Steam Plant Operation
Steam Plant Operation
Steam Plant Operation
1
Steam and Its Importance
1
Position Statement on Energy by the National Society of Professional Engineers.
1
2 Chapter One
With any of these input sources, the power plant’s output can take
various forms:
The older coal-fired boilers often have been mislabeled as gross pol-
luters, but because of the requirements imposed by the Clean Air Act,
emissions from many of these plants are lower than those mandated
by law.
When power plant emissions have been evaluated for particulate mat-
ter and SO2 since 1970, the statistics are quite impressive. Particulate
emissions have been reduced nearly 94 percent, and SO2 reductions are
70 percent. The dramatic reduction in particulates results primarily
from replacing older electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) with fabric filters
or high-efficiency ESPs. The use of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) sys-
tems has resulted in the reduction of SO2 emissions.
The resulting air quality improvements in the United States come
with a significant price tag because over $40 billion has been invested
over the past 25 years in flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems, fabric
filters, high-efficiency ESPs, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems
for the reduction of NOx, and other environmental systems. Because
of these additions, the cost of electricity in many areas has increased
approximately 10 percent.
Yet, despite these significant improvements in air quality, additional
restrictions are being imposed. These include restrictions on small par-
ticulate matter, mercury, and CO2 , and systems are being developed to
meet these new regulations.
Low NOx burners, combustion technology, and supplemental sys-
tems have been developed for systems fired by coal, oil, or natural
gas. These systems have met all the requirements that have been
imposed by the U.S. Clean Air Act, and as a result, NOx levels have
been reduced significantly from uncontrolled levels.
to the boiler pressure, is not superheated, and does not contain mois-
ture.) The steam from the turbine exhausts to a condenser, from
which the condensed steam is pumped back into the boiler. It is also
called a condensing cycle, and a simple schematic of the system is
shown in Fig. 1.1.
This schematic also shows heat (Qin) being supplied to the boiler
and a generator connected to the turbine for the production of elec-
tricity. Heat (Qout) is removed by the condenser, and the pump supplies
energy (Wp) to the feedwater in the form of a pressure increase to
allow it to flow through the boiler.
A higher plant efficiency is obtained if the steam is initially super-
heated, and this means that less steam and less fuel are required for
a specific output. (Superheated steam has a temperature that is above
that of dry saturated steam at the same pressure and thus contains
more heat content, called enthalpy, Btu/lb.) If the steam is reheated
and passed through a second turbine, cycle efficiency also improves, and
moisture in the steam is reduced as it passes through the turbine.
This moisture reduction minimizes erosion on the turbine blades.
When saturated steam is used in a turbine, the work required to rotate
the turbine results in the steam losing energy, and a portion of the steam
condenses as the steam pressure drops. The amount of work that can be
done by the turbine is limited by the amount of moisture that it can
accept without excessive turbine blade erosion. This steam moisture
content generally is between 10 and 15 percent. Therefore, the mois-
ture content of the steam is a limiting factor in turbine design.
With the addition of superheat, the turbine transforms this additional
energy into work without forming moisture, and this energy is basically
all recoverable in the turbine. A reheater often is used in a large utility
Qin
Pump Condenser
Wp Qout
In this example, the fuel handling system stores the coal supply,
prepares the fuel for combustion by means of pulverization, and then
transports the pulverized coal to the boiler. A forced-draft (FD) fan
supplies the combustion air to the burners, and this air is preheated
in an air heater, which improves the cycle efficiency. The heated air is
also used to dry the pulverized coal. A primary air fan is used to sup-
ply heated air to the pulverizer for coal drying purposes and is the
source of the primary air to the burners as the fuel-air mixture flows
from the pulverizers to the burners. The fuel-air mixture is then
burned in the furnace portion of the boiler.
The boiler recovers the heat from combustion and generates steam
at the required pressure and temperature. The combustion gases are
generally called flue gas, and these leave the boiler, economizer, and
finally the air heater and then pass through environmental control
equipment. In the example shown, the flue gas passes through a partic-
ulate collector, either an electrostatic precipitator or a bag filterhouse,
to a sulfur dioxide (SO2) scrubbing system, where these acid gases are
removed, and then the cleaned flue gas flows to the stack through an
induced-draft (ID) fan. Ash from the coal is removed from the boiler
and particulate collector, and residue is removed from the scrubber.
8
Figure 1.2 Schematic of a typical pulverized coal–fired utility power plant. Reheater, ash
and reagent handling, and sludge disposal are not shown. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott
company.)
Steam and Its Importance 9
The units shown in Fig. 1.3 are designed for the same steam capacity,
but one is designed for natural gas firing and the other is designed for
pulverized coal firing. Although the comparison of the two units
shows only a relative difference in the height of the units, both the
depth and the width of the coal-fired unit are proportionately larger
as well.
The operators of power plants are continually investigating various
means to increase their revenues by increasing the efficiency of their
plants, by reducing their costs, and by creating other salable products.
This all must be accomplished by reducing the impact of the operation
on the environment. For example, one utility has taken unique steps
in the handling and disposing of fly ash.
This utility has constructed a storage dome that holds approxi-
mately 85,000 tons of fly ash, which is the amount of fly ash produced
from this plant in 2 months of operation. The storage dome is filled in
the winter and early spring so that the maximum amount of fly ash is
available and used in place of cement for the production of concrete in
the summer months when many construction projects are active.
Fly ash is an excellent substitute for cement in concrete. With its use,
the following improvements are found in concrete: strength, durability,
permeability, and susceptibility to thermal cracking and sulfate attack.
In the past, small amounts of fly ash have been used in concrete, but
recent studies conclude that concrete containing 50 percent fly ash
can be used, and the results show the significant improvements iden-
tified above.
The use of fly ash not only reduces the cost of the concrete but also
reduces the landfill costs for this waste product, which must be dis-
posed in some manner. Therefore, the use of fly ash in concrete and
other unique ideas will continue to be investigated.
Figure 1.3 Comparison of (a) a natural gas–fired boiler and (b) a pulverized coal-fired boiler,
each producing the steam at the same capacity, pressure, and temperature. (Babcock &
Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
11
12 Chapter One
Coal 51%
Oil 2
Natural gas 16
Nuclear 20
Hydroelectric 8
Geothermal and others 3
Total 100%
Figure 1.4 Medium-sized pulverized coal-fired boiler producing 1,250,000 lb/h of steam
at 2460 psig and 1005°F/1005°F (superheat/reheat). (Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock
Power, Inc., company.)
Figure 1.6 Large-scale circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion project with coal
storage domes. (Photo courtesy of JEA.)
Figure 1.7 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion project with coal storage domes.
(Photo courtesy of JEA.)
Steam and Its Importance 19
be justified because the lower fuel costs offset the higher initial cost of
the reheater, piping, turbine, controls, and other equipment that is
necessary to handle the reheated steam.
Figure 1.8 Large industrial-type pulverized coal- and oil-fired two-drum boiler.
(Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
22 Chapter One
The boiler bank serves the purpose of preheating the inlet feedwater
to the saturated temperature and then evaporating the water while
cooling the flue gas. In lower-pressure boilers, the heating surface
that is available in the furnace enclosure is insufficient to absorb all
the heat energy that is needed to accomplish this function. Therefore,
a boiler bank is added after the furnace and superheater, if one is
required, to provide the necessary heat-transfer surface.
As shown in Fig. 1.9, as the pressure increases, the amount of heat
absorption that is required to evaporate water declines rapidly, and
the heat absorption for water preheating and superheating steam
increases. See also Table 1.1 for examples of heat absorption at system
pressures of 500 and 1500 psig.
The examples shown in the table assume that the superheat is con-
stant at 100° higher than the saturated temperature for the particu-
lar pressure (see Chap. 3).
It is also common for boilers to be designed with an economizer
and/or an air heater located downstream of the boiler bank in order to
reduce the flue gas temperature and to provide an efficient boiler cycle.
It is generally not economical to distribute steam through long
steam lines at pressures below 150 psig because, in order to minimize
the pressure drop that is caused by friction in the line, pipe sizes
must increase with the associated cost increase. In addition, for the
effective operation of auxiliary equipment such as sootblowers and
turbine drives on pumps, boilers should operate at a minimum pres-
sure of 125 psig. Therefore, few plants of any size operate below this
steam pressure. If the pressure is required to be lower, it is common
to use pressure-reducing stations at these locations.
For an industrial facility where both electric power and steam for
heating or a process are required, a study must be made to evaluate
the most economical choice. For example, electric power could be pur-
chased from the local utility and a boiler could be installed to meet
the heating or process needs only. By comparison, a plant could be
installed where both electricity and steam are produced from the
same system.
Bubbling fluid bed (BFB) boiler. Of all the fluid bed technologies, the
bubbling bed is the oldest. The primary difference between a BFB
boiler and a CFB boiler design is that with a BFB the air velocity in
the bed is maintained low enough that the material that comprises
the bed (e.g., fuel, ash, limestone, and sand), except for fines, is held
in the bottom of the unit, and the solids do not circulate through the
rest of the furnace enclosure.
Steam and Its Importance 25
For new boilers, the BFB boilers are well suited to handle high-
moisture waste fuels, such as sewage sludge, and also the various
sludges that are produced in pulp and paper mills and in recycle
paper plants. The features of design and the uniqueness of this tech-
nology, as well as the CFB, are described in Chap. 2. Although the
boiler designs are different, the objectives of each are the same, and
the designs are successful in achieving them.
For these reasons, a Fuel Use Act was enacted in the late 1970s that
prohibited the use of natural gas in new plants.
This situation has changed dramatically because now the electric
power industry is anticipating a continuing explosive growth in the
use of natural gas. The reasons for this growth are
Perhaps the greatest reason for the growth is the current projection
of natural gas supplies. Where before the natural gas supply was
expected to last approximately 10 years, the current estimate is
approximately 90 years based on the current production and use lev-
els. Although this optimistic estimate is very favorable, it could pro-
mote a far greater usage, which could seriously deplete this critical
resource in the future, far sooner than expected. Therefore, careful
long-term plans must be incorporated for this energy source.
This greater use of natural gas places additional demands on the
natural gas pipeline industry. Now, pipelines require regulatory
approvals and also must accommodate any local opposition to a project.
Most of the attention on the increased demand for natural gas has
been focused on exploration and production of the fuel. Significantly
less publicized but just as important is the need for handling this
capacity with more capability for its delivery. This requires new
pipelines to deliver the natural gas, new facilities to ship and receive
liquefied natural gas (LNG), and additional underground aquifers or
salt caverns for the storage of natural gas.
Steam and Its Importance 27
Fuel Steam
Stack
C.T. steam
Combustor
Process
steam
Exhaust Steam
Compressor Turbine HRSG
turbine
Combustion turbine
Air
Blowdown Warm
air
Air
condenser
Process
Air
condensate
Figure 1.10 Diagram of a cogeneration system using a gas turbine and a steam cycle.
(Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
28 Chapter One
turbine facility. (Vogt Power International, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
30 Chapter One
Capital Costs
■ Steam generating system
■ Environmental control systems
■ Fuel preparation and handling equipment
■ Air and flue gas handling systems, including FD and ID fans
■ Structural support steel
■ Buildings
■ Instrumentation and controls
■ Ash handling systems
■ Turbine generator
■ Condenser
■ Cooling tower
■ Condensate system, including feedwater heaters and pumps
■ Water treatment systems
■ Electrical system
■ Insulation
■ Stack
■ Transportation costs
■ Site preparation
■ Construction
■ Taxes
■ Engineering and project management
■ Startup
■ Performance and efficiency testing
The O&M costs of a power plant are significant and affect the overall
power plant costs. These costs must be evaluated carefully together with
the capital costs of the power plant to determine the proper selection
of the systems to be used and the fuel to be burned during the lifetime of
the plant. O&M costs are both variable and fixed and include the
following:
Variable Costs
■ Fuel costs
■ Auxiliary power requirements for equipment such as fans, pumps,
pulverizers, etc.
■ Water treatment, including chemicals
Steam and Its Importance 31
Fixed Costs
■ Plant operators
■ Plant management
■ Maintenance personnel
■ Overhead expenses
The preceding fixed O&M costs are incurred whether or not the
plant is operational, and such costs increase over time. The variable
costs are extremely time dependent as well as material availability
dependent. The availability of low-cost fuel, for example, must be
evaluated carefully for the life of the plant in order to determine the
best economical selection of a power plant type and its fuel. With an
expected plant life of 40 years and more, making the proper decision on
the type of power plant and its fuel is critical to the economic viability
of the project. This decision is often complicated when plant site envi-
ronmental requirements force a decision toward a more expensive fuel.
1.7 Summary
Steam is generated for many useful purposes from relatively simple
heating systems to the complexities of a fossil fuel–fired or
nuclear–fueled electric utility power plant. All types of fuels are burned,
and many different combustion systems are used to burn them efficient-
ly and reliably.
This book will describe the various systems and equipment of a steam
power plant that are so important to everyday life, whether it be for the
generation of electricity, for heating, or for a process that leads to a
product. The environmental control systems that are a necessary part of
a modern plant are also thoroughly described because their reliability
and efficiency are necessary to the successful operation of these plants.
1.2 Describe the various forms of energy input to a power plant. Provide
examples of the plant output that uses this energy.
32 Chapter One
1.4 What are the sources of heat that are used to generate steam?
1.7 Provide a sketch and describe the operation of the Rankine steam cycle.
What is the advantage of superheating the steam?
1.9 What are the major systems of a coal-fired power plant? Provide a brief
description of each.
1.11 Why is condensing the steam from the turbine and returning it to the
boiler so important?
1.12 Why is a natural gas–fired boiler far less complex than a boiler that burns
coal?
1.13 For a coal-fired or other solid fuel–fired boiler, what additional systems
are necessary to account for the ash contained in the fuel?
1.14 What percentage of the total electric production results from steam power
plants?
1.15 Why would a coal-fired plant be more difficult to obtain an operating per-
mit for as compared with a plant fired with natural gas? Provide ideas on
how this can be overcome.
1.16 For large utility boilers burning natural gas and oil, why has their use
declined except for certain parts of the world?
1.17 Why is coal used to such a large degree, even with its complications?
1.19 For most industrial-type boilers, what is the most distinguishing feature
of this design? What is its purpose?
1.20 From an environmental point of view, what are the advantages of a flu-
idized bed boiler?
Steam and Its Importance 33
1.21 Name the two types of fluidized bed boilers and briefly describe their
characteristics.
1.22 Describe a combined cycle system that uses a gas turbine. What are
the advantages of this system? What is the single most important
disadvantage?
1.23 Of all the power plant costs, which one has the most significant cost
impact?
Chapter
2
Boilers
35
36 Chapter Two
1
The definition is taken from Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox, a
McDermott company.
Boilers 37
would remain the same, and all the water would be evaporated unless
additional water were added. For a continuous process, water would
be regulated into the vessel at the same flow rate as the steam being
generated and leaving the vessel.
2.2.2 Circulation
For most boiler or steam generator designs, water and steam flow
through tubes where they absorb heat, which results from the com-
bustion of a fuel. In order for a boiler to generate steam continuously,
water must circulate through the tubes. Two methods are commonly
used: (1) natural or thermal circulation and (2) forced or pumped cir-
culation. These methods are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Boiler water circulation methods. (a) Simple natural or thermal circulation loop.
(b) Simple forced or pumped circulation loop. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
tubes are used in forced circulation boilers, where pumps provide ade-
quate head for circulation and for required velocities.
the lower tube sheet. The upper tube sheet is riveted directly to the
shell. When the boiler is operated, water is carried some distance
below the top of the tube sheet, and the area above the water level is
steam space. This original design is seldom used today.
In submerged-tube boilers (see Fig. 2.4), the tubes are rolled into the
upper tube sheet, which is below the water level. The outer shell
extends above the top of the tube sheet. A cone-shaped section of the
plate is riveted to the sheet so that the space above the tube sheet pro-
vides a smoke outlet. Space between the inner and outer sheets com-
prises the steam space. This design permits carrying the water level
above the upper tube sheet, thus preventing overheating of the tube
ends. This design is also seldom used today.
Since vertical boilers are portable, they have been used to power
hoisting devices and operate fire engines and tractors, as well as for
stationary practice, and still do in some parts of the world. They range
42 Chapter Two
Figure 2.6 Horizontal return tubular boiler and setting, overhanging front.
Figure 2.7Horizontal four-pass fire-tube package boiler designed for natural gas firing.
(Cleaver-Brooks, a Division of Aqua-Chem, Inc.)
Figure 2.8 Typical plant arrangement of two horizontal four-pass fire-tube package
boilers. (Cleaver-Brooks, a Division of Aqua-Chem, Inc.)
boilers, baffles to direct the flue gas flow are not required. For others,
baffles are installed in the tube bank to direct the flue gas across the
heating surfaces and to obtain maximum heat absorption. The baffles
may be of refractory or membrane water-tube wall construction, as dis-
cussed later. There are a variety of boilers designed to meet specific
needs, so care must be exercised in the selection, which should be
based on plant requirements, fuel considerations, and space limita-
tions. Water-tube boilers generally may be classified as straight tube
and bent tube.
The electric steam boiler provides steam at pressures of about 150
psig. It is a packaged unit generating steam for heating and process.
The small units (1000 to 10,000 lb/h of steam) operate at low voltage,
while the larger units (7000 to 100,000 lb/h of steam) operate at
13,800 V. Such units find application in educational institutions,
office buildings, hospitals, and processing plants.
The advantages of the electric steam generator are compactness, no
emissions, no stack requirements, quiet operation, low maintenance,
safety of operation, absence of fuel storage tanks, the ability to use
electric power during off-peak periods, and responsiveness to demand.
Its disadvantages lie in the use of high voltage, high power costs, and
availability, if it must be used during other than off-peak periods.
When such an installation is contemplated, all factors, including the
initial cost, need to be considered.
The boiler shown in Fig. 2.9 is an early design of a water-tube boiler
that was designed to burn coal on a stoker. It has vertical inclined tubes
and has four drums. The upper drums are set on saddles fastened to
horizontal beams, the center drum is suspended from an overhead beam
by slings, and the lower drum (mud drum) hangs free, suspended
from the tubes.
Water enters the right-hand drum (top) and flows down the verti-
cal bank of tubes to the lower (mud) drum. It then moves up the
inclined bank of tubes because of natural circulation as a result of
heating from the flue gases, passing through the center drum and
returning to its point of origin, the right-hand drum. Steam passes
around a baffle plate. In the process, most of the entrained moisture is
removed before the steam enters the circulators. The steam in passing
to the steam drum through the circulators receives a small degree of
superheat, approximately 10 to 15°F above the saturation tempera-
ture, by the time it enters the steam drum. Superheat is obtained
because the circulators are exposed to the flue gas.
Another older design is the cross-drum straight-tube sectional-
header boiler shown in Fig. 2.10, arranged for oil firing and equipped
with an interdeck superheater. It is designed with a steep inclination of
the main tube bank to provide rapid circulation. Boilers of this gener-
al type fit into locations where headroom was a criterion. In Figs. 2.9
48 Chapter Two
and 2.10, note the refractory furnace with these designs, and compare
these designs with the water-cooled furnace designs of boilers
described in other figures and as designed today.
The Stirling boiler shown in Fig. 2.11 was basically the next step in
boiler design and had several design features to meet various space and
headroom limitations. In this design, three drums are set transversely,
interconnected to the lower drum by tubes slightly inclined. The tubes
are shaped and bent at the ends so that they enter the drum radially.
The upper drums are interconnected by steam circulators (top) and
by water circulators (bottom). Note that the center drum has tubes
leaving, to enter the rear tube bank. This is done to improve the water
circulation. The heating surface is then a combination of waterwall
surface, boiler tubes, and a small amount of drum surface. The inter-
deck superheater and economizer likewise contain a heating surface.
The furnace is water-cooled as compared to refractory lined.
Downcomers from the upper drum supply water to the sidewall headers,
with a steam-water mixture returning to the drum from the wall tubes.
Feedwater enters the economizer, where it is initially heated and
then enters the left (top) drum and flows down the rear bank of tubes
Boilers 49
to the lower (mud) drum. Steam generated in the first two banks of
boiler tubes returns to the right and center drums; note the intercon-
nection of drums, top and bottom. Finally, all the steam generated in
the boiler and waterwalls reaches the left-hand drum, where the
steam is made to pass through baffles or a steam scrubber or a combi-
nation of the two, to reduce the moisture content of the steam before
it passes to the superheater. The superheater consists of a series of tube
loops. The steam then passes to the main steam line or steam header.
The upper drums are supported at the ends by lugs resting on steel
columns. The lower drum is suspended from the tubes and is free to
move by expansion, imposing no hardship on the setting. The super-
heater headers are supported (at each end) from supports attached to
steel columns overhead.
The flue gas resulting from combustion passes over the first bank of
tubes, through the superheater, and down across the second pass; the
flue gas then reverses in direction and flows up through the third
pass. Note the baffles that direct the flow of the flue gas. After leaving
the boiler, the flue gas enters the economizer, traveling down (in a
50 Chapter Two
counterflow direction to the water flow) through the tubes to the econ-
omizer flue gas outlet and then to the stack..
Most of the steam is generated in the waterwalls and the first bank
of boiler tubes, since this heating surface is exposed to radiant heat.
This unit is fired with a spreader stoker burning coal. If burners are
part of the design, it also can be fired with natural gas, oil, or a com-
bination of the two, providing flexibility in operation. Fly ash (con-
taining unburned carbon particles) is collected at the bottom of the
third pass and from the economizer and is reinjected back onto the
grate through a series of nozzles located in the rear wall, thus improv-
ing the boiler efficiency and lowering fuel costs. In Fig. 2.11, this is
referred to as cinder reinjection. Over-fire air is introduced through
nozzles in the rear walls and sidewalls to improve combustion.
Although the three- and four-drum designs, as well as the cross-drum
design, shown in Figs. 2.9 to 2.11, have been replaced with the modern
two-drum and one-drum designs, many of these older units are still in
operation today.
The increasing cost of field-assembled boilers led to the development
of the shop-assembled package boiler for industrial purposes. There are
Boilers 51
Figure 2.12 Type FM integral furnace package boiler for fuel oil
and natural gas firing. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
52 Chapter Two
Figure 2.13 MH series package boiler during shop assembly. (Riley Power, Inc., a
Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Boilers 53
and through the first bank of boiler tubes, and then down through the
rear bank of tubes to the boiler exit (to the right of the lower drum).
The outer walls are of the welded fin-tube type; baffles are con-
structed of welded fin tubes; the single-pass gas arrangement reduces
the erosion in multiple-pass boilers that results from sharp turns in
the gas stream.
installation of baffles and the dry pipe. Both measures met with some
success. The dry pipe ran the length of the drum, the ends being
closed and the upper side of the pipe being drilled with many small
holes. The top center of this pipe was connected to the steam outlet.
Steam entering through the series of holes was made to change direc-
tion before entering the steam outlet, and in the process the water
was separated from the steam. The bottom of the dry pipe contained a
drain, which ran below the normal water level in the drum. The dry
pipe was installed near the top of the drum so as not to require
removal for routine inspection and repairs inside the drum.
The dry pipe proved to be fairly effective for small boilers but
unsuited for units operating at high steam capacity. Placing a baffle
ahead of the dry pipe offered some slight improvement in steam qual-
ity but was still not considered entirely satisfactory.
Modern practice requires high-purity steam for process, for the
superheater, and for the turbine. An important contribution to increased
boiler capacity and high rating is the fact that the modern boiler is pro-
tected by clean, high-quality feedwater. The application of both external
and internal feedwater treatment is supplemented by the use of steam
scrubbers and separators that are located in the steam drum.
Steam drums are used on recirculating boilers that operate at subcrit-
ical pressures.2 The primary purpose of the steam drum is to separate
the saturated steam from the steam-water mixture that leaves the heat-
transfer surfaces and enters the drum. The steam-free water is recircu-
lated within the boiler with the incoming feedwater for further steam
generation. The saturated steam is removed from the drum through a
series of outlet nozzles, where the steam is used as is or flows to a super-
heater for further heating. (By definition, saturated steam is pure steam
that is at the temperature that corresponds to the boiling temperature
at a particular pressure. For example, saturated steam at a pressure of
500 psia has a temperature of 467°F.) (See Table C.1 of Appendix C.)
The steam drum is also used for the following:
2
The term critical pressure is the pressure at which there is no difference between
the liquid and vapor states of water; i.e., the density is identical. This occurs at 3206
psia. (See Table C.1 of Appendix C.)
58 Chapter Two
scrubbers running the entire length of the drum. Baffle plates are
located above each cyclone, and there is a series of corrugated scrub-
ber elements at the entrance to the steam outlet. Water from the
scrubber elements drains to a point below the normal water level and
is recirculated in the boiler.
2.7 Superheaters
Steam that has been heated above the saturation temperature corre-
sponding to its pressure is said to be superheated. This steam contains
more heat than does saturated steam at the same pressure (see Chap.
3), and the added heat provides more energy for the turbine for con-
version to electric power, or in the case of process steam, more energy
contained in a pound of steam for a more efficient process.
For example, steam at a pressure of 700 psia has a saturation tem-
perature of 503°F (see Table C.1). The heat content of this steam is 1201
Btu/lb. If this steam is heated further to, say, 700°F, the steam is now
superheated, and its heat content is 1345 Btu/lb (see Table C.3). The
degrees of superheat is the number of degrees above the saturation (or
boiling) temperature at that pressure. In this example, the degrees of
superheat is 197°F (700–503). (Refer to Chap. 3 for additional discus-
sion on superheat.)
A superheater surface is that surface which has steam on one side
and hot gases on the other. The tubes are therefore dry with the
steam that circulates through them. Overheating of the tubes is pre-
vented by designing the unit to accommodate the heat transfer
required for a given steam velocity through the tubes, based on the
desired steam temperature. To accomplish this, it is necessary to have
the steam distributed uniformly to all the superheater tubes and at a
velocity sufficient to provide a scrubbing action to avoid overheating
of the metal. Carry-over from the steam drum must be at a minimum.
Superheaters are referred to as convection, radiant, or combination
types. The convection superheater is placed somewhere in the gas
stream, where it receives most of its heat by convection. As the name
implies, a radiant superheater is placed in or near the furnace, where
it receives the majority of its heat by radiation.
The conventional convection-type superheater uses two headers into
which seamless tubes are rolled or welded. The headers are baffled so
that the steam is made to pass back and forth through the connecting
tubes, which carry their proportioned amount of steam, the steam
62 Chapter Two
leaving at the desired temperature. The headers are small, and access
to the tubes is achieved by removing handhole caps.
With either the radiant or the convection-type superheater, it is dif-
ficult to maintain a uniform steam-outlet temperature, so a combination
superheater is often installed (Fig. 2.17). This is an older design, but it
illustrates the concept. The radiant section is shown above the screen
tubes in the furnace; the convection section lies between the first and
second gas passages. Steam leaving the boiler drum first passes
through the convection section, then to the radiant section, and finally
to the outlet header. Even this arrangement may not produce the
desired results in maintaining a constant steam temperature within
the limits prescribed, and so a bypass damper, shown at the bottom
of the second pass of the boiler, is used in this older design. A damper of
this type can be operated to bypass the gas or a portion of the gas
around the convection section, thus controlling the final steam-outlet
temperature for various boiler capacities. Figures 2.21 and 2.24 also
are examples of combination radiant and convection type super-
heaters for modern utility-type boilers.
1. Attemperation
2. Flue gas bypass (or flue gas proportioning)
3. Flue gas recirculation
Other methods are also used, including tilting burners (see Fig. 2.36).
2.8.1 Attemperation
This is the method used predominantly to control steam temperatures.
The basic theory of control by attemperation is that if a superheater
is made large enough to give the desired steam temperature at low
loads, it will give a steam temperature at high loads that is higher
than that desired if there is no method of control. However, if some
means of reducing this temperature at high loads is used, a constant
steam temperature over the range from low to full load may be
obtained. This is the function of attemperation, to reduce the steam
temperature at high loads in order that a constant steam tempera-
ture to the turbine or to some process results. There are two types of
attemperators: (1) drum-type and (2) spray-type.
Drum-type designs are sometimes used on some industrial boiler
applications of two-drum boiler designs, whereas spray-type designs
generally are used on all units that require attemperation.
they are then entrained in the final steam mixture, which is not
acceptable. Therefore, this method of attemperation is usually limited
to those situations where pure water is available.
Either of the preceding methods of attemperation is used at an
intermediate point in the flow of steam through the superheater or after
the superheater. Unless the boiler operates at low superheat tempera-
tures, an attemperator located after the superheater is not desirable
because the highest metal temperatures possible would exist, and
this would require higher alloys for the superheater tubes and thus
higher costs.
For the superheater design where the attemperator is located at some
intermediate point, the section of the superheater ahead of the attem-
perator is called the primary superheater, whereas the section located
after the attemperator is called the secondary superheater. Refer to Fig.
