Mikhail Borodin Soviet Adviser To Sun Yat-Sen
Mikhail Borodin Soviet Adviser To Sun Yat-Sen
Mikhail Borodin Soviet Adviser To Sun Yat-Sen
by
Bruce G. VanVleck
College of Humanities
Master of Arts
June 1977
.,
ii
MIKHAIL BORODIN:
by
Bruce G. VanVleck
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:
-~~~c~~f ~.:; Uclt/
Thesis Advisor
1'177
d Studies
iii
ABSTRACT
Year: 1977
which he labored.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Abbreviations vi
Introduction 1
Chapter 1
Soviet and Comintern Policy Towards China
1917-1922 6
Chapter 2
Revolutionary Background of Mikhail Borodin
and Sun Yat-sen . 16
Chapter 3
Sun's Struggle to Hold Canton and Borodin's
Assignment to South China . 32
Chapter 4
Borodin's First Month in Canton . 41
Chapter 5
Ch'en Chiung-ming's Offensive . . 51
Chapter 6
Preparations for the First National Congress 60
Chapter 7
The Merchant Volunteers' Revolt . 72
Chapter 8
Sun Yat-sen's Last Days . . 90
Chapter 9
Aftermath and Conclusion 98
Bibliography 107
v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
vi
INTRODUCTION
1
2
wrote that
* * *
of his achievements.
5
1
John McCook Roots, "My sterious Borodin Sways
South China," New York Times Magazine, 26 December 1926,
p. 9.
2
J. T. Murphy, New Horizons (London: John Lane
The Bodley Head, 1941), p. 89.
3
Robert C. North, Moscow and Chinese Communists,
2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1963),
p. 39.
4
Jonathan Spence, To Change China (Boston: Little,
Brown and Co., 1969), p. 188.
5
rbid. I pp. 187-88.
6
rbid. I p. 188.
CHAPTER 1
1917-1922
6
7
situation as well.
* * *
the young party held its 2nd National Congress and voted
however, was concerned that the KMT had not done enough
that they
You will note that the struggle was directed against the
th e wor k ers I
movement 1n Ch 1na.
• ' 26 It is tempting to
cerity, however, does not alter the fact that the policy
of Communism.
14
7
Allen S. Whiting, Soviet Policies in China 1917-
1924 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953), p. 30.
On July 25, 1919, the Council of People's Commissars
(Sovnarkom) issued what has become known as the Karakhan
Manifesto. Addressed to "the Chinese nation and the
Governments of Southern and Northern China," it included
the following phrase: "The Soviet Government returns
to the Chinese people without compensation of any kind
the Chinese Eastern Railway. " The Soviets had
second thoughts almost immediately and deleted the passage
containing this phrase from the version that appeared in
the Soviet press. Subsequently, they denied steadfastly
that the offer had ever been made, but through some un-
known blunder, the passage was not deleted from the copy
of the Manifesto that was sent to the Chinese Government
in Peking. This mistake was to cause enormous diffi-
culties for the Soviet representatives who would later
go to Peking to try to negotiate a new railway treaty
favorable to Russia.
8
This shift in priorities was, of course, not uni-
versally accepted, and in fact was one of the main issues
upon which Trotsky and Stalin disagreed at a somewhat
later date. The tactic which Stalin called "Socialism
in One Country" did not become a rigid Soviet policy
until after Stalin defeated his domestic opponents in
the late 1920s and early 1930s. In the early 1920s
the shift to the emphasis on Russia first was only just
beginning to be put into effect.
9
cheng Tien-fong, A History of Sino-Russian Rela-
tions (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1957),
p. 111; 0. Edmund Clubb, Twentieth Century China (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1964), p. 115.
10
Cheng, p. 111.
11 h o
W l tlng, p. 191 .
0
12
rbid., p. 185.
13
Cheng, p. 122.
14 wh ltlng, p. 102.
0 0
15
rbid.
15
16
A small number of articles by Lenin between 1912
and 1917 dealt with the problem of bringing Asia's slumber-
ing peasant masses into the European class struggle.
Ruling out the possibility of true Marxist revolution
in economically backward Asia, he concluded that only
bourgeois nationalist revolutions were likely. These he
predicted would be strongly anti-imperialist in nature
because the native bourgeoisie would preceive that their
own development was being hindered by foreign control
of their economy. These revolutions would, therefore,
aid the European proletariat by disrupting the large
Asian financial investments of the European bourgeoisie.
