to Strength

A strength criterion is a formula which relates the strength of a material to some other parameters: these are
material parameters and may include other stresses.

For soils there are three important strength criteria: the correct criterion depends on the nature of the soil and on
whether the loading is drained or undrained.

In General, course grained soils will "drain" very quickly (in engineering terms) following loading. Thefore

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development of excess pore pressure will not occur; volume change associated with increments of effective stress
will control the behaviour and the Mohr-Coulomb criteria will be valid.

Fine grained saturated soils will respond to loading initially by generating excess pore water pressures and
remaining at constant volume. At this stage the Tresca criteria, which uses total stress to represent undrained
behaviour, should be used. This is the short term or immediate loading response. Once the pore pressure has
dissapated, after a certain time, the effective stresses have incresed and the Mohr-Coulomb criterion will
describe the strength mobilised. This is the long term loading response.

Tresca criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c’=0) criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c’>0) criterion

Tresca criterion Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c’=0)

The strength is independent of the normal stress since the

response to loading simple increases the pore water pressure and
not the effective stress.

The shear strength τ f is a material parameter which is known as

the undrained shear strength s u.

τ f = (σ a - σ r) = constant

Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb

(c’>0)
criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress and

is zero when the normal stress is zero.
τ'f = σ'n tanφ '
φ ' is the angle of friction

In the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the material parameter is the

angle of friction φ and materials which meet this criterion are
known as frictional. In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies
when the normal stress is an effective normal stress.

Back to Strength criteria

>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion
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Mohr Coulomb (c 0) criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress and

is positive when the normal stress is zero.
τ'f = c' + σ'n tanφ '
φ ' is the angle of friction
c' is the 'cohesion' intercept

In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal

stress is an effective normal stress. In soils, the cohesion in the
effective stress Mohr-Coulomb criterion is not the same as the
cohesion (or undrained strength su) in the Tresca criterion.

Typical values of shear strength Back to Strength

Undrained shear strength s u (kPa)

Hard soil s u > 150 kPa
Stiff soil s u = 75 ~ 150 kPa
Firm soil s u = 40 ~ 75 kPa
Soft soil s u = 20 ~ 40kPa
Very soft soil s u < 20 kPa
Drained shear strength c´ (kPa) φ ´ (deg)
Compact sands 0 35° - 45°
Loose sands 0 30° - 35°
Unweathered overconsolidated clay
critical state 0 18° ~ 25°
peak state 10 ~ 25 kPa 20° ~ 28°
residual 0 ~ 5 kPa 8° ~ 15°

Often the value of c' deduced from laboratory test results (in the shear testing apperatus) may appear to indicate
some shar strength at σ' = 0. i.e. the particles 'cohereing' together or are 'cemented' in some way. Often this is
due to fitting a c', φ ' line to the experimental data and an 'apparent' cohesion may be deduced due to suction or
dilatancy.

Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, May 2000
in association with Prof. Sarah Springman, Swiss Federal Technical Institute, Zurich

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