HYdraulics Lab Manual - New1

2017
Industrial Hydraulics &

Pneumatics
Reference Manual
Fundamentals
Function & Operation
ISO Symbols
Hands on experience : Laboratory experiments
Troubleshooting guide
Practical Applications
Bharath T S(DCIN/SSD)
BOSCH REXROTH
1
12/8/2017
Industrial Hydraulics & Pneumatics
1. Introduction : Hydraulics
1.1 Scientific Definition:
The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally covered the study of the physical
behavior of water at rest and in motion. Use has broadened its meaning to include the behavior of all
liquids, although it is primarily concerned with the motion of liquids.
1.2 Industrial Definition:

Hydraulics means the transfer and control of forces and movements through fluids.
Energy Transfer
Control and regulation technology
Hydraulics is the science of forces and movements transmitted by means of liquids.

It belongs alongside hydro-mechanics. A distinction is made between hydrostatics –
dynamic effect through pressure times area – and hydrodynamics – dynamic effect
through mass times acceleration.
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1.3. Basic Characteristics of Hydraulics:
1.4 Advantageous
High force density, compact construction

Easy reversal of movement
Good controllability
Easy movement conversion
Simple overload protection
Design flexibility, force transfer over long distance
Long life cycle, low maintenance
Extensive standardization, interchangeable
Easily automated
1.5 Limitations:
Temperature dependency
Leakage problems
Compressibility
Manufacturing costs
1.6 Distinction from other Technical system (System Comparison)
Criterion Hydraulics Pneumatics Electricals/ Mechanics

Electronics
Energy Carrier Oil (general fluid) Air Electrons Movements,
Position,
Displacement
Energy transfer Pipelines, hoses, Pipelines, hoses, Electric conductive Levers, belts, rods,
drill hoses drill hoses materials ( cable chains, wheels etc.
etc)
Conversion into Pumps, Cylinder, Compressors, Generators, —

or from Hydraulic motors Cylinders, Batteries, Electric
mechanical Pneumatics motors motors, Magnets,
energy Linear motors
Most Important Pressure p Pressure p Voltage V Force, Torque,
parameters (30 - 400bar) (approx.6bar) Electric current I Velocity, rotational
Flow rate q Flow rate q speed
Power density Very Good Good Not Good Good
Efficiency Not good enough Good. Good,
Generation of Very simple, Very simple, Less simple, Simple,

Linear
movements
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Typical Larger forces: Smaller forces: Rotational drive General power

Applications Shaping of metal, Handling, Feed drive transfer over small
sheets and work Installation Spindle drive distance
pieces, feed drive, equipment,
pressing comfort features
1.7 Applications:
Mobile Machines
Ship building
Metallurgical and Rolling Industry
Plastic Machines
Industrial Trucks
Travel drives
Flight Simulators
Machine tools and transfer lines.
Lifting and conveying devices.
Metal-forming presses.
Plastic machinery such as injection-molding machines.
Rolling machines.
Lifts.
Food processing machinery.
Automatic handling equipment and robots.
1.8 Mobile hydraulics:
Mobile hydraulic systems move on wheels or tracks such as a tower crane or excavator truck to operate in
many different locations or while moving. A characteristic feature of mobile hydraulics is that the valves
are frequently manually operated. The applications of mobile hydraulics are as follows:
Automobiles, tractors, aero planes, missile, boats, etc.

Construction machinery.
Tippers, excavators and elevating platforms.
Lifting and conveying devices.
Agricultural machinery.
2. Basic Physical Principles
2.1 LIQUIDS AT REST

In studying fluids at rest, we are concerned with the transmission of force and the factors which affect the
forces in liquids. Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and factors affecting pressure are of great
importance.
The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of fluid power. It is essential that we
distinguish between the terms. Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull exerted against the
total area of a particular surface and is expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount of push or
psipull (force) applied to each unit area of the surface and is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or
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kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cm2). Pressure maybe exerted in one direction, in several directions, or
in all directions.
A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this formula, P refers to
pressure, F indicates force, and A represents area.
F = force ( N )
P = pressure (N/m² or Pa)
A = Area (m²)
1 psi = 6894.75 Pa Device for determining the arrangement of the

1 bar = 14.5 psi force, pressure, and area formula.
2.2 Pascal's law

Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be considered uniform throughout a practical system. There may be small
differences arising from head pressures at different heights, but these will generally be negligible compared
with the system operating pressure. This equality of pressure is known as Pascal's law, and is illustrated in
Figure.
2.3 Pascal’s Law applications:

1. Force Multiplication / Transmission
2. Pressure Multiplication / Transmission
3. Displacement Multiplication / Transmission
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2.3.1 Force Multiplication / Transmission.
The same pressure applies at every point in a closed system. For this reason, the shape of the container has
no significance.
A vehicle is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. The mass m amounts to 1500 kg.

What force FT1T is required at the piston?
6
2.3.2 Pressure Multiplication / Transmission

The hydrostatic pressure p1 exerts a force F1 on the area A1 which is transferred via the piston rod onto the
small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area A2 and produces the hydrostatic pressure p2. Since piston
area A2 is smaller than piston area A1, the pressure p2 is greater than the pressure p1. Here too, the
following law applies:
7
2.3.3 Displacement Multiplication / Transmission
3. Flow rate
Flow rate is the term used to describe the volume of liquid flowing through a pipe in a specific period of
time. For example, approximately one minute is required to fill a 10 litre bucket from a tap. Thus, the flow
rate amounts to 10 l/min.
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4. Symbols according to DIN ISO 1219-1
In fluid power systems, energy is transported within a circuit by a pressurized medium (liquid or gaseous)
and open or closed-loop controlled. Graphical symbols help to identify the function in circuit diagrams of
fluid power technology. They can also be attached to the components themselves for this purpose. The
symbols included in standard DIN ISO 1219 should preferably be used, but their use does in no way rule
out the use of symbols commonly applied in other technical areas for identifying pipes and hoses. The
followings lists are not complete, but must be regarded as working aid for the preparation or completion of
project-related circuit diagrams. The graphical symbols used in the manual comply with DIN ISO 1219 -
fluid power technology; graphical symbols and circuit diagrams; part 1: Graphical symbols. The basic rules
for the preparation of hydraulic circuit diagrams are determined in part 2 of standard DIN ISO 1219.
Circuit diagrams are a tool to simplify the planning and description of a hydraulic system in order to
prevent - through a standardized representation – uncertainties and faults at the planning stage, during
production, installation, and servicing.
4.1 Basic symbols
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11
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5. Hydraulic fluids
In a hydraulic system, the fluid assumes the task of force transmission. This means that certain
demands must be placed on the fluid.
The fluid should:
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– be incompressible for the transmission of forces

– dissipate heat that is generated not change its viscosity at different temperatures
– carry away abrasion from hydraulic components
– be easy to filter
– be neutral against metal guides, seals and paints
– feature good lubrication properties
– be resistant to aging not be detrimental to health
– be easy to dispose of after use
5.1 Functions of Hydraulic Fluids.

Transfer of forces.
Transfer of movements.
Transfer of signals.
Lubrication.
Heat dissipation.
Removal of contaminants.
Reducing vibrations.
Reducing Noises
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5.2 Classification of hydraulic oils
15
6. Energy conversion:
Hydraulic systems convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, transport it in this form in an open or
closed-loop controlled way and then re-convert it into mechanical energy. For the conversion of energy,
hydraulic pumps are used on the primary side, and hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors on the
secondary side. Hydraulic energy and hence the transmitted power can be influenced in pressure and flow
by hydraulic pumps, and in its magnitude and direction of action by open and closed-loop control valves.
The hydraulic fluid that is directed via pipes, hoses and bores in control blocks or manifolds assumes,
among others, the energy transport. For storing and maintaining the hydraulic fluid, additional equipment
such as reservoirs, filters, coolers, heaters, measuring and testing instruments are required.
As illustrated in the schematic above, an oil-hydraulic system firstly converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy, transports it in an open or closed-loop controlled way, and then converts it into
mechanical work. The components used in hydraulics can be classified according to their function.
The figure below schematically shows the components of a simple hydraulic system.
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7. Hydraulic Pumps:
The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is the heart of any
hydraulic system because it generates the force necessary to move the load. Mechanical energy is delivered
to the pump using a prime mover such as an electric motor. Partial vacuum is created at the inlet due to the
mechanical rotation of pump shaft. Vacuum permits atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the
inlet line and into the pump. The pump then pushes the fluid mechanically into the fluid power actuated
devices such as a motor or a cylinder.
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7.1 Classification of Hydraulic Pumps:
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7.2 Selection Criteria of pumps
Depending on the
system, a
weighting is
given :
1 = Very good /
Very Large
2 = Good / Large
3 = Satisfactory
4 = Poor
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7.4 Pumps and motors

Hydraulic pumps and motors are represented by means of a circle which shows where the drive or output
shaft is located. Triangles within the circle give information about the direction of flow. These triangles are
filled in, since hydraulic fluids are used for hydraulics. If a gaseous pressure medium were being used, as is
the case in pneumatics, the triangles would not be filled in. The symbols for hydraulic motors and hydraulic
pumps can only be distinguished from one another by the fact that the arrows indicating the direction of
flow are drawn pointing one way for the pumps and the other for the motors.
8. Directional control valves

Directional control valves are shown by means of several connected squares.
• The number of squares indicates the number of switching positions possible for a valve.
• Arrows within the squares indicate the flow direction.
• Lines indicate how the ports are interconnected in the various switching positions.
There are two possible methods of port designation. One method is to use the letters P, T, A, B and L, the
other is to label ports alphabetically A, B, C, D, etc. The former method is generally preferred. Ports should
always be labelled with the valve in the rest position. Where there is no rest position, they are allocated to
the switching position assumed by the valve when the system is in its initial position. The rest position is
defined as the position automatically assumed by the valve on removal of the actuating force. When
labeling directional control valves, it is first necessary to specify the number of ports followed by the
number of switching positions. Directional control valves have at least two switching positions and at least
two ports. In such an instance, the valve would be designated a 2/2-way valve. The following diagrams
show other directional control valves and their circuit symbols.
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8.1 Methods of actuation

The switching position of a directional control valve can be changed by various actuation
methods. The symbol for the valve is elaborated by the addition of the symbol indicating the
actuation method. In the case of some of the actuation methods shown, such as push button,
pedal, lever with detent, a spring is always necessary for resetting. Resetting may also be
achieved by switching the valve a second time, e.g. in the case of a valve with hand lever and
detent setting. Listed below are the symbols for the most important actuation methods. Refer to
DIN ISO 1219 for other methods of actuation.
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9. Pressure valves
Pressure valves are represented using squares. The flow direction is indicated by an arrow. The valve ports
can be labelled P (pressure port) and T (tank connection) or A and B. The position of the valve within the
square indicates whether the valve is normally open or normally closed.
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9.1 Pressure Relief valve

In the normally closed position the control pressure is detected at the input. This pressure acts on a valve
via the control passage coming from the input on a piston surface which is held against the control pressure
by a spring. If the force resulting from the pressure and the effective piston surface exceeds the spring
force, the valve opens. In this way, it is possible to set the limiting pressure to a fixed value.
9.2 Pressure regulator / Reducing valve
In the case of a normally open pressure regulator, the control pressure is detected at the output. This
pressure is effective in the valve via the control passage on a piston surface and generates a force. This
force works against a spring. The valve begins to close when the output pressure is greater than the spring
force. This closing process causes a pressure drop from the input to the output of the valve (caused by the
flow control). When the output pressure reaches a specified value, the valve closes completely. The
specified maximum system pressure is set at the input of the valve, the reduced system pressure at the
output. Thus, the pressure regulator can only be set to a smaller setting value than that set at the pressure
relief valve.
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10. Flow Control Valves
In the case of flow control valves, a distinction is made between those affected by viscosity and
those unaffected. Flow control valves unaffected by viscosity are termed orifices. Throttles
constitute resistances in a hydraulic system.
The 2-way flow control valve consists of two restrictors, one setting restrictor unaffected by
viscosity (orifice) and one adjustable throttle. The adjustable throttle gap is modified by changes
in pressure. This adjustable throttle is also known as a pressure balance. These valves are
depicted as a rectangle into which are drawn the symbol for the variable throttle and an arrow to
represent the pressure balance. The diagonal arrow running through the rectangle indicates that
the valve is adjustable. There is a special symbol to represent the 2-way flow control valve.
11. Non-return valves

The symbol for non-return valves is a ball which is pressed against a sealing seat. This seat is drawn as an
open triangle in which the ball rests. The point of the triangle indicates the blocked direction and not the
flow direction. Pilot controlled non-return valves are shown as a square into which the symbol for the non-
return valve is drawn. The pilot control for the valve is indicated by a control connection shown in the form
of a broken line. The pilot port is labelled with the letter X. Shut-off valves are shown in circuit diagrams
as two triangles facing one another. They are used to depressurise the systems manually or to relieve
accumulators. In principle, wherever lines have to be opened or closed manually.
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12. Cylinders
Cylinders are classified as either single-acting or double-acting.
12.1 Single acting cylinder

Single acting cylinders just have one port, i.e. only the full piston surface can be pressurized with hydraulic
fluid. These cylinders are returned either by the effect of external forces – indicated by the symbol with the
open bearing cap – or by a spring. The spring is then also drawn into the symbol.
12.2 Double acting cylinder

Double acting cylinders have two ports for supplying either side of the piston with hydraulic fluid. It can be
seen from the symbol for a double acting cylinder with single piston rod that the piston area is greater than
the annular piston surface.
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Conversely, the symbol for the cylinder with a through piston rod shows that these areas are of the same
size (synchronous cylinder). The symbol for the differential cylinder can be distinguished from that for the
double-acting cylinder by the two lines added to the end of the piston rod. The area ratio is 2:1.
Like single-acting telescopic cylinders, double-acting ones are symbolized by pistons located one inside the
other. In the case of the double-acting cylinder with end position cushioning, the cushioning piston is
indicated in the symbol by a rectangle.
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13. Accumulator
A hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an incompressible fluid held under
pressure by an external source against some dynamic force. This dynamic force can come from different
sources. The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source of fluid power capable
of doing useful work.
There are three basic types of accumulators:
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TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE FOR HYDRAULICS

Pumps:
Trouble Possible Causes Remedies
Pump delivering insufficient or • Wrong direction of shaft • Must be reversed
no oil immediately to prevent
• Pump Shaft turning too seizure and breakage of
slowly to prime itself parts due to lack of oil
• Clogged strainer or • Check minimum speed

suction pipe line recommendation and
momentarily increase
• Strainer capacity
rpm to rectify
insufficient
• Clean strainer or suction
• Air Leak in suction line
pipe line. Remove
foreign matter
• Faulty rotating part in the
pump body
• Replace with a strainer
whose capacity is more
• Oil Leak in pump casing
than twice the maximum
due to seizure or wear of
flow rate
pump sliding parts
• Add oil and check oil
• Low level of oil in the
level in reservior. Check
reservoir
for leaks and repair
• Oil viscosity too heavy to
• Check by listening to the
pick up prime or too light
sound. Remove the cover
causing excessive
and check the internal
slippage
mechanism. Replace if
necessary.
• Check the sliding parts.
• Add the oil

recommended as per the
indicator line.
• Use oil as per

recommendation.
Pump developing unstable or • Pump not delivering oil • Apply the above
zero pressure for any of the above remedies
reasons
• Correct valve setting by
• Relief valve setting not
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high enough using pressure gauge
• Relief valve sticking • Check relief valve.if

open necessary, dismantle and
clean valve
• Clogging orifice of the
relief valve • Overhaul and clean relief
valve
• Mis assembly, mis
connection or mis • Must be corrected
operation of various
valves in the circuit. • Test each component
seperately and repair
• Faulty performance of
various valves or • Check and replace if
excessive oil leakages in necessary
the circuit through
• Clean and remove
actuators and valves etc.
foreign matter
• Faulty pressure gauge
• Partially clogged suction

line or suction strainer.
Pump making noise • Mis alignment of pump • Check and rectify

and prime mover
• Replace with a strainer
• Strainer capacity whose capacity is more
insufficient than twice the maximum
flow rate
• Air leak at pump’s
suction pipe joints or • Pour oil on suspected
from shaft packing of joints while listening for
the pump change in sound. If sound
stops, tighten the joints
• Air remains in the pump
casing • Eliminate air through the
air breather
• Small size of suction
pipe • Replace so that the flow
velocity on the suction
• Coupling mis alignment side will be
approximately 0.5 to
• Pump bolts very loose 1m/s
• Resonance noises in the
• Realign properly
system
• Tighten
• Air bubble or too much
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foam in suction oil • Reinforce by installing

supports to eliminate
• Very high viscosity resonance
• Pump running too fast • Check to be certain that

the return lines are below
oil level and well
seperated from suction
lines
• Use recommended oil
• Check the recommended

maximum speed
Pump oil overheated • Faulty oil cooler • Repair
• Insufficient size of oil • Increase cpapcity or

reservior install an oil cooler
• Pump pressure too high • Readjust relief valve

setting
• Excessive flow velocity
• Replace piping
• Seizure of pump’s
sliding parts • Disassemble and repair.
Check for foreign matter
in oil and see if pump
casing is filled with oil
Internal leakage around pump • Shaft packing worn out • Replace
• Top cover packing • Change the packing and

damaged apply clamping torque on
the cover as per
manufacturer’s
recommendations
Excessive wear • Abrasive matter in the • Install an adequate filter

hydraulic oil being or replace oil more often
circulated through
• Check pump
• Viscosity of oil very low manufacturer’s
at working conditions recommendations or
consult your hydraulic
• Sustained high pressure engineer
above the maximum
30
pump rating • Check maximum setting

of the relief valve
• Mis aligned drive or tight
belt drive • Check and rectify
• Air circulation causing • Remove air from the

chatter in the system system
Breaking of parts inside pump • Excessive pressure above • Adjust relief valve
housing maximum pump rating properly
• Seizure due to lack of oil • Check oil level in

reservior and cleaniness
• Solid matter wedged in of strainer and any other
the pump possible restrictions in
suction lines
• Excessive tightness of
head screws • Install a filter in the
system. Clean suction
strainer more often
• Follw manufacturer’s
recommendations
Relief Valves :

Erratic Pressure • Dirt in oil • Clean strainer and flush
• Worn poppet or seat the system
• Piston sticking in the • Lap the poppet or
main body replace
• Check and rectify
No or low pressure • Vent connection open • Check and rectify
• Balance hole plugged • Check and rectify
• Poppet not seating • Check, lap and repair
properly
Excessive noise or chatter • High oil velocity • Check and rectify
• Faulty or worn out • Check, lap or replace
poppet or seat • Check and rectify
• Excessive tank line • Check and rectify
pressure • Set relief valve at least
• Long vent line or 10 bar higher than the
pressure setting too close required working
to that of another valve in pressure of the system
the circuit.
• Valve setting too close to
the system operating
pressure
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1. Directional Valves :

Faulty or incomplete shifting • Worn out control linkage, • Check and repair
shift pin etc. • Check and rectify
• Insufficient pilot pressure • Check and replace
• Burnt out solenoid • Check and replace
• Worn spring centering
mechanism
Cylinder creeping or drifting • Valve spool not centering • Check and rectify
properly • Check and replace
• Valve spool not shifting • Check and rectify
completely • Check and overhaul the
• Valve spool or body cylinder
worn out
• Leakage past the piston
in the cylinder
2. Sequence Valves :

Premature movement of • Valve set too low • Check and set it higher
secondary operation • Excessive load on • Check and adjust
primary cylinders accordingly
• High inertia load on • Check and make
primary cylinder sequence valve remote
controlled
No movement or slow secondary • Sequence valve setting • Check and adjust again
operation too high • Should have atleast 10
• Relief valve setting too bar differential
close to that of sequence • Check and repair
valve
• Valve spool binding in
body
3. Unloading Valves :

Fails to completely unload pump • Valve setting too high • Set correctly
• Remote pressure setting • Adjust properly
too low • Overhaul valve
• Valve spool binding in
body
4. Counterbalance Valves :

Will not support load • Valve setting too low • Set properly
• Dirt under integral check • Flush the system
valve • Replace worn out parts
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• Valve spool and body • Check and overhaul the

worn out cylinder
• Leakage past the piston
in the cylinder
5. Flow Control Valves :

Variation in feed • Sticking hydrostat • Overhaul valve
• Cylinder or motor • Overhaul cylinder or
leakage motor
• Change in oil viscosity • Check and replace oil
• Improper pressure drop • Adjust correctly
across the valve • Check and do the
• Inadequate lubrication of necessary rectifications
machine parts
6. Remote Flow Control Valves :

External leakage • Back pressure in drain • Drain directly to
line or defective seals reservior or replace seals
Feed rate variation • Hydrostatic pressure • Clean valve and flush
compensator inoperative system. Polish hydrostat
or sticking hydrostat and metering spool.
Replace defective seals
Maximum flow not obtainable • Contaminants in the • Clean valve. Check
throttling orifice. torque motor coils and
Metering spool binding input current. Realign
or not shifting fully. properly.
Insufficient voltage in
torque motor.
Check valve inoperative • Dirt lodged between the • Disassemble and flush
mating faces or finished thoroughly
faces
7. Hydraulic Motors :

Motor turning in wrong direction • Incorrect piping between • Check circuits to
control valve and fluid determine correct piping
motor
Absence of proper speed and • System overload, relief • Check required system
torque valve adjustment not set pressure and reset relief
high enough valve
• Relief valve sticking • Inspect and overhaul
open relief valve, set correctly
• Free recirculation of oil • Identify the exact point
to reservior of fault and rectify
• Driven mechanism • Remove fluid motor and
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binding because of mis check the torque required

alignment for drive shaft
• Pump not delivering • Check pump delivery
sufficient volume or and pressure
pressure
External oil leakage from fluid • Gasket leaking (maybe • Replace gasket. If drain
motor due to drain not line is required, it must
connected to the be connected directly to
reservior when required) reservior.
Times of operatiion longer than • Air in system • Bleed
specified • Internal leakage in • Repair and replace worn
actuating cylinder or out parts
directional valve • Repair
• Worn out pump • It is due to wrong
• Action is sluggish only selection of hydraulic oil.
on startup and becomes Consult manufacturer’s
alright after warming up recommmendations for
and vice versa correct hydraulic oil
• Low auxiliary control viscosity
pressure • Control lines may be too
small particularly if they
are very long
8. Hydraulic Cylinders :

Piston packing failing too often • Defective or poor quality • Check and consult a
of packing hydraulic engineer for
• Packing retainer bent the correct solution
• Piston bearing worn out • Check and rectify
• Cylinder wall surface • Check and replace
excessively worn out or • Check, smoothen and
badly scored replace if necessary
• Getting damaged during • Check and take care
assembling during assembling
• Packing might be facing • Adjust relief valve
very high pressure correctly
• Too much contaminants • Flush system
in the hydraulic oil • Consult hydraulic
• Design defects in engineer
mounting • Check and change rod
• Defective rod wiper wiper
Reduced speed • Oil bypassing the piston • Check and overhaul
• Wrong setting of the cylinder. Replace
control valve defective parts
• Less delivery from pump • Adjust properly
• Directional valve not • Check and rectify
shifting fully • Check directional valve
• Low setting or any defect as discussed before
in relief valve • Check and correctly set
as mentioned before.
Insufficient force available or no • Defective or very low set • Check and correctly set
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movement at all relief valve as mentioned before

• Oil bypassing the piston • Check and overhaul the
• Pump not delivering oil cylinder
• Defective directional • Check and overhaul the
valve (specially solenoid cylinder
operated or hydraulic • Check and rectify
operated)
9. Accumulators :

Sudden drop of pressure when • Internal or external leak • Check and repair leak
position of selector valve is in accumulator
changed
No pressure available after pump • Leaking gas valve or • Check and replace valve
is stopped leaking check valve in
the line
Sluggish response • Gas precharge not • Precharge according to
sufficient manufacturer’s
instructions and check
for gas leak, if any
10. General Circuit Problems :

Insufficient pressure in system • Very low relief valve • Reset
setting • Detect and rectify
• Leakage of full pump • Check and repair
delivery within circuit
• Pump slipping its entire
volume
Slow operations • Leakage through cylinder • Check and repair
or fluid motors • Check and repair
• Valve not closing or • Reset relief valve
shifting properly slightly above the
• Relief valve set as much maximum pressure
higher pressure than required for the work
necessary. Excess oil stroke. Follow
dissipated through manufacturer’s
increased slippage in recommendations for
various parts or through maximum pressure
relief valve or through setting
throttle valve • Replace or repair pump
• Internl oil leakage due to and rectify other faults
wear in pump or in other after detecting
places • Follow amnufacturer’s
• Viscosity of oil is very recommendations for the
high correct viscosity grade to
be used at various
temperatures
Excessive heating of oil in • Pump assembled too • Follow manufacturer’s
system tightly after overhaul. instructions while trying
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This reduces clearance to reassemble

and increases rubbing • Repair
friction • Check and repair
• Leakage check valves • Check and repair
and relief in the pump • If lines are crimped,
• Improper functioning of replace. If partially
oil cooler or supply of plugged for any reason
cooling water cut off remove obstruction
• Automatic unloading • Study circuits and rectify
control inoperative the fault
• Restricted lines • Use artificial cooling
• Large pump deliveries • Replace with large
not unloaded properly reservior or install cooler
• Insufficient radiation • Check and repair
• Reservior too small to
provide adequate cooling
• Undersized valves or
pipings
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Project 1: Extension of cylinder upon operation a push button
Hydraulic Circuit:
37
38
39
Evaluation:
40
Project 2: Signal storage by electrical self-locking
Hydraulic Circuit:
41
42
43
Project 3: Mechanical Locking by means of momentary contact

switch contacts
Hydraulic Circuit:
44
Electrical Circuit:
45
Project 4: Signal storage by means of electrical self-locking

Resetting by means of proximity switch
Hydraulic Circuit:
46
Electrical Circuit:
47
Project 5: Rapid Advance Circuit
Hydraulic Circuit:
48
49
Electrical Circuit:
50
Project 6: Hydraulic motor
In the project order, the trainee is to get familiar with the operating features of a hydraulic
motor.
Through this project task, he/she is to understand the following:
• Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into torque and speed.
• The direction of rotation or the direction of flow of hydraulic motors can be controlled by
means of a directional valve.
• The speed of the hydraulic motors is determined by the flow provided and by the swept volume
of the hydraulic motors.
• The torque of hydraulic motors is determined by the differential pressure between the inlet
and the outlet and by the swept volume.
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Hydraulic Circuit:
52
Electrical Circuit:
53
Evaluation:
54
Project 7: Hydraulic Accumulator
In the project order the trainee is to understand the behavior of a hydraulic cylinder in the
event of a hydraulic pump failure and the withdrawal of energy from a diaphragm-type
accumulator in a practical experiment set-up on the training system. Through this project
task, the following knowledge is to be acquired:
• Due to the compressibility of the filled-in gas, a diaphragm-type accumulator can be

used for storing energy.
• The oil volume that can be stored in the hydraulic accumulator depends on the size of
the accumulator, the nitrogen pre-charge pressure and the system pressure.
• The amount of oil available for withdrawal depends on the accumulator size, the
nitrogen pre-charge pressure and the pressure difference between the minimum and
maximum working pressure.
• If the system pressure falls below the nitrogen pre-charge pressure, the hydraulic
accumulator is completely discharged.
55
Hydraulic Circuit:
56
Electrical Circuit:
57
Industrial Pneumatics: Introduction
PNEUMATICS AND ITS MEANING:
The English word pneumatic and its associate noun pneumatics are derived from the Greek “pneuma”
meaning breath or air. Originally coined to give a name to the science of the motions and properties of air.
Compressed air is a vital utility- just like water, gas and electricity used in countless ways to benefit
everyday life. Pneumatics is application of compressed air (pressurized air) to power machine or control or
regulate machines. Simply put, Pneumatics may be defined as branch of engineering science which deals
with the study of the behavior and application of compressed air. Pneumatics can also be defined as the
branch of fluid power technology that deals with generation, transmission and control of power using
pressurized air. Gas in a pneumatic system behaves like a spring since it is compressible.
Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the most usual, for obvious reasons. Exceptions are
most likely to occur on aircraft and space vehicles where an inert gas such as nitrogen is preferred or the
gas is one which is generated on board. Pure nitrogen may be used if there is a danger of combustion in a
work environment. In Pneumatic control, compressed air is used as the working medium, normally at a
pressure from 6 bar to 8 bar. Using Pneumatic
Control, maximum force up to 50 kN can be developed. Actuation of the controls can be manual,
Pneumatic or Electrical actuation. Signal medium such as compressed air at pressure of 1-2 bar can be used
[Pilot operated Pneumatics] or Electrical signals [D.C or A.C source- 24V – 230V] can be used [Electro
pneumatics]
CHOICE OF WORKING MEDIUM AND SYSTEM.

The choice of medium depends on the application. Some of the general, broad rules followed in the
selection of a working medium are listed below.
• When the system requirement is high speed, medium pressure (usually 6 to 8 bar) and less
accuracy of position, then pneumatic system is preferred.
• If the system requirement is high pressure and high precision, a fluid system with oil is good.
• When the power requirement is high like in forging presses, sheet metal press, it is impossible to
use air system. Oil hydraulics is the only choice
• Air is used where quick response of actuator is required.
• If temperate variation range in the system is large, then use of air system may run into
condensation problems and oil is preferred.
• If the application requires only a medium pressure and high positional accuracy is required then
hydro –pneumatic system is preferred
• Air is non-explosive, it is preferred where fire/electric hazard are expected. Oil systems are more
prone to fire and electrical hazards and are not recommended in such applications.
• Because air contains oxygen (about 20%) and is not sufficient alone to provide adequate
lubrication of moving parts and seals, oil is usually introduced into the air stream near the actuator
to provide this lubrication preventing excessive wear and oxidation.
In a practical sense, compressed air is a medium that carries potential energy. However it can be expensive
to produce, and from a simple energy efficiency point of view compressed air may not appear advantageous
at first. Considering that it takes about 6 kW of electrical energy to generate
0.75 kW output on an air motor, compressed air has an efficiency rating of only 12%. In spite of that
compressed air is used due to its other advantages.
58
The advantages and disadvantages of compressed air.
Advantages of compressed air Disadvantages of compressed air

Air is available in unlimited quantities Compressive air is relatively expensive
Compressed air is easily conveyed in means of conveying energy
pipelines even over longer distances The higher costs are, however. Largely
compensated by the cheaper elements.
Simpler and more compact equipment
Compressed air can be stored Compressed air requires good
conditioning. No dirt or moisture residues
may be contained in it. Dirt and dust
leads to wear on tools and equipment
Compressed air need not be returned. It It is not possible to achieve uniform and
can be vented to atmosphere after it has constant piston speeds( air is
performed work compressible)
Compressed air is insensitive to Compressed air is economical ony up to
temperature fluctuation. This ensures certain force expenditure. Owing to the
reliable operation even in extreme commonly used pressure of 7 bar and
temperature conditions limit is about 20 to 50 kN, depending on
the travel and the speed. If the force
which is required exceeds this level,
hydraulics is preferred
Compressed air is clean. This is The exhaust is loud. As the result of
especially important in food, intensive development work on materials
pharmaceutical, textile, beverage for silencing purposes, this problems has
industries however now largely been solved
Operating elements for compressed air The oil mist mixed with the air for
operation are of simple and inexpensive lubricating the equipment escapes with
construction. the exhaust to atmosphere.
Compressed air is fast. Thus, high Air due to its low conductivity , cannot
operational speed can be attained. dissipate heat as much as hydraulic fluid
Speeds and forces of the pneumatics Air cannot seal the fine gaps between the
elements can be infinitely adjusted moving parts unlike hydraulic system
Tools and operating elements are Air is not a good lubricating medium
overload proof. Straight line movement unlike hydraulic fluid.
can be produced directly
59
APPLICATIONS OF PNEUMATICS
Pneumatic systems are used in many applications. New uses for pneumatics are constantly being
discovered. In construction, it is indispensible source of power for such tools as air drills, hammers,
wrenches, and even air cushion supported structures, not to mention the many vehicles using air suspension
braking and pneumatic tires. In manufacturing, air is used to power high speed clamping, drilling, grinding
and assembly using pneumatic wrenches and riveting machines. Plant air is also used to power hoists and
cushion support to transport loads through the plant.
Many recent advances in air – cushion support are used in the military and commercial marine transport
industry.
Material Handling Manufacturing Other applications

Clamping Drilling Aircraft
Shifting Turning Cement plants
positioning Milling chemical plants
Orienting Sawing Coal mines
Feeding Finishing Cotton mills
Ejection Forming Dairies
Braking Quality Control Forge shops
Bonding Stamping Machine tools
Locking Embossing Door or chute control
Packaging Filling Turning and inverting
Feeding parts
Sorting
stacking
ISO symbols
The development of pneumatic systems is assisted by a uniform approach to the representation of the
elements and the circuits. The symbols used for the individual elements must display the following
characteristics:
o Function
o Actuation and return actuation methods
o Number of connections
o Number of switching positions
o General operating principle
o Simplified representation of the flow path
The symbols used in pneumatics are standardized by the code DIN ISO 1219.
Symbols used in energy conversion and preparation

Supply
Compressor with fixed capacity
Air receiver and
60
‘T’ junction
Service equipment
Filter separation and filtration
of particles
Water separator partial water removal
Lubricator metered quantities of

oil passed to the
air stream
Pressure regulator relieving type – vent

hole for excess upstream
pressure – adjustable
Combined symbols
Air service unit Filter, Regulator,
Gauge, Lubricator.
Simplified air service unit
Pressure source
Directional control valves: ports and positions (ways)
2/2 – way directional valve

Normally closed
3/2 - way directional valve
61
Normally open
5/3 – way directional valve Mid

position closed
Method of actuation
Mechanical
General manual operation
Push button
Lever operated
Detent lever operated
Foot pedal
Roller operated
Plunger operated
Spring return
Spring centered
Idle return, roller
Pneumatic
62
Direct pneumatic actuation
Indirect pneumatic actuation (piloted)
Electrical
Single solenoid operation
Double solenoid operation

Combined
Double solenoid and pilot operation
With manual override
Non-return valves and derivatives
Check valve
Spring loaded check valve
Shuttle valve “OR” function
Two pressure valve “AND” function
Quick exhaust valve
Flow control valves
Flow control valve adjustable
One – way flow control valve
Pressure valves
Adjustable pressure regulating valve,

63
Non – relieving type
Adjustable pressure regulating valve,
Relieving type (overloads are vented)
Sequence valve combination
Linear actuators
Single acting cylinder
Double acting cylinder
Double acting cylinder

with double ended piston rod
Double acting cylinder with

non-adjustable cushioning in
one direction
Double acting cylinder with single

adjustable cushioning
Double acting cylinder with adjustable

cushioning at both ends
Linear drive with magnetic coupling

Rotary actuators
Air motor, rotation in one direction

fixed capacity
Air motor, rotation in one direction

variable capacity
64
Air motor, rotation in both directions

variable capacity
Rotary actuator limited travel in both directions
Auxiliary symbols
Exhaust port
Exhaust port with threaded connection
Silencer
Line connection (fixed)
Crossing lines (not connected)
Pressure gauge
Visual indicator
Signal flow (electrical)
65
Electropneumatic symbols
Switches and relay contacts
Manual actuation
66
Relay and actuator coil symbols
Relay coil and contact symbols
Mechanical and electrical actuation
67
COMPRESSED AIR GENERATION

&
DISTRIBUTION
Compressed air generation and supply
Air preparation
For the continuing performance of control systems and working elements it is
necessary to guarantee that the air supply is:
• clean
• dry and
• at the required pressure
If these conditions are not fulfilled, then short to medium term degeneration of the system will be
accelerated. The effect is downtime on the machinery in addition to increased costs for repair or
replacement of parts.
The equipment to be considered in the generation and preparation of air include:
• Inlet filter
• Air compressor
• Air reservoir
• Air dryer
• Air filter with water separator
• Pressure regulator
• Air lubricator as required
• Drainage points
Pneumatic components are designed for a maximum operating pressure of 800 to 1000 kPa (8 –
10 bar). Practical experience has shown that approximately 600 kPa (6 bar) should be used for
economic operation.The compressor’s system should provide at least 650 to 700 kPa (6.5 to 7 bar)
for a desired operating pressure level of 600 kPa (6 bar).
68
Types of Compressors:
Rotary piston compressors use rotating members to compress and increase the pressure of the air. They are
smooth in operation but the compression is not as high as with multistage reciprocating compressors.
Flow compressors produce large volumes of air at small increase in stage pressure. The air is accelerated by
the blades of the compressor but there is only a small increase in pressure of about 1.2 times the inlet
pressure per stage.
Reservoirs
A reservoir compensates the pressure fluctuations when the compressed air is taken
from the system. If the pressure in the reservoir drops below a certain value, the compressor will
compensate until the set higher value is reached again. This has the advantage that the
compressor does not need to operate continuously.
69
The large surface area of the reservoir cools the air. Thus, a portion of the moisture in the air is
separated directly from the reservoir as water, which has to be regularly drained via a drain cock.
The size of a compressed air reservoir depends on the :

Delivery volume of the compressor
Air consumption for the applications Type
of compressor cycle regulation
Permissible pressure drop in the supply network.
AIR DRYERS
Air dryers reduce the moisture content to a level, which suits the application, and the elements used.
Water produces a hardening of seals, corrosion and the washing-out of the original lubrication of cylinders.
Oil and water may cause seals and diaphragms to swell. In paint-spraying plants, water and dust cause
contamination, poor paint adhesion and the formation of blisters. In the food, pharmaceutical and chemical
industries, oil, dirt, bacteria and germs destroy the storage properties of products.
There are three methods of reducing the moisture content in air:

• Low temperature drying
• Adsorption drying
• Absorption drying
Air service equipment
It is a combination of :
• Compressed air filter
• Compressed air regulator and gauge
• Compressed air lubricator
Air service equipment is also termed as FRL unit.
Filter
Filter removes the dust particles. The compressed air passes through the filter from left to right and is fed
through a baffle plate in the filter bowl. The effect of the baffle plate is that the air is caused to rotate, and
the heavier dust particles and water droplets are spun by centrifugal force against the inner wall of the filter
bowl. The air, which has pre-cleaned in this way, then passes through the filter element, which filters out
the smaller dirt particles. The filte The degree of separation depends on the pore size of the filter element
used.
Guide line for maintenance:
• Filter cartridge should be changed or cleaned with kerosene or trichloro-ethylene or other cleaning
mediums. But no chemicals like CTC, acetone are to be used for cleaning plastic parts.
70
• The condensate level must be checked regularly, as the height specified on the sight glass must not
be exceeded.
• Drain off the accumulated water and other foreign particles from the filter bowl.
Regulator
Regulators ensure a constant supply pressure and also regulate the pressure of the air.
71
Setting and adjusting:
The pressure regulator can be adjusted between the limits of zero and the supply pressure of the compressor
network.
The adjustment to a higher pressure is achieved by increasing spring compression.
When reducing pressure settings, it is necessary to relieve the pressure well below the limit required to
relieve the air from the vent and then increase the pressure up to the lower limit required.
Guide line for maintenance:
• Check if the supply of the pressure air is steady or not. Pressure limits should be tested.
• Look for an external damage to the regulator.
Lubricator:
Lubricators are used to lubricate the air. For power components it may be necessary to lubricate the air. But
as a rule the compressed air should be free of oil.
Fig. shows an air lubricator:
The compressed air passing through the lubricator causes a pressure drop between the oil reservoir and the
upper part of the lubricator. The pressure difference is sufficient to force the oil upwards through a via duct
where it then drips into a nozzle which can be seen through an inspection glass. Here the oil is atomized
and taken up by the air stream to a greater or lesser extent
Problems that occur with excessive lubrication: o Malfunctioning of the components
o Oil mist pollution of the environment o Gumming-up of parts occurs
o Difficulties in adjusting the lubricator correctly Guide line for maintenance:

72
• Check the oil level in the oil sight glass and top up, if necessary, to the level indicated.
• Lubricator bowl must not be cleaned with trichloroethylene.
• Only mineral oils can be used for the lubricator.
• Inspect the colour of the oil in the bowl and if the colour turns grayish, replace the oil.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
These valves influence the path taken by an air stream. These valves:
• Allows the passage of air directing it to particular airlines
• Canceling the air signals as required by blocking the passage
• Relieve the air through the exhaust port
Based on their design the valves are classified as:

• Poppet valves
• Spool Valves
Poppet valve uses balls, discs, plates or cones for opening or closing the connections.
Slide valve uses spool slides, spool flat slides or sliding disc valves for linking the connections together or
closed.
Also based on the number of ports, switching positions and method of actuation the valves are classified.
3/2-way valve: ball seat
Fig. shows a stem or plunger actuated 3/2 way valve. Unactuated position
73
The 3/2-way valve has three ports and two positions. The addition of the exhaust port 3(R) enables the
signal generated via the passage through the 3/2-way valve to be cancelled. The valve connects the output
signal 2(A) to exhaust 3(R) and atmosphere in the initial position
Spool operated Valves
74
Connection Ports:
75
Actuation:
3/2 Directional Control Valves
76
77
5/2 Directional Control Valves
78
79
5/3 Directional Control Valves:
80
81
Non – return valves
Check valves:
Check valves can stop the flow completely in one direction. In the opposite direction the flow is free with a
minimal pressure drop due to the resistance of the valve. Blocking of the one direction can be effected by
cones, balls, plates or diaphragms.
Two pressure valve: AND function
The two pressure valve has two inlets and one outlet. Compressed air flows through the valve only if
signals are applied to both inlets.
82
One input signal blocks the flow. If signals are applied to both X and Y, the signal which is last applied
passes to the outlet.
This valve is used mainly for interlocking controls, safety controls, check functions and logic operations.
Shuttle valve: OR function
This non-return valve element has two inlets and one outlet.
83
If compressed air is applied to the first inlet, the valve seat seals the opposing inlet. A signal is generated at
the outlet. When the airflow is reversed, i.e. a cylinder or valve is exhausted, the seat remains in its
previously assumed position because of the pressure conditions. This valve is also called an OR component
Flow control valves
These valves influence the volumetric flow of the compressed air in both directions
84
One-way flow control valve
These valves are used for speed regulation of actuators. In this valve, the airflow is throttled in one
direction only. A check valve blocks the flow of air in the bypass leg and the air can flow only through the
regulated cross-section
Pneumatic timer (Time delay valve NC)

These valves delay the signals. Fig. shows a NC type time delay valve.
. The time delay valve is a combined 3/2-way valve, one way flow control valve and air reservoir. The
delay time is generally 0 – 30 seconds
ELECTROPNEUMATIC COMPONENTS
Relays
Relays are electromagnetically operated devices very suitable for automatic control.
They are relatively small and sensitive magnetic contacts capable of controlling large and
remote loads, with high efficiency and matching accuracy.
85
Relays are used in switching circuits to amplify or multiply signals, to provide memory and to
invert or convert signals.
PE converter
This device combines a pneumatically actuated stem and an electric switch. Fig. shows a PE
converter.
When a pneumatic signal of sufficient pressure to overcome the opposing spring force is applied
to the diaphragm, the resultant force operates. The force required to operate the stem is
controlled by the adjusting screw. Movement of the stem actuates a micro switch via a switching
lever.
Contacts
Switches are primarily distinguished by their contact configuration:
Normally open (path 3 to 4)
Normally closed (path 1 to 2)
86
Change over contacts (path 1 to 2 or 1 to 4)
On actuation, a normally open (NO) contact enables energy flow and a normally closed
contact (NC) disables energy flow. The changeover contacts (CO) can be used as either
normally open or normally closed contacts.
Reed switches
Reed switches are also known as magnetically actuated proximity switches.

Fig. shows the reed switch.
In Electropneumatic control circuits, reed switches are commonly used to sense the positions of
pneumatic cylinder piston rods and the angle of rotation of shaft in rotary actuators
Electronic sensors
Certain applications require the use of electronic sensors employing:
Electrical induction
Capacitance
Infra red light
These are represented by the following illustrated symbols.
87
PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
(ACTUATORS)
Actuators
Pneumatic cylinders convert pneumatic energy into mechanical energy. It

has the following general characteristics:
Diameters 2.5 to 320mm

Stroke lengths 1 to 2000mm
Available forces 2 to 45000 N at 6 bar
Piston speed 0.1 to 1.5 m/s
There are two types of actuators:

Linear actuator
o Single – acting cylinders o
Double acting cylinders
Rotary actuator
o Air motor
o Rotary cylinders o
Rotary actuator
Single – acting cylinders
In single-acting cylinders compressed air can be applied on only one side of the
piston face. Fig. shows a single-acting cylinder.
The cylinder can produce work in only one direction. The return movement of the piston is
effected by a built-in spring or by the application of an external force.
The single-acting cylinder has a single piston seal which is fitted on the air supply side. Sealing
is by a flexible material that is embedded in a metal or plastic piston. During motion, the sealing
edges slide over the cylinder bearing surface.
88
There are varying designs of single-acting cylinders including: o

Diaphragm cylinder
o Rolling diaphragm cylinder
Double - acting cylinders

Fig. shows a double acting cylinder.
There are two ports namely supply and exhaust ports. This cylinder has the capability to carry
out work in both directions of motion.
Fig. shows a double acting cylinder with end position cushioning.
89
If large masses are moved by a cylinder, cushioning is used in the end positions to prevent
sudden damaging impacts.
The various types of double acting cylinders are:
Tandem double acting cylinder
Cylinders with through piston rod
Multi position cylinders
Cylinders with through piston rod

This cylinder has a piston rod on both sides, which is a through piston rod. There are
two bearing points to guide the piston rod.
The force is identical in both directions.
Rotary cylinders
With this design of double acting cylinder, the piston rod has a gear tooth profile. The
piston rod drives a gear wheel, and a rotary movement results from a linear movement.
0 0 0 0 0
The range of rotation varies from 45 , 90 , 180 , 270 to 360 . The torque is dependent on
pressure, piston surface and gear ratio.
Rotary actuator
With a rotary actuator, force is transmitted direct to the
drive shaft via a vane.
0 0
Angular displacement is infinitely adjustable from 0 to approx. 180 . Torque should not
exceed 10 Nm.
Guidelines for Maintenance:

• The cylinder should be perfectly aligned for efficient and trouble free operation.
• Piston rods dismantled during servicing, should be properly supported to retain it in

line.
90
• Tie rods connecting the end covers, should be tightened with equal tension as
possible to avoid strain on the rods.
• No reworking on cylinders should be taken on cylinders.
• While servicing cylinders all seals are to be replaced.
• Cylinders should be properly lubricated.
91
MAINTENANCE
&
TROUBLE-SHOOTING OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Maintenance need of Pneumatic systems
While designing a pneumatic system, specific care should be taken to make the system
simpler and easy to handle.
Guidelines on pneumatic system
It should be easy to operate, reliable, light in weight, simple and easily serviceable.
For each system, the circuit diagram and functional diagram should be available.
The control system should be as small as possible.
The impulsive valves should be guarded against dirt, cooling water and mechanical
shocks.
Before assembly of the unit, care must be taken so that the unit is free of dirt. Do not
open the ports of the elements before the line connection.
All elements must be given proper identification numbering from the circuit diagram.
The service unit should be visible, serviceable and be placed at a higher level than the
rest of the equipment.
Valves should be assembled near to the drive units.
When dismantling and assembling valves and cylinders, take care of the sealing
materials.
Silencers should be used as they decrease the noise of air.
Lines should be short, tension-free and bend-free.
Cut the plastic hoses straight.
Connections of plastic hoses to the elements must be screwed properly.
Maintenance schedule of pneumatic system

A. Air mains, lines and fittings
Name of work Periodicity
1.Detection and arrest of leakage of air Monthly
2.Thorough inspection of the complete line system Once in a year
3. Inspection of unions, bends, tees, couplings, etc. Once in 3 months
4.Pressure rating at strategic points Once in 3 months
5.Condensate traps Daily
6.Automatic draining of condensate Once in 3 months
7.Airlines, shocks, cuts in lines and holes Weekly
92
B. FRL unit
1. Detection and arrest of leakage of air Daily
2. Drain condensate from filter Daily
3. Cleaning of filter cartridge Half yearly
4. Pressure rating of pressure regulator Monthly
5. Calibrate pressure gauge Half yearly
6. Cleaning filter bowl and oiler bowl Yearly
7. Top up oil level Weekly
8. Clean up oil jet passage Half yearly
9. Arrest oil leakage Once in 3 months
10. Adjust oil jet As needed
11. Change of oil after thorough cleaning of bowl Yearly or Half yearly
C. Pneumatic control valves

1. Possible air leakage and its arrest Monthly
2. Check for possible seal failure Half yearly
3. Inspect actuating elements Half yearly
4. Check valve adjustment Half yearly
5. Check solenoid and its electrical parameter Monthly
6. Mechanical damage to valves and their parts Yearly or earlier
D. Air cylinders and Air motors

1. Check for leakage and its arrest Monthly
2. Check the tie-rod tensions Half yearly
3. Inspect the cylinder for force and speed accuracy Weekly
4. Check alignment of piston, piston rod & cylinder body Yearly or as needed
5. Mechanical damage to piston rod Weekly
6. Replace cup seal Half yearly or as needed
7. Check rpm of motor Weekly
8. Check torque of motor Weekly
9. Check vibration produced by motor Weekly
93
TROUBLE, POSSIBLE CAUSES AND REMEDIES
The following is a list of common pneumatic system operating problems and the
corresponding possible causes and remedy for each trouble.
A. Compressor
Trouble Possible causes Remedies
Dirt in suction filter Clean filtering plate and filter

disc. Do not use gasoline for
danger of explosion.
Defective sealing of cylinder Mount fresh packing of the
head cylinder head.
Valve interference through Exchange valve insert plate.
dislocated valve seat and
valve guide
Worn out pistons and piston Exchange piston with rings and
rings as well as worn out also the cylinder if necessary
cylinder
Piston rings broken or not Repalce piston rings as per
Inadeuquate performance
sealed manufacturer’s instructions.
End gap not staggered in Stagger the end gaps, make

grooves the rings free in the grooves.
Rough, scratched or Replace

excessive end gaps
Cylinders or piston Replace or repair

scratched, worn or scored
94
Leaking cylinder valve Adjust and stop leakage
Loose belt in compressor Adjust the belt as

wheel, motor pulley recommended
Motor with excessive end Adjust the end paly

play in shaft
Carbon on top of the piston De-carbonise
Leaking, broken or wornout Adjust or replace

constant speed unloader
parts
Valve seats worn Recondition valve seat
Unusual noise
Recondition the conneting
Worn or scored connecting rod,
rod, piston pin or crank pin replace or condition gudgeon
bearings. pin and crank pin bearings.
Defective ball bearings on Replace bearings
crank shaft or on motor
shaft
Loose motor fan Tighten the motor fan
Cylinders or pistons Rebore cylinders and replace

scratched, worn or scored. pistons.
95
Binding in machine leakage Check linkage to ensure that

excessive friction loads are
not
present
.
Pressure too low. Check the pressure at the
cylinder to make certain that it
is in accordance with circuit
requirements.
Cylinder fails to move the load Cylinder undersized for Re-calculate force needs and
when valve is actuated loads install appropriate sized
cylinders to carry the load
Piston rod broken at piston Disassemble and replace
end piston rod.
Valve sticking or binding a) Check for dirt or

gummy deposits
b) Check for worn parts
Cyinder sticking or binding a) Check for
overtightened packing
on rod seal or piston.
b) Check for mis-
Erratic cylinder action alignment or worn
parts.
Loose tie rods Tighten the tie rods according
to manufacturer’s
recommendations
Excessive pressure Reduce the pressure to the
rated limits.
Pinched or extruded seal Replace the cylinder body seal

Cylinder body seal leak
Seal deterioration Check the compatibility of seal

material with the lubricant used
96
Rod gland seal leak Torn or worn seal Examine the piston rod for
dents and nicks. Replace the
piston rod if the surface is
rough
Excessive or rapid piston seal Seal installed incorrectly Check installation instruction
wear and make necessary
corrections
Valves
Inlet poppet not seating a) poppet is damaged, it must

properly. be replaced
b) Dirt in poppet seals, clean it
c) Poppet seat damaged,
Replace the entire valve body
assembly
Nicked, torn or swelling Replace it
seals
Cylinder leaks Leakage in the packing of the

air cylinder connected to the
valve. Replace the packings
Valve blows to exhaust Damage spools Replace it
Cylinder leaks
Leakage in the packing of the
air cylinder connected to the
valve. Replace the packings
Damage spools Replace it.
Air supply pressure too low Inspect the system for

97
and causes the valve to undersized supply lines, sharp

actuate partially bends, fittings and clogged
36
filter elements or a defective

pressure regulator and adjust.
Water or oil contamination Ensure that the air is dry and
that the air filter is drained
frequently
Low pilot or signal pressure Check the valve specification
for minimum pilot or signal
pressure required
Swollen seals Replace it
Varnish deposits in spool Remove varnish using a water

Poppet chatters valve soluble detergent or solvent
such as kerosene
Air supply pressure low Inspect the system
Low pilot or signal pressure Check the valve specification

for minimum pilot or signal
pressure requirements.
Poor or no lubrication Check the system lubricator to
see that it is working as it
should
Faulty silencer/ muffler a) Remove the silencer to see
if valve performance has
improved
b) Clean the silencer to see if
Spool valve action is sluggish valve performance has
improved
c) Verify if the silencer is of
98
adequate size
Water or oil contamination Ensure the supply air is dry.
Broken return spring Replace the return spring

Air flow is normal only in
actuated position
Low voltage at solenoid Voltage should be checked at

Solenoid buzzes the solenoid coil and repaired
High transient voltage Isolate solenoid circuits from

Solenoid burns out main power circuits
Faulty piston seal Replace it.
Excessive lubrication Check the system lubrication
Sequence valve gives erratic

timing Fluctuating air pressure Install a pressure regulator set
at the systems lowest expected
pressure.
Accumulated water Re-route the pilot supply lines
to eliminate low points
Incorrect installation Install properly

Flow control valve does not
respond to adjustment
Dirt in valve Clean the valve
99
Broken return spring Replace the return spring

Air flow is normal only in
actuated position
Low voltage at solenoid Voltage should be checked at

Solenoid buzzes the solenoid coil and repaired
High transient voltage Isolate solenoid circuits from

Solenoid burns out main power circuits
Faulty piston seal Replace it.
Sequence valve gives erratic

timing Fluctuating air pressure Install a pressure regulator set
at the systems lowest expected
pressure.
Accumulated water Re-route the pilot supply lines
to eliminate low points
Incorrect installation Install properly

Flow control valve does not
respond to adjustment
Dirt in valve Clean the valve
100
Exercise 1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder, extending
Aim:
This exercise provides basic know-how and skills on the set-up and operation of pneumatic controls using
the control of a single-acting cylinder as an example.
101
Exercise 2: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder, retracting
Aim: This exercise demonstrates the use of a 3/2 directional control valve with flow in both directions
functioning as an open neutral position valve of a single acting cylinder extended in neutral position.
102
Exercise 3: Indirect control of a single-acting cylinder
Aim: This exercises conveys know-how on the indirect control of cylinders, using a single-acting cylinder
and a pneumatically operated 3/2 directional control valve as an example.
103
Exercise 4: Slow-speed extension, rapid retraction of

a single-acting cylinder
Aim: In addition to throttling the cylinder speed, this exercise shows how to achieve the highest possible
speed when retracting the piston rod by using a quick-exhaust valve.
104
Exercise 5: Controlling a double-acting cylinder, impulse

valve, 2 push-buttons
Aim: In this exercise we examine how a pneumatically operated impulse valve functions when controlling
a double acting cylinder.
105
Exercise 6: Displacement-dependent control of a doubleacting

cylinder, impulse valve
Aim: The displacement-dependent control of a double-acting cylinder by using limit switches is

demonstrated in this exercise.
106
Exercise 7: Sequential control of 2 double-acting cylinders

without overlapping signals
Aim: This exercise helps to understand sequential controls and provides practical knowledge of setting up
and commissioning a control system with two pneumatic drives. Practice in developing sequential diagram
and pneumatic circuit diagram is exercised.
107
Electro-Pneumatics
Exercise 8: Command-variable control of a double-acting cylinder

with spring return valve
108
Exercise 9: Holding-element control of a double-acting

cylinder with impulse valve, relay
Objective:
■ This exercise conveys knowledge on the application of relays in electro pneumatic controls
.
■The valve solenoids are controlled through relay contacts and not directly through the signaling elements.
109
Exercise 10: Displacement-dependent control of a double-acting cylinder,

impulse valve, cylinder switch
Objective:
Cylinder switches and an electrically controlled 5/2 directional control impulse valve are used in this
displacement- dependent control of a double acting cylinder.
110
Exercise 11: Time-dependent control of a double-acting cylinder with

switch-on delay
Objective
This exercise demonstrates the application of an electric, switch-on delay timing element in a sequential
control.
111
112
Exercise 12: Two-hand safety control
Objective
This exercise illustrates how a two hand safety control is used to press and punch. This control meets the
safety requirements according to EN 574 and has been adapted to relay technology.
113
Exercise 13: Sequential control of 2 double-acting cylinders with

impulse valves and signal overlapping
114
Electrical Circuit:
115

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2017

Industrial Hydraulics &

1.2 Industrial Definition:

Hydraulics is the science of forces and movements transmitted by means of liquids.

1.3. Basic Characteristics of Hydraulics:

High force density, compact construction

1.6 Distinction from other Technical system (System Comparison)

Criterion Hydraulics Pneumatics Electricals/ Mechanics

Conversion into Pumps, Cylinder, Compressors, Generators, —

Efficiency Not good enough Good. Good,

Generation of Very simple, Very simple, Less simple, Simple,

Typical Larger forces: Smaller forces: Rotational drive General power

1.8 Mobile hydraulics:

Automobiles, tractors, aero planes, missile, boats, etc.

2. Basic Physical Principles

2.1 LIQUIDS AT REST

1 psi = 6894.75 Pa Device for determining the arrangement of the

2.2 Pascal's law

2.3 Pascal’s Law applications:

2.3.1 Force Multiplication / Transmission.

A vehicle is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. The mass m amounts to 1500 kg.

2.3.2 Pressure Multiplication / Transmission

2.3.3 Displacement Multiplication / Transmission

4. Symbols according to DIN ISO 1219-1

4.1 Basic symbols

The fluid should:

– be incompressible for the transmission of forces

5.1 Functions of Hydraulic Fluids.

5.2 Classification of hydraulic oils

7.1 Classification of Hydraulic Pumps:

7.2 Selection Criteria of pumps

7.4 Pumps and motors

8. Directional control valves

8.1 Methods of actuation

9.1 Pressure Relief valve

9.2 Pressure regulator / Reducing valve

10. Flow Control Valves

11. Non-return valves

12.1 Single acting cylinder

12.2 Double acting cylinder

There are three basic types of accumulators:

TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE FOR HYDRAULICS

• Clogged strainer or • Check minimum speed

• Check the sliding parts.

• Add the oil

• Use oil as per

high enough using pressure gauge

• Relief valve sticking • Check relief valve.if

• Partially clogged suction

Pump making noise • Mis alignment of pump • Check and rectify

foam in suction oil • Reinforce by installing

• Pump running too fast • Check to be certain that

• Use recommended oil

• Check the recommended

Pump oil overheated • Faulty oil cooler • Repair

• Insufficient size of oil • Increase cpapcity or

• Pump pressure too high • Readjust relief valve