17
xenia Joukoff Eudin and Robert C. North, Soviet
Russia and the East 1920-1927 (Stanford: Stanford Uni-
versity Press, 1957), p. 344.
18
Isaacs, p. 59n.
19 E d'
u ln an d Nort h , S ovlet
. Russla
. an d t h e East,
p. 344.
20 Jane Degras, e d . , Th e Communlst
. '
Internatlonal
1919-1943, vol. 2 (London: Oxford University Press,
1960) 1 P• 6.
21
Eudin and North, Soviet Russia and the East,
p. 345.
22
Degras, p. 25.
23
rbid. I p. 26.
24
Ibid.
25
rbid. I pp. 25-26.
26
Eudin and North, Soviet Russia and the East,
p. 345.
CHAPTER 2
16
17
returned to Russia. 34
real work, however, did not begin until March 1919 when
crown jewels, but his scheme to sell them went awry, and
J. al'1 . 49
* * *
Hsing Chung Hui, and formed the T'ung Meng Hui (Alliance
that Soviet Russia might lend him the needed support, and
active support.
27
Yanoviche is located i n Ru ss ia about 1~ ~iles
northeast of Vitebsk.
28
vera Vladimirovna Vishnyakova-Akimova, Two Years
in Revolutionary China 1925-1927, trans. Steven I. Levine
(Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, Harvard Univer-
sity, 1971), p. 154; Branko Lazitch and Milorad M.
Drachkovitch, Biographical Dictionary of the Comintern
(Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1973), p. 34;
New York Times, 3 September 1953 (Borodin's obituary).
29
Borodin used the name Kirill while working in
the Riga committee. He appears in the protocol of the
Unity Congress, however, as Vanyushin.
30 . h
V~s nya k ova-Ak.~mova, p. 154; Laz~tch
. and Drach-
kovitch, Biographical Dictionary, p. 34; New York Times,
3 September 1953.
31
Borodin had two sons. The oldest, Fred, was born
in the United States in about 1910. The second son,
Norman, may also have been born in this country, but
this is uncertain.
32
vishnyakova-Akimova, pp. 53, 155, 220; New York
Times, 3 September 1953; 0. Edmund Clubb, China and
Russia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971),
p. 222; North, Moscow and Chinese Communists, p. 72.
33
According to Mark J. Gayn, Journey From the East
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944), p. 121, Borodin and
his wife went first to Mexico to "foment revolution" and
proceeded on to Moscow only after being expelled by the
Mexican authorities.
34
vishnyakova-Akimova, pp. 155-56; New York Times,
3 September 1953.
35
Branko Lazitch and Milorad M. Drachkovitch,
Lenin and the Comintern, vol. 1 (Stanford: Hoover
Institution Press, 1972), p. 153.
36
vishnyakova-Akimova, p. 156; Lazitch and Drach-
kovitch, Biographical Dictionary, p. 34; Robert C. North
and Xenia J. Eudin, M. N. Roy's Mission to China, docu-
ments trans. Helen I. Powers (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1963), p. 12.
29
37
Manabendra Nath Roy was part of a group financed ·
by Germany during World War I whose purpose was the over-
throw of the British in India and other colonial areas.
In 1917 Roy was arrested in New York City for conspiring
with German agents, but he jumped bail and fled with his
wife to Mexico.
38
North and Eudin, Roy's Mission, p. 12; Helmut
Gruber, Soviet Russia Masters the Comintern (Garden City,
N.Y.: Anchor/ Doubleday, 1974), pp. 241-52; Rollie E.
Poppino, International Communism in Latin America (Glen-
coe, California: The Free Press of Glencoe (division
of Macmillan Co.) 1964), pp. 63, 154; Lazitch and Drach-
kovitch, Lenin, p. 389n.
39
Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Biographical Dictionary,
p. 34; New York Times, 3 September 1953; Murphy, pp. 87-89.
40
Murphy, pp. 88, 90-93, 99, 117.
41
rbid., pp. 117-18. Borodin assisted in the final
preparations for the Second Congress in other ways besides
the translation for Lenin, and it seems logical to assume
that he subsequently attended some sessions of the Con-
gress. There is, however, no record of his having done
so.