2.39 for a typical illustration of this arrangement.
Figure 2.20 Return bend economizers. (a) Continuous-tube type. (b) Loop-tube type.
(Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
70 Chapter Two
etc.; it also permits acid cleaning of tubes, which was not possible
with previous designs.
Tubes range in size from 1 to 2 in in diameter. The size of the econo-
mizer is influenced by many factors, such as cost, space availability,
type of fuel, and whether or not an air preheater is to be installed.
When both an economizer and an air preheater are to be installed, con-
sideration must be given to preventing the exiting flue gas temperature
from dropping below the dew point. An example of the arrangement of
the superheater, reheater, and economizer in a large modern utility
coal-fired boiler is shown in Fig. 2.21.
In utility and many industrial power plants, economizers and air
preheaters are both installed to obtain maximum efficiency. For the
modern plant, typical improvements in efficiencies are as follows:
boiler efficiency, 74 percent; boiler and economizer, 82 percent; and
boiler, economizer, and air preheater, 88 percent. Savings in fuel costs
result from these higher efficiencies.
The air preheater (or air heater) consists of plates or tubes having
hot gases on one side and air on the other. The heat in the flue gas
leaving the boiler or economizer is recovered by the incoming air,
thereby reducing the flue gas temperature and increasing efficiency.
There are generally two types of air preheaters, tubular and
regenerative. The tubular type consists of a series of tubes (Fig. 2.22)
through which the flue gases pass, with air passing around the outside
Figure 2.23 Regenerative air preheater, bisector design for vertical air and flue gas flow.
(a) Cutaway drawing. (b) Photograph of unit. (ALSTOM Power, Inc., Air Preheater Co.)
Boilers 73
rotor that turns continuously through the flue gas and airstreams at
slow speeds (1 to 3 rpm).
To increase the service life of the heat-transfer surface elements,
design consideration is given to the following: (1) excess temperature
at the hot end—by the use of scale-resistant steel; (2) corrosion at the
cold end—by greater sheet thickness, low-alloy steel, enameled
sheets, glazed ceramics, and honeycomb blocks made of ceramics; and
(3) danger of clogging—by enlarged flue gas passage cross sections
and enameled sheets.
Units are equipped with soot blowers that use superheated steam or
compressed air. Washing and fire-extinguishing devices consist of a
series of spray nozzles mounted in the housing. Thermocouples are
mounted at the cold end and are close to the heating surfaces and in
the flue gas and air ducts. They serve to monitor any falling below the
acid dew point of the flue gases and also to give early warning of dan-
ger of fire.
Air heaters are standard systems in power plant design and are
justified because they increase plant efficiency. The degree of preheat
used depends on many factors, such as furnace and boiler design,
type of fuel and fuel-burning equipment, and fuel cost. Preheated air
accelerates combustion by producing more rapid ignition and facili-
tates the burning of low-grade fuels. In the process it permits the use
of low excess air, thereby increasing efficiency. When pulverized coal
is burned, preheated air assists in drying the coal, increasing pulver-
izer mill capacity, and accelerating combustion.
For stoker firing, depending on the type of stoker and the type of
fuel burned, care must be taken not to operate with too high a pre-
heated air temperature. Too high a temperature may damage the
grates. Difficulty also may be experienced with matting of the fuel
bed and clinkers. The degree of preheating is determined by the kind
of fuel, the type of fuel-burning equipment, and the burning rate or
grate-heat release. Preheated air at 350°F is usually considered the
upper limit for stokers; for pulverized coal, high-temperature preheated
air is tempered when it enters and leaves the pulverizer.
For the air preheater, a low air inlet or low exit gas temperature or
a combination of the two may result in corrosion when fuels containing
sulfur are burned should the metal temperature fall below the dew
point. Two dew points need to be considered: the water dew point, which
occurs at approximately 120°F, and the flue gas dew point, which varies
with the quantity of sulfur trioxide in the flue gas and with other fac-
tors. The acid dew point occurs at a higher temperature than the
water dew point. The metal temperature is considered to be approxi-
mately the average of the air-gas temperature at any given point.
Corrosion may be prevented by preheating the air before it enters the
74 Chapter Two
Figure 2.24 Side elevation of large pulverized coal-fired steam generator for high sub-
critical pressure operation. (ALSTOM Power, Inc.)
Boilers 75
1. A few large burners are less expensive than more smaller burners.
2. A high, narrow boiler is generally less expensive than a low, wide one.
minimized forced boiler outages), but the wall also absorbed heat,
which helped to generate more steam. As a result, boiler tube bank
surface was reduced because of this additional steam-generating sur-
face in the furnace. In order to obtain a higher cycle efficiency, feed-
water and steam temperatures were increased, with an increase in
steam pressure, and this further reduced boiler tube bank surface.
However, it was replaced with an additional superheater surface.
As a result, boilers designed for steam pressures above 1200 psig
consist of basically furnace water walls, superheaters, and supple-
mental heat recovery equipment of economizers (for heating feedwater)
and air heaters (for heating combustion air). Boilers designed for lower
pressures have a considerable amount of steam-generating surface in
boiler banks in addition to the water-cooled furnace.
Most modern boiler furnaces have walls that are water cooled. This
not only reduces maintenance on the furnace walls but also serves to
reduce the temperature of the gas entering the convection bank to the
78 Chapter Two
Figure 2.28 Water-cooled furnace wall construction. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott
company.)
For boilers such as those shown in Figs. 2.9 and 2.10, the bulk of
the heat absorbed was the result of convection and conduction; only the
lower rows of tubes received heat by radiation. The number of square
feet of heating surface was then used to determine the capacity of the
unit, approximately 10 ft 2 of heating surface being consid-
ered capable of generating 34.5 lb/h of steam “from and at 212°F”
Boilers 83
heater, where the coarse particles of the fly ash fall out of the flue gas
stream when changes in flue gas direction occur. The remaining fine
particles of the fly ash are captured subsequently by either a precipi-
tator or bag filterhouse as part of the environmental control system.
The 20 to 30 percent of ash that is not part of the fly ash is removed
through a hopper at the bottom of the furnace.
Figure 2.31 Large pulverized coal-fired once-through utility boiler. (Foster Wheeler
North America.)
86 Chapter Two
steam leaves the tube. This design eliminates the need for a steam
drum. This unit is designed for a steam flow of 4,603,000 lb/h at 3785
psig and 1010°F with reheat steam conditions at 840 psig and 1045°F.
These utility boilers get to be quite large. Units have been designed
to burn low-grade Texas lignite coal, the boiler being 310 ft high and
200 ft deep. The boiler is of a height equivalent to a 31-story building
and consumes nearly 550 tons of coal per hour. (See Figs. 12.2 and
12.3. for a comparable unit.)
Supercritical boilers (operating above 3206 psia) originally were placed
into operation in the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
These units were designed to operate above steam’s critical pressure of
3206 psia, and although these units had a high thermodynamic efficien-
cy, they had low reliability, primarily due to the materials that were
available at that time. Consequently, the technology using supercritical
steam basically was set aside in favor of subcritical boiler designs.
However, plants of this design have been built in Europe and Asia
with the use of advanced materials and digital controls, and these
plants have been very successful, producing steam at both high effi-
ciency and high availability. Consequently, new coal-fired power
plants in the United States are once again evaluating the use of this
supercritical technology because of its higher efficiency, resulting in
lower fuel costs, and its environmental advantages. These advan-
tages offset the higher capital costs when compared with subcritical
designs.
These advanced designs have steam pressures of 3600 to 4500 psig,
and steam temperatures may be in the range of 1150 to 1200°F. The
higher steam pressure will have only a moderate impact on cycle effi-
ciency, but the efficiency increases significantly for a 50°F increase in
steam temperature. Thus an increase in steam temperature from 1050
to 1150 or 1200°F would represent a very significant improvement.
The increase in efficiency not only reduces fuel costs but also, when
evaluated on a per-megawatt basis, the emissions of NOx and SO2 are
reduced when compared with subcritical coal-fired boilers.
The PFI integral-furnace boiler (Fig. 2.32) is a standard bent-tube
bottom-supported two-drum unit arranged with a gas-tight membrane
wall furnace and a bare-tube boiler for pressurized or balanced-draft
operation, with a completely water-cooled furnace. Maximum shop
subassembly facilitates field erection and lowers construction costs.
The superheater is an inverted-loop design and is fully drainable
because the headers are located at the bottom of the unit. By compar-
ison, note the superheater arrangement in Fig. 2.34, which is not
drainable. The unit is designed for capacities from 100,000 to 500,000
lb/h of steam, pressures to 1150 psi, and steam temperatures to
950°F. The fuel is usually oil or natural gas, singly or in combination;
gaseous waste fuels also can be used.
Boilers 87
Figure 2.32 Type PFI integral furnace boiler. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
These units provide steam for heating, power, or process. They can
be located outdoors if desired and require a minimum of space. A rela-
tively constant steam temperature over a wide load range can be
obtained, and an air preheater or economizer can be adapted readily
to the unit if economics so dictate.
Figure 2.33 shows a unit designed to produce 200,000 lb/h of steam
at 625 psi and 750°F. It is equipped with waterwalls, a radiant super-
heater, an economizer, a tubular air preheater, and a mechanical dust
collector. It is fired by a continuous-ash-discharge spreader stoker
and auxiliary burners. It is designed to burn pine and gum bark, oil,
natural gas, or coal. The boiler is supported from overhead steel
columns as shown, and its expansion is downward.
The VU-60 boiler (Fig. 2.34) is a pressurized furnace unit using
bare waterwall tubes with floor tubes covered as shown. A front-firing
arrangement is shown, although tangential firing is available, if
desired. It is designed to burn oil, gas, and waste heating fuels and
can deliver over 1 million lb of steam per hour.
As an alternative to horizontal burners, tangential firing systems are
used in some boiler designs. In this design, both fuel and combustion
air are projected from the corners of the furnace along a line tangent
to a small circle (Fig. 2.35). A rotary motion is imparted to the flame
88 Chapter Two
body, which spreads and fills the furnace area and creates a high degree
of turbulence for effective mixing that enhances complete combustion.
These burners are also capable of tilting, which creates an effective
means for controlling superheat and reheat steam temperatures. As
shown in Fig. 2.36, fuel and air nozzles tilt in unison to raise and
lower the flame in the furnace to control furnace heat absorption and
thus heat absorption in the superheater and reheater.
A steam generator available for industrial and utility use in a variety
of sizes is shown in Fig. 2.37. It is a single-gas-pass unit, which elimi-
nates turns, baffles, and pockets where concentrations of fly ash
might accumulate. This type of construction also eliminates high
velocities across the heating surfaces, which are conducive to tube
erosion.
Boilers 89
The prominent nose at the top of the furnace ensures the flue gas
transition from the furnace, thus providing for good distribution of
flue gases as they flow through the superheater and boiler bank. This
unit is available in capacities to 500,000 lb/h of steam at 1500 psi and
temperatures to 960°F. Units such as this can be oil, gas, or pulverized
coal fired or combination fired. The unit shown is a pulverized-coal-
fired boiler.
90
Figure 2.36 Selective furnace utilization and steam temperature control are accomplished
by tilting burners in a tangentially fired system. (ALSTOM Power, Inc.)
Boilers 91
Figure 2.37 Pressurized furnace design of an industrial boiler for pulverized coal or combi-
nation firing. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
Primary air is introduced at the fuel inlet from the pulverizers and
is part of the air-fuel mixture; secondary air, at the burner exit; and
tertiary air, through the center of the burner, all three combining to
produce a turbulent ignition with a minimum of excess air.
The waterwall tubes are fin tube welded. Wall construction is such
that the unit is pressure-tight for operating either with a balanced
draft or a pressurized furnace. The drum is equipped with horizontal
steam separators to provide dry steam to the superheater. Units such
as this operate at high efficiency.
A Turbo furnace designed for pulverized coal firing is shown in Fig.
2.38. This is a design incorporating both a radiant and a convection
type of superheater. Its unique feature, however, is the furnace
design. The furnace envelope is constricted in a venturi section just
above the furnace level. The burners are angled downward into the
lower section of the furnace. Because the flame is initially directed
92 Chapter Two
Figure 2.38 Turbo furnace-type utility steam generator designed for pulverized coal firing.
(Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Figure 2.39 A pulverized coal-fired utility radiant boiler using gas recirculation for steam
temperature control. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Figure 2.40Typical 600-MW pulverized coal-fired utility boiler. (Riley Power, Inc., a
Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Boilers 95
Figure 2.41 Once-through type steam generator for large utility applications. (Foster
Wheeler North America.)
Figure 2.42 Double-arch-fired utility boiler for the pulverized coal burning of low-volatile
anthracite. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
two arches. The flames from the burners form a W shape in the volume
of the lower furnace located below the arches. The upper furnace and
the heat recovery surfaces are of conventional pulverized coal–fired
boiler design.
The burning of anthracite also results in the production of low NOx
emission levels as well as low SO2 emissions because of the lower sul-
fur content in the coal. In some parts of the world, these low emissions
do not require additional environmental control systems to reduce
them further. Such systems, if required, are discussed in Chap. 12.
This is another example of a design that has been developed to burn
a fuel that may be common to a region where its use results in lower
fuel costs and therefore lower electricity costs while meeting environ-
mental regulations.
boilers are designed for pulverized-coal firing. Each firing method has
its benefits and each has limitations, as described in this book.
A third method of burning coal and other solid fuels is the fluidized
bed boiler. This rapidly developing technology has gained operating
experience and operator acceptance over the past years, and it is now
commonly accepted as an alternative to stoker and pulverized-coal
firing. Because of its uniqueness and relatively recent acceptance, this
technology is described in detail later in this chapter. This section will
describe the basic difference between stoker and pulverized-coal firing.
air and stoker variables such as rate of feed and fuel trajectory cause
stoker operation to be subject to high variability. In contrast, pulverized-
coal firing was developed to provide for higher reliability. In addition,
pulverized-coal firing helps achieve minimum carbon loss, lower
excess air requirements, and therefore higher operating efficiency.
However, the practical economic lower limit of pulverized-coal-fired
boilers is a steam flow of approximately 200,000 lb/h.
Pulverized-coal firing requires the installation of high-efficiency fly
ash collecting systems to cope with a high concentration of particles
under 30 m (a micron or one-millionth of a meter). For spreader
stokers, concentration of particles under 30 m is less than half of
that found with pulverized-coal firing.
Of all the emissions from a coal-fired plant, emphasis is placed on
the visible constituents because of attention drawn to the plume from
the stack and the complaints that result. However, the effective control
of both particulates and acid gases is mandatory to meet stringent
operating permit limitations. Therefore, highly reliable and efficient air
pollution control equipment is required, as described in Chap. 12.
Advantages
Lower cost
Lower particulate carry-over with a larger percentage of particles
greater than 10 m
Simpler particulate removal equipment
Generally less overall space
Lower power requirements
Lower maintenance requirements
Less sophisticated auxiliary equipment and controls
Disadvantages
Limited steam capacity range of about 75,000 to 400,000 lb/h
Efficiency 4 to 7 percent lower
Limited coal size flexibility
Limited choice of coal types
100 Chapter Two
Stoker firing. With the use of a stoker, the fuel particles are much larger
than those used with pulverized-coal firing. For bituminous coal, the fuel
size is approximately 1 to 11⁄4 in. Depending on the type of stoker, where
some of the coal is burned in suspension, most of the coal is burned as a
mass on some type of moving grate with the air passing through the
fixed bed of coal. Temperatures in the fuel bed can exceed 3000°F.
Fluid bed combustion. For a fluid bed combustor, the size of the coal
falls between the coal size requirements of pulverized-coal and stoker
firing. Coal is crushed to less than 1⁄4 in, and it is fed into the lower
portion of a fluid bed furnace. The solids are maintained at a temper-
ature of 1500 to 1600°F in an upwardly moving stream of air and
combustion gases.
As coal is fed into the bed, it is quickly heated to its ignition tem-
perature, at which it ignites and becomes a part of the burning mass.
The flow of air and coal to the dense fluid bed is controlled so that a
continuous amount of heat is released to meet the steam load
demand. Due to the long residence time of the fuel, and because of the
high heat-transfer process within the bed due to conduction (as com-
pared with convection), the coal is burned efficiently in the fluidized bed
process at temperatures considerably lower than in the pulverized-
coal- and stoker-firing methods.
The fuel particles remain in the dense bed until they are carried
along by the combustion gases or removed with the bed drain solids
Boilers 103
as ash residue. As the fuel particles burn, their size reduces below a
value where the terminal and gas velocities are equal, and then they
become entrained in the gases.
There are two types of fluidized bed combustors that generally can
be described as follows:
Both the BFB and CFB technologies allow the burning of fuels at
approximately 1600°F as compared with approximately 3000°F with
conventional firing methods such as pulverized-coal or stoker firing.
This characteristic occurs because fluid bed boilers use conduction
heat transfer in the furnace as compared with radiation heat transfer,
which is present with conventional firing. The high solids content and
their close contact allow this to occur. The heat transfer in terms of
Btu per hour per square foot (Btu/h/ft2) is actually higher with con-
duction than it is with radiation, which results in an economical boiler
design as well as obtaining the advantages of handling hard-to-burn
fuels and reducing emissions.
There are two types of fluidized bed boilers designed to burn these
fuels, the bubbling fluid bed (BFB) and the circulating fluid bed
(CFB), and they have the following general characteristics, with vari-
ations incorporated by the specific designer.
Bubbling fluid bed (BFB). A schematic of this boiler is shown in Fig. 2.43,
which shows the main features of a BFB boiler. The process features
a mixture of particles that are suspended in an upwardly flowing
stream mixture of air and combustion gases, and this results in fluid-
like properties. Within the bed there is an intimate mixing of the air
and fuel that produces optimal combustion. There is a bed level that
can be seen easily, and there is a distinct transition between the bed
and the space above the bed; this is generally called the freeboard area.
The BFB boiler is a two-stage combustion system. Solid-fuel particles
burn within the bed. Volatiles from the fuel and very fine fuel particles
leave the bed and are burned in the freeboard area of the bed.
Secondary air is also injected into the freeboard area for the purpose of
optimizing combustion in the second stage of the combustion process.
Figure 2.44 Schematic of circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler. (Babcock & Wilcox, a
McDermott company.)
108 Chapter Two
internal division walls located across the boiler width. The elimination
of the in-bed tube bundle is possible because of the large quantity of
solids that are recycled internally and externally around the furnace.
It is the method of collecting and recycling of solids that is the primary
difference in designs of CFB boilers. Various designs of particle collec-
tors and cyclones are used for this purpose. Furnace temperatures
remain uniform because the mass flow rate of the recycled solids is
many times the mass flow rate of the flue gas. The heat transferred to
the furnace walls provides the heat absorption necessary to maintain
the required bed temperature range of 1500 to 1600°F. CFB boilers
are generally used to burn coal, tire chips, and waste fuels.
Circulating fluid bed (CFB) combustion system designs include the
following major components: a refractory-lined lower combustor section
with fluidizing nozzles on the floor; an upper combustor waterwall
section; a transition piece that includes a hot solids separator and solids
reentry downcomer, which may be all or partially lined with refractory;
and a convective boiler section. Primary air is supplied several feet
above the lower combustor section to impart a staged-firing effect.
A CFB combustion system design is shown in Figs. 2.45 and 2.46.
In this system, fuel and limestone (for sulfur capture) are fed into the
lower portion of the combustion chamber in the presence of fluidizing
air. The turbulent environment causes the fuel and sorbent to mix
quickly and uniformly with the bed material. Fluidizing air causes
the fuel, limestone, and bed material to circulate and rise throughout
the combustion chamber and enter the hot cyclone collector. Hot flue
Figure 2.45 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion system with a hot cyclone col-
lector. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
Boilers 109
Figure 2.46 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler with a hot cyclone collector design,
either refractory lined, water cooled, or steam cooled. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
gases and fly ash are separated from coarse solids in the cyclone. The
solids, including any unburned fuel, are then reinjected into the com-
bustion chamber through the nonmechanical loop seal. The continuous
circulation of solids through the system provides longer fuel residence
time, which results in very efficient fuel combustion. The limestone in
the fuel mixture reacts with sulfur dioxide and other sulfur com-
pounds in the flue gas and is removed with the ash as an inert dry
solid, calcium sulfate. The relatively low combustion temperature
(approximately 1600°F) and the introduction of secondary air at various
levels above the grid provide for staged combustion that limits the
formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
A CFB boiler system similar to that shown in Figs. 2.45 and 2.46 is
designed and operates to burn anthracite culm, a waste by-product
110 Chapter Two
Figure 2.47 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler, Ebensburg Power Company.
(Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Boilers 111
Hot cyclone separator. As shown in Fig. 2.46, this design collects primary
solids prior to the convection pass in a hot cyclone separator for recycle to
the furnace. Secondary cycles are usually recycled from a baghouse.
Alternative designs are also utilized where a water- or steam-cooled
cyclone is used instead of a hot refractory-lined cyclone separator, and it
becomes part of the overall heat-transfer surface of the boiler.
As noted previously, the hot cyclone separator in a CFB boiler has
the primary function of capturing the solids that are entrained in the
112 Chapter Two
flue gas leaving the furnace. These solids are recycled back to the fur-
nace to increase the solids residence in the furnace and to ensure
complete combustion and sulfur sorbent utilization.
The hot-cyclone design continues to evolve because the original
designs were refractory-lined, with more recent designs being water
or steam cooled, and these circuits are made part of the boiler heat
absorption design. Refractory-lined cyclones must consider the refrac-
tory maintenance that is expected due to the boiler temperature
changes that occur during normal load swings, startups, and shut-
downs. Large expansion joints are also required to accommodate the
temperature differentials.
Refractory maintenance was reduced with the design of the water- or
steam-cooled hot-cyclone separator. The lining of the cyclone has water-
or steam-cooled tubes. The inside surface of the cyclone is covered with a
thin layer of refractory that is held in place by short metal studs that are
welded to the tubing. The cyclone tubing is cooled with either a steam-
water mixture from the drum or with steam directly from the drum.
Both are at the same fluid temperature as the furnace walls. This mini-
mizes any thermal expansion between the furnace and the cyclone, and
therefore, the associated expansion joints can be eliminated or certainly
minimized. This design also reduces the weight of the cyclone, thus
reducing structural steel and foundation requirements. The capital cost
of this design is higher, however, and therefore, a careful economic evalu-
ation must be made with this higher initial cost as compared with the
expected lower operating costs owing to the lower maintenance costs.
Designers of power plant equipment continue to strive for improve-
ments in their systems. These improvements involve not only reliability
and efficiency but also the environmental aspects of the plant. The
demonstration project shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7 is an example of one
such project where coal storage domes are used to control fugitive coal
dust and stormwater runoff and a CFB boiler is used, and this design
incorporates a steam-cooled cyclone for the recycling of solids to the
furnace.
Figure 2.48 shows a schematic of this system, including the envi-
ronmental control system. Coal or coal fuel blends are crushed to
about 1⁄4 in. diameter and mixed with limestone that is crushed to the
size of sand. The limestone absorbs up to 90 percent of the sulfur
dioxide (SO2) that is produced during combustion. The coal-limestone
mixture is blown into the base of the CFB boiler with heated air from
the air heater. As the coal-limestone mixture rises, it ignites and
begins a slow burning process that maintains the furnace temperature
below 1600°F and thereby controls the NOx formation. As the fuel
particles burn, they become lighter and are carried higher in the CFB
boiler with the help of the secondary air that continually turns the
particles over in a fluid-like motion.
Figure 2.48 Schematic of large-scale circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion demon-
113
stration project. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
114 Chapter Two
At the top of the CFB boiler, ammonia is injected into the flue gas
stream to further reduce the NOx produced during combustion, and
this converts it to molecular nitrogen (N2). The hot ash and limestone
are separated in a cyclone and recycled back to the bottom of the CFB
boiler through an INTREX heat exchanger. The hot ash flows over the
INTREX, which incorporates superheater tubes where superheated
steam is produced and which flows to the steam turbine. Excess solid
material, consisting primarily of ash and CaSO4, is removed from the
bottom of the CFB boiler and is sent to by-product storage.
The hot gases leave the top of the cyclone and enter additional
reheater/superheater tubes that increase the steam temperature
when it returns from the high-pressure portion of the turbine. The
reheated steam then flows to the low-pressure portion of the steam
turbine. The still hot flue gas then flows through the economizer and
air heater. The flue gas then enters a polishing scrubber and a bag-
house for further reduction of the SO2 and for removal of particulates
in the flue gas prior to the flue gas being sent to the stack. The envi-
ronmental control system for the removal of SO2 and particulates is
similar to the systems described in Chap. 12.
Figure 2.49 shows a recent CFB design that incorporates a steam-
cooled cyclone for the return of solids. This plant is located in Illinois
and burns an Illinois bituminous waste coal gob. The boiler produces
1,140,000 lb/h of steam at 875 psig and 950°F and incorporates a
tubular air heater. This design of CFB uses a direct limestone injec-
tion system. Rather than having a limestone storage system that uses
auxiliary blowers to transport the grinded limestone from the storage
silo to the boiler, this CFB system has the limestone pulverized in
vertical, medium-speed mills that connect directly to the furnace.
Cold cyclone separator. This design collects primary solids after the
convection pass for recycle to the furnace, and therefore all recycled
solids pass through the convection pass.
Figure 2.49 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler with steam-cooled cyclone for
return of solids. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
limestone is not used), and ash. The bottom of the bed is supported by
water-cooled membrane walls with air nozzles for air distribution.
The coal and limestone are fed into the lower bed by gravimetric feeders
(see Chap. 5). In the presence of fluidizing air, coal and limestone are
mixed under the turbulent conditions and react as a fluid. Bed tem-
peratures are in the range of 1500 to 1600°F.
The remainder of the combustion air is admitted as over-fire air at
two levels at the top of the lower furnace in both the front and rear
walls. This admission of primary and secondary air results in staged
combustion, which limits the formation of NOx.
116 Chapter Two
Figure 2.50 Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler design with an internal primary
recycle system. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Boilers 117
The fluidizing air velocity is such that it entrains the solid particles
and carries them through the combustor shaft. The distribution of solids
in a CFB furnace has a high-density region that exists in the bottom of
the furnace and a lower density region that exists in the shaft of the fur-
nace. A gradual transition exists between these two regions.
The entrained solids and gas mixture passes through in-furnace U-
beam separators, where approximately 75 percent of the solids, which
include unburned carbon and unutilized calcium oxide (CaO), are sepa-
rated and returned to the furnace internally. The remaining 25 percent
of the solids is separated by external U-beam separators and returned
to the furnace. All collected solids return to the lower furnace by
falling as a curtain along the rear wall.
The fines collected by the secondary separator, in this case a multi-
clone dust collector, are also recirculated to the lower furnace to mini-
mize carbon loss and to increase the use of limestone. If a solid fuel
has a low ash content, or if it is low in sulfur, sand is used to main-
tain the furnace solids inventory. Solids are removed from the bottom
of the unit through a bed drain system, where the solids are cooled
with or without recovery of the heat from the solids. The purpose of
draining the bed material from the furnace is to control the bed solids
inventory and to remove oversized material that accumulates during
operation. Since the drained material is at bed temperature (approxi-
mately 1600°F), it contains a considerable amount of heat. Therefore,
the material is cooled to an acceptable temperature before disposal
into the ash system.
The solids separation system is a major part of all CFB boiler
designs, and it is perhaps the most distinguishing difference between
the various designs. Both hot and cold refractory-lined cyclones are
used, as well as water- or steam-cooled cyclones that become part of
the boiler circulation system. The design shown in Fig. 2.50 incorpo-
rates a U-beam separator design, and a schematic of this is shown in
a plan view in Fig. 2.51.
This boiler design has two stages of primary solids separators: in-fur-
nace and external separators. A particle-transfer hopper is located at
the bottom of the U-beams, and the separated solids are discharged
from this hopper directly into the furnace. The falling solids in the hop-
per form a pressure seal between the furnace and the solids-transfer
hopper to prevent any gas-solid mixture from bypassing the U-beams.
The combination of the primary collector in the U-beam and the mul-
ticlone dust collector provides a high collection efficiency, and therefore
a high solids loading results. This is necessary for a good design on a
CFB boiler.
118 Chapter Two
NOx . The nitrogen oxides that are present in the flue gas come from
two sources, the oxidation of nitrogen compounds in the fuel and the
reaction between nitrogen and oxygen in the combustion air (see
Chap. 12). Because of the low temperatures at which a fluidized bed
boiler works, NOx formation is minimized, and NOx emission limits
often can be met without additional systems.
BFB heat transfer. A BFB boiler is divided into three zones for the
purposes of heat transfer:
CFB heat transfer. A CFB boiler does not utilize an in-bed heating
surface, but its heat absorption is totally from the furnace waterwalls
and the internal furnace division walls. The heat transfer comes from
two distinct zones in the furnace: (1) the dense bed and (2) the
remainder of the furnace.
the demand for process steam has not been sufficient to use a com-
bined cycle like this.