42
New York Times, 3 September 1953; Anatol M.
Kotenev, New Lamps for Old (Shanghai: North-China Daily
News and Herald Ltd., 1931; reprint ed., New York: AMS
Press Inc., 1971), p. 212.
43
Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Biographical Dictionary,
p. 34.
44
Adam B. Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York: Mac-
millan Co., 1965), pp. 508-09.
45 Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Biographical Dictionary,
p. 34. Some accounts such as T'ang Leang-Li's Inner
History of the Chinese Revolution, Louis Fischer's
Soviets in World Affairs, and Conrad Brandt's Stalin's
Failure in China state that Borodin served in Turkey at
an unspecified time as ad vi ser to Kemal Pasha. If thi s
is true, it must have occurred in 1921, a time when the
Soviet Union was suppl y ing arms and money to Kemal. Al-
though Borodin became envoy to Berlin in January, his
exact movements from then until mid-year are uncertain.
Since his previous missions had all been brief, there is
no reason to assume that his assignment in Berlin lasted
for six months. Although none of the more detailed
accounts of Borodin's career as a Comintern agent make
30
58 . Wl' lb ur an d Ju 1 le
' Llen-ylng
. .
C. Martln How, e d s.,
Documents on Communism, Nationalism, and Soviet Advisers
In China 1918-1927, with introductory essays by eds.
(New York: Octagon Books (division of Farrar, Straus
and Giroux), 1972), p. 142.
59
The China Year Book 1923, p. 863; Conrad Brandt,
Benjamin Schwartz, and John K. Fairbank, A Documentary
History of Chinese Communism (Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1952, reprint ed., New York: Atheneum,
1966)' p. 71.
60
wilbur and How, p. 142.
61
N. Mitarevsky, World Wide Soviet Plots (Tientsin,
China: Tientsin Press, Ltd., n.d.), p. 131; Whiting,
p. 243.
62
In 1917 Sun wrote to Lenin congratulating him on
the Bolshevik victory. During the next few years, Sun
and Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs Georgii Chicherin
occasionally exchanged letters. During 1921 and 1922,
Sun met on different occasions with both the top Comintern
agents in China, G. Vointinskii and G. Maring (a Dutch
Communist whose real name was Hendricus Sneevliet) .
Neither the correspondence nor the meetings produced any
lasting results.
63
Joffe's journey was only partially for reasons of
health. It was also to place additional pressure on Peking
to begin negotiations. Ironically, Joffe passed up the
chance when he had it. In the spring of 1923, the Peking
regime finally gave indications that it was ready to begin
talks, but Joffe lingered on in Japan until the moment had
passed. Peking returned to its original stand, and the
negotiations that Joffe was meanwhile conducting with the
Japanese Government ended with no tangible gain for the
Soviet Union. As a result, Moscow recalled him. In late
July Lev Karakhan was named to replace Joffe in Peking.
64
wilbur and How, p. 143. Sun had told a meeting
of KMT members on September 4, 1922, that he had decided
to reorganize the party.
CHAPTER 3
32
33
Ransome,
Borodin.
* * *
* * *
few days to raise the money among themselves and pay the
of thousands of dollars.
85 Although this money was
65
North-China Herald, 19 January 1924.
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid., 1 September 1923.
68
George E. Sokolsky, "The Kuomintang," The China
Year Book 1928, pp. 1320-21.
69
Degras, p. 5.
70
wilbur and How, p. 143.
71
Gruber, p. 354.
72 Wh.1t1ng,
. p. 243.
73
Sokolsky, "The Kuomintang," p. 1321.
74 h' .
W 1 t1ng, p. 208 .
75
North, Moscow and Chinese Communists, p. 73.
See note #52, Chapter II.
76
That Karakhan left Moscow on August 2 is an estab-
lished fact. That Borodin was with him is partially con-
firmed by Vishnyakova-Akimova (p. 156) who says that
Borodin left Moscow in "about July." She then goes on
to give a brief description of Borodin's trip to China
that is, in reality, a description of Karakhan's journey
(p. 157). Also, Clubb in China and Russia, p. 231, states
that Karakhan and Borodin arrived in Peking together.
77 h ' .
W 1t1ng, p. 243 .
78
Harold R. Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese
Revolution, 2nd rev. ed. (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1961), p. 63.
79
Lyon Sharman, Sun Yat-sen, His Life and Its
Meaning (New York: John Day Co., 1934), p. 253. Rosta
stands for Russian Telegraphic Agency. In 1925 it was
reorganized and renamed Tass, the name b y which it is
still known today. In the early 1920s, Rosta was a cover
co~monly used by Soviet agents in China.
80 h. .
W 1t1ng, p. 24 4.
81 Mitarevs
. k y, p. 132.
40
82
rbid., pp. 130-31. According to Clubb, China
and Russia, p. 231, Borodin was accompanied by another
Soviet agent named Volodya Polyak, but Clubb does not
mention whether Polyak joined Borodin in Peking or during
his stopover in Shanghai.
83
North-China Herald, 17, 24 November, 15 December
1923.
84
rbid., 1 September 1923.
85
rbid., 1, 14 September, 27 October, 10 November
1923.
86
rbid., 20 September, 13 October 1923.
87
The China Year Book 1924-1925, pp. 849-54;
Sokolsky, "The Kuomintang," p. 1315.
88
some of the public temples sold by the Government
were promptly dismantled by their new owners for the
bricks and gilt.
89
North-China Herald, 22 September, 27 October,
3 November 1923.
90
rbid., 10 November 1923.
CHAPTER 4
Sun as "a sick and broken man" when Borodin first met
94
him may provide a clue to what happened. Although an
41
42
sent. The only form of aid that the Soviets could have
off easily.
supplies, and that Sun was pressing the point to see how
Eugene Chen, II
. he was satisfied that his trust in
propaganda. II
. I spoke of the Kuomintang," he told
ones.
the KMT rather than from the diverse groups that Borodin
91
North-China Herald, 6 October 1923.
92 . F.lSC h er, Th e S ovlets
. . Wor ld Aff alrs,
. 2n d
Louls ln
ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951; re-
printed., abridged by author, New York: Vintage Books
(division of Random House), 1960), p. 463. Sun Yat -sen's
residence actually was situated on Honam Island, just
across the river from Canton City.
93
North-China Herald, 14 May 1927. The account
reads, in part, "when our correspondent was in Canton,
he was given circumstantially and by persons present
at the time, full and detailed accounts of the first
meetings between Dr. Sun Yat-sen and Comrade Borodin,
how Dr. Sun at first did not care to meet him, but when
he told an intermediary whose name is known to us that
he could provide arms and munitions for the Wuchow
expedition and eventually for the northern expedition
Sun Yat-sen met [Borodin] and was favorably impressed
by him."
94
Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, p. 463.
95
North-China Herald, 14 May 1927.
96 .
Mltarevs k y, p. 131 .
97
T'ang Leang-Li, The Inner History of the Chinese
Revolution (London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.,
1930)' p. 159.
98 b'd
I l . I p. 160 .
99 .
Mltarevs k y, p. 131 . Boro d ln
' to ld Moscow ln
. h lS
'
first official report that the steamship line "would at
once create what he most needs, viz. a direct connection
with Russia (the U.S.S.R.). Military supplies which are
indispensable and which, owing to the blockade, can not
be received, could be brought from Vladivostok."
100
Spence, p. 186.
101 wilbur and How, p. 148.
51
52
and had begun licensing both the opium dealers and the
fail to bear this out. There was a report that the KMT
with a better army. T'an had fled Hunan and sought aid
into Hunan, but once again his army was unequal to the
army were only three miles from Canton. That same day
111
clubb, Twentieth Century China, p. 123.
112
North-China Herald, 20 October 1923.
113
rbid., 13 October 1923.
114
rbid., 27 October, 3, 17 November 1923. On
October 16 the Government was forced to compromise with
the restaurant operators to end a month-long strike in
protest of special war-taxes, but only 12 days later
another strike began, this time by building contractors
protesting licensing fees.
115
rbid., 10 November 1923.
116
rbid., 10 November 1923, 19 January 1924.
117
rbid., 3, 17 November 1923.
118
rbid., 17 November, 1 December 1923, 19 January
1924.
119 .
Mltarevs k y, p. 137 .
120
North-China Herald, 17 November 1923.
121
Mitarevsky, pp. 127-38.
122
Ibid., p. 138.
123
rbid.; Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, p. 463.
124
Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, p. 463;
Chang, pp. 325-26.
125
North-China Herald, 1 December 1923.
126
rbid., 19 January 1924.
127
rbid., 17 November, 8, 15 December 1923.
128
Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, pp. 464-65.
129 Louls
• Flsc
• h er, Russla
• I s Roa d f rom p eace to war
(New York: Harper and Row, 1969), p. 125.
CHAPTER 6
issue. Sun had made his initial request for the surplus
60
61
* * *
gress and the CEC with the power to override the de-
143
cisions of either body. Such extraordinary power
lmperlallsm. 1
~or n~ti~nal ~~beration is none other than anti-
* * *
T I an p 1 lng-s
• h an. 154
130 .
North-China Herald, 8, 22 December 1923.
131
rbid., 8 , 29 December 1923.
132
See Chapter I, p. 12.
133
North-China Herald, 29 December 1923 . Some
observers felt that the inclusion of the Americans in
the placard campaign was due to the ignorance of the sign
makers who did not understand the difference between
Americans and the British. The real target of the
campaign, however, was felt to be Great Britain alone.
134
rbid., 29 December 1923, 12 January 1924.
135
Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, p. 466.
136
rbid.
137T, ang, p. 166n.
138
Brandt, Schwartz, and Fa i rban k , Documentary
History , p . 7 2 .
139 olb
Wl ur an d How, p. 145 .
140
Chang Kuo-t'ao, The Rise of the Chinese Com-
munist Party 1921-1927: Volume One of the Autobiography
of Chang Kuo-t'ao (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press
of Kansas , 19 71 ) , p p . 3 2 9- 3 0 .
141
Flsc h er,
0
s ovlets
0 0
142
Sharman, p. 267.
143 olb
Wl ur an d How, p. 145 .
144
Sharman , p . 2 6 7 .
145
wilbur and How, p. 146.
146
rbid.
147
Chang , p. 3 2 9 .
148
wilbur and How, p. 147.
149
Ibid., p. 148.
150
North-China Herald, 12, 19 January 1924.
71
151
rbid., 26 January, 2 February 1924; Sharman,
p. 257.
152
wilbur and How, p. 145.
153
Kotenev, p. 181.
154 '1b
w~ ur an d How, p. 149 .
155
North-China Herald, 16 February 1924; Sharman,
p. 257.
CHAPTER 7
72
73
KMT, the organ that controlled both the Party and the
16 S Th lS
. appoln
. t men t was o f grea t slgnl
. . f.l-
Government.
rna d e.
.. 166
Since Borodin's status had thus been altered
imperative.
* * *
a 11 to no aval'1 . 167
* * *
Canton.
but at the same time had often brought them into direct
but when the Hav reached port, Sun ordered the arms
. d . 181
se1ze He h a d no ot h er c h o1ce.
. T h e s h'1pment con-
August 13, the Hav was taken to Whampoa, and troops re-
that the object of the war was ~not only the overthrow
ml' 1 ltarlsts
' . d epen d s. ,187
not clear.
onto the bund, the Labor Unions and the Students Corps
Committee met for the first time on the same day. They
For two days the battle raged in the narrow streets and
167
whiting, pp. 209-12, 221, 223-24; Cheng, pp.
114-15. Two draft agreements were signed calling for
immediate diplomatic relations to begin and for a
conference to be held within a month to:
86
184
North-China Herald, 16, 23, 30 August 1924;
China Year Book 1925-26, p. 850.
185
North China Herald, 20 September 1924; Wilbur
and How, p. 154.
186
North-China Herald, 13, 20 September 1924;
Clubb, Twentieth Century China, p. 125.
187
wilbur and How, p. 155. Ironically, Sun had
chosen as his partner in this crusade against militarists
and imperialists, Marshal Chang Tso-lin, head of the
Mukden forces. Chang, who was virtual dictator over the
Three Autonomous Provinces (i.e., Manchuria), was one
of the most powerful and reactionary militarists in
China. Chang's imperialist backers were the Japanese.
188 china Year Book 1925-26, p. 850.
189
Ibid.; North-China Herald, 4 October 1924,
14 February 1925.
190
A full year passed between Borodin's reported
promise of Soviet military supplies and the arrival of
the first shipment. The lengthy delay resulted from
the lack of coordinationofSoviet activity in China
prior to the establishment of a permanent Soviet embassy
staff in Peking. First the reluctance of the Chinese to
grant the Soviets diplomatic recognition, then the
reluctance of the Dutch to surrender custody of the
old Imperial Russian Embassy compound prevented Karakhan
from making full use of Peking as the focal point of
Soviet activity throughout China. Consequently, it was
not until late in the summer of 1924 that the necessary
mechanism existed for providing supplies to Canton.
191 'lb
Wl ur an d How, pp. 154 - 55 .
192
china Year Book 1925-26, p. 850.
193 . h s ovlets
. .
Flsc er, ln Wor ld Aff alrs,
. p. 467 .
194
wilbur and How, p. 155.
195 china Year Book 1925-26, pp. 850, 1136.
90
91
Sun's health had been poor when he left the South, and
feel a need for closer ties with Feng and his newly
212
formed Kuominchun (People's Army). Although Feng
strongest in China.
. s un 213
Boro d 1.n, wh o h a d precee d e d to Pe k 1.ng,
. was
Council members that he was the only man who could settle
221
issues. Despite his cultivation of Feng and the
201
wilbur and How, pp. 152-53.
202
Spence, p. 188. At about this same time,
Borodin was also named as adviser to the agricultural
section of the KMT. Although this assignment did not
significantly increase Borodin's power, it is indicative
of his spreading influence.
203
North-China Herald, 3 October 1925.
204
clubb, Twentieth Century China, p. 125; Wilbur
and How, p. 157.
205
Sharman, p. 303; China Year Book 1925-1926,
p. 849.
206
china Year Book 1925-1926, p. 851.
207
Sharman, pp. 303-04.
208
His only public statement upon arriving at the
train station was "I have come especially to save the
country in cooperation with y ou gentlemen." (Clubb,
Twentieth Century China, p. 128.)
209
china Year Book 1925-1926, pp. 851-52.
210
I b'd
]. . I p. 851 .
211
Tuan Ch'i-jui had previously held the post of
Premier of the Peking Government on several occasions.
212
Chang, p. 394.
213 rt is uncertain exactly when Borodin arrived
in Peking. He brought his wife and youngest son with
him, but there is no indication that they made any part
of the trip North in the company of Sun and his wife.
214 FJ.sc
. h er, SovJ.ets
. . Wor ld Aff aJ.rs,
J.n . p. 474 .
215
Ibid. I pp. 474-75.
216
Chang, p. 394.
217
Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, p. 475.
Fischer gives a rather detailed account of this meeting
with Feng.
218
James E. Sheridan, Chinese Warlord (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1966), p. 339n.
97
219
china Year Book 1925-1926, p. 852.
220
North-China Herald, 31 January, 21 February 1925.
221
Chang, pp. 391-92.
222
Nort h -c h'lna Hera ld , 10 January 1925 .
223
Kotenev, p. 204.
CHAPTER 9
98
99
over Wang.
and threw his support behind Wang Ching-wei, who was now,
a s1'd 1ng.
' .. 233 Eugene Lyons, a United Press correspon-
* * *
224
Sokolsky, Tinder Box, p. 332.
225 North-China Herald, 4 April 1925.
226
Clu b b, Twent1et
. h Century Ch 1na,
. p. 13 0 .
227
North-China Herald, 22 August 1925.
228 clubb, Twentieth Century China, p. 130.
233
Mehnert, pp. 262-63.
234
Eugene Lyons, Assignment in Utopia (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1937), p. 511.
235
rbid. I p. 331.
236
rbid. I P· 511.
237
victor Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary 1901-
1941, trans. and ed. Peter Sedgewick (London: Oxford
University Press, 1963; Oxford University Press paper-
back, 1967), p. l46n. Serge gives the time of Borodin's
death as early 1953 as does Borodin's New York Times
obituary. Louis Fischer, however, states that he died
in 1951. Serge includes the interesting statement
that Chinese intervention is said to have prevented
Borodin from being executed after his arrest.
238
Gayn, p. 122.
239
Sokolsky, Tinder Box, p. 35.
APPENDIX A
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SECONDARY SOURCES
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