There are situations where this has become attractive, such as
cogeneration, biomass, and waste-to-energy installations, where dis-
trict heating and other process steam applications are viable options
to the plant design and economics of the project.
Figure 2.52 Schematics of combined cycle system with a gas turbine and a steam cycle
incorporating a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). (a) Equipment configuration
schematic. (b) Flow schematic. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
124 Chapter Two
Figure 2.53 Simple gas turbine power cycle. (Babcock & Wilcox, a
McDermott company.)
Figure 2.54 Simple combined cycle system. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott
company.)
Boilers 127
Figure 2.55 Single-shaft design concept for a 253-MW combined cycle system.
(Siemens Power Corp.)
Figure 2.56 Plant layout for a 253-MW single-shaft combined cycle system design concept.
(Siemens Power Corp.)
128 Chapter Two
In recent years, each combined cycle plant that has been placed
into operation in the United States has a capacity of approximately
500 MW. These designs have used two gas turbines that produce
approximately 165 MW each. With the exhaust gases from the gas
turbine flowing to an HRSG, the resulting steam produces an addi-
tional 165 MW in the steam turbine generator, thus making a total of
500 MW for the plant. The steam pressure/temperature for these
units is generally 1800 psig at 1050/1050°F (superheat/reheat). New
designs continue to evolve to improve cycle efficiencies, and steam
pressure increases to 2400 psig are being investigated with a plant
output of approximately 600 MW.
Figure 2.57 Pressurized-water reactor (PWR) nuclear power plant. (American Nuclear
Society.)
Figure 2.58 Boiling-water reactor (BWR) nuclear power plant. (American Nuclear
Society.)
Figure 2.59Liquid-metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) nuclear power plant. (American
Nuclear Society.)
Figure 2.61CANDU pressurized heavy water reactor nuclear power plant. (American
Nuclear Society.)
134 Chapter Two
■ The nuclear power plants in the United States are reliable and pro-
duce low-cost electricity. Not only do they produce approximately
20 percent of the electrical power in the United States, but they
also achieve this with high availability, over 90 percent.
■ Nuclear fuel prices are stable as compared with highly fluctuating
natural gas prices, and this fuel comes primarily from stable allies
such as Canada and Australia.
Figure 2.63 Comparison of fossil fuel–fired power plant with nuclear power plant systems.
(a) Fossil fuel–fired power plant. (b) Nuclear power plant, pressurized-water reactor
(PWR). (c) Nuclear power plant, boiling-water reactor (BWR) (d) Nuclear power plant, high-
temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) and gas-cooled fast reactor (GCFR). (e) Nuclear
power plant, liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR). (American Nuclear Society.)
135
136 Chapter Two
2.6 What methods are used for the circulation of water and steam through a
boiler?
2.8 In today’s power plants, what type of fire-tube boiler is the most common,
and how is it fired?
2.13 Provide some major comparisons between fire-tube and water-tube boilers,
and provide the predominant advantages and disadvantages of each.
2.17 What is a superheater? What advantage does it serve in the overall power
plant operation? Where is the superheater located in the boiler?
2.19 What methods are used to provide a constant steam temperature over a
specified load range?
2.21 What two primary areas have the greatest influence on the superheater
design other than flue gas temperature and flow?
2.22 What are the three basic methods for maintaining a constant steam temper-
ature? Which of these is the predominant method? Describe its operation.
2.24 Describe the various types of air preheaters and their purpose in boiler
design. What are the methods used in air heater designs to minimize
cold-end corrosion problems?
2.26 What effect, if any, does the dew point have on the corrosion of economizers
and air heaters? Does sulfur in the fuel change the dew point? Why is this
important?
2.28 Describe the purpose of the furnace portion of the boiler, and define the
more important design features of it.
2.29 How are boilers supported to allow for expansion and contraction during
operation?
2.30 Why are waterwall furnaces so important to the boiler design as com-
pared with older refractory boiler designs?
2.32 How would you classify industrial and utility boiler designs?
2.33 For coal firing, what are the three primary methods for the combustion of
coal? Describe the major characteristics of each, including their advan-
tages and disadvantages.
2.35 Describe the fluidized bed combustion process and how it compares with
pulverized-coal and stoker firing.
2.37 What are the two types of fluidized bed boilers? Describe their general
characteristics.
2.38 For a CFB boiler design, what component is the most distinguishing
design feature, and what is its purpose?
2.39 How are the emissions of SO2, NOx, and particulates controlled in a
fluidized bed boiler?
2.40 What is used for the bed material in a fluidized bed boiler? Why?
2.41 Why is a combined cycle system important? Describe such a system that
uses a gas turbine generator. Define its advantages and disadvantages.
2.42 In a nuclear power plant, briefly describe the fission process that releases
heat for the generation of steam.
2.44 What systems are part of a nuclear power plant and are designed to pre-
vent the release of radioactivity?
Chapter
3
Design and
Construction
of Boilers
139
140 Chapter Three
d2
A
4
where 3.14161
3.1416 12
A 0.7854 in2
4
The force per square inch on the rod is
The area in the metal ring (Fig. 3.2b) that must support this load:
C D (see App. B)
A C thickness
A 6 12 in/ft 3.1416 1⁄2 113.10 in2 of metal
But since this pressure is held by both sides of the shell, one side must hold
half, or 1,728,000 2 864,000 lb. The area of the strip of metal that sup-
ports this pressure is 12 in/ft 20 1⁄2 120 in2. The force on this area
equals 864,000 120 7200 psi.
Solution From the ASME code, the allowable stress for SA-285 Grade B
steel is 12,500 psi. The joint efficiency is 100 percent. Thus,
800 24
t
12,500 1 0.6(800)
t 1.597 in
For commercial sizes, this plate would be ordered at a thickness of 1.75 in.
If the material selected were SA-516 Grade 70 carbon steel, which has an
allowable stress of 17,500 psi, what would be the required thickness?
800 24
t
17,500 1 0.6(800)
t 1.128 in
For commercial size, this plate would be ordered at 1.25 in.
P
Efficiency of ligament d
P
where P pitch of the tube hole (in)
d diameter of tube hole (in)
TS t E
P
R FS
55,000 1 0.85
P 325 psi
2 12 6
Prior to 1930, the standard method for the joining of boiler drum
plates was riveting. The thickness of drum plate was limited to about
23⁄4 in because there was not a satisfactory method known to obtain a
tight joint in thicker plate. As a result, boiler pressures also were
limited and thus plant cycle efficiencies were low. Attempts were made
to forge and machine a solid ingot of steel to form a steam drum;
however, this was a very expensive process.
Fusion welding was developed at this time, as well as the use of
x-ray procedures to ensure the integrity of the weld. By x-ray exami-
nation along with physical tests of samples of the weld material, the
weld integrity could be determined without any effect on the drum.
The testing of drum integrity by x-ray examination and the develop-
ment of procedures for the qualification and testing of welders were crit-
ical in the establishment of quality control to the fabrication of boilers.
Drum fabrication consists of pressing flat plate into half cylinders
or, depending on the thickness, by rolling the plate into cylindrical
shells. One or two longitudinal welds are required depending on the
method used. The drum length is achieved by welding circumferen-
tially the required number of shell sections.
The heads (i.e., drum end enclosures) of modern boiler drum
designs are generally hemispherically shaped and are hot formed by
pressing or spinning flat plate in dies. The heads are then attached to
the drum cylinders by circumferential welding. Automatic welding
techniques are used to join shell courses and heads. The thickness
in most cases is determined by the pressure that is to be used, as
explained in Sec. 3.2. The drum must be strong enough to withstand
the mechanical load of itself and the water as well as the expansion
stresses.
The heads in return tubular boilers and some other fire-tube boilers
are called tube sheets; they are welded to the cylindrical section of the
shell. The heads of water-tube boiler drums are made from boilerplate
by use of a die. The head is dished, and the manhole and flange around
the outside are all formed in a single operation. The head is prepared
for welding by making the flange equal to the diameter of the shell.
Steam, on being liberated from the surface of the hot water in a
boiler drum, has a tendency to carry particles of water along with it.
This water may contain impurities in the form of soluble salts and
insoluble particles that are very objectionable.
Some of the design features that decrease the tendency of a boiler
to carry over water with the steam are (1) adequate circulation so
that the steam generated near the furnace will be quickly carried to
the steam drum, (2) sufficient surface area of the water in the steam
drum to liberate the steam from the water without excessive agita-
tion, and (3) provisions in the steam drum for retaining the water
while allowing the steam to flow into the steam outlet.
150 Chapter Three
Older fire-tube boilers were sometimes fitted with steam domes that
consisted of a small drum riveted to the highest point of the shell.
Steam was taken from the top of this dome, thus providing an oppor-
tunity for the water to separate from the steam. A center vertical row
of tubes was sometimes omitted from a horizontal-return tubular
(HRT) boiler to improve circulation and thereby reduce carry-over.
Several methods have been used to reduce carry-over from water-tube
boilers. One of the simplest but least effective of these was the dry pipe,
which was located at the highest point in the drum and connected to
the steam-outlet nozzle. The upper side of this pipe contains many
holes, through which the steam must flow as it leaves the drum.
Another method was to install a water-steam separator in the upper
portion of the drum to remove the particles of water, and this is the
method used today in modern boiler design, as explained in Sec. 2.5.
In some cases older designed boilers were provided with separate
drums in which these separators were installed. Refer to Fig. 2.11 for
an example of this design.
and test methods are changed over time based on experience. All of
these must be conducted in accordance with the procedures estab-
lished by the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
other authorities.
X-rays provide a satisfactory nondestructive procedure for examining
welds in boilerplate. This method of inspecting boilerplate has been
developed to a high degree of perfection. The process consists of passing
powerful x-rays through the weld and recording the intensity by means
of a photographic film. The variation and intensity of the x-rays as
recorded on the film show cracks, slag, or porosity. The exposed and
processed films showing the condition of the welded joint are known
as radiographs.
Both longitudinal and circumferential fusion-welded joints of boiler
drums must be examined radiographically throughout their length.
Welded joints are prepared for x-ray examination by grinding, chipping,
or machining the welded metal to remove irregularities from the sur-
face. A small specified amount of reinforcement, or crown, on the weld
is permissible. Single-welded joints can be radiographed without
removing the backing strip, provided it does not interfere with the
interpretation of the radiograph.
Radiography, or x-ray, has been a primary weld quality-control
technique for many years. These x-ray machines have been supple-
mented with the use of gamma-ray equipment, which uses a radioactive
isotope. The choice of either method is usually based on the mobility of
the part that has to be examined and also on the availability of equip-
ment. X-ray units are best used in a manufacturing facility where
fixed-position equipment is available and the parts to be examined
can be readily moved into proper position. For field use or when a
part cannot be moved easily, gamma-ray equipment is used. A signifi-
cant advantage of radiography is that a permanent inspection record
is made of each inspection.
Thickness gauges (penetrometers) are placed on the side of the
plate to test the ability of x-rays to show defects. These gauges are
rectangular strips of about the same metal as that being tested and
154 Chapter Three
not more than 2 percent of the thickness of the plate. They contain
identification markings and holes that must show clearly at each end of
the radiograph. The entire length of the welded joint is photographed.
The purpose of these penetrometers is to ensure the correct exposure
time of the x-ray. An image of the holes in the penetrometer appears
on the x-ray film, and therefore any flaws of equal or larger size
would be expected to appear. The ASME code specifies the acceptance
standard as to the size of porosity and defects from slag inclusion.
Figure 3.8a shows a radiograph of a satisfactory welded joint, while
Fig. 3.8b shows a joint that is unsatisfactory due to excessive porosity.
Welded joints are judged unsatisfactory when the slag inclusion or
porosity as shown on the radiograph exceeds the amount shown by a
standard radiograph reproduction that may be obtained from the
ASME.
The percentage of defective welds in modern boiler shops is very
small. When the radiograph shows an excessive amount of slag inclu-
sion or other unsatisfactory condition within the joint, the defective
portion must be chipped out. The section is then rewelded, after
which it must again be x-rayed.
1. Dead loads are loads due to the force of gravity on the equipment
and supports.
2. Live loads vary in magnitude and are applied to produce the maxi-
mum design conditions.
156 Chapter Three
Figure 3.9 Tie-bar and buckstay arrangement at corner of furnace. (Babcock &
Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Design and Construction of Boilers 157
the design, the support and tube arrangement must slide on each other
to provide relative movement between boiler tubes and superheater
tubes. Again, each boiler design can vary based on design preference
and operating experience. Stringer support tubes are often used in
horizontal superheaters, as well as in economizers. These are vertical
tubes containing water or steam that act as supports.
Large power boilers must be field erected. However, both costs and
erection time are reduced by modular, or “building block,” design and
construction. This procedure consists of designing and fabricating sec-
tions that are identical and which can be added to meet a range of
boiler capacities. This results in standardization and reduced costs.
The use of membrane wall panels is common, and these are sent in
sections and then are field assembled and welded.
In top-supported boilers, the steam drum is securely anchored in
place, and the lower portions of the boiler, including the lower drum,
are allowed to expand downward when the boiler is operating. In the
case of high boilers, there is considerable movement of the lower por-
tion of the boiler as a result of temperature change. This movement of
lower drums, waterwall tubes, and other pressure parts must be
taken into consideration when furnace walls, stokers, ash hoppers,
and other boiler equipment are installed or repaired.
Bottom-supported boilers expand upward, minimizing the problem
of sealing the bottom of the furnace to prevent air leaks. This
arrangement is used effectively in connection with slag-tapped fur-
naces and some types of stokers. It is generally more economical to
support smaller units from the bottom and larger units from the top.
The upper portion of the boiler is supported by the tubes when the
unit is bottom supported. The expansion resulting from increased
temperature causes the drums to move upward. This movement must
be considered in the design and installation of piping and of flues and
ducts that connect to the boiler. Figure 2.32 is an example of a bottom-
supported unit.
After the drums are in place, the tubes are installed. When headers
are used, the tubes and header assembly or module are tested in the
factory and shipped as a complete unit. The bent tubes are formed in
the factory to the required shape and installed on the job. In the mod-
ern boiler equipped with waterwalls, many different shapes of tubes
are required. Regardless of whether the tubes are assembled in the
factory or on-site, the three-roll expander is almost universally used
for joining the tubes to the drums and headers unless the pressure is
high and thus welded attachments are required.
Tube expanding or tube rolling is a process of cold working the end
of a tube into contact with the metal of the drum or header containing
tube holes. When a tube is expanded, the outside diameter, inside
diameter, and length increase, and the wall thickness decreases. A
properly expanded tube will provide a pressure-tight joint of great
strength and stability.
The conventional expander consists of three rolls mounted in sepa-
rate compartments in a cage. The cage contains a hole that permits a
tapered mandrel to be inserted between the rollers. The mandrel forces
the rollers out against the tube. When the mandrel is turned, rollers
160 Chapter Three
are rotated as they are forced against the wall of the tube. Continued
turning of the mandrel causes the end of the tube to be enlarged and
the outer surface to be pressed against the tube hole. The mandrel is
driven by either an electric or an air-operated motor. When thick-
walled high-pressure boiler tubes are expanded, the service on the
rollers is most severe.
Several methods have been developed for determining when a
tube has been expanded sufficiently, but satisfactory results are
obtained by relying on the judgment of expert workers. Mill scale
cracking from the surface of the sheet around the tube hole has been
found to be a reliable method of determining when the tube has
been expanded sufficiently to make a tight joint. However, the
hydrostatic test that must be conducted on the boiler is the ultimate
check for tightness.
At low and moderate pressures it is satisfactory to expand the tube
into the smooth seats. For high-pressure boilers and special applica-
tion it is advisable to cut or expand grooves in the tube seats. This
grooving results in considerable improvement in both the resistance
to leakage and the holding power of the tube. The tube metal is
expanded into these grooves.
4 3.1416 240 80
1675 ft2 of heating surface in tubes
144
(3) Multiply the square of the diameter of the boiler in inches by 0.7854
2 (as there are two heads) 2⁄3 (boiler is bricked one-third from top). From
this must be subtracted the area of the tube holes; so to subtract, multiply
the square of the diameter of the tube in inches by 0.7854 the number of
tubes 2 (as tubes have openings in each head). Divide this product by
144 (the number of square inches in 1 ft2). (Note: D2/4 0.7854D2.)
Ft2 of surface/
Type of boiler boiler hp
Vertical fire-tube 14
Horizontal fire-tube 12
Water-tube 10
Example Find the rated horsepower of the HRT boiler in the previous
example.
Solution The horizontal-return tubular boiler in the previous example
was found to have 1975 ft2 of heating surface. Thus,
1975
164.6 rated boiler hp
12
A boiler is operating at 100 percent of rating when it is producing
34.5 lb1 of steam per hour, from feedwater at 212°F to saturated
steam at 212°F (abbreviated “from and at 212°F”) for each rated boiler
horsepower. The rated steam output of a 164.6-hp boiler is
34.5 164.6 5678.6 lb of steam per hour from and at 212°F. Modern
boilers are capable of generating more than twice this amount of
steam per rated boiler horsepower. That is to say, they may be operated
in excess of 200 percent of rating.
The evaporation from and at 212°F is equivalent to adding 970.3
Btu2 (see Table C.1 in App. C) to each pound of water already at
212°F. The resulting steam would be at atmospheric pressure and dry
and saturated.
The factor of evaporation is the heat added to the water in the actual
boiler in Btu per pound divided by 970.3. To determine the heat added
1
When the boiler-horsepower unit (of 34.5 lb evaporation per hour of equivalent
steam from and at 212°F) was adopted, it represented the heat input normally required
by the average steam engine to produce a horsepower-hour of energy. This quantity of
heat bears no relation to the requirements of modern turbines but is still sometimes
used in designating the performance of small boilers.
The modern terminology is to define all boiler sizes in terms of steam capacity
(pounds per hour) at a specific steam pressure and temperature when supplied with
feedwater at a specific temperature, e.g., a boiler designed to produce 500,000 lb/h at
1800 psig and 950°F when supplied with feedwater at 350°F.
2
Note:
hg at 212°F 1150.4 Btu/lb
hf at 212°F 180.1 Btu/lb
h 970.3 Btu/lb
or
hfg (from steam tables) 970.3 Btu/lb
Design and Construction of Boilers 163
[Note that the amount of heat required (h) of 112.10 Btu/lb is equal
to the 1 Btu requirement to raise 1 lb of water 1°F, as stated earlier,
from 100 to 212°F or t= 112°F.]
At 212°F, it takes an additional 970 Btu/lb to convert this to steam,
as shown in Table C.2 in App. C.
or
hg at 212°F hf + hfg
Thus the amount of heat added from the water at 100°F to the satu-
rated steam at 212°F is 1082.43 Btu/lb (1150.4 - 67.97).
To continue this example and assuming an efficiency of 100 percent,
when the steam condenses and cools back to 100°F, the added 1082.43
Btu/lb is released.
If the boiler efficiency were 82 percent, then the boiler heat input would be
126.8 106
Heat input 154.6 106 Btu/h
0.82
Note that the saturation temperature of the 450 psia steam is 456.28°F per
Table C.1, which is the boiling point at that pressure.
Since the enthalpy of steam at 146.7 psi cannot be read directly from the
values given in the steam tables, it becomes necessary to calculate the value
(interpolate) from the values given.
We note that 146.7 is between 140 and 150 psi, both of which may be found
in the tables:
6.7
1.1 0.74 Btu/lb
10
The Btu/lb at 146.7 psi equals the Btu/lb at 140 psi (1193.0) plus the
amount resulting from a change of 6.7 psi (0.74 Btu/lb) 1193.74 Btu/lb.
Wet steam is a mixture of steam and water. The heat supplied has
been insufficient to evaporate all the water. The amount of moisture
present in steam can be determined readily by means of a throttling
calorimeter. When the pressure and quality (i.e., the percentage of
steam) are known, the enthalpy can be calculated from the values
given in the steam tables. The quality of wet steam refers to the per-
centage of the mixture that has been evaporated, i.e., 100 minus the
percentage of moisture.
hw hf Xhfg
Note that if the steam had been dry and saturated, the enthalpy would be
1194.1 Btu/lb instead of 1150.93.
Example Using the example above, where 120,000 lb/h of steam is pro-
duced at 450 psia, dry and saturated with feedwater at 180°F, assume
that the steam produced is superheated at 450 psia and 800°F instead of
dry and saturated. Calculate the boiler heat input assuming the same
boiler efficiency of 82 percent as before. Also determine the degrees of
superheat in the steam. Compare the heat input of the two boilers. Why
is there a difference?
Solution
Moisture in the turbine will cause erosion on the turbine blades, and
this results in high maintenance costs and loss of power production
and thus a loss of revenues that usually is far greater than the main-
tenance costs.
Therefore, all modern power plants (with the exception of nuclear
power plants, where most use saturated steam or only slightly super-
heated steam) use superheated steam, and many of the large utility
plants use a second superheater (called a reheater) that reheats the
steam after it has passed through a portion of the turbine. This reheated
steam then passes back to the lower-pressure stages of the turbine.
The reheated steam has a temperature generally the same as the
primary steam, but the pressure is considerably lower. For example,
the primary steam has a pressure of 1400 psia and a temperature of
1000°F (h 1493.2 Btu/lb). After this steam has passed through a
portion of the turbine, it is returned to the boiler, where, for this
example, the steam pressure and temperature are 200 psia and 400°F
(h 1210.3 Btu/lb). The steam is reheated to a temperature of 1000°F
Design and Construction of Boilers 169
75,000 1156.6
Heat input 102.1 106 Btu/h
0.85
102.1 106
Heat release 72,929 Btu/h/ft3
1400
Example: Heating Water How much heat is required to increase the tem-
perature of 120,000 lb/h of feedwater from 180 to 300°F?
Design and Construction of Boilers 171
Solution
3.2 Define stress as experienced by a boiler, and describe its importance in the
design of a boiler.
3.3 If the force on a 2-in-diameter support rod is 8000 lb, what is the cross-
sectional area of the rod, and what is the stress on the rod in pounds per
square inch?
3.5 Carbon steel is used extensively in many boiler designs. What is the maxi-
mum metal temperature that limits the use of this material? What happens
when temperatures are above this point?
3.6 What is the area of the head on a boiler drum that is 60 in in diameter?
3.7 A water-tube boiler operates at a steam pressure of 750 psi, and its steam
drum diameter is 60 in. What is the total pressure on the head of the drum?
3.8 A boiler tube has an outside diameter of 2 in and a wall thickness of 3⁄16
in. What is the tube’s inside diameter?
3.12 Name some of the most common materials found in a modern boiler design.
3.13 Why has the welding of joints become the method of manufacturing boilers
as compared with riveting?
3.14 What is used on modern boilers to prevent water carry-over from the
steam drum?
3.15 What procedures must be followed for welding on boilers and pressure
vessels?
3.17 The inspection and testing of welded components are critical to quality
control. Describe the methods of destructive and nondestructive testing
that are used and the advantages of each.
3.18 A steel rod is 3⁄4 in in diameter, and it reaches its elastic limit when sub-
jected to a force of 12,000 lb and it fails under a load of 25,000 lb. Calculate
its elastic limit and ultimate strength in pounds per square inch.
3.19 A 600-psi pressure boiler has a drum that is 36 in in diameter. What will
be the total pressure on the head?
3.20 If the drum in Problem 3.19 is 30 ft long, calculate the total pressure on
the longitudinal projected area, as shown in Fig. 3.5.
3.21 A tube has a 6-in inside diameter and is 3⁄8 in thick. Its ultimate tensile
strength is 65,000 psi, and its factor of safety is 6. Calculate the estimated
internal design pressure.
3.22 Calculate the minimum required wall thickness of a welded steam drum
that has an inside diameter of 60 in. The selected material is SA-516
Grade 70, which has an allowable stress of 17,500 psi. The design pres-
sure of the boiler is 750 psi, and E 1.0. What would the commercial
plate size have to be for the ordering of this plate?
3.23 How are steam drums and other pressure vessels normally supported?
What types of loads must be considered in the design of the structural
supports for these vessels? Provide examples of the types of loads that
must be evaluated as part of the design.
3.24 What is the best method for the determination of leak tightness on the
water/steam side of a boiler?
Design and Construction of Boilers 173
3.25 In describing the capacity or size of a boiler, how is it best defined for
modern boilers?
3.26 Define the heating surface of a boiler and its major heat-transfer compo-
nents of superheater, economizer, and air heater.
3.28 What is meant by boiler horsepower? In Problem 3.27, what would be the
boiler horsepower of this HRT boiler?
3.30 A boiler produces 220,000 lb/h of saturated steam at 735 psig when sup-
plied with feedwater at 240°F. With a boiler efficiency of 81 percent, what
is the heat input requirement for the boiler?
3.31 What is wet steam, and how is the enthalpy of wet steam calculated?
3.32 What is superheated steam, and what does degrees of superheat mean?
3.34 Compare the enthalpy of saturated steam at 900 psia with the enthalpy
of superheated steam at 900 psia and 950°F. What are the degrees of
superheat?
4
Combustion of Fuels
175
176 Chapter Four
Areas of low resistance in the fuel bed permit high velocity of gases
and accelerated rates of combustion, which deplete the fuel and fur-
ther reduce the resistance. These areas of low resistance have been
called holes in the fire.
As a result of these inherent shortcomings in hand firing and the
physical labor involved, mechanical methods of introducing solid fuel
into the furnace and automatically controlling the air supply have
been developed. These are explained in Chap. 5.
Suspension firing of fuel in a water-cooled furnace is illustrated in
Fig. 4.2. This method may be utilized in the combustion of gaseous
fuels without special preparations, of fuel oil by providing for atom-
ization, and of solid fuels by pulverization. The fuel particles and air in
the correct proportions are introduced into the furnace, which is at an
elevated temperature. The fine particles of fuel expose a large surface to
the oxygen present in the combustion air and to the high furnace tem-
perature. The air and fuel particles are mixed either in the burner or
directly after they enter the furnace. When coal is burned by this
method, the volatile matter—hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide—is
distilled off when the coal enters the furnace. These combustible
gases and the residual carbon particles burn during the short interval
of time required for them to pass through the furnace. The period of
time required to complete combustion of fuel particles in suspension
depends on the particle size of the fuel, control of the flow of combus-
tion air, mixing of air and fuel, and furnace temperatures. Relatively
large furnace volumes are required to ensure complete combustion.
The equipment used in the suspension burning of solid, liquid, and
gaseous fuels is discussed in Chap. 5.
From these illustrations we note that the requirements for good
combustion are sufficient time of contact between the fuel and air,
elevated temperature during this time, and turbulence to provide
thorough mixing of fuel and air. These are referred to as the three T’s
of combustion—time, temperature, and turbulence.
phase from liquid to gas is called vaporization, and the liquid is said
to vaporize or boil. The change from the gaseous or vapor phase to
liquid is condensation, and during this process the vapor is said to be
condensing. Matter in the form of a solid has both volume and shape.
A liquid has a definite volume, in that it is not readily compressible,
but its shape conforms to that of the container. A gas has neither a
definite volume nor shape, since both conform to that of the container.
When liquids are heated, a temperature is reached at which vapor
will form above the surface. This vapor is only slightly above the liquid
state. When vapor is removed from the presence of the liquid and
heated, a gas will be formed. There is no exact point at which a sub-
stance changes from a gas to a vapor or from a vapor to a gas. It is
simply a question of degree as to how nearly the vapor approaches a
gas. Steam produced by boiling water at atmospheric pressure is
vapor because it is just above the liquid state. On the other hand, air
may be considered a gas because under normal conditions it is far
removed from the liquid state (liquid air). Gases follow definite laws
of behavior when subjected to changes in pressure, volume, and tem-
perature. The more nearly a vapor approaches a gas, the more closely
it will follow the laws.
When considering gas laws and when making calculations in thermo-
dynamics (i.e., the relationship between heat and other forms of energy),
pressures and temperatures must be expressed in absolute units rather
than in gauge values (read directly from gauges and thermometers).
Absolute pressures greater than atmospheric are found by adding the
atmospheric pressure to the gauge reading. Both pressures must be
expressed in the same units. The atmospheric pressure is accurately
determined by means of a barometer, but for many calculations the
approximate value of 14.7 psi is sufficiently accurate. For example, if a
pressure gauge reads 150 psi, the absolute pressure is 164.7 psia (read
as “pounds per square inch absolute”). Absolute pressures below zero
gauge are found by subtracting the gauge reading from the atmospheric
pressure. When a gauge reads 5 psi, the absolute pressure would be
14.75.0 9.7 psia. Pressures a few pounds above zero gauge and a few
pounds below (in the vacuum range) are frequently measured by a U-
tube containing mercury and are expressed in inches of mercury. Many
of the pressures encountered in combustion work are nearly atmospher-
ic (zero gauge) and can be measured by a U-tube containing water.
The zero on the Fahrenheit scale is arbitrarily chosen and has no
scientific basis. Experiments have proved that the true or absolute zero
is 460° below zero on the Fahrenheit thermometer. The absolute
temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is found by adding 460°F to the
thermometer reading. Absolute temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale
are called degrees Rankine (°R). On the centigrade or Celsius scale, the
absolute temperature is determined by adding 273°C to the centigrade
Combustion of Fuels 181
V1 T1
V2 T2
In combustion work the gas temperature varies over a wide range.
Air enters the furnace or air heater, for example, at 70°F, is heated in
some instances to over 3000°F in the furnace, and is finally discharged
from the stack at between 300 and 400°F. During these temperature
changes, the volume varies because the gases are maintained near
atmospheric pressure. This is most important because fans, flues and
ducts, boiler passes, etc., must be designed to accommodate these
variations in volume.
In addition to these physical aspects of matter, we also must consider
the chemical reactions that occur in the combustion process. All sub-
stances are composed of one or more of the chemical elements. The
smallest particle into which an element may be divided is termed an
atom. Atoms combine in various combinations to form molecules,
which are the smallest particles of a compound or substance. The
182 Chapter Four
*Approximate.
†
At 14.7 lb/in2 and 68° F.
‡
Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. This figure is the average accepted molecular
weight.
§
At atmospheric pressure and 212°F.
Combustion of Fuels 183
supplied. The heat released is only 4355 Btu/lb, but it is 14,540 Btu when
1 lb of carbon is completely burned. The net loss is, therefore, 10,185
Btu/lb of carbon and shows the importance of completely burning the
combustible gases before they are allowed to escape from the furnace.
In the reaction shown in Table 4.4, the two molecules of carbon
monoxide (CO) previously produced, by the incomplete combustion of
two molecules of carbon, are combined with the necessary one mole-
cule of oxygen to produce two molecules of carbon dioxide. The 1 lb of
carbon produced 2.333 lb of carbon monoxide. Finally, however, the 1
lb of carbon produces 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide regardless of whether
the reaction is in one or two steps. The total amount of oxygen
required, as well as the heat liberated per pound of carbon, is the
same for complete combustion in both cases.
Hydrogen is a very light gas with a high heat value. The combustion
of 1 lb of hydrogen gas liberates 62,000 Btu (Table 4.1). To develop this
heat, two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to
form two molecules of water (Table 4.5). One volume of oxygen is
required for two volumes of hydrogen. The weight relations are 1 lb of
hydrogen and 8 lb of oxygen, producing 9 lb of water. This water
appears as water vapor in the flue gases.
The equations for these and some of the other reactions involved in
combustion are as follows:
C O2 → CO2
2C O2 → 2CO
2CO O2 → 2CO2
2H2 O2 → 2H2O
171 1,000,000
SO2 lb/million Btu 2.48
3 2000 11,500
In practice, the oxygen supplied for combustion is obtained from the
atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that for practical
purposes may be considered as being composed of the following:
Only the oxygen enters into chemical combination with the fuel.
The nitrogen combines in small amounts with the oxygen to form
nitrogen oxides, commonly called NOx. These are an atmospheric pol-
lutant. The amount of NOx produced depends on the combustion
process. The higher the temperature in the furnace, the greater the
amount of nitrogen oxides. The remainder of the nitrogen passes
through the combustion chamber without chemical change. It does,
however, absorb heat and reduces the maximum temperature
attained by the products of combustion.
Since air contains 23.15 percent by weight of oxygen, in order to
supply 1 lb of oxygen to a furnace it is necessary to introduce
1
4.32 lb of air
0.2315
Combustion of Fuels 187
In the case of carbon, the values given in Table 4.7 are found as follows:
The values for hydrogen and sulfur are found in a similar manner.
Note in Table 4.7 that the weight of fuel and air supplied is equal to
the weight of the resulting quantities.
Figure 4.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) in percentage by volume com-
pared with the excess air used when various types of fuels are burned.
O21⁄2CO
Percentage of excess air 100
0.263N2 1⁄2COO2
However, when there is no carbon monoxide present, the formula
becomes
O2
Percentage of excess air 100
0.263N2O2
The use of these formulas will be shown by application to the follow-
ing flue gas analyses.
Analysis CO2 O2 CO N2
A 13.7 3.5 1.8 81.0
B 13.5 5.5 0.0 81.0
Combustion of Fuels 191
Analysis A:
3.51⁄2 1.8
Percentage of excess air 100 13.9
0.263 81.0 1⁄2 1.8 3.5
Analysis B:
5.5
Percentage of excess air 100 34.8
0.263 81.05.5
For analysis A, the excess air is 13.9 percent; for B, it is 34.8 percent.
Free oxygen is present in both analyses, but the presence of carbon
monoxide in A indicates incomplete combustion.
When 1 lb of carbon is burned to carbon dioxide, 14,540 Btus are
released, but when it is burned to carbon monoxide only 4355 Btus
are released, a loss of 10,185 Btu/lb (see Table 4.1). Therefore, it is
important that the carbon monoxide content of the products of com-
bustion be at a minimum. It also means that the carbon monoxide
content of the products of combustion can be used to control the
amount of excess air. When there is a trace of carbon monoxide in
the flue gases, the air supply is increased.
When the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in solid fuels
are known, the heating value can be approximated by using Dulong’s
formula:
Figure 4.4 Flow of air and flue gas through a hand-fired boiler.
Figure 4.6 Fuel bed draft differential required for various fuels.
Early boiler designs met their total draft requirements with natural
draft that was supplied by the height of the stack. As units became
larger and included additional heat traps, such as superheaters, econ-
omizers, and air heaters (and thereby having a higher draft loss), it
was not practical to draft the entire unit from the stack. These units
required fans in addition to the stack, using a forced-draft (FD) fan
alone or in combination with an induced-draft (ID) fan.
Most combustion equipment uses forced-draft fans for supplying
air to the furnace either through the burners or through the grates.
An enclosure, called a wind box, provides the air distribution for
proper combustion. The wind box is a reinforced, metal-cased enclo-
sure that attaches to the furnace wall and incorporates the burners
and distributes the combustion air. It also can refer to the air distri-
bution ductwork under a stoker. It can be located on a furnace wall
or on all the furnace walls depending on the burner configuration.
The attachments to the furnace walls must be gas-tight and must
permit thermal expansion between the casing and the tubes.
196 Chapter Four
Depending on the size of the boiler, the wind box can be arranged in
compartments on the front and rear furnace walls to optimize the
control of combustion.
The forced-draft (FD) fan supplies the air at a pressure above that
of the atmosphere and forces it into the furnace. Figures 4.7 and 4.8
show the application of forced draft to a stoker and the draft and
wind-box pressure at various boiler capacities. This is the same unit
as that shown in Fig. 4.4 except that an underfeed stoker has been
substituted for the hand-fired grates. The forced-draft fan produces
a pressure under the stoker and causes the necessary air to flow up
through the fuel bed. An increase in capacity requires an increase in
pressure under the stoker to cause the additional air to flow through
the fuel bed. The stack produces the draft necessary to circulate the
gases through the boiler and breeching (flue). By automatic regula-
tion of the stack damper, the furnace draft is maintained constant at
0.05 in of water. Operating a furnace at a constant draft slightly
below atmospheric pressure is referred to as balanced draft. When
the combustion rate increases, more air is added to the furnace, and
a corresponding increased amount of flue gas is removed. This
results in a greater flow but maintains a constant pressure in the
furnace. Since the total effect of the stack is now available in over-
coming the resistance through the boiler, a higher capacity can be
Figure 4.7 Flow of air and flue gas through an underfeed stoker-fired
boiler.
Combustion of Fuels 197
Figure 4.9 Air and flue gas pressure in a 200,000 lb/h pressurized fuel oil– and natural
gas-fired package boiler.
4.4 Coal
Coal was formed by the decomposition of vegetation that grew in pre-
historic forests. At that time the climate was favorable for very rapid
growth. Layer upon layer of fallen trees was covered with sediment,
and after long periods of aging, the chemical and physical properties
of the now ancient vegetation deposits were changed, through various
intermediate processes, into coal. The process of coal formation can be
observed in the various stages on the earth today. However, present-day
Combustion of Fuels 199
Peat. Peat is the first product in the formation of coal and consists of
partially decomposed plant and mineral matter. Peat has a moisture
content of up to 70 percent and a heating value as low as 3000 Btu/lb.
200
TABLE 4.9 Representative Analyses of Wood, Peat, and Coal on an “As Received” Basis
Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis
Calorific
Volatile Fixed value,
Kind of fuel Moisture matter carbon Ash Sulfur Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Btu/lb
Wood — — — — — 6.25 49.50 1.10 43.15 5800
Peat 56.70 26.14 11.17 5.99 0.64 8.33 21.03 1.10 62.91 3586
Lignite 34.55 35.34 22.91 7.20 1.10 6.60 42.40 0.57 42.13 7090
Subbituminous 24.28 27.63 44.84 3.25 0.36 6.14 55.28 1.07 33.90 9376
Bituminous 3.24 27.13 62.52 7.11 0.95 5.24 78.00 1.23 7.47 13,919
Semibituminous 2.03 14.47 75.31 8.19 2.26 4.14 79.97 1.26 4.18 14,081
Semianthracite 3.38 8.47 76.65 11.50 0.63 3.58 78.43 1.00 4.86 13,156
Anthracite 2.80 1.16 88.21 7.83 0.89 1.89 84.36 0.63 4.40 13,298
Anthracite. This is the highest ranked coal. It has the highest content
of fixed carbon, ranging from 86 to 98 percent. It has a low volatile
content, which makes it a slow-burning fuel. Its moisture content is
low at about 3 percent, and its heating value can be as high as 15,000
Btu/lb. Anthracite is low in sulfur and volatiles and burns with a hot,
clean flame. It is used mostly for domestic heating as well as some
metallurgical processes. However, utility-type boilers are designed to
burn this low-volatile coal in pulverized coal-fired boilers. Refer to
Fig. 2.42.
1
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
204 Chapter Four
TABLE 4.10 Bituminous Coal Ultimate Analysis: Calculation of Moisture and Ash-Free
Basis
*1 lb H2 8 lb O2 → 9 lb H2O.
This carbon residue that contains the ash and a part of the sulfur of
the original coal is called coke. The principal uses for coke are in the
production of pig iron in blast furnaces and in iron foundries. Because
it is smokeless in combustion, it has been used for space heating.
The coking tendency of coal is expressed by the free-swelling index
(FSI). This test is made by grinding a sample of coal to pass a no. 60
sieve and then heating 1 g under specified conditions that also have
been described by ASTM. The profile obtained by heating the sample
is compared with a standard set of profiles to determine the FSI of the
sample. The standard profiles are expressed in one-half units from 1
to 9. Coals having an FSI below 5 are referred to as free-burning, since
particles do not tend to stick together and form large lumps of coke
when heat is applied but remain separate during the combustion
process. Coals having an FSI above 5 are referred to as caking or cok-
ing, since the particles swell and tend to stick together when heated.
206 Chapter Four
Figure 4.11 Coal storage domes for power plant in Taiwan. (Geometrica, Inc.)
Combustion of Fuels 209
Figure 4.11 also shows the coal conveyors to and from the coal stor-
age domes. Each dome is designed to house the coal feed conveyor, the
stacking and reclaiming equipment, and the coal transfer system to
the exit conveyor. Ventilation and filtering systems are also built into
the domes to provide normal ventilation as well as ensuring against
any methane or smoke buildup.
A schematic of the coal conveying system and the stacking and
reclaiming equipment is shown in Fig. 4.12. A photograph of the system
in operation is shown in Fig. 4.13.
With the use of coal so important to the production of low-cost elec-
trical energy, and with protection of the environment being such a
vital requirement, innovative methods of handling and burning coal,
such as these coal storage domes, are now being used.
Particle size is an important consideration in the selection of coal. The
size requirement for different equipment varies widely. Coal burned on
grates must have a certain size composition to regulate the passage of
air through the fuel bed, while for a pulverized-coal burner the coal
must be reduced in size to small, powderlike particles to promote
rapid and complete combustion.
There is a tendency for coal particles to fracture when mechanical
force is applied. Dense, hard coals resist fracture and retain their size
during handling. Soft coals shatter easily, break up into small particles
when handled, and therefore are said to be friable. Size degradation
during shipment depends on the coal friability, which identifies its
ease of crumbling, and the techniques, methods, and number of trans-
fers that should be used. This size degradation is not a concern when
the coal is to be pulverized.
When coal containing a range of sizes is dropped through a chute or
other coal-conveying equipment, the fine and coarse particles segregate.
If this condition occurs in the coal supply to a stoker, the fine is
admitted to one section and the coarse to another. The resistance of
the fuel bed to airflow varies, resulting in different rates of airflow
through the grates and subsequent variations in the rates of combus-
tion. Coal-conveying systems for supplying stokers should be
designed to prevent this segregation. Refer to Fig. 5.9 for a typical
coal distributor across a stoker inlet.
Fine coal particles have a greater tendency to retain moisture, and
wet fine coal will not flow readily through chutes and spouts. The
clogging of coal-conveying equipment by fine wet coal becomes so
troublesome that coal with coarser particles sometimes must be
selected. Once the fine wet coal is in the furnace, there is a tendency
for the combustion gases to carry the small particles of coal. This
results in a loss of heat due to the unburned carbon.
The type of combustion equipment dictates the size of coal that is
required. Therefore, it is necessary to designate coal size by stating
210
Figure 4.12 A schematic diagram showing internal coal conveyor system within coal storage
domes (Geometrica, Inc.)
Combustion of Fuels 211
the largest and smallest pieces and the percentage of the various-
sized particles, such as 11⁄4 in by 1⁄4 in with not more than 15 percent
minus 1⁄4. For stoker-fired units, coal sizing is specified to meet the
stoker requirements, and therefore no additional sizing equipment
is required at the plant. For pulverized-coal-fired boilers, a maximum
delivered top size is specified with no limitation on the percentage of
fines.
A characteristic known as grindability is considered when selecting
coal for pulverizer plants. Some coals are harder and therefore more
212 Chapter Four
Example A sample of fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.91 at 60°F. What
is its gravity in degrees API?
Solution
141.5
°API 131.5 24.0
0.91
Specific gravity, therefore, is the ratio of the density of oil to the densi-
ty of water, and it is important because oil is purchased by volume,
either by the gallon or by the barrel.
Heavier, liquid fuels have a lower API gravity, as noted in Table 4.11.
The viscosity or resistance to flow of an oil is important because it
affects the ease with which it can be handled and broken up into a fine
mist by the burner. An increase in temperature lowers the viscosity of
an oil and causes it to flow more readily. It is therefore necessary to heat
heavy oils in order to handle them effectively in pumps and burners.
Example If a sample of fuel oil has an API gravity of 25.2 at 60°F, what is
the approximate Btu/lb?
Combustion of Fuels 217
Solution
Gasoline 44.4%
Lube oil 16.4
Jet fuel 6.2
Kerosene 2.9
Distillates 22.5
Residual fuel 7.6
Total 100.0%
218 Chapter Four
Fuel oil provides a satisfactory source of heat for many types of ser-
vices when the correct equipment is used and good operating practices
are followed. The ash content is usually low, but even a small amount
may react with the refractory in a furnace and cause rapid deteriora-
tion. Completely water-cooled furnace designs have solved this problem.
The flame should be adjusted to prevent impingement on the furnace
walls because flame impingement results in failure of the furnace water
wall tubes. Moisture, emulsified oil, abrasive particles, and other for-
eign matter, referred to collectively as sludge, settle to the bottom of the
storage tank. When this sludge has accumulated in sufficient quantity
to be picked up by the oil pump, strainer and burner nozzles become
stopped up and abrasive material causes pump and burner wear.
Because of its relatively low cost, no. 6 fuel oil is the oil most often
used for steam generation. Its ash content is very low when compared
with coal, since it ranges between 0.01 and 0.5 percent. Seldom does
it exceed 0.2 percent. Yet operating problems do exist because the
fuel oil contains vanadium, sodium, and sulfur in the ash, causing
deposits and corrosion in the boilers. The deposition of oil ash con-
stituents on furnace walls and on superheater surfaces can be a serious
problem, and the design and operation of the boiler must take this
into account.
Sulfur is another objectionable constituent of fuel oil, and it can
range from a low of 0.01 percent for no. 1 fuel oil to a high of 3.5 per-
cent for no. 6 fuel oil. Some of the sulfur compounds formed during
the combustion process raise the dew point of the flue gases, mix with
the moisture present in the gases, and corrode metal parts. This cor-
rosive action results in plugging of gas passages and rapid deteriora-
tion of boiler tubes, casings, and especially economizers and air
heaters. Furthermore, the sulfur compounds discharged with the flue
gases contaminate the atmosphere. The reduction of this source of
contamination is the subject of much debate among air pollution con-
trol authorities.
The corrosive action is reduced by maintaining the flue gases at a
temperature higher than the dew point. The gases must be permitted
to discharge at a higher temperature, thus carrying away more heat
and reducing the efficiency. If uncontrolled emissions from an oil-fired
facility exceed established limits, then SO2 scrubbers are required.
Burner and accessory equipment capable of operating with very low
percentages of excess air provide another method of combating the
220 Chapter Four
4.6 Gas
Natural gas usually occurs in the same region as petroleum. The gas,
because of its low specific gravity, is found above the petroleum and
trapped by a layer of nonporous rock. Since natural gas and petroleum
are usually found together, it is believed that they have a similar ori-
gin. The gas in its natural state is under pressure, which causes it to
be discharged from the well.
Electric production by utilities has in the past consumed relatively
small amounts of natural gas. However, the use of gas turbine cycles
is increasing this consumption significantly. For industrial steam gen-
eration, natural gas is used widely because of its ease in distribution,
the requirement for a smaller boiler space, and its relative simplicity
in overall plant design.
Methane (CH4) is the largest component of natural gas, with the
remainder primarily ethane (C2H6). Natural gas is the most desirable
fuel for steam generation because it can be piped directly to the boiler,
which eliminates the need for storage.
Natural gas is free of ash and mixes easily with air, providing com-
plete combustion without smoke. However, because of the high content
of hydrogen in natural gas as compared with coal or oil, more water
vapor is produced in the combustion process. This results in a lower
boiler efficiency as compared with burning coal or oil. In addition, the
fuel cost and availability are directly related, and high fuel costs can
result when demand is high or the supply is limited.
Manufactured substitutes for natural gas may be produced from
solid or liquid fuels. These gases are produced for special industrial
applications and for domestic use. Because they cost more than other
fuels, they are seldom used under power boilers.
Producer gas is manufactured from coke or coal. Steam and air are
blown up through the incandescent fuel bed. Both carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide are generated here and pass up through what is
termed a reduction zone. In this zone the shortage of oxygen causes
Combustion of Fuels 221
Coke Blast
Gas Natural Producer oven furnace
CH4 83.5 2.5 29.1 —
C2H6 14.4 — — —
C2H4 — 0.5 3.1 —
CO2 — 5.5 1.7 12.7
CO — 22.3 4.9 26.7
N 2.1 59.0 4.4 57.1
H — 10.2 56.8 3.5
3
Btu/ft at 60°F and
atmospheric pressure 1080 140 550 98.1
include furnace and burner design for correct mixing of fuel and air,
sensitive controls, and scheduled maintenance and calibration of all
equipment.
Gas is a desirable fuel because it is easy to control, requires no han-
dling equipment, and leaves no ash to remove from the furnace.
and supplementary fuel is required. When used, the deposits from the
combustion of blast-furnace gas adhere readily to boiler heating sur-
faces, and provisions for sootblowers must be made for cleaning.
Refinery gas is a by-product of crude oil refining operations. The heating
value of this gas is high because of the large amount of heavy hydrocar-
bons present and will vary from 1000 to 1800 Btu/ft3 depending on the
refining process. The gas produced is frequently adequate to generate
the steam required by the refinery. Refineries also produce petroleum
coke, which has a high carbon but low hydrogen and ash content. This
fuel is used by the refinery or sold for use in neighboring plants.
Although not truly defined as a by-product fuel similar to those
described earlier, various sludges are produced in industrial processes,
and these can be used in a boiler as a fuel to produce steam. In the
papermaking process, a number of sludges are generated. The now
common recycling of old newspapers, magazines, and corrugated
paper containers has increased the quantity of sludge because of the
deinking process. This has created a disposal problem that generally
has been solved by depositing the sludge in a landfill.
Landfills, however, are becoming filled, as well as costly (see Chap.
13), and new landfills are becoming more difficult to locate because of
permitting and environmental problems. Therefore, the use of sludge
as a fuel has become a viable alternative. The available combustion
technologies all have certain limitations for the burning of sludge,
and the characteristics of the sludge must be carefully evaluated for
such things as quantity, heating value, and moisture content in order
to select the proper technology.
Typical sludges from pulp mills are very good fuels because they
have heating values between 8000 and 10,000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash
contents of approximately 10 percent. However, sludges from the
deinking process are less suitable fuels, having heating values
between 4000 and 6000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash contents from 20 to 50
percent. Therefore, for a deinking sludge having a moisture content of
50 to 60 percent, the heating value is only about 2800 Btu/lb. The
combination of high moisture content and low heating value makes it
difficult to burn.
The burning of this high-moisture sludge on a stoker presents some
significant problems because the removal of the moisture in the fuel
results in a lower furnace temperature, which, in turn, affects com-
bustion. High air temperatures are limited on both a traveling-grate
stoker and a water-cooled hydrograte stoker because of limitations on
stoker grate materials. Therefore, on stokers, sludge is generally fired
in combination with another fuel such as bark.
This has led to the successful use of fluidized bed combustion technol-
ogy as a viable solution and in particular the bubbling bed technology
(see Sec. 2.15). Not only can the bubbling bed boiler handle this
Combustion of Fuels 225
If the UCL were to increase to 2.0 percent, then the additional fuel
would increase to 6 tons/day, with significantly increased fuel costs. A
utility boiler with, say, 10 times the steam output and boiler input
requirements would increase its coal input proportionately.
It has been shown that water is formed during the combustion of
hydrogen. In the conventional boiler, the gases are discharged to the
stack at a temperature in excess of the boiling point of water (212°F),
and the water therefore leaves in the form of vapor or steam. A part of
the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel is utilized in vaporiz-
ing the water and is therefore lost with the stack gases. This heat loss
is high when fuels (such as natural gas) containing large amounts of
hydrogen are burned. A similar loss occurs in the evaporation of mois-
ture contained in solid fuels. The operator cannot do much to reduce
the loss except to have the fuel as dry as possible.
By far the largest controllable or preventable loss occurs in the heat
rejected from the stack in the dry products of combustion. These losses
occur in three different ways as follows:
1. Combustible gases, mainly carbon monoxide, contain undevel-
oped heat. This loss can be determined by the following formula:
10,160 CO
h2 C
CO2 CO
Combustion of Fuels 227
h3 w(ts t)0.24
Figure 4.14 Dry flue gas loss for various flue gas temperatures and percentages
of carbon dioxide (CO2 ).
228 Chapter Four
This heat loss therefore can be reduced by lowering the boiler exit
gas temperature or by decreasing the quantity of gases discharged,
thus lowering the percentage of excess air used. (Note that it is impor-
tant to use the boiler exit gas temperature. With many units requiring
flue gas scrubbers to reduce the acid gases, the stack temperatures
will be lower.)
Conventional oil and gas burners controlled by standard systems
require 3 to 15 percent excess air for complete combustion. However,
low-excess-air burners and accessory control equipment are available
for reducing the air necessary for combustion to nearly the theoretical
requirement. Advanced methods of atomizing oil are used. The tem-
perature of the oil supplied to the burners is carefully controlled.
Both the fuel and air supplies to the burners are metered. This low-
excess-air operation can be obtained with a clear stack to meet strin-
gent air pollution ordinances and with not more than a trace of carbon
monoxide.
The necessary equipment for low-excess-air operation is more costly
to install and requires more precise adjustment and care in operation
than standard equipment. The reduction in excess air results in an
improvement in efficiency, a reduction in the corrosive effect of the
products of combustion on the heating surfaces, and a reduction in
objectionable contaminants (including nitrogen oxides).
The measure of stack losses is based on analysis of the products of
combustion and a determination of the exit temperature of the flue
gases. A commercial portable flue gas analyzer is shown in Fig. 4.15.
This Orsat flue gas analyzer has been used for a long time, and it
remains a trusted standard for the verification of sophisticated elec-
tronic equipment.
The Orsat uses chemicals to absorb the CO2, SO2, CO, and O2, and
the amount of each is determined by the reduction in volume from the
original flue gas sample. A sample of flue gas is obtained by inserting
a sampling tube into the flue gas stream in the boiler, economizer, or
air heater, depending on the information required. A 1⁄4-in standard
pipe is satisfactory if the temperature of the flue gases in the pass
does not exceed 1000°F. Care must be exercised to locate the end of
the sampling pipe to obtain a representative sample of flue gases. It
is advisable to take samples with the pipe located at various places in
the pass to make certain that the analysis is representative.
The procedure for operating the flue gas analyzer in Fig. 4.15 is
shown diagrammatically by steps in Fig. 4.16.
4.2 What are the typical gases that are released from combustion of a solid
fuel?
232 Chapter Four
4.5 What are the three T’s of combustion, and describe their importance?
4.6 What are the forms of matter? What is condensation? What is vapor-
ization?
4.8 What is the absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit and Celsius scale?
4.9 State the three principal laws that govern the behavior of gases.
4.10 The ultimate analysis of coal is as follows: carbon, 60 percent; H2, 7 per-
cent; N2, 3 percent; O2, 12 percent; S, 5 percent; and ash, 13 percent. How
many pounds of O2 would be required to burn this fuel? How many
pounds of air (theoretically) would be required?
4.11 What is incomplete combustion? What is the heat loss that results from
the incomplete combustion of carbon?
4.15 If the flue gas analysis shows CO2, 15.2 percent, O2, 4.7 percent, and N2,
80.1 percent, what is the percentage of excess air?
4.16 What two methods are used to analyze flue gas and the results used to
calculate the percentage of excess air?
4.17 How many pounds of air would be required to burn a pound of coal with
the analysis given in Problem 4.10 if 50 percent excess air were used?
4.18 Using the analysis in Problem 4.10 and Dulong’s formula, determine the
heating value of the fuel.
4.19 Excess air is important to ensure complete combustion. Why, then, should
it be minimized?
4.22 Define boilers that are balanced draft as compared with pressurized.
Provide the advantages and disadvantages of each.
4.25 Name the three ways that can express coal analyses.
4.26 Why are the fusion characteristics of ash so important to a boiler design?
4.27 What are soft and hard coals? What types of coal fall into these categories?
4.28 Discuss the characteristics to be considered when buying coal. Is coal size
a consideration? Why?
4.30 A fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.92. What is its specific gravity on the
API scale?
4.31 Define the various classifications of fuel oils. Provide examples of those
oils which are used as a fuel oil.
4.34 What fuel oil is used most often for the production of steam? Why?
4.35 Why is natural gas the most desirable gas for steam generation? What
are the disadvantages for its use?
4.36 Name some of the major by-product fuels that are burned in boilers.
Provide the major advantages for the burning of these fuels.
4.39 What is the purpose of an Orsat gas analyzer? Name its advantages and
disadvantages.
5
Boiler Settings,
Combustion Systems,
and Auxiliary Equipment
235
236 Chapter Five
package boiler. Note how this boiler design has all combustion taking
place within the boiler.
Water-tube boilers may be either bottom or top supported. On a
two-drum bottom-supported boiler, the lower drum and tube sections
are held rigid by the structural steel. The steam drum and tube sec-
tions are free to expand upward. For top-supported boilers, the steam
drum and tube sections are held in place by structural steel. The lower
drum and tubes are free to expand downward without interfering
with the setting and combustion equipment such as a stoker. Seals
are required to permit this movement and at the same time prevent
air leakage into the furnace.
At least 50 percent of the combustion of soft coal (i.e., those coals
having high volatile matter) consists of the burning of gases distilled
from the coal, and it takes place in the space above the fuel bed.
Therefore, on a stoker-fired boiler, it is necessary that the furnace
space above the grates be large enough to ensure complete combustion
before the gases reach the heating surface. The combustible gases rising
from the fuel bed are composed of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
Air must be admitted above the fuel bed to burn these gases, and this
is called secondary air. If the flue gas reaches the heating surface
before combustion has been completed, it becomes cooled. The result
is incomplete combustion causing smoke, soot, poor efficiency, and
higher fuel costs. The setting must provide not only the proper furnace
volume but also bridge walls, baffles, arches, etc., for properly directing
the flow of gases with respect to the heating surfaces.
The bridge wall is located behind the grates of a stoker-fired boiler.
It keeps the fuel bed in place on the grates and deflects the gases
against the heating surface.
Baffles direct the flow of gases and ensure maximum contact with the
heating surface.
Arches are in reality roofs over parts of the furnace. They are made
of refractory material or water-cooled walls and are used to direct the
flue gas and to protect parts of the boiler from the direct radiant heat
of the furnace.
In the flush-front-type HRT boiler setting, the front tube sheet sits
back from the front of the boiler casing (Fig. 2.5). The gases leave the
tubes and flow through this space to the breeching and stack. A small
arch is required at the front of the furnace to seal off this space and
prevent the furnace gases from short-circuiting the boiler and going
directly from the furnace to the stack.
Other horizontal-return tubular boilers (Fig. 2.6), known as the
extended-front type, have their front tube sheets set in line with the front
of the boiler setting. The bottom half of the shell extends beyond the
tube sheet and forms part of the breeching or flue. This part of the shell
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 237
that extends past the tube sheet has hot gases on one side but no
water on the other and is called the dry sheet.
In some older designs, the combustion space was enclosed within
the boiler and no setting was required. The combustion space was
surrounded by two sheets of boilerplate, held together by means of stay
bolts, which were bolts threaded through or welded at each end into two
spaced sheets of a firebox for the purpose of supporting flat surfaces
against internal pressure. The space between the plates was filled with
water and was part of the boiler. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 show a vertical
boiler with the firebox enclosed within the boiler. This self-contained
feature made the unit semiportable.
In early designs, boilers were set very close to the grates, and the
combustion space was limited. The result was incomplete combustion
resulting in smoke and poor efficiency. As more was learned about the
combustion of fuels, furnaces were made larger by setting the boilers
higher above the grates. A hand-fired furnace with large combustion
space would burn a wide variety of coals and operate over a wider
capacity range at higher efficiencies than one with a small combus-
tion space.
Large-capacity stokers operate at high burning rates and heat
release. This high-capacity operation requires furnaces having large
volume to ensure complete combustion before the gases reach the con-
vection heating surfaces and to prevent excessive ash deposits from
forming on the lower boiler tubes. Because of the high rates of combus-
tion on current designs, water-cooled furnace walls are required rather
than refractory furnace wall construction, which results in effective
heat transfer and higher-capacity units.
Arches are installed in furnaces to protect parts of the boiler from
the direct radiant heat of the furnace and to deflect the flow of gases
in the desired path. Ignition arches provide surfaces for deflecting the
heat of the furnace to ignite the incoming coal and other solid fuels
such as refuse-derived fuel (RDF). Advanced furnace design has
reduced the requirement for arches. However, some spreader stokers
and chain-grate stokers use ignition arches in connection with over-
fire air jets to assist in igniting the coal and to improve the efficiency
of combustion. These arches usually are constructed of boiler tubes
with refractory covering on the furnace side. The refractory surface
permits the desired high surface temperature required to ignite the
coal, while the water-cooled construction results in low maintenance.
In hand-fired furnaces and those equipped with underfeed or chain-
grate stokers, a considerable portion of the coal is burned on the grates.
However, the proportion depends on the percentage of volatiles in
the coal. When coal is introduced into a high-temperature furnace, the
volatiles are separated to form a gas containing hydrocarbons that
238 Chapter Five
Another method was to spread the coal over the fuel bed evenly or
in such a manner that holes were eliminated. The coal came into
direct contact with the hot fuel bed, and the volatile gases were quickly
distilled off. If smoke was to be prevented, the coal had to be fired in
relatively small quantities. Care had to be exercised to admit suffi-
cient air over the fire to burn these volatile gases. Any tendency of
coal to clinker was likely to be increased by this method of firing
because the ash was exposed to the direct heat of the burning fuel.
Caking coals would form a surface crust and cause unequal distribu-
tion of air. This was especially true if too much coal was added at one
time.
Hand firing has been almost completely replaced by mechanical
devices for introducing solid fuel into the furnace. These include
underfeed and overfeed stokers and pulverized-coal and fluidized bed
combustors.
5.3 Stokers
All stokers are designed to feed solid fuel onto a grate where the fuel
burns as primary air is passed up through it and over-fire air is also
introduced to enhance combustion. The stoker is located in the fur-
nace, and it is also designed to remove the residue of ash that
remains after combustion.
Stoker firing consists of various systems having the following major
features:
Stokers can handle a vast variety of solid fuels. They handle all
forms of coal, wood, bark, bagasse, rice hulls, peach pits, vineyard
trimmings, coffee grounds, and municipal solid wastes (MSW). There
are two general types of stoker systems:
1. Underfeed stokers: Both fuel and air supply are from under the
grate
2. Overfeed stokers: The fuel is supplied from above the grate and air
is supplied from below the grate.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 241
1. Mass feed stoker. Fuel is fed continuously to one end of the stoker
grate, and it travels horizontally (or sometimes inclined for fuels
such as MSW) across the grate as it burns. Ash is removed from
the opposite end. Combustion air is introduced from below the
grate and moves up through the burning bed of fuel. Figures 5.7
and 5.8 are examples of this type of stoker.
2. Spreader stoker. Fuel is spread uniformly over the grate area as it
is thrown into the furnace. The combustion air enters from below
through the grate and the fuel on the grate. Since the fuel has
some fines, these burn in suspension as they fall against the air-
flow moving upward through the grate. The heavier fuel burns on
the grate and the ash is removed from the discharge end of the
grate. Figures 2.26, 5.13, and 5.14 are examples of this system.
The spreader stoker can handle a variety of solid fuels and is the
most commonly used stoker today.
TABLE 5.1 Heat Releases and Steam Capacities for Various Stokers
*Refuse-derived fuel.
observing the fuel bed. The doors below these cylinders are for remov-
ing the ash after it has been dumped into the ashpits.
Figure 5.2 shows a longitudinal sectional view of this stoker with the
various external and internal components. Figure 5.3 is a cross section
of the stoker showing the retort, grates, dumping grates, and ashpits.
The illustration also shows how the grates are moved up and down to
break up the coke formation and to promote air distribution through the
burning fuel bed.
Figure 5.2 Side view of a single-retort underfeed stoker. (Detroit Stoker Company,
subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
Figure 5.3 Cross section of a single-retort underfeed stoker. (Detroit Stoker Company,
subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
244 Chapter Five
The feed ram forces the coal from the hopper into the retort. During
normal operation, the retort contains coal that is continually pushed
out over the air-admitting grates, which are called tuyères. The heat
absorbed from the fuel bed above and the action of the air being
admitted through the grates cause the volatile gases to be distilled off
and burned as they pass up through the fuel bed. The burning fuel
slowly moves from the retort toward the sides of the furnace over the
grates. As the fuel moves down the grates, the flame becomes shorter,
since the volatile gases have been consumed and only coke remains. A
portion of the coke finds its way to the dump grates, and a damper is
provided to admit primary air under the grates to further complete
combustion before the ashes are dumped. The combustion control
automatically regulates the rate of coal supplied. The secondary-ram
driving arm is adjustable so that the movement can be varied to
obtain optimal fuel-bed conditions.
Underfeed stokers are supplied with forced draft for maintaining
sufficient airflow through the fuel bed. The air pressure in the wind
box under the stoker is varied to meet load and fuel-bed conditions.
Means are also provided for varying the air pressure under the different
sections of the stoker to correct for irregular fuel-bed conditions. When
too much coke is being carried to the dumping grates, more air is sup-
plied to the grate section of the stoker. The use of forced draft causes
rapid combustion, and when high-volatile coals are used, it becomes
necessary to introduce over-fire air that produces high turbulence and
burns the resulting volatile gases with less smoke. Figure 5.2 shows
how air from the wind box was admitted above the fuel bed as sec-
ondary air. A further improvement in combustion and reduction in
smoke was obtained by use of steam or high-pressure air jets for over-
fire air, as explained in Sec. 5.11.
All single-retort stokers feature the principles explained above, but
there are numerous variations in details to comply with specific
requirements. The feed ram may be driven directly by a steam or
hydraulic piston. A screw may be used in place of the reciprocating
ram to feed the coal into the retort. Stationary grates may be used in
place of the moving grates shown in Fig. 5.3. When stationary grates
are used, the action of the coal as it is pushed out of the retort is uti-
lized to obtain movement over the grates and for maintenance of the
correct fuel bed. The grates at the sides of the stoker may be stationary,
making it necessary to remove the ashes from the furnace rather
than dumping them into the ashpit.
Single-retort stokers provided a satisfactory means of burning coal
to produce steam, provided certain principles of operation were
observed. It was advisable to have a thick fuel bed on the stoker to
protect the grates and tuyères from the furnace heat and to prevent
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 245
the formation of holes through which air could pass without coming
in contact with the fuel. In addition, large amounts of fuel on the
grates are an advantage when there is an increase in the demand for
steam. First, the steam pressure will drop, and the controller, sensing
the drop, will increase the airflow to the stoker. The increase in air
will cause the coal on the stoker to burn more rapidly, generating the
added heat required. The converse is true when there is a decrease in
the steam demand and the pressure increases. Low-fusion-ash coal is
to be avoided because of its tendency to form clinkers. The tuyères
depend on a covering of ash to protect them from the furnace heat, and
low-ash coal may not provide adequate protection, resulting in outages
and excessive maintenance.
Multiple-retort stokers have essentially the same operating principle as
that of single- and twin-retort stokers. They are used under large boilers
to obtain high rates of combustion. A sufficient number of retort and
tuyère sections are arranged side by side to make the required stoker
width (Fig. 5.4). Each retort is supplied with coal by means of a ram (Fig.
5.5). These stokers are inclined from the rams toward the ash-discharge
end. They are also equipped with secondary rams, which, together with
the effect of gravity produced by the inclination of the stoker, cause the
fuel to move toward the rear to the ash discharge. The rate of fuel move-
ment and hence the shape of the fuel bed can be regulated by adjusting
the length of the stroke of the secondary rams. Some stokers produce
agitation of the fuel bed by imparting movement to the entire tuyère
Figure 5.5 Cross section of a multiple-retort stoker with dumping grates. (Detroit
Stoker Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
sections. After the fuel leaves the retorts and tuyères, it passes over a
portion of the stoker known as the extension grates or overfeed section
(see Fig. 5.4). By this time the volatile gases have been consumed, and
only a part of the carbon remains to be burned.
These large stokers have mechanical devices for discharging the ash
from the furnace. Dumping grates receive the ash as it comes from the
extension grates. When a sufficient amount has collected, the grates
are lowered and the ash is dumped into the ashpit. These dumping
grates, even when operated carefully, frequently permit large quantities
of unburned carbon to be discharged with the ash. Furnace conditions
are disturbed during the dumping period, and efficiency is lowered.
Power-operated dumps have been used to shorten the dumping period
(Fig. 5.5). The combustible in the ash discharged from an underfeed
stoker with dumping grates will vary from 20 to 40 percent. It is because
of this high unburned carbon loss, and thus low boiler efficiency and
higher fuel costs, that underfeed stokers have been replaced by
spreader stokers and vibrating-grate stokers.
Rotary ash discharge was used to regulate the rate of ash discharged
from multiple-retort underfeed stokers. Stokers using this type of ash
discharge were referred to as clinker grinders. They consisted of two
rollers with protruding lugs installed in place of the dumping grates.
These rollers were operated at a variable speed to discharge the ash
continuously and thereby maintain a constant level in the stoker ashpit.
The ash was removed without either loss of capacity or upsets in boiler
operating conditions. The combustible in the ash from these clinker
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 247
Place oily waste, shavings, and wood on the bed of coal. Then start the
induced-draft fan to ventilate the setting and furnace, consequently
eliminating the possibility of an explosion that might result from the
presence of combustible gases. At this stage the wind-box door may be
opened and the fire lighted. The drafts are then regulated to keep the
fire burning.
When the coal is burning freely, the wind-box door is closed, the
forced-draft fan is started, and the air supply is regulated to maintain
the desired rate of combustion. The rate at which the unit can be
brought “on line” depends on the design of the boiler. During this
period, enough coal must be fed into the stoker to replace that which
is being burned and to establish the fuel bed.
Underfeed stokers operate with furnace pressures at or only slightly
below atmosphere; the condition is referred to as a balanced draft. This
procedure prevents excessive air leakage into the setting and does not
cause excessive heat penetration into the furnace setting. The balanced
draft is maintained by utilizing the wind-box pressure, as created by
the forced-draft fan, to produce a flow of air through the fuel bed.
Similarly, the induced-draft fan is used to remove the gases from the
furnace by overcoming the resistance of the boiler, economizer, etc.
Actually, the draft in the furnace should be maintained between 0.05
and 0.10 in of water during both operating and banked periods, that is,
periods that maintain ignition only. The wind-box pressure varies from
1 to 7 in of water depending on the stoker design, fuel, and capacity.
Control equipment will maintain the desired draft conditions auto-
matically. As a safety precaution, the furnace draft should be
increased when operating sootblowers or dumping ashes.
The following analysis on an “as fired” basis will serve as a guide to
the selection of coal for use on underfeed stokers: moisture 0 to 10
percent, volatile matter 30 to 40 percent, ash 5 to 10 percent, heating
value 12,500 Btu/lb minimum, ash softening temperature 2500°F
minimum, top size 1 in by 1⁄4 in with not more than 20 percent less than
1
⁄4 in. The free-swelling index of coal for use on stationary-grate stokers
should be limited to 5, maximum. For use on moving-grate and multiple-
retort stokers, the free-swelling index may be 7, maximum. When the
analysis of the available coal is known, these stokers can be designed
and selected to burn a wider range of coal with some increase in initial
cost and decrease in efficiency.
Coarse coal tends to segregate in the coal-conveying equipment,
causing uneven feeding and burning. Wet coal may clog in the chutes
and restrict feeding to the stoker. Stokers are supplied with shear pins
that prevent serious damage to the mechanism as a result of foreign
material in the coal, but the breaking of a shear pin and the removal
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 249
Figure 5.6 Contour of fuel bed on a multiple-retort underfeed stoker. (Detroit Stoker
Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
250 Chapter Five
Mass-feed stoker. Two types of mass-feed stokers are used for coal
firing:
designs, over-fire air jets are also located at the rear wall to provide a
counterflow of gases in the furnace, promoting increased turbulence
and further improving the combustion efficiency.
The grates are entirely enclosed by a suitable casing to prevent
air infiltration at undesirable points and to promote combustion. Air
leakage along the sides of the moving grates is reduced by the use of
adjustable ledge plates. Some difficulty is encountered with excessive
air leakage at the point where the ash is discharged into the ashpit.
This leakage is reduced or the effect minimized by using a damper to
seal off the ashpit, by using close clearance between the stoker and
the setting, and by a rear arch that forces the air to pass over the fuel
bed, mix with the combustible gases, and be utilized in the combus-
tion process.
When the clearance between the rear of the furnace and the stoker
is reduced to control air leakage, the hot ash comes into contact with
the wall. Prior to the advent of water-cooled furnaces, ash adhered to
the refractory-lined furnace and formed clinkers. This condition is
prevented by the use of a water-cooled furnace.
Chain- and traveling-grate stokers were operated originally with
natural draft. However, in order to increase the capacity, they were
later designed to utilize forced draft. In order to accomplish this, the
entire stoker was enclosed. Forced-draft combustion air entered from
the sides of the stoker between the upper and lower sections. It then
flowed through the upper grate section and fuel bed. The stoker was
divided into zones from front to back. Hand or power operated
dampers were provided to regulate the flow of air to the zones to com-
pensate for irregularity in the fuel bed depth.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 253
grate protection and permits the use of preheated air for combustion,
which improves the combustion efficiency. The water cooling of the
grates makes this stoker more adaptable when an alternative fuel
such as natural gas or fuel oil is used because special grate protection
is not required other than the normal bed of ash left from coal firing.
Chain- and traveling-grate stokers can burn a wide variety of solid
fuels, including peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite, and coke breeze,
which is a fine coke generally less than 3⁄4 in in size. These stokers
often use furnace arches, which are not shown in Fig. 5.7. These front
and rear arches improve combustion by reradiating heat to the fuel
bed. Vibrating-grate stokers are suitable for medium- and high-
volatile bituminous coals and for low-volatile bituminous coals and
lignites at reduced burning rates. Coking coal requires agitation and
is therefore not suited for use on these stokers.
The most satisfactory coal for use on chain- and traveling-grate
stokers has a minimum ash-softening temperature of 2100°F, mois-
ture of 0 to 20 percent, an ash content of 6 to 20 percent, a free-
swelling index of 5 maximum, and a size range of 1 in by 0 with not
more than 60 percent less than 1⁄4 in.
Water-cooled vibrating-grate stokers operate best with coals having
a moisture content of 0 to 10 percent, ash content of 5 to 10 percent,
an ash-softening temperature less than 2300°F, and a coal size range
of 1 or 3⁄4 in by 0 with not more than 40 percent less than 1⁄4 in.
The rate of combustion for chain- and traveling-grate stokers is
425,000 to 500,000 Btu per square foot of grate area per hour
(Btu/ft2/h) depending on the ash and moisture content of the coal. By
comparison, a water-cooled vibrating-grate stoker has a heat release
of approximately 400,000 Btu/ft2/h.
To start a fire on a chain-grate stoker, the feed should be set and
the stoker started. The grates should be covered with 3 to 4 in of coal
for two-thirds of the stoker’s length and a wood fire started on top of
the coal. If a natural gas or fuel oil burner is part of the boiler design,
this would be used. The stoker should not be restarted until the coal
has been thoroughly ignited and the ignition arch is hot. Then it should
be operated at its lowest speed until the furnace becomes heated.
There are two ways of regulating the rate of coal supplied by a
chain-grate stoker: by controlling the depth of coal on the grates and
by adjusting the rate of travel of the grates. The depth of coal on the
grates is maintained between 4 and 6 in by means of an adjustable
gate (Fig. 5.7). The average operating speed of the chain or traveling
grate is 3 to 5 in/min. Variations in capacity are obtained by changing
either or both of these fuel-feed adjustments.
Dampers are provided in stokers to permit the operator to control the
air supply to the various zones. These air-supply adjustments enable
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 255
the operator to control the rate of burning in the various zones and
thereby reduce to a minimum the unburned carbon carry-over into the
ashpit. If satisfactory operation cannot be accomplished by adjusting
these dampers, the next step is to adjust the fuel-bed depth; finally, one
can experiment by tempering the coal, which is the addition of water to
certain coals that have insufficient moisture content for proper combus-
tion on stokers. Excessive unburned carbon in the ash results not only
in a fuel loss but also in burned stoker-grate links. Moreover, the
residue continues to burn in the ashpit, and with low-fusion-ash coal,
this causes a clinkering mass of ash that is difficult to remove.
Improvements in operation can be obtained by tempering (adding
water) when the coal supply is dry, contains a high percentage of fine
particles, or has a tendency to coke. Once coke has formed on the grates,
the flow of air is restricted, making it very difficult to complete combus-
tion and prevent an excessive amount of the coke from being carried
over the end of the grate into the ashpit. Best results are obtained when
the moisture content of the coal is 8 to 10 percent. The water should be
added 10 to 24 h before the coal is burned. The addition of water at the
stoker hopper results in excessive amounts of surface moisture.
The approximate amount of fuel consumed by a chain- or traveling-
grate stoker can be calculated when the grate speed and thickness of
coal on the grate are known. The grate speed can be determined by
timing with a watch or by a revolution counter on the driving mecha-
nism. When the revolution counter is used, a factor must be used to
convert the reading into grate speed. This factor may be determined by
comparing the revolutions of the driving mechanism with the grate
speed. This may be done when the unit is out of service and at room
temperature. In converting from volume to weight, assume bituminous
coal as 48 lb/ft3, anthracite as 60 lb/ft3, and coke breeze as 40 lb/ft3.
relatively cool, raise the gate and run all the coal from the hopper
into the furnace. In order to guard against possible overheating, do
not leave the coal in contact with the gate. Admit a small amount
of air under the stoker at the end of the supply of coal. Open the
stack damper sufficiently to maintain a slight draft in the furnace
or start the induced-draft (ID) fan. As the coal burns and the fire
moves from the rear to the front of the furnace, the point of admis-
sion of air also must be varied by adjusting the zone dampers.
Before the fire reaches the gate, proceed to fill the hopper and
introduce another charge of coal. In starting from bank, it is fre-
quently necessary to use a bar to break up the coal that has caked
near the gate. The coal feed should not be started until the air has
blown through the grates for a period of 3 to 5 min in order to
increase the furnace temperature. Operating procedures vary as
experience is gained. Operators should consult with equipment
designers for their recommended procedures and these should be
part of the plant’s operating and maintenance (O&M) manual.
The chain should be tight enough to keep it from dipping down
appreciably when it comes over the front sprocket. The chains are
adjusted by a take-up screw that moves the sprocket. The plates
between the sidewalls and the grates must be adjusted to prevent
excessive air leakage. The clearance between the plate and grate is
adjusted to 1⁄8-in. Excessive burning of the link ends is an indica-
tion that combustible material is passing over the ash end of the
stoker. Broken or burned links must be replaced at the earliest
opportunity.
boilers that are designed for steam capacities in the range of 75,000
to 700,000 lb/h. The stoker responds rapidly to changes in steam
demand, has a good turndown capability (i.e., can operate efficient-
ly at part loads), and can use a wide variety of fuels. It is generally
not used for low-volatile fuels such as anthracite.
Although coal size is specified when ordered, the actual size when
received does vary from coarse to fine-sized particles. In order to have
efficient operation and proper combustion, the mixture of this coarse
and fine coal should be distributed across the stoker hopper inlet. If
done properly, a uniform fuel bed, low unburned combustibles, higher
boiler capacity, and lower maintenance will result. One means of
achieving this even distribution is with the conical distributor, as
shown in Fig. 5.9. Such a distributor has proven effective on new stoker-
fired boiler designs and in replacing the original equipment.
The conventional mechanical spreader stoker feeding and spread-
ing device is arranged to supply coal to the furnace in quantities
required to meet the demand. The feeder delivers coal to the revolv-
ing rotor with protruding blades. These revolving blades throw the
coal into the furnace. The spreader system must be designed to dis-
tribute the coal evenly over the entire grate area. This distribution is
accomplished by the shape of the blades that throw the coal.
Variations in performance of the spreader, due to changes in coal
size, moisture content, etc., are corrected by means of an external
adjustment of the mechanism.
The suspension burning causes a portion of the unburned carbon
particles to be carried out of the furnace by the flue gas. Some of these
particles collect in the hoppers beneath the convection passes of the
boiler. However, a portion is retained in the exit boiler flue gas and
must be captured by a mechanical dust collector. Since these particles
contain carbon, the efficiency of steam generation can be improved by
returning the particles to the furnace to complete the burning.
Multiple injection ports are located across the width of the boiler and
provide uniform mixing of the unburned carbon into the furnace for
complete burnout. However, it is undesirable to reinject significant
amounts of ash because this causes erosion within the boiler. This is
minimized because a mechanical dust collector is effective in collecting
the larger particles that contain the majority of the unburned carbon
in the carry-over. Carbon reinjection improves coal-fired boiler efficiency
by about 2 to 4 percent. In order to meet particulate emission require-
ments, the system design also requires an electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) or a baghouse prior to the release of flue gas to the stack.
Spreader stokers can handle a wide range of fuels and can be used
with different boiler sizes. A wide variety of coal can be burned on a
spreader stoker, but the variation must be considered when the unit
is specified. It is inadvisable and uneconomical to provide a stoker
that will burn almost any coal in a location where a specific coal is
available. In addition to coal, spreader stokers are used to burn bark,
wood chips, and many other kinds of by-product fuels.
When burning coal, spreader stokers are used with high- and low-
pressure boilers from the smallest size to those having a steam-gener-
ating capacity of 400,000 lb of steam per hour. At lower capacities, the
installation cost of spreader stokers is less than that for pulverized
coal. However, at between 300,000 and 400,000 lb of steam per hour,
the cost tends to equalize, and at higher capacities pulverized-coal
plants are less costly. Because of the relatively high percentage of fuel
burned in suspension, spreader-stoker-fired boilers will respond
quickly to changes in firing rate. This feature qualifies them for use
where there is a fluctuating load. Because these stokers discharge fly
ash with the flue gases, they were at one time subjected to severe crit-
icism as contributors to air pollution, but with efficient dust-collecting
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 259
and other air pollution control equipment they meet the most strin-
gent air-pollution requirements.
In the smaller sizes, spreader-stoker installations are comparatively
costly because of the necessity for ashpits, fly-ash reinjection, and fly-
ash-collection equipment required for efficient and satisfactory opera-
tion. Difficulty is also encountered in designing a unit that will operate
satisfactorily when the lowest steam requirement is less than one-fifth
the designed capacity (i.e., a unit having a turn-down ratio less than
5). The turn-down ratio is defined as the design capacity divided by
the minimum satisfactory operating output.
The spreader-stoker feeder functions to vary the supply of coal to
the furnace and to provide even distribution on the grates. The mech-
anisms that propel the coal into the furnace include steam and air
injection as well as mechanical rotors. In the feeder and distribution
system shown in Fig. 5.10, there is a reciprocating feed plate in the
bottom of the hopper. The length of stroke of this plate determines the
rate at which coal is fed into the furnace. The automatic combustion
regulator varies the length of the feed-plate stroke. The coal leaving the
hopper drops from the end of the spilling plate into the path of the rotor
blades, which distribute the coal on the grates. The distribution is reg-
ulated by adjustment of the spilling plate and by the speed of the rotor.
The in-and-out adjustment of the spilling plate changes the point at
which the coal comes in contact with the rotor blades. Moving the
spilling plate back from the furnace allows the coal to fall on the rotor
blades sooner. The blades impart more energy to the coal, and coal is
thrown farther into the furnace. In a like manner, increasing the
speed of the rotor imparts more force to the coal, throwing it farther
into the furnace.
The ability of spreader stokers to utilize coal having a high moisture
content is limited by the performance of the feeder and distribution
mechanism. A maximum moisture content of 25 percent is considered a
limit for a typical coal. Figure 5.11 is a drum-type feeder that uses a
wiper assembly to prevent the recycling of wet coal. When there is a
decided change in either the size or the moisture content of the coal,
the feeder mechanism must be adjusted to maintain a uniform fuel bed
on the grates. Air enters the furnace both above and below the feeders
to keep the feeder cool and provide air for combustion. In addition to
being air cooled, the rotor bearings are water cooled.
Spreader-stoker feeders are divided into two classes: overthrow,
when the coal comes into contact with the upper part of the rotor
blade assembly (see Figs. 5.10 and 5.11), and underthrow, when it
comes into contact with the lower part.
The simplest types of grates are stationary and are similar to those
used for hand firing. The feeder automatically deposits the coal on the
grates, and air for combustion enters the furnace through the holes in
the grates. At least two feeders are used, and before the ash deposits
become deep enough to seriously restrict the airflow, one of the feed-
ers is taken out of service. The fuel on the grate is allowed to “burn
down,” and the ash is raked through the furnace door. The feeder is
then started, and after combustion has been reestablished and stabi-
lized, the remaining grate sections are cleaned in a similar manner.
Dumping grates (Fig. 5.12) provide a means for tipping each grate
section and thereby dumping the ash into a pit. The tipping of the
grates can be accomplished either by hand operation or by means of
steam- or air-powered cylinders. The procedure of taking one feeder sec-
tion out of service long enough to remove the ash is the same as when
stationary grates are used, but the time required for the operation and
the amount of labor involved are reduced. The intermittent discharge of
ash from the furnace has the following disadvantages: Considerable
labor is needed; skill is required to prevent a drop in steam pressure;
efficiency is reduced because of the high excess air introduced during
the cleaning period; and there is a tendency to discharge considerable
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 261
combustible with the ash, produce smoke, and increase the discharge of
fly ash while the grates are being cleaned. The disadvantages of dumping
grates have led to their general disuse. Traveling- and vibrating-grate
stokers are now the most common designs used today.
A traveling-grate spreader stoker installed in a water-cooled furnace
is shown in Fig. 5.13. The coal falls on the grate, and combustion is
completed as it moves slowly through the furnace. The ash remains and
falls into the pit when the grates pass over the sprocket. The stoker
moves from the rear of the unit to the front, and therefore, the ashpit
is located at the front of the stoker (beneath the feeder). The ashpit is
located in the basement to provide adequate storage for the ash pro-
duced on an 8-hour shift or for continuous ash removal with an ash-
handling system. The rate of grate movement is varied to produce the
required depth of ash at the discharge end.
The ash-removal method used in vibrating-grate stokers is similar
to that used in removing ash from spreader stokers. The grates are
Figure 5.11 Vari-Flex coal feeder. Spreader-stoker drum-type coal feeder and rotary
distribution mechanism (Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company)
262 Chapter Five
Figure 5.12 Four-unit spreader stoker with power-operated dumping grates. (Detroit
Stoker Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
move toward the ashpit. The rate of ash discharge is varied by chang-
ing the amount of travel of the grate bars.
The ash discharged from the furnace by these methods of continuous
bottom-ash removal has an unburned combustible content of 4 to 8 per-
cent. In contrast, the spreader stoker, with its carbon reinjection sys-
tem, is capable of reducing the amount of combustible lost and there-
fore of improving combustion efficiency by 2 to 4 percent.
With a spreader stoker, the fuel burned in suspension comes from two
sources, the fines in the fuel fed to the furnace and the carbon returned
in the ash reinjection system from the boiler, economizer, air heater, and
dust-collector hoppers. The amount of fuel burned in suspension depends
on the percentage of volatiles, moisture, and fines in the fuel and the
capacity at which the boiler is operated. Much of the ash produced by
this suspension burning is carried by the combustion gases into the
boiler convection passes. This ash contains from 40 to 60 percent
combustibles and therefore represents an appreciable heat loss. Ash is
collected in the boiler, economizer, air heater, mechanical dust collector,
and baghouse or precipitator hoppers. Ash with the highest combustible
content is deposited in the boiler hoppers and that with the lowest in the
baghouse or precipitator hoppers. The fine particles removed by the bag-
house or precipitator must be discarded to the ash-removal system. The
baghouse or precipitator is required to reduce the particulate emission
from the stack gases sufficiently to meet the clean-air standards.
As the permissible particulate emission from the boiler stack gases
was reduced by law, attempts were made to meet these more stringent
requirements by reducing the amount of ash recycled to the furnace.
More of the ash collected in the various hoppers was rejected to the
ash-disposal system. This procedure sacrificed efficiency in an attempt
to meet the emission standards of the operating permit.
Another attempt to reduce recycling and to lower stack emissions
was by gravity return of some of the ash, which contains the majority
of carbon, to the traveling grate. The ash from the various collection
sources is collected in a hopper extending across the rear of the fur-
nace and is permitted to flow by gravity, in a number of streams, onto
the traveling grate.
Now baghouses or precipitators are used in a final cleanup of stack
flue gases. Ash from the various hoppers may be either discarded to the
ash-disposal system or returned to the furnace for reburning and partial
recovery of the heat content in combustible particles. This increases the
boiler efficiency. The advantages and disadvantages of reburning must
be considered in order to determine the ratio of ash to be returned to the
furnace and that to be discarded to the ash-conveying system.
Reinjection in theory increases boiler efficiency, but extensive recir-
culation of the ash can result in operating problems. Large quantities
264 Chapter Five
uniform depth of bed on the grates, the coal should have a top size of
11⁄4 by 3⁄4 in with not more than 40 percent able to pass through a 1⁄4-in
mesh screen. The more fines, the more suspension burning and the
higher the percentage of ash and combustible carried from the furnace
by the gases. For best operation, coal on an “as fired” basis should
contain at least 18 percent volatile, 5 to 10 percent ash (up to 15 per-
cent on a traveling grate), a heating value of 12,000 Btu/lb minimum,
and an ash-softening temperature of 2000°F on traveling grates but
somewhat higher on other bottom ash-disposal systems. By special
design, a wider range of coal can be burned on these stokers.
Because of the effect of size on distribution in the furnace, it is
essential that segregation of the coarse and fine particles of coal be
prevented. Coal conveyors and bunkers serving spreader-stoker-fired
boilers must be arranged to reduce segregation to a minimum. Coal
size segregation can be a problem on any stoker, but the spreader
stoker is more tolerant because the feeder rate can be adjusted and
many of the fines burn in suspension. The coal distributor shown in
Fig. 5.9 also minimizes coal size segregation.
The spreader stoker will burn a wide range of fuels varying from lignite
to bituminous coal. Fuels having volatile matter of less than 18 percent
are generally not suitable. Clinkering difficulties are reduced, even with
coals that have clinkering tendencies, by the nature of the spreading
action. The fuel is supplied to the top of the fuel bed, and the ashes nat-
urally work their way to the bottom, where they are chilled below the
fusion temperature by contact with the incoming air. The coking tendency
of a coal is reduced before it reaches the grates by the release of volatile
gases that burn in suspension. The utilization of high-ash coal lowers
the efficiency and at the same time increases the work of the operator
because there is a greater volume of ash to be handled. The cleaning
periods must be more frequent when the ash content of the coal being
burned is high. In general, the spreader stoker will burn good coal with
an efficiency comparable with that of other stokers and in addition will
utilize poor coal successfully but at reduced efficiency.
The spreader-stoker principle can be applied successfully to burn
waste-type materials. Both coal and waste may be burned in the same
furnace. However, experience has shown that some waste materials,
such as RDF from municipal solid waste (MSW), do not burn well in
combination with coal. A system burning both fuels performs the
twofold purpose of disposing of waste material and at the same time
reducing the consumption of costly fossil fuel. In addition, the waste fuel
frequently has a lower sulfur content, and its use reduces the sulfur
dioxide content of the flue gases.
Figure 5.14 shows refuse (or waste) feeders installed in a furnace
above the conventional coal feeders. This arrangement provides for the
266 Chapter Five
Figure 5.14 Conventional coal-burning spreader stoker with air-swept refuse distrib-
ution spouts. (Detroit Stoker Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
Chicken litter
Sunflower hulls from grain production
Figure 5.15 shows air-swept distributor spouts that are used to dis-
tribute refuse onto the stoker-grate surface. The fuel distribution sys-
tem introduces the fuel to the furnace by a blanket of high-pressure
Figure 5.15Air-swept distributor spouts for biomass and refuse fuels. (Detroit Stoker
Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
268 Chapter Five
air sweeping the floor of the spout and spreading the fuel evenly on
the grates both side to side and front to rear. The number and size of
distributors required to ensure uniform fuel distribution are based on
the grate width and length and on the capacity of the boiler.
When the refuse fuel is metered properly and fed continuously to
the stoker distributing spouts, it is uniformly distributed into the fur-
nace by a source of varying air flow through the spouts. The air sup-
ply has a rotating damper that cycles the air pressure and volume of air
feeding the fuel to the furnace to ensure proper fuel distribution on
the grate.
lit and the air and draft regulated to produce a bright, smokeless
flame. Then the stoker (if of the moving-grate type) is started, and the
coal is fed slowly to sustain ignition. The unit is brought on-line slowly
to avoid rapid temperature changes. The over-fire air fan is started to
avoid smoke and to keep the ash-reinjection system from overheating.
If smoke becomes excessive during this startup period, the coal feed
should be reduced and the over-fire air adjusted. Specific startup
instructions for the unit should be followed to speed up the stoker,
increase the fuel feed, and adjust the airflow and draft.
Even when spreader stokers are provided with controls by which
both the fuel feed and the air supply are automatically regulated to
meet the steam demand, there are numerous details to which the
operator must attend to obtain good operation. The spreader mecha-
nism must be adjusted to distribute the coal evenly over the grates.
Irregularities in the fuel bed caused by segregation of coal, wet coal,
clinker formation, etc., must be corrected. The fuel bed should be
maintained at sufficient thickness to sustain combustion for 2 to 3
minutes with the fuel feed shut off. The fuel-bed thickness may be
changed by adjusting the ratio of fuel to air. An increase in the air
pressure under the grates with the same fuel feed will decrease the
thickness of the fuel bed; a decrease in air pressure will allow the fuel-
bed thickness to increase. The application of over-fire air must be
regulated to obtain the lowest amount of excess air (highest carbon
dioxide) without permitting temperatures detrimental to the furnace
lining, clinkers in the fuel bed, and excessive smoke. The over-fire air
jets should be regulated to supply additional air for burning the fuel
in suspension as well as to increase turbulence and consequently to
improve combustion. The furnace draft must be maintained at between
0.05 and 0.10 in of water to prevent overheating of the furnace lining,
the coal-feeding mechanism, and the furnace doors. The bearing-cool-
ing water flow must be adjusted to maintain an outlet temperature
not exceeding 150°F or the manufacturer’s recommended temperature.
Ash is removed from the spreader stokers equipped with a stationary
grate by using a hand hoe. The ash should be removed when it is
approximately 3 in deep on the grates. The cleaning should be per-
formed as quickly as possible to minimize disturbance to boiler opera-
tion. These stationary-grate stokers should have at least two sections
with separate feeders and coal distributors and divided wind boxes so
that each section can be cleaned separately. This gives the operator
an opportunity to burn up the carbon before removing the ash and
makes it possible to maintain the steam pressure during cleaning.
The cleaning operation is performed by first stopping the coal feed to
the unit to be cleaned. When the fuel on the grates has been burned
down, close the hand-operated damper to this unit. If the fuel bed is
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 271
the grates. The air supply to the grates is reduced, and the feeder and
speed of the rotor are adjusted to deposit a layer of coal on the front
end of the grates. The coal feed and forced-draft fan are stopped, but
the rotor continues to operate to prevent its overheating. A slight fur-
nace draft (about 0.1 in of water) is maintained during the banking
period by manipulating the dampers. The feeder is operated at intervals
to restore the fuel on the grates, and the draft is regulated to control
the rate of combustion in order to prevent the fire from going out and
the steam pressure from decreasing below the level necessary for the
anticipated standby requirements. The operators of small spreader
stokers sometimes prefer to resort to hand firing when banking.
When ready to return the boiler to service, the remaining fuel is dis-
tributed over the grates, and then the fans are started to ignite the
coal quickly as it is fed into the furnace. Controls are provided to
apply coal automatically to the grates in sufficient quantities to keep
the fire from going out and to maintain the steam pressure required
for quickly returning the boiler to service.
To bank a traveling-grate spreader stoker, the grate is stopped, and
the coal feed is decreased slowly until the steam output is nearly zero
and the fuel bed appears nearly black. Both the forced- and induced-
draft-fan dampers should be closed and the furnace draft reduced to
nearly zero. The fuel bed should be allowed to darken and get “spotty”
with live coals. Then coal is fed to the front section of the grates. This
coal will smother the live coals. Waiting until the fuel bed has cooled
sufficiently before introducing the coal reduces the tendency to smoke
and increases the time interval between feedings. The forced-draft
fan should be stopped, and a slight draft in the furnace should be
maintained either by operating the induced-draft fan or by manipu-
lating the damper.
The coal-feeder bearing-cooling water flow should be checked several
times during each shift. The bearings should be lubricated daily with
a solid lubricant that will not thin when heated to 500°F. Dampers
and accessory control and ash dumping equipment should be checked
whenever the stoker is out of service. The maintenance of grates, furnace
linings, and water-cooled surfaces requires an outage of the boiler,
but some repairs can be made to the feeding-and-spreader mechanism
when the unit is in operation.
Careful attention to the following details reduces maintenance:
Prevent excessive furnace temperature by avoiding overloading the
unit and by supplying an adequate amount of air to the furnace;
maintain a draft in the furnace at all times; and follow established
procedures when dumping ashes, blowing down, blowing soot, bank-
ing fires, placing the unit in service, and taking it out of service. The
ash-return system must be checked for possible stoppage resulting
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 273
from slagging over in the furnace or from large pieces of slag becoming
lodged in the ash-inlet nozzles. In every situation, the recommended
operating instructions of the equipment supplier should be followed
carefully.
Stoker firing of coal is often thought of as obsolete technology, con-
sidering the emission standards that must be met. Many power
plants have converted to natural gas firing using a package boiler or
a gas turbine with a cogeneration cycle. Yet, because of the volatility
of natural gas prices, as well as the availability of this energy source,
many of these facilities are reconverting to coal, or at least considering
a change, and maintaining their stoker firing capabilities. Therefore,
although stoker-fired power plants have been reduced in number, this
technology remains a viable option in the United States and world-
wide for the burning of coal and other solid fuels.
1. A raw coal feeder that regulates the coal flow from the coal bunker
to the pulverizer
2. A heat source that preheats the primary air for coal drying, either
the boiler air heater or a steam-coil air heater
3. A primary air fan that typically is located ahead of the pulverizer
(pressurized mill) or after the pulverizer (suction mill)
4. A pulverizer
5. Piping that directs the coal and primary air from the pulverizer to
the burners
6. Burners that mix the coal and combustion air, both primary and
secondary
7. Controls
1. Optimal fineness for design coals over the operating load range of
the pulverizer
2. Rapid response to load changes
3. Safe operation over load range
4. Reliable operation
5. Low maintenance, particularly in grinding elements
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 277
278
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 279
Figure 5.19 Roll-and-race-type pulverizer. (a) Cross section showing path of coal and
air. (b) Type MPS pulverizer. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
280 Chapter Five
PULVERIZED
FUEL
TO BURNERS
DRIVE MOTOR
SHAFT &
BEARING
ASSEMBLY
ROTOR
STATIC VANE
RING
ROLLER TIRE RAW COAL
FEED INLET
INDIVIDUAL
SPRING LOADING
FOR EACH ROLLER REJECT CONE
& SLUICE FLAPS
PRIMARY
GRINDING AIR PORT
ROLLER RING
ASSEMBLY
(3 IN EACH MILL)
PRIMARY
GRINDING RING AIR
(EASILY REPLACEABLE INLET
SEGMENTS)
SCRAPER
GRINDING TABLE BLADES
TRAMP IRON PRIMARY AIR
CHUTE PLENUM
CHAMBER
SPEED REDUCER
DRIVE
Figure 5.20 MBF table/roller-type coal pulverizer. (Foster Wheeler North America.)
rotate at about one-half the speed of the table. The pulverized coal is
carried by primary air up through the adjustable classifier and out the
angular opening at the top of the mill and into the burner lines.
Figure 5.21 shows the classifier for this pulverizer and the perfor-
mance features for its design. The pulverized coal–air mixture enters
the classifier and flows through the annulus formed between the
outer periphery of the classifier static vane and the outer housing.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 281
LARGE CLASSIFIER
ENTRANCE
- Low velocity for
efficient fine particle
separation, low VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE
pressure drop - Control of pulverized
& low power. coal fineness across entire
mill load range.
Figure 5.21 Performance features of classifier for MBF pulverizer. (Foster Wheeler
North America.)
The coal-air mixture passes through the ring of fixed vanes and is
directed into the rotor. The coal particles are segregated by size as the
rotor imparts an outward force proportional to speed, where the high-
er the rpm, the finer the outgoing pulverized coal fineness level.
Heavier and larger coal particles, which cannot accelerate through
the rotor, are returned to the mill for further size reduction.
The pulverized coal of proper fineness passes through the rotor and
exits the mill through a discharge divider and is split into each coal
282 Chapter Five
Electric
Charge
Transfer
COAL CONDUIT
PRIMARY AIR INLET DUCT
DISTRIBUTOR
MILL MOTOR
RING/BULL GEAR
PINION GEAR
For new boilers, ball mills have in most cases been replaced by ver-
tical air-swept pulverizers. Ball mills require more building volume
and consume more power. They are also more difficult to control, and
erosion is more prominent. However, they are highly efficient in
grinding very abrasive and low-moisture coals, and because they have
a long coal residence time, they are effective for fine grinding.
Figure 5.26 Cross section of ATRITA impact-type pulverizer. (Riley Power, Inc., a
Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Raw coal and primary air enter the crusher-dryer section (see Fig.
5.26) where hammers propel the coal against a grid. The grid openings
reduce the coal size to 1⁄4 in or less. Tramp iron and other noncrushable
foreign materials are rejected to an area for easy removal. When the coal
passes through the grid section of the crusher-dryer, it enters the pul-
verizing section, where rapid attrition takes place. Attrition, the impact
of coal on coal, as well as on moving and stationary parts, reduces
coal particles to the proper size for combustion.
As shown in Fig. 5.26, fan wheels with abrasion-resistant alloy
blades are mounted on the pulverizer shaft. Coal is transported by
this integral fan from the pulverizing section directly to the burners.
This pulverizer design does not require a separate primary air fan
because of this integral fan. The coal feed from the coal bunker and the
primary airflow are regulated by adjusting the feeder speed and the pri-
mary air discharge damper. (Refer to Fig. 5.27.) These types of pulver-
izers are designed for capacities ranging from about 4 to 27 tons/h.
Figure 5.27 Typical coal-air feeding system and controls for ATRITA impact-type
pulverizer. (Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
main feeder and rotates eight times as fast as the main feeder
shaft. This wiper blade completely removes the coal from each pocket,
thus helping to maintain uniform feed even when the coal is so wet
that it has a tendency to stick in the feeder. From the feeder the
coal drops onto the magnetic separator. The coal drops vertically
288 Chapter Five
1. Feed just enough fuel to meet the demand for heat input.
2. Provide just enough air to burn the fuel.
in incomplete combustion, and the unburned fuel is lost with the ash.
Insufficient air also creates a dangerous condition in that an explo-
sive potential exists because of the fuel-rich mixture.
Coal is not a uniform material; it varies in heating value, ash and
moisture content, and density even when it comes from the same
mine. It is because of these variations that a gravimetric feeder is
used for coal feed as compared with a volumetric feeder.
When handling a heterogeneous material such as coal that consists
of coarse and fine particles, the density changes significantly with
any change in surface moisture. When firing coal, there is no effective
way to measure heating value (or Btu) flow, so this value must be
determined from either volume or weight flow. The volume measure-
ment will be in error by the variation in both density and heating
value. However, a weight flow signal will be in error only by the vari-
ation in the heating value.
The combustion-control system handles these variations in heating
value and other measurement inaccuracies by feedback control using
signals from the boiler such as steam pressure, air-fuel ratio, etc. The
control system allows sufficient excess air to prevent a dangerous
fuel-rich mixture. The gravimetric feeder provides a more accurate
fuel input measurement to the combustion-control system, which
results in higher boiler efficiencies and potentially lower mainte-
nance. A schematic of a gravimetric feeder system is shown in Fig.
5.29, and an illustration of the feeder is shown in Fig. 5.30.
The gravimetric feeder weighs material on a length of belt between
two fixed rollers located in the feeder body. A third roller, located mid-
way in the span and supported at each end by precision load cells,
supports half the weight on the span. As material passes over the
span, the load cell generates an electric signal directly proportional to
5.4.6 Burners
The efficient utilization of pulverized coal depends to a large extent
on the ability of the burners to produce the mixing of coal and air and
to develop turbulence within the furnace. Emission requirements also
dictate that efficient combustion takes place with low NOx emissions.
Adequate combustion volume must be provided for satisfactory
combustion of pulverized coal. Flame temperatures are high, and
refractory-lined furnaces were proven inadequate many years ago.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 291
unit of volume, and this resulted in small furnace volumes, rapid mix-
ing burners, and very high flame temperatures. Although these burn-
ers performed very well, this design produced an unintended side
effect of high levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) that now are considered
an emission pollutant. The circular burner shown in Fig. 5.32 has
been used for many years and is considered a conventional pulverized
coal burner. For certain applications it is still used today.
Regulations have been implemented throughout the world on NOx
emissions. The most cost-effective means is the use of low-NOx com-
bustion technology either by itself or in combination with other post-
combustion techniques, such as selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
systems, which remove the NOx from the flue gas. (Refer to Chap. 12.)
The low-NOx burners described in this section are examples of the
burner technology that is utilized.
More than 75 percent of the NOx formed during pulverized coal firing
is from the fuel (fuel NOx), with the remaining coming from dissocia-
tion of nitrogen and oxygen in the air during the combustion process
and the recombination of these two elements to form nitrogen oxides
(thermal NOx). Therefore, the most effective combustion technique is
to limit the formation of fuel NOx. Fuel NOx is formed by oxidation of
the nitrogen that is bound to the fuel during devolatilization and par-
ticle burnout. Coal contains nitrogen, generally ranging from 0.5 to 2
percent. (See Table 4.9 for typical coal analyses.) The availability of
large quantities of oxygen in the combustion air, together with high
flame temperatures, leads to the conversion of this fuel-bound nitrogen
to NOx.
The most effective means of reducing fuel-based NOx formation is to
reduce the availability of oxygen, i.e., combustion air, during fuel-air
mixing (primary air). Additional air (secondary air) is added later in
the process to complete burnout of the coal and to obtain high com-
bustion efficiency.
The availability of oxygen can be reduced in several ways. A portion
of the combustion air can be removed from the burner and introduced
at another location in the furnace. This method is called two-stage
combustion. Alternatively, the burner can be designed to supply all
the combustion air but to limit the air to the flame. Only a portion of
the required air is allowed to mix with the coal. The remaining air is
allowed to mix downstream in the flame to complete combustion. Air-
fuel mixing is reduced, and the flame envelope is larger than with the
rapid mixing of conventional burners.
When compared with uncontrolled levels, NO x emissions are
reduced from 30 to 70 percent when using low-NOx burners. These
burners also can be used in combination with air staging (two-stage
combustion) through NOx ports to further reduce NOx and meet emis-
sion limits. There are designs of low-NOx burners that can meet emis-
sion requirements without the use of NOx ports.
The pulverized coal fired burner shown in Fig. 5.33 is a modern
burner that produces a less turbulent, slower mixed flame that
reflects gradual coal-air mixing and low NOx. It is unlike the short,
highly turbulent, actively mixed coal flame of burners that have been
used in the past and resulted in high NOx emissions.
A venturi section at the end of the coal nozzle concentrates fuel and
air in the center of the burner nozzle. As this fuel-rich mixture passes
over a coal spreader, the blades in the spreader divide the coal stream
into smaller individual streams.
The flame stabilizer ring and the secondary air diverter create an
internal recirculation zone driven by the primary airflow. Individual
fuel-rich streams are partially brought back into the primary
air–internal recirculation zone for flame attachment.
The secondary and tertiary airflows pass through swirl vanes that
maintain flame stability and gradually provide the necessary air to
complete the combustion process. The entire process minimizes the
formation of fuel and thermal NOx while maintaining low levels of
carbon monoxide (CO), thus ensuring good combustion efficiency.
294 Chapter Five
Figure 5.33 Controlled combustion venturi (CCV) low-NOx dual air zone burner for the
burning of pulverized coal. (Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
These burners are designed for wall firing and have a design capacity
ranging from 50 to 250 × 106 Btu/h. NOx emissions with these burners
can be reduced up to 70 percent.
The circular single-register-type burner shown in Fig. 5.32 is designed
for firing pulverized coal only. Many pulverized coal burners have oil
burners that extend through the coal-carrying tube (see Fig. 5.40).
These multifuel burners are effective during emergency conditions,
when fuel availability dictates their use, or during certain economic
situations.
Another low-NOx design is shown in Figs. 5.34 and 5.35. It is a
dual-register burner providing two air zones, each of which is con-
trolled by a separate register, where the air zones are arranged
around an axially positioned coal nozzle. A pitot tube is located in the
burner barrel for the measurement of secondary airflow. With this
information, secondary air can be distributed uniformly between all
burners by adjusting the sliding air damper. Balanced air and fuel
distribution among all burners is critical to good combustion efficiency.
Downstream of the pitot tube are the inner and outer air zones.
Adjustable vanes in the inner zone stabilize ignition at the burner
nozzle tip. The outer zone is the main air path, and it is equipped
with two stages of vanes. The upstream set is fixed and improves
peripheral air distribution within the burner. The downstream set is
adjustable and provides proper mixing of this secondary air into the
flame.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 295
5.4.7 Lighters
A lighter is required to initiate combustion in the following situations:
Lighters, similar to the ones shown in Figs. 5.32 and 5.33, use an
electrically generated spark to ignite a lighter fuel, either natural gas
or no. 2 fuel oil. Modern units have automated controls that activate,
operate, purge, and shut down the lighters.
5.4.9 Operation
The ash in the coal presents a problem that must be given careful
consideration in furnace design. Small and medium-sized units are
arranged for the removal of ash from the furnace while it is in the dry
state. In this case, care must be exercised to prevent the temperature
of the ash from exceeding its fusion temperature. If this precaution is
not taken, large masses of slag will form. In some large units the ash
in the furnace is maintained at a temperature in excess of the melting
point. The slag is “tapped” and allowed to flow from the furnace in the
liquid state. After leaving the furnace, it is rapidly chilled by the
application of water. This quick change in temperature causes slag to
shatter into small pieces as it is collected in the ash-handling system.
The use of slag-tapped furnaces enables the operator to use a mini-
mum of excess air because the furnace can be maintained at a high
temperature without slagging difficulties. Since the usual slagging
difficulties are overcome, it is possible to use a wide variety of coals,
including those having a low-fusion-temperature ash.
However, as noted earlier, all modern pulverized coal-fired boilers
use the dry-bottom arrangement because of the high NOx emissions
that result with slag-tap boilers.
The principle of pulverized-coal firing has long been widely accepted,
first in large utility systems and then in industrial plants. The choice
of pulverized coal in preference to other firing methods depends on
the size of the boiler unit, the type of coal, the kind of load (constant
or cyclical), the load factor, the cost of fuel, and the training of operat-
ing personnel.
Pulverized-coal equipment has not been adapted generally to small
units. The benefits in efficiency and flexibility do not warrant the
complications in equipment, space requirements, initial costs, and
operating technique.
Some of the characteristics of coal that are so important when it is
burned on grates need less consideration in the pulverized-coal-fired
plant. Coal in sizes less than 2 in can be pulverized without difficulty,
and segregation usually does not affect operation. Coking and caking
characteristics, so important in underfeed stoker operation, require
less consideration. In general, high-volatile coals are harder to grind
(have lower grindability) than low-volatile coals, requiring larger
mills for the same capacity, more power per ton, and more mainte-
nance. The disadvantages of high-volatile coal are partly compensated
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 299
by the fact that the gases are more easily distilled and burned, making
it unnecessary to pulverize the coal as finely as is required for low-
volatile coal. For ease in maintaining ignition, it is recommended that
the volatile content of coal used in a pulverized-coal-fired plant be
over 30 percent. Lower-volatile coals may require pilot fuel testing
and special burner design, and coals having a low volatile content
have been pulverized effectively. These coals have included low-
volatile bituminous and anthracite.
Because there is only a small amount of fuel at any one time in a
pulverized-coal furnace, it is possible to change the rate of combustion
quickly to meet load demands. This is frequently one of the factors
worthy of consideration when combustion equipment is selected. The
possible rate of change in output, from the banked condition to full load,
is usually limited by the boiler rather than by the pulverizer and com-
bustion equipment. Automatic control applied to pulverized-coal-fired
boilers is effective in maintaining an almost constant steam pressure
under wide load variations.
A pulverized-coal plant costs more than some of the other methods
used in burning coal, and this difference in cost must be repaid in lower
operating costs including decreased maintenance and increased
efficiency resulting in lower fuel costs. To realize the greatest possi-
ble financial benefit from this increased efficiency, the equipment
must be utilized at high steam flows and for a large part of the
time, i.e., high capacity factors. A pulverized-coal plant can utilize a
wide variety of coal, including the lower grades. The use of low-cost
fuel frequently justifies the increased cost of pulverizing equip-
ment. When the fuel cost is high, the installation refinements in
combustion and heat-recovery equipment can be justified. The
question is, Will the cost of equipment required for increased econo-
my be justified by fuel saving?
The pulverized-coal plant requires trained operators who are familiar
not only with the dangers involved but also with safe operating prac-
tices. To control the rapid combustion of the pulverized coal, as it is
burned in suspension, requires an alert operator.
In order to have an explosion with pulverized coal there must be
the correct mixture of coal dust and air, as well as a source of ignition.
It follows that for safe operation the mixture of coal and air must be
either too “lean” (too much air) or too “rich” (too much coal) to
explode, except in the furnace. This principle is applied both in the
boiler room and in the pulverizer. In the boiler room all areas are
kept clean so that there is no dust to be agitated by a draft or minor
explosion so as to produce sufficient concentration in the air to be
exploded by a chance spark or an open flame. Inside the pulverizer a
high ratio of coal to air (rich mixture) is maintained so that there will
300 Chapter Five
Advantages
Can change rate of combustion quickly to meet varying load
Requires low percentage of excess air
Reduces or eliminates banking losses
Maintaining pulverizers and related equipment can be done with-
out cooling the unit down because the equipment is located outside
the furnace
Can be easily adapted to automatic combustion control
Can utilize highly preheated air successfully
Can burn a wide variety of coal with a given installation
Limits use of fine wet coal only through the ability of the conveying
and feeder equipment to deliver the coal to the pulverizers
Increases in thermal efficiency
Can produce high steam capacity
Disadvantages
Is costly to install
Requires skilled operating personnel because of explosion potential
and the complexity of equipment
Requires multiple pulverizers and burners to obtain a satisfactory
operating range
Requires extra power to pulverize the fuel
Requires greater housekeeping to ensure a clean plant
controls, fans, and safety interlock equipment. The failure of any one
might result in an explosion. If, for example, the induced-draft fan
should fail and the pulverizer mill and primary air fan continue to
operate and supply coal to the furnace, an explosion might occur. In
order to reduce such a possibility, the boiler auxiliaries are equipped
with interlocks, by means of which when one auxiliary fails, the oth-
ers stop automatically. When the induced-draft fan fails, the inter-
locks are arranged to stop the mill feeder, the mill, and the forced-
draft fan in the order listed. Electric-eye flame detectors are used to
indicate flame failure and to disrupt the fuel supply when flame fail-
ures occur. Television receivers are installed in the control panel to
permit constant observation of the flame. Study the safety equipment
on the boiler, check it at regular intervals, and make sure that it is in
good operating condition at all times. Remember, it was placed there
for your protection, very probably as the result of difficulty encoun-
tered with similar equipment.
The exact procedure for lighting a pulverized-coal-fired furnace
depends to some extent on the types of pulverizer, burners, and other
equipment. There are, however, certain general practices that are
common to all. First, operate the induced-draft fan and set the
dampers to produce a furnace draft sufficient to prevent a pressure
from being developed when the fire is lighted. Then start the igniter
and make sure that it is producing sufficient flame in the path of the
pulverized coal. Now start the pulverizer and feeder, and adjust the flow
of primary air and the mill-coal level to supply a rich mixture to the
burner. Regulate the coal and air supply to the burner, and maintain
as rich a mixture as possible without smoke until the furnace has
been heated. Do not depend on hot walls or other fire from an adja-
cent burner to light a pulverized-coal burner. Use an igniter for each
burner. If the coal as it is discharged from a burner fails to ignite
after even a few seconds, the furnace will be filled with an explosive
mixture. When this occurs, it is necessary to operate the induced-
draft fan until the explosive mixture has been removed. The flame
safety system will safely shut the system down.
Care and judgment on the part of the operators are necessary during
the warming-up period. There is a low limit of output below which a
given pulverizer mill cannot be operated satisfactorily. When the pri-
mary air drops below a minimum velocity, it fails to remove sufficient
coal from the mill, and a lean mixture results. This minimum mill
output usually results in too high a firing rate during the warming-up
period. The only solution is to fire the boiler at the lowest rating,
intermittently and frequently enough to bring the unit on line in the
specified time. Safety precautions and procedures must be carefully
followed during each lighting.
302 Chapter Five
Since the rate of change in firing may be high and the flames may be
extinguished by momentary interruptions of coal feed, more precautions
are necessary with pulverized coal than when coal is burned on
grates. Pulverized-coal boilers are equipped with automatic controls,
which relieve the operators of tedious adjustments of fuel and air.
These controls do not, however, lessen an operator’s responsibility for the
equipment. In case of failure or emergency, the unit must be operated
safely by hand control. The control regulates the rate of coal feed to
produce the required amount of steam in order to maintain the required
pressure. The air is regulated to burn the coal with the amount of
excess air considered most satisfactory for the given installation. The
steamflow-airflow meter and the carbon dioxide and oxygen recorders
are used to indicate the amount of excess air. Burners, louvers, and
primary air pressure must be adjusted to produce a flame that will
not strike the furnace walls yet will result in almost complete com-
bustion before the gases enter the boiler passes.
When the mixture of coal and primary air becomes too lean, the
flame will have a tendency to leave the burner tip and then return. This
condition may become so severe that the combustion consists of a series
of small explosions with danger of loss of ignition. This pulsating con-
dition usually can be corrected by decreasing the flow of primary air
and thereby producing a richer mixture at the burner tip.
Slag deposits in the furnace are a guide to the operator in adjusting
the flame shape. Excessive temperatures in the furnace are caused by
a deficiency of air, unequal distribution of fuel, or excessive ratings,
and they result in slag formation and high furnace maintenance. The
heated and tempering air to the pulverizer mill must be proportional
to produce an air and pulverized-coal outlet-mill temperature of 150
to 180°F for most bituminous coals. For anthracite coals having a low
volatile content, exit temperatures are generally 200 to 210°F. The
moisture content of the coal entering the pulverizer determines the
amount of preheated air that must be mixed with the room tempering
air to produce the desired outlet temperature.
Pulverized-coal-fired boilers are banked by closing off the coal supply
and thus extinguishing the fire. Insert the igniter and stop the coal feed
to the pulverizer. Allow the pulverizer to operate until all the coal has
been removed. When the pulverizer is nearly empty, the coal feed will
be irregular, and so it is necessary to have the igniter in place to pre-
vent the flame from being extinguished. If it is necessary to have the
boiler ready for service on short notice, light the burners at intervals
to maintain the steam pressure.
The pulverized-coal system is separate from the boiler and there-
fore may be serviced without waiting for the boiler to cool down.
Boilers are equipped with multiple pulverizers to permit part-load
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 303
1. The coal and air feed rates must comply with the load demand
over the operating range. For modern systems with high-volatile
bituminous coal, flames should be stable without the use of
lighters from about 30 percent full load to full load.
2. Unburned combustible loss (UCL) should reduce efficiency by less
than 1 percent and for many coals by less than 0.2 percent.
3. The burner should maintain performance without continual
adjustment.
4. Automatic flame safety and combustion-control systems should be
used to ensure the safest operation under all conditions.
Figure 5.37 Typical fuel oil pumps, heaters, and piping arrangement. (F M Global.)
308 Chapter Five
The most common oil atomizer used in today’s oil burners is the
steam atomizer. On most boiler applications, steam is readily avail-
able, and it is an excellent medium for breaking up the oil into
small droplet sizes. Air is often used when steam is not available,
such as during startup. However, air is expensive because plant air
must be used or a separate air compressor must be used. An eco-
nomic evaluation is often made to decide on whether to use a steam
or air atomizer on an oil burner.
within the burner is maintained constant at all rates of oil flow. The
pump supplies an excess of oil, and the amount that passes through
the outer orifice to be burned depends on the opening of the return
valve. This type of atomizer can be used with the burners shown in
Figs. 5.40 and 5.41. For this type of burner design, the required oil
pressure at the atomizer must be 600 to 1000 psig.
Figure 5.41 Combined blast-furnace gas and oil burner. (Peabody Engineering Corp.)
Disadvantages
Price of oil is generally higher than that of solid fuel.
Availability of oil may be a problem depending on world supply and
demand.
Storage tanks are more expensive than storage for solid fuel.
Cleaning of oil tanks and disposal of sludge are costly and trouble-
some.
Impurities in oil result in operating difficulties caused by plugged
strainers and burners.
Sulfur in the fuel oil causes corrosion of boiler casings and heating
surfaces and air pollution control systems are often required.
for handling this inferior grade of waste oil, which usually contains
impurities in the form of sludge and grit. Impurities clog the strain-
ers, cause wear of the pumps, and must be removed periodically from
the storage tank.
Oil is used extensively as a standby fuel for emergencies when
there is an outage of the other combustion equipment. It is also used
in lighting pulverized-coal burners. The oil burner is lighted with an
electric spark, and the pulverized coal is safely ignited by the oil
burner.
Fuel oil may be delivered to the plant in barges, tankers, tank cars,
or tank trucks. Except for very high rates of consumption, tank trucks
are used. The haul from supplier to customer is usually comparatively
short, and enough heat is retained in the oil for it to flow into the
storage tank without the use of further application of heat. When the
heavy grades of oil are shipped in railroad tank cars, it is usually nec-
essary to supply steam to the coils in the tank before the oil will flow
or can be pumped from the car.
Before attempting to operate a fuel-oil-burning plant, check the
piping, pumps, strainers, heaters, and valve arrangement. The burners
should be inspected and cleaned if necessary. The conventional
mechanical steam- and air-atomizing burners can be removed readily
and the tip disassembled for cleaning. The rotating-cup-type unit is
mounted on a hinge and may be swung out of the furnace position for
inspection and service.
When No. 1, 2, or 3 oil is used, no heat is required, but for heavier
oil it is necessary to admit steam to the storage tank heating coil. The
pump is started, and oil is circulated through the system, and the
pressure and temperature must be closely observed.
There is a difference of opinion regarding the correct temperature
to which oil must be heated because of the various types of burners.
In general, satisfactory results are obtained with burner-oil tempera-
tures of 135°F for No. 4 oil, 185°F for No. 5, and 220°F for no. 6.
Another rule is to heat the oil to within 10°F of the flash point of the
oil being used. Mechanical-atomizing-type burners require tempera-
tures near the flash point. Steam-atomizing burners require lower oil-
admission temperatures because some heat is available in the steam.
The burner is ignited from an independent source, which can range
from hand-inserted torches to automatic spark igniters that are part of
the burner assembly and the flame safety system. An ignition flame
must be placed in front of the burner before the oil is admitted. A gas
flame provides a satisfactory means of igniting an oil burner, and spark
ignitors are commonly used. Lighters are either stationary or designed
with a retractable mechanism that allows them to be removed during
burner operation and protected from the furnace-radiated heat.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 315
restrict or stop the flow of oil. Then, too, the sediment may reach the
burner tip and cause trouble. An interrupted and self-restored flow
of oil from a burner is very dangerous. When the oil flow stops, the
fire goes out, and then if the flow is restored, it may not reignite
until the furnace has been filled with oil vapor. If this happens to be
a combustible mixture, a disastrous explosion could result. Safety
devices are used that have a flame detector so that when the fire
goes out, the absence of light on the sensitive element of this device
trips a relay that closes off the oil supply. This prevents the restora-
tion of the oil flow until the operator has purged the furnace,
applied the ignitor, and manually tripped out or reset the safety
device.
A summary of the difficulties that may be encountered in operating
an oil-fired plant are as follows:
1. Failure of the oil to flow to the pumps due to ineffective venting of
the tank
2. Clogged strainers caused by sludge deposits in the tank
3. Failure of pumps to operate due to air leaks in the suction line
4. Vapor formation in the pump suction line as a result of too high a
temperature in the tank
5. Oil too heavy to flow to the pumps because of insufficient heating
6. Faulty atomization caused by
a. Too low an oil temperature
b. Carbon formation on burner tips
c. Worn burner tips
d. Too low an oil pressure
e. Insufficient steam or air
7. Smoke, poor combustion, and flame striking furnace walls caused
by
a. Faulty atomization of oil
b. Incorrect adjustment of air supply
c. Automatic control not functioning properly
8. Fire hazard and unsightly appearance caused by leaks in the
pump discharge lines
Oil-fired boilers are banked by closing off the oil and air supply. If it
is necessary to have the boiler available for service on short notice,
the fire must be relighted often enough to maintain the steam pres-
sure at a predetermined minimum pressure.
When sufficient sediment collects in the fuel-oil supply tank, it will
frequently clog the strainers and perhaps even pass on to the burn-
ers, causing irregular firing. The real solution to this situation is to
drain and thoroughly clean the tank.
Some oil contains abrasive materials that cause wear to the pump-
ing equipment and result in low oil pressure. It is not economical to
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 317
Low excess air. By lowering the excess air, not only is NOx reduced,
but also thermal efficiency improves. If burner and combustion effi-
ciency are maintained at acceptable levels, NOx formation can be
reduced by 10 to 20 percent. However, the success of this method
depends on the careful control of the distribution of fuel and air to the
burners, and it may require more sophisticated means to measure
and regulate the fuel and air to all burners.
in two stages, the flame temperature is also reduced. This method can
reduce NOx emissions by as much as 50 percent.
5.6 Gas
The gaseous fuels available are natural, manufactured, water, and oil
gas and by-product gases such as coke-oven, blast-furnace, and refinery
gas. Natural gas is widely distributed by means of high-pressure
pipeline systems. Nevertheless, cost and availability of natural gas vary
widely and depend on the exploration and drilling costs, as well as the
distance the gas must be transported. In some instances, natural gas at
a reduced cost is available for steam generation during periods when
primary customer demand is low. By-product gas usually is used in the
same plant in which it is produced or in a neighboring plant.
Natural gas from high-pressure pipelines is reduced in pressure
and distributed to local customers through a low-pressure network of
piping. When the pressure in the supply mains is above that required
by the burners, pressure-regulator valves are used to maintain constant
pressure at the burners. However, when the supply main pressure is
less than that required at the burners, it becomes necessary to install
booster compressors. These boosters are either multistage centrifugal
blowers or constant-volume units similar in principle to a gear pump.
The outlet pressure of constant-volume units must be controlled by
spring-loaded bypass valves. In some instances it is necessary to
install coolers in these bypass lines to remove the heat developed in
the compressor. Gas burners are designed and regulated for a given
pressure, and this pressure must be maintained for efficient and sat-
isfactory operation. In like manner, provision must be made to supply
by-product gas to the burner at a controlled pressure.
Natural gas is a high-grade fuel and is used extensively for domes-
tic heating and in industrial plants for heating and limited process
applications. Industries that require large quantities of steam usually
find other fuels more economical. Power boilers that burn natural gas
generally have combustion equipment suitable for two or more kinds
of fuel. The use of multiple fuels makes it possible to take advantage
of market conditions, provide for shortages in supply, and guard
against possible transportation difficulties. It is difficult to operate a
pulverized-coal-fired boiler safely at widely variable capacities. When
low capacities are necessary, it is advisable to use oil or natural gas as
a substitute for pulverized coal. The burner shown in Fig. 5.40 is
designed to use pulverized coal, oil, or gas. The gas is introduced
through many small holes in a ring that is located in front of the
burner proper. The gas mixes with a stream of air passing through
the ring.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 319
The availability and relatively low cost of natural gas have made
cogeneration power facilities popular for utilities in the production of
electricity. These facilities utilize the natural gas to power a gas tur-
bine for electric production, and an additional steam cycle is incorpo-
rated to use the heat contained in the gas turbine exhaust gas and
produce steam that is used in a conventional steam turbine cycle.
(Refer to Chap. 1.) Not only does this cogeneration cycle use relatively
low-cost fuel, but also the plant’s initial cost is lower than that of a
coal-fired facility. The schedule for installation of a cogeneration plant
is also significantly shorter. However, the acceptability of this system
will remain only as long as the availability of low-cost natural gas is
maintained and the reliability and low maintenance costs on gas
turbines also remain acceptable.
Industries that have a supply of by-product gas utilize it to advantage
as a fuel in their power boilers. They use the by-product fuel first, and
when the supply is insufficient to meet the demand, they use a sec-
ondary fuel which they must buy. This method of operation is most
effective in reducing the cost when there is a source of waste or by-
product fuel. Combustion controls admit the proper mixture of by-prod-
uct and secondary fuels to the furnace to meet the necessary combus-
tion requirements. A burner arrangement for either oil or
blast-furnace gas is shown in Fig. 5.41. Because of the low heating
value of this gas, a correspondingly large volume must be handled.
The gas is discharged into the burner through a circular ring formed
by the burner tube and throat. The air enters through the burner
tube with a whirling motion and mixes with the gas.
Sufficient furnace volume is essential to the proper operation of
gas-fired furnaces. If the fuel has not been entirely burned before the
gases reach the heating surface, serious smoking and loss of efficiency
will result. Thorough mixing at the burners generally reduces the
length of the flame. The design should be such that the entire furnace
volume is utilized for combustion.
Many of the procedures and precautions that are required for oil
firing also apply to gas. Before attempting to light the burners, make
certain that the gas supply valves are closed, and then operate the
draft equipment to remove all possible accumulations of gas. Adjust
the shutters to admit a small amount of air. Then start the igniter
and turn on the burner valve. If the fire should go out, never relight
until you are sure the draft has removed all combustible gases from
the unit. Flame safety systems are used extensively on all modern
boiler designs, and older units have been retrofitted to incorporate
this critical safety feature.
The appearance of the flame is an unsatisfactory method of adjusting
the air going to the burner and the furnace draft. The best procedure
320 Chapter Five
Multistage low-NOx burner for the burning of gaseous fuels and fuel oil.
Figure 5.42
(Coen Company, Inc.)
oils. Flue gas from the economizer outlet is introduced into the com-
bustion air, and this results in the flame temperatures of the burner
being lowered, and thus NOx emissions are reduced significantly.
Although this method is effective, the flue gas recirculation increases
both the initial costs and the operating costs.
Burner designs continue to be developed, and Fig. 5.43 shows a
burner capable of meeting the current NOx emission limits without
the use of flue gas recirculation for certain applications. By using a
combination of an air-fuel lean premix and staged combustion, peak
flame temperatures are reduced without using flue gas recirculation,
with a resulting reduction in the production of NOx. While the use of
flue gas recirculation in burner design is an effective technique to
reduce NOx emissions, this unique burner design can be used on
many boiler applications and effectively meet current NOx regula-
tions. If this technology is applicable, there are obvious cost savings
with elimination of the flue gas recirculation system.
Burner design development and cost-effective applications are con-
tinually being studied to meet the ever-changing lower limits for NOx
322 Chapter Five
Figure 5.43 QLN burner designed for natural gas firing to meet low NOx requirements
without the use of flue gas recirculation. (Coen Company, Inc.)
units if a unit in service fails or the load increases above the capabilities
of the units on the line.
The design shown is a modular system that incorporates the burner,
windbox, forced-draft fan, fuel piping, burner management, and
controls in a complete package and attached to a package boiler.
Burner control systems of various types are applied to all boilers to
assist the operator in the starting and stopping of burners and fuel
equipment and thereby prevent hazardous furnace conditions. The
most important burner control function is to prevent explosions in the
furnace and in equipment such as pulverizers, where such explosions
would threaten the safety of personnel and cause major damage to
the boiler and associated equipment and buildings.
The various types of burner controls are manual control, remote
manual sequence control, and automatic sequence control and these
are generally described as follows.
and the control room operator to coordinate the safe startup and shut-
down of burner equipment, and this procedure is much more complex
depending on the type of fuel, e.g., natural gas versus pulverized-coal
firing. Manual control is generally found only on older boilers, since
some form of automatic control is always installed on newer units.
Figure 5.45 Schematic control diagram—automatic gas- and oil-fired unit. 1 master
actuator. 2 airflow regulator. 3 power unit and relays. 4 differential oil control
valve. 5 adjustable-orifice oil-control valve. 6 differential steam-control valve.
7 differential gas-pressure-control valve. 8 adjustable-orifice gas-control valve.
9 pilot gas-pressure regulator. 10 oil solenoid valve. 11 oil-return solenoid.
12 steam trap. 13 main-gas solenoid valve. 14 supervisory cock. 15 pilot
shutoff cock. 16 pilot-gas solenoid valve. (Coen Company, Inc.)
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 327
5.9 Stacks
An adequate flow of air and combustion gases is required for the com-
plete and effective combustion of fossil fuels. The term draft is
defined as the difference between atmospheric pressure and the static
pressure of the flue gases in the furnace, a convection pass, a flue, or
328 Chapter Five
a stack. Draft loss is the reduction in the static pressure of a flue gas
caused by friction and other pressure losses, which are not recover-
able, as the flue gas flows through a boiler system.
The flow of gases through a boiler can be achieved by creating draft
by four methods: (1) natural draft, (2) forced draft, (3) induced draft,
and (4) balanced draft. These are defined as follows:
1. Natural draft. The required flow of air and flue gas through a
boiler can be obtained by the stack alone when the system draft loss
is low and the stack is tall. In today’s modern units, this is not a com-
mon method, since mechanical draft is required on boiler systems.
2. Forced draft. Operates with air and flue gas maintained above
atmospheric pressure. A forced-draft (FD) fan at the inlet of the
boiler system provides pressure to force air and flue gas through
the system. Any openings in the boiler setting such as doors and
penetrations allow air or flue gas to be released unless that open-
ing is pressurized and thus has air being forced into the opening,
thus preventing any release. A boiler designed with an FD fan
alone is defined as a pressurized system.
3. Induced draft. Operates with an air and flue gas static pressure
below atmospheric pressure. Any openings in the boiler setting
allow air to be drawn into the unit. An induced-draft (ID) fan is
located near the outlet of the boiler system prior to the stack and
draws the air and flue gas through the system. Using an ID fan
alone is not common on modern boiler designs.
4. Balanced draft. Operates with a forced-draft (FD) fan at the inlet
and an induced-draft (ID) fan near the outlet prior to the stack.
The static pressure is above atmospheric at the FD fan outlet and
decreases to atmospheric pressure at some point within the sys-
tem, usually in the lower furnace. The static pressure is below
atmospheric and progressively decreases as the flue gas flows from
the balance point to the ID fan. This arrangement prevents the
flue gas leaking from the unit and is the system predominantly
used in modern units other than perhaps package boiler designs,
where a forced draft, or pressurized system, is used.
1 1
冢
D 0.52 175 14.7
540 1070 冣
D 1.23 in of water
1. Stoppage of boiler passes, flues, etc., with soot, slag, or fly ash,
resulting in abnormal draft loss
2. Baffles defective or shifted so that they restrict the flow of gases
3. The use of more excess air than was formerly used
4. Operating at higher capacities than indicated because the flow-
meter is out of calibration
5. The damper is out of adjustment so that it will not open wide even
though the outside arm indicates that it is open
6. Air infiltration through leaks in the setting
through the unit and out the stack. The furnace is maintained at a
pressure sufficiently above that of the atmosphere to discharge the
products of combustion. The FD fan must be designed to handle
both the air resistance and draft loss through the boiler.
Figure 5.48 Centrifugal fan with backward-curved inclined blades and inlet-vane con-
trol. (TLT-Babcock, Inc.)
336 Chapter Five
The bearings are a most important part of a fan. Fans are designed
with a variety of bearings, depending on their use. Sleeve-ring oiled
bearings and antifriction oil- and grease-lubricated bearings are used.
The sealed grease-packed antifriction bearings require the least atten-
tion and are recommended for out-of-the-way places where periodic
lubrication would not be feasible. For high-speed operation, oil lubrica-
tion is desirable. Antifriction bearings are subject to quick and complete
failure when trouble develops but can be replaced easily and quickly.
Sleeve-ring oiled bearings, shown in Fig, 5.49, are used extensively
in fans. Figure 5.49a shows a sleeve bearing with water cooling. This
The clinker grinder shown in Fig. 5.50 is used where the potential
for large clinkers is high. These clinkers must be crushed to allow for
pneumatic conveying through the ash handling system. The unit is
designed so that if a large clinker plugs and stalls the grinder, it will
automatically begin a reversing cycle and then advance the grinder
rolls so that the object may still be crushed or removed, if necessary.
A pneumatic ash handling system is shown in Fig. 5.51 where ash
from various collecting points is conveyed pneumatically to the ash stor-
age silo. The ash is stored in the silo, where it is unloaded at regular
intervals to trucks or railroad cars for final disposal.
Air is drawn through the piping system by a vacuum that produces the
conveying medium. Two methods are used for producing a vacuum: (1)
using a steam exhauster, where steam is available, or (2) using a blower.
With a steam exhauster, a cycle timer and steam valve control the
system so that steam will be delivered to the steam exhauster on a
timed intermittent basis. When the steam valve closes, the system is
returned to atmospheric pressure which allows the collected ash in
the receiver to be dumped into the ash storage silo below.
A blower system operates similar to the steam exhauster system
except the vacuum is interrupted by means of a vacuum breaker
valve instead of starting and stopping the blower motor. As with the
steam exhauster system, collected ash in the receiver is dumped into
the ash storage silo where the system is at atmospheric pressure.
344 Chapter Five
The system has a combined separator and filter that removes air-
borne ash from the conveying line and deposits the ash into the silo to
satisfy emission requirements. The ash receiver and separator remove
the heavier particles of ash from the air. The fine particles of dust which
remain suspended in the air are carried into the bag filter section for
removal.
A mechanical ash handling system is shown in Fig. 5.52. This system
handles both the bottom ash as well as the fly ash that is collected
in boiler, economizer, and air heater hoppers, designated as 1, 2, and 3
in Fig. 5.52.
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 345
1 2 3
M M
The mechanical drag conveyor removes the bottom ash from below
the boiler. The ash falls into a water trough which has a continuously
moving chain with flight bars which moves the bottom ash at a slow
rate up an inclined dewatering section. The flight bars are then
looped back by the drive mechanism through the dry bottom section
of the drag conveyor to the submerged portion of the conveyor. In this
illustration, the bottom ash, with added fly ash from hoppers 1, 2 and
3, is discharged into a clinker grinder (refer to Fig. 5.50), where it is
properly sized. The ash is then moved by a belt conveyor to a storage
bin for periodic unloading.
5.2 How are water-tube boilers supported? Briefly describe each method.
5.4 Describe the purpose of a furnace arch and a baffle located within a boiler.
346 Chapter Five
5.5 Why are water-cooled furnaces the preferred design on modern boilers as
compared with refractory-lined furnaces?
5.6 What is the purpose of a stoker, and what are its primary features?
5.7 Describe the types of stoker systems. Provide examples of the types of
fuels that stokers are designed to handle. What type stoker is used most
commonly today?
5.8 What is meant by furnace volume? By stoker grate surface? Why are
these important to a boiler design?
5.14 What are the general coal characteristics for use on an underfeed stoker?
5.15 What does banking of a boiler mean, and how is a boiler with an under-
feed stoker banked?
5.16 Describe the types of mass-feed stokers used for coal firing, and describe
their operation.
5.17 Define the coal characteristics for use on a traveling-grate stoker and on a
water-cooled vibrating stoker.
5.19 What is the tempering of coal, and when is it done in the operation of
stokers?
5.20 Describe the operation of a spreader stoker. What are its advantages, and
what is the primary difference from an underfeed-stoker design?
5.21 What is the advantage gained by the reinjection of a portion of the fly ash
into the furnace? What potential added problem can occur?
5.23 What coal characteristics are suitable for use on a spreader stoker?
5.25 Other than coal, what other materials are suitable for burning in a
spreader-stoker-fired boiler?
5.26 Describe the operation of an air swept distributor spout and its effect on
load variations.
5.27 As compared with a spreader stoker with a traveling grate, what advan-
tages does a spreader stoker with a hydrograte have?
5.29 Why does pulverized-coal firing allow high combustion rates? Why is it
responsive to load changes?
5.30 For pulverized-coal firing, describe the four elements that influence the
process in a significant manner.
5.34 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the primary air fan location
on a pulverizer, either on the inlet or on the outlet of the pulverizer.
5.37 In a combustion process, what are the two primary control arrangements?
5.38 Since coal can vary because of heating value, ash, moisture content, and
density, how does a gravimetric feeder assist in combustion control?
5.47 In a fuel-oil burner, what two methods are used to atomize the oil for com-
bustion? Describe the oil burners that use these methods. Which type of
burner is preferred, and why?
5.48 Name the advantages and disadvantages of using fuel oil for power
generation.
5.49 What are some of the major operating problems that can occur in the
operation of a fuel-oil-burning power plant?
5.50 In a fuel-oil-burning plant, what is the primary source of NOx, and how is
the NOx controlled?
5.51 Under what conditions is natural gas generally used as a fuel for power
boilers?
5.52 Natural gas is being used as a primary fuel to power gas turbines in a
cogeneration system. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this
system?
5.53 How is NOx formed when firing natural gas, and how is NOx controlled?
5.54 What are the major procedures to ensure safe and reliable operation
when firing fuel oil or natural gas?
5.56 What is draft and draft loss? In a boiler, how is draft created?
5.57 A stack is 150 ft high, and the exit gas temperature is 550°F. The outside
temperature is 45°F. What draft can be expected at the base of the stack
when the plant is operating at the designed capacity?
Boiler Settings, Combustion Systems, and Auxiliary Equipment 349
5.58 One of the stack’s purposes is to disperse the flue gases. If a stack height
is limited for some reason, e.g., a permit, how are flue gases properly dis-
persed, and how is any additional draft loss accounted for?
5.59 Describe a forced-draft (FD) fan and an induced-draft (ID) fan. How are
these fans part of a pressurized furnace and a balanced-draft boiler design?
5.61 What are the three ways of controlling the output of a fan?
5.62 What are the primary sources of fan noise, and what can be done to cor-
rect a noise problem?
5.63 Discuss the possible ways in which over-fire air jets may improve
combustion.
5.64 What types of ash handling systems are commonly used on utility and
industrial boilers?
Chapter
6
Boiler Accessories
351
352 Chapter Six
Figure 6.2 Glass water gauge and water column connections: (a) Vertical fire-
tube boiler with gauge, cocks, and directly-connected glass water gauge; (b)
Horizontal-return tubular boiler showing water column, gauge, glass, gauge
cocks, etc. (Clark-Reliance Corp.)
Boiler Accessories 353
Figure 6.3Water column and gauge arrangement for connection to steam drum. (Clark-
Reliance Corp.)
out of service. The boiler had three or more gauge cocks (see Fig. 6.2)
that were located within the visible length of the water glass. This
would allow the operator to open these cocks and determine the
water/steam level of the boiler. Although this procedure was permit-
ted on low-pressure boilers, it did create a potential burn hazard for
the operator, and this procedure is used only in existing installations
where these older designs still are operating. Another problem was
water flashing to steam, which impaired any accurate determination
of water level.
For all modern boiler designs and for any design pressure, drum-
level instrumentation must be in accordance with the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code. These requirements are
1. For pressures under 400 psig: at least one (1) direct-reading gauge
is required.
2. For pressures 400 psig and above: two (2) direct-reading gauges
are required or one (1) direct-reading gauge and two (2) remote-
reading gauges.
shut off for gauge-glass replacement. The hand valves are frequently
chain operated so that the operator may remain out of danger. Many
gauges have both hand and automatic shutoff valves. The automatic
shutoff valves consist of check valves located in the upper and lower
gauge-glass fittings. Should the glass break, the rush of steam and
water would cause these valves to close. For added safety, the gauge
glass is sometimes enclosed by wire-insert plate glass to protect the
operator in the event that the glass breaks.
The water column was designed originally with float assemblies
that were connected by a linkage to valves that would release steam
from the column through an externally mounted whistle in the event
of a low- or high-water-level condition. Figure 6.4 shows a typical
Figure 6.4 Typical float-type water column with high/low-water-level alarm. (Clark-
Reliance Corp.)
Boiler Accessories 355
Figure 6.5 Water column with electrode alarm sensors. (Diamond Power International,
Inc.)
Figure 6.8 Pressure gauge. (a) Bourdon tube and linkage. (b) Exterior view.
(Invensys Systems, Inc., Foxboro.)
contain a variety of fluids depending on the pressure, and they are capa-
ble of a high degree of accuracy. The fluids used can vary from a fluid
that is lighter than water for use in low-pressure situations to mercury,
which is used for relatively high pressures. Mercury is being phased
out because of its potential harmful effects, and digital electronic
instrumentation is becoming more commonplace.
Incorporated into many pressure-measurement devices is the capa-
bility of producing an output signal. This output signal can be trans-
mitted to a central measurement system and also to a control system.
Pneumatically transmitted signals are often used in control systems,
but the more modern designs use electric circuitry. These electric circuits
are easily adaptable to computer-based systems.
All boilers must have at least one pressure gauge. The connection
may be made to the steam space or attached to the upper part of the
water column. The gauge itself must be located so that it can be seen
easily by the operator. Piping should be as direct as possible. If a valve
is used in the gauge line connected to the boiler, it should be locked or
sealed open. If a cock is used in place of a valve, it should be of the
type that indicates by the position of its handle whether it is open or
closed (open with the handle in line with the pipe). The piping to the
gauge should be arranged so that it will always be full of water or
steam. A branch connection and valve are provided so that a “test”
gauge can be installed without removing the permanent gauge. If the
temperature exceeds 406°F, brass or copper pipe or tubing should not
be used.
Steam gauges used in modern practice are usually of the Bourdon-
or spring-tube type (see Fig. 6.8). The Bourdon tube consists of a
Boiler Accessories 361
curved tube with an oval cross section. One end of the tube is attached
to the frame and pressure connection; the other end is connected to a
pointer by means of links and gears. Movement of the pointer is directly
proportional to the distortion of the tube. An increase in pressure tends
to straighten out the tube; as the tube position changes, its motion is
transmitted to a rack and pinion through connecting linkage to position
the pointer. Motion from the tube-connecting linkage is then transmitted
to the pinion, to which the pointer is attached, moving the pointer over
the range of the gauge.
The steam gauge for a small boiler is usually mounted directly on top
of the water column, and, therefore, the gauge reads the correct pres-
sure in the boiler. However, on many installations, particularly large
boilers, the gauge is brought down to the operating level. At this level
the gauge reads the steam pressure plus the hydraulic head of water
in the line. Therefore, the gauge is inaccurate unless this head is com-
pensated for. In this case, the vertical distance must be measured
between the point at which the connection is made (assume that it is
the top of the water column) and the center of the gauge and correct
for this water column. For each foot of vertical distance between the
connection and the gauge, the gauge reading must be corrected by
0.433 psi per foot, and this correction is subtracted from the gauge
reading.
water prevents the boiler from being subjected to the expansion strains
that would result from temperature changes produced by irregular
water feed. The danger in the use of a feedwater regulator lies in the
fact that the operator may be entirely dependent on it. It is well to
remember that the regulator, like any other mechanism, can fail; con-
tinued vigilance is necessary.
The first feedwater regulator (Fig. 6.9) was very simple, consisting of
a float-operated valve riding the water to regulate the level. If the level
dropped, the feed valve opened; if the level was too high, the valve
closed; at intermediate positions of water level, the valve was throttled.
A more modern float-type regulator (Fig. 6.10a) is designed with the
float box attached directly to the drum.
For high-capacity boilers and those operating at high pressure, a
pneumatic or electrically operated feedwater control system is used.
There are basically three types of feedwater-control systems: (1) single
element, (2) two element, and (3) three element.
Figure 6.10 Three types of boiler feedwater regulators for simple water level control: (a)
float-type regulator; (b) thermohydraulic-type regulator; (c) thermostatic expansion
tube regulator. (DeZurik/Copes-Vulcan.)
loop acts in response to the drum water level. The drum-level measure-
ment corrects for any imbalance between the drum water level and its
set point and provides the necessary adjustment to cope with the
“swell and shrink” characteristics of the boiler.
3. Three-element control. This uses a predetermined ratio of feed-
water flow input to steam flow output to provide regulation of feedwater
flow in direct response to boiler load. The three-element control
Boiler Accessories 365
Semiweekly Blow down the water columns on the boiler. Take care
of water leaks around valves and fittings promptly.
Monthly. Lubricate control parts. Check meters and connections
for leaks; check standatrol and automatic selector valves carefully;
check flowmeters to zero to determine their accuracy, sensitivity,
and response. Check automatic-control system for leakage.
Yearly. Disconnect the meter and all control lines; blow them out.
Dismantle the meter; clean, inspect, overhaul, and calibrate by run-
ning a water-column test. Carefully inspect all control valves in the
system, such as selector and standatrol valves. Also, dismantle and
inspect the feedwater-regulating valves. If possible, dismantle and
overhaul regulators semiannually or at least annually. At such
times go over the entire control mechanism to eliminate wear in
moving parts. Check valves for wear and replace parts where neces-
sary. Give particular attention to all packing glands.
Therefore, the most critical valve on a boiler is the safety valve. Its
purpose is to limit the internal boiler pressure to a point below its safe
operating level. One or more safety valves must be installed in an
approved manner on the boiler pressure parts where they cannot be
isolated from the steam. The valves must be set to activate at
approved set-point pressure and then close when the pressure drops
below the set-point level.
When open, the safety valves must be able to carry off all the steam
that the boiler is capable of generating without exceeding the specified
pressure. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code specifies the min-
imum requirements for safety and safety relief valves that are applicable
to boilers.
As defined by the ASME code, safety and relief valves are used as
follows:
C H 0.75
W
1100
Example Assume that 6 tons of coal are burned each hour with a heating
value of 12,000 Btu/lb. Approximately how much steam will be generated
with a boiler efficiency of 75 percent and a heat requirement to produce 1
lb of steam at 1100 Btu/lb?
Solution
Safety valves shall operate without chattering, and shall be set and
adjusted to close after blowing down not more than 4 percent of the
set pressure but not less than 2 psi in any case. For spring-loaded pop
safety valves at pressures between 100 and 300 psi, the blowdown
shall not be less than 2 percent of the set pressure. Safety valves used
on forced-circulation boilers of the once-through type may be set and
adjusted to close after blowing down not more than 10 percent of the
set pressure.
Each safety valve shall have a substantial lifting device by which
the valve disk may be lifted from its seat when there is at least 75
percent of full working pressure on the boiler.
The spring in a safety valve in service for pressures up to and
including 250 psi shall not be reset for any pressure more than 10
percent above or below that for which the valve is marked. For higher
pressure, the spring shall not be reset for any pressure more than 5
percent above or below the safety valve’s marked pressure.
Screwed openings can be used to attach the valve to the boiler
when the proper number of threads is available. A safety valve over 3
in in size used for pressures greater than 15 psig shall have a flanged
inlet connection or a welded-end inlet connection. On modern units,
safety valves are attached to drums or headers by fusion welding,
where the welding is done in accordance with the ASME code.
The safety valve shown in both Figs. 6.14 and 6.15 is designed
specifically for saturated-steam service on boiler drums with design
As the pressure in the boiler decreases, the forces on the lower face
of the disk-holder assembly are reduced, and the safety valve disk
begins to close. Assisted by pressure in chambers (C) and (D), the
valve at this point closes sharply and tightly. The seat-level loading of
the spindle (12) on the disk insert (5) ensures uniform seat loading.
Every superheater has one or more safety valves near the outlet. If the
superheater outlet header has a full and free steam passage from end
to end and is so constructed that steam is supplied to it at practically
equal intervals throughout its length, resulting in a uniform flow of
steam through the superheater tubes and header, the safety valve or
valves may be located anywhere in the length of the header.
The discharge capacity of the safety valve or valves attached to the
superheater may be included in determining the number and size of
the safety valves for the boiler, provided there are no intervening valves
between the superheater safety valve and the boiler and provided the
discharge capacity of the safety valve or valves on the boiler, as dis-
tinct from the superheater, is at least 75 percent of the aggregate
valve capacity required. It is good practice to size the superheater
safety valve to relieve approximately 20 percent of the total boiler
capacity to protect the tubes against overheating.
Boiler Accessories 377
The safety valves shown in Figs. 6.17 and 6.18 are designed for
saturated and superheated steam service. The adjustable nozzle
ring (3) and guide ring (9) utilize the reaction and expansive forces
of the flowing steam to provide full lift. These valves shut off tight.
The flat seat maintains continuous uniform seat contact at all
times through a wide range of temperatures. A ball-bearing spindle
point (11) ensures perfectly balanced transmission of spring loading
to the disk insert (5).
Every reheater shall have one or more safety valves such that the
total relieving capacity is at least equal to the maximum steam flow
for which the reheater is designed. At least one valve shall be located
on the reheater outlet. The relieving capacity of the valve on the
reheater outlet shall be not less than 15 percent of the required total.
The capacity of the reheater safety valves shall not be included in the
required relieving capacity for the boiler and superheater.
Therefore, safety valves for boilers shall be sized in accordance with
Sec. I of the ASME code. This is summarized as follows:
pressure. This ring can be adjusted and fixed by a ring pin. A hand lever
is furnished to permit popping the valve by hand.
To determine the capacity of a safety valve, refer to the valve manu-
facturer’s selection chart for the pressure-temperature range in which
the valve is to operate. Valve design varies to a considerable degree,
so this is the most practical approach for determining capacities.
Problems with safety-valve leakage became increasingly severe as
steam pressures increased, and so a high-capacity flat-seated reaction-
type safety valve was developed (Fig. 6.19) to meet greater discharge
capacity, shorter blowdown, etc., as required for high-pressure-
temperature steam-generating equipment. Construction details and
operation are as shown.
With reference to Fig. 6.20, in part (a) a 100 percent lift is attained
by proper location of the upper adjusting ring (G). When full lift is
attained in part (b), lift stop (M) rests against cover plate (P) to elimi-
nate hunting, adding stability to the valve. When the valve dis-
charges in an open position, steam is bled into the chamber (H)
through two bleed holes (J) in the roof of the disk holder.
Similarly, the spindle overlap collar (K) rises to a fixed position
above the floating washer (L). The area between the floating washer
requires at least five 360° turns of the operating device to change from
fully closed to open, or vice versa. A quick-opening double-tightening
valve is shown in Fig. 6.22. This valve is frequently used in tandem
with a seatless valve. The quick-opening valve is installed next to the
boiler and is opened first and closed last. In the tandem combination,
the quick-opening valve becomes the sealing valve rather than the
blowing valve. The valve shown is designed to operate at 320 psi
maximum pressure. Note: For all other valves arranged in tandem,
the sequence of operation is the reverse. Here the second valve from the
boiler is opened first and closed last; blowing down takes place
through the valve next to the boiler.
For pressures to 450 psi, a seatless valve (Fig. 6.23) may be used.
For pressures to 600 psi, a tandem arrangement (Fig. 6.24a) of a
hard-seat blowing valve and a seatless sealing valve is used. With
higher pressures (1500 to 2500 psi), the hard-head sealing valve is
used. Here the blowing valve (nearest to the boiler) will have flow
entering below the seat. The blowing valve (next to the boiler) should
be opened last and closed first. The sealing valve (outside) should be
opened first and closed last. For the hard-seat valve, the position of the
handwheel above the yoke indicates the location of the disk in the valve,
whereas for the seatless valve the position of the plunger indicates
whether the valve is open or closed. While these valves are to be oper-
ated rapidly, they cannot be opened or closed quickly; waterhammer
in the discharge line is thus avoided.
Figure 6.22 Quick-opening blowoff valve. (a) Sealing, bushing, disk, stem, and lever are
in open position. Direct level-operated valve with adjustable stem packing, furnished
on all 11⁄2-in, 2-in, and 21⁄2-in steel-body valves. (b) Gear-operated double-tightening
valve, flanged open position, iron-body type with standard stem packing. Sealing bushing,
disk, gear segment, and lever pinion are in open position. (Yarway.)
Boiler Accessories 385
Figure 6.23 Blowoff valves. (a) Flanged angle valve—open position for full and free
discharge. (b) Flanged angle valve—closed position for drop-tight shutoff. (Yarway.)
valves should be opened again before closing them finally. The blow-
down valves are then tightly shut and remain that way when they are
not blowing down. Leaky valves should be repaired as soon as possible.
The valves should be dismantled at least once a year, and worn parts,
such as scored plungers, packing rings, valve seats, etc., should be
replaced if necessary. Prior to (and after) taking the boiler out of ser-
vice for overhaul, it might be well to check for blowoff-valve leakage.
Such leakage can be detected (with valves closed) by placing a hand
on the discharge line to check the temperature, care being exercised
not to get burned. If the line stays hot, leakage is evident. A rod held
against the discharge line and used as a listening device also will
detect leakage.
Blowoff connections cannot be run directly to a sewer or to the
atmosphere. Steam and hot water might damage the sewer. Flashing
steam might prove harmful to persons in the vicinity. Blowoff lines
are run into a blowoff tank, entering at a point above the waterline
maintained in the tank. The blowdown water and flashing steam are
then discharged above the water level, where there is a vent in the
Boiler Accessories 387
388
Boiler Accessories 389
With reference to Fig. 6.25b, the main valve is installed with the
boiler pressure entering under the valve disk. The autopilot is piped so
that pressure in the annular space between dashpots (A) and (B) of
the main valve will enter under the automatic-pilot piston (H). The
outlet of the autopilot is connected to the main steam line some 10 to
15 ft on the valve discharge side. Test line 4 is run to the operating-
floor level for manual testing of the valve by the operator; it remains
closed except during testing.
In operation, when the boiler pressure overcomes the main steam
line pressure, the main valve (D) opens to admit steam. Steam from
the boiler also passes through the bypass in the center of the disk,
through the ball check valve (N), and then to the top of the piston
(A). Small orifice holes (C) permit the passage of steam to the annu-
lar space between dashpots (A) and (B), as well as to the autopilot
(H) through valve 3.
In the event of a ruptured boiler tube, the pressure in the steam line
forces the valve (D) to close. The steam located between the stationary
disk (B) and the moving dashpot (A) tends to cushion the movement,
preventing hammer or shock. If there is a break in the main steam
line, the pressure on that side of the valve—and to the top of the pilot
valve (H)—begins to drop. When it drops to about 8 psi below the boiler
pressure, the boiler pressure raises the pilot valve (H), permitting
steam to escape from between (A) and (B); the main valve immedi-
ately moves to the closed position.
To test the main valve, the operator at the floor level opens valve 4
to accomplish the same thing as the foregoing (a break in the main
steam line); opening valve 4 adjusts the valve to a closed position.
Opening the test valve 4 creates an imbalance in the main valve and
causes it to close, and the boiler-pressure gauge will immediately
record an increase in pressure to prove that the main valve is closed.
When the test valve is closed again, the main valve resumes its normal
automatic position.
Several typical installations of nonreturn and stop valves are
shown in Fig. 6.26. When boilers are set in series and are carrying
more than 135 psi, they must be equipped with two steam valves,
one of which can be a nonreturn valve. The nonreturn valve should
be placed nearest the boiler as close to the boiler outlet as possible. It
should be equipped with a drain or bleeder line for removing the water
(condensation) before the valve is opened. In all cases, the valve
design, arrangement, and requirements must be in accordance with
the ASME code.
The nonreturn valve should be dismantled, inspected, and over-
hauled annually. The packing should be replaced and the corroded
parts cleaned. The valves and seats should be checked for leakage,
and the defective parts should be replaced.
390 Chapter Six
6.9 Sootblowers
Boiler tubes and heating surfaces get dirty because of an accumula-
tion of soot, slag deposits, and fly ash. These substances are excellent
insulators and reduce the effectiveness of the heating surface.
Therefore, they must be removed to ensure the continuation of opti-
mal boiler performance. Removal can be accomplished by using a
hand lance or a sootblower. Steam and compressed air are usually
used for blowing, although water and shot are sometimes used to
remove certain types of deposits that become baked hard and are dif-
ficult to remove with the conventional sootblower.
Sootblowers are mechanical devices that are used for on-line cleaning
of gas-side boiler ash and slag deposits. They direct a cleaning medium
through nozzles and against the ash that has accumulated on the heat-
transfer surfaces of boilers in order to remove the ash deposits and
maintain the effectiveness of the heat-transfer surfaces.
392 Chapter Six
The type of sootblower required varies with the location in the boiler,
the cleaning area required, and the severity of the accumulated ash.
Sootblowers basically consist of
1. A tube element or lance that is inserted into the boiler and carries
the cleaning medium
2. Nozzles in the tip of the lance to direct the cleaning medium and
increase its velocity
3. A mechanical system for insertion and rotation of the lance
4. A control system
Figure 6.30 IK-525 type retractable sootblower. (Diamond Power International, Inc.)
Figure 6.31 IR-3 type furnace wall retractable sootblower. (Diamond Power
International, Inc.)
6.10 Valves
Valves are used to control the flow of water to the boiler and steam
from the boiler to the main steam line and eventually to the equipment
using the steam. They are also used in all auxiliary piping systems.
They are attached to the piping in several ways: The body of the valve
may be equipped with pipe threads so that the valve can be screwed
into position, or the valve may be equipped with flanges and bolted in
position, or, on high-pressure boilers, valves are welded into position.
The globe valve (Fig. 6.32) consists of a plug or disk that is forced
into a tapered hole called a seat. The angle used on the taper of the
seat and disk varies with the valve size and the kind of service to which
the valve is applied. Globe valves are used when the flow is to be
restricted or throttled. Whenever a globe valve is used on feed piping,
the inlet shall be under the valve disk. The seats and disks on the
globe valve are not cut by the throttling action as readily as with gate
valves. Valve parts are easy to repair and replace. The disadvantages
of the globe valve are (1) increased resistance to flow, i.e., high-pres-
sure drop, (2) the fact that more force is required to close the valve
because of the increased pressure under the disk, and (3) the possibil-
ity that foreign matter may cause plugging of the valve.
The gate valve (Fig. 6.33), as the name implies, consists of a gate
that can be raised or lowered into a passageway. The gate is at right
angles to the flow and moves up and down in slots that hold it in the
correct vertical position. It is usually wedge shaped so that it will
tighten against the sides of the slots when completely shut off. A gate
valve is used chiefly where the valve is to be operated either wide open
or closed and never should be used for throttling purposes. When
wide open, it offers very little resistance to flow, and consequently,
pressure drop through the valve is minimized. The pressure acts on
one side of the gate so that the gate is forced against the guides and
requires considerable force to operate, at least for the larger valves.
The gate valve is a difficult valve to repair once the seats have been
damaged. If a gate valve is kept in an intermediate or partially open
position, the bottom of the wedge and the seat will become badly eroded
in a short time.
For both the globe and gate valves, the body contains the valve seat.
The valve bonnet is attached to the valve body by a threaded nut or
400 Chapter Six
bolted flange (Fig. 6.34), depending on the size of the valve. The flanged-
fitting steel valve shown is used on a steam line and is equipped with a
bypass valve. The bypass valve is opened prior to opening the main
valve, permitting the line to heat up and equalize the pressure on both
sides of the valve, thus making the valve easier to open.
The valve stem extends through the bonnet and is threaded and
fitted with a handwheel. The bonnet is provided with a packing
gland that prevents leakage around the valve stem. The movable
part of the valve element is carried on the end of the valve stem.
Turning the valve wheel moves the stem in or out, opening or closing
the valve.
Automatic-control valves, such as a valve operated by a feedwater
regulator, must be designed so that little force will be required to
operate them. This is accomplished by the use of a balanced valve
(Fig. 6.35), which is similar to a two-seated globe valve. The balanced
valve has two seats and two disks. One of these disks opens against,
and one with, the pressure; i.e., a balanced valve has the pressure on
the top of one disk and on the bottom of the other. Thus the pres-
sures are balanced, and it is possible to open or close the valve with a
minimum of effort. Two-seated valves, such as the balanced valve,
are not tight shutoff valves. They should be checked and inspected
frequently. A listening rod can be used to determine whether the
valve leaks.
The check valve (Fig. 6.36) is a modified globe valve without a
stem. It is usually arranged so that it closes by gravity. The flow is
directed under the valve to raise it from its seat; if the flow reverses,
gravity plus the pressure above the valve closes it. The check valve is
used where a flow in only one direction is desired. One of the main
uses of this valve is in the feedwater line to the boiler.
Many forms of reducing valves are used to operate auxiliary
equipment not requiring boiler pressures, such as for low-pressure
heating systems or heat exchangers. The reducing valve consists of
a balanced valve actuated by the pressure on the low-pressure side,
the low pressure acting on a diaphragm to open or close the bal-
anced valve.
The steam-pressure reducing and regulating valve (Fig. 6.37) is a
single-seated, spring-loaded direct-acting diaphragm valve. This
valve automatically reduces a high initial pressure to a lower deliv-
ery pressure, maintaining that lower pressure within reasonably
close limits regardless of fluctuations in the high-pressure side of
the line.
The inner valve assembly is easy to clean or replace by loosening
the hex-head bottom plug. Major repairs are made without removing
the valve from the line by having a bypass line around the valve.
Pressure adjustments are readily made by simply turning the top
speeds, steam and water flow, etc. In addition, automatic control systems
are now common in most power plants, and these systems provide a
safe and efficient operation.
A draft gauge is necessary on all boilers for indicating the furnace
draft. Indication of the pressure under the stoker fuel bed (forced-
draft-fan pressure) as well as draft at various points in the boiler is
also desirable. This permits the operator to obtain proper furnace con-
ditions, regulate the air supply to the fuel bed, and vary the capacity.
When multiple-retort stokers are used, pressures under each section
of the grate should be indicated, since proper air distribution can be
determined accurately only in this manner.
Every boiler must have a pressure gauge to indicate the boiler
steam pressure. Pressure gauges are also used to indicate or record
the main steam line pressure or the pressure of water in the feed line.
They also can be used in the feed or steam line to indicate flow, if ref-
erence is made to the pressure drop in the line. Pressure gauges are
used for many other purposes and are perhaps the most common
instrument used.
Temperature indicators and recorders are used for steam, water,
flue gas, air, and fuel temperatures and for many other purposes.
Also, there are carbon dioxide recorders, flowmeters for steam and
water, indicators and recorders for boiler water level, and, required
more recently, instrumentation that records stack opacity (clarity),
sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions, and nitrogen oxide (NOx) levels. The
advantage of using a recorder is that we can make reference to it for
changes that occur during operation and during emergencies. The
record is then available for analysis and correction of the problem.
In many modern installations, digital displayed microprocessor
control systems are being utilized for instant display of all controlled
devices. These centrally located systems provide the operator with
the ability to control, record, and locate potential problem areas.
These systems also have the capability of being programmed to provide
corrective procedures in cases of equipment breakdown or during
emergencies.
Records obtained from instruments make it possible for the operator
or management to determine whether the best operating practice is
being maintained. Instruments and controls are usually expensive to
install and maintain, and it therefore becomes a decision for each
plant to determine just what is required or necessary to perform the
task for which each is intended.
A distributed control system (DCS) automates the control of a
process or of a plant. The system reads field device inputs such as
thermocouples and pressure transmitters, calculates the optimal out-
Boiler Accessories 405
control airflow and the lever on the stoker to adjust the fuel-feed rate.
Such units usually have constant-speed forced-draft fans equipped
with dampers or inlet vanes that are positioned to control the air for
combustion. Furnace-draft controllers are used to maintain the fur-
nace draft within desired limits. This control operates independently
of the positioning-control system.
For the normal positioning-type control, the only time the airflow
and fuel feed are in agreement is at a fixed point, usually where con-
trol calibration was made. This is so because the airflow is not propor-
tional to damper movement. Variables that affect this relationship
are the type of damper, variations in fuel-bed depth, variations in fuel
quality, and lost motion in control linkage. The necessity of frequent
manual adjustment to synchronize the previous control is readily
apparent.
For the positioning-type control, the variables are in part corrected
through the proper alignment of levers and connecting linkage
between the power unit and the damper and fuel-feed levers that they
operate, by installing cams and rods calibrated to alter the arc angu-
larity of travel from the power-unit levers. These compensate for the
movement characteristics of fuel-feed and air-damper control. In addi-
tion, this system can be provided with a convenient means for manual
control, operation from a central point. This remote manual-control
system can be used for changing the distribution of the load between
boilers or for making adjustments in the fuel-feed rate to compensate
for changes in fuel quality. The positioning-type control has an advan-
tage over the off-on control in that the fuel and air can be provided in
small increments to maintain continuous operation, therefore elimi-
nating off-on cycling.
Metering control is used when the fuel rate and heat input (in
Btu/h) vary widely because of variations in fuel supply and heat con-
tent and when combination fuels are burned. Here the fuel and air
are metered, maintaining the correct air-fuel ratio for best combus-
tion results, based on design and testing. The steam (or water) flow
can be a measure of fuel feed. That is accomplished by measuring the
pressure drop across an orifice, flow nozzle, or venturi. Air for com-
bustion also can be metered by passing the air through an orifice, but
most frequently airflow is measured by the draft loss across the boil-
er or air preheater (gas side) or across the air preheater (air side).
The air side is frequently chosen as the point of measurement in
order to prevent dust and dirt from clogging the lines and fouling the
control system.
The metering-type control is more accurate than the positioning
system, since compensation for variables is obtained through meter-
408 Chapter Six
ing without regard for levers, linkage, lost motion, damper position,
fuel variables, etc. Also, with the metering control, the fuel-air ratio
can be readjusted from the air-steam flow relationship. The metering
control usually incorporates a remote manual station wherein the
control system can be modified and where hand or automatic operation
is possible. There are many varieties of combustion-control systems.
They may operate pneumatically, hydraulically, electrically, electroni-
cally, and sometimes in combination.
For the pneumatic system, all instruments in the control loop are
air-activated measurements, to and from central points. Steam pressure
is controlled by parallel control of air and fuel, and high-low signal
selectors function to maintain an air-fuel mixture.
Airflow to the furnace is controlled by automatic positioning of the
forced-draft fan inlet vanes. Furnace draft is maintained at the desired
value by control or positioning of the induced-draft-fan damper.
Feedwater flow to the boiler drum is controlled separately by feedwater-
control valves.
Adjustment is provided at the panel board for steam-pressure set
point, fuel-air ratio, furnace draft, and drum-level set points. The con-
trols would include pneumatic switches for transfer from automatic to
manual control, and manual control can be accomplished from the
control panel.
Figure 6.38 is a schematic diagram for an all-electronic instru-
mentation system that is designed for a pulverized-coal-fired plant.
Electronic transmission permits locating measurement transmit-
ters and final control elements at long distances from the control
panel.
As shown in the schematic, steam pressure is maintained at the
correct value by controlled positioning of air dampers controlling air-
flow to the pulverizers. The fuel controller automatically corrects for
variation in the number of pulverizers in service.
Airflow is controlled by positioning inlet vanes of the forced-draft
fan. Steam flow, as an inferential measurement of fuel input, controls
airflow. Fuel-air ratio is adjusted by the operator at a ratio station on
the control panel.
Coal-air mixture is controlled at a temperature set by the operator.
Temperature controller output automatically positions hot-air and
tempering-air damper operators to produce the desired temperature.
A furnace draft controller positions the induced-draft-fan damper to
maintain draft as set by the operator.
Long-distance all-electronic instruments enable fully centralized
control, a significant improvement over decentralized arrangements
with instruments scattered throughout the plant. The automatic
Boiler Accessories 409
The DAS has several data calculation and management reporting and
recording capabilities. It calculates the emission averages and outputs
them to a variety of units, such as recorders. The sampling system
Boiler Accessories 411
brings the flue gas into position for analysis. A typical data acquisition
and reporting computer system is shown with a CEM system in Fig.
6.40. This system consists of a data logger and central computer sys-
tem. The data logger handles all the input-output (I/O) points between
the analyzer system and central computer system. Periodic emission
summary reports can be made on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis
(or other as required) together with calibration reports on a daily
basis, if this is necessary.
Figure 6.41 ABB SYMPHONY control system with overhead display. (ABB, Inc.)
6.4 Describe the system that is widely used on modern boilers to transmit
water-level signals to the control room.
6.5 A steam gauge is located 25 ft above the steam line. The gauge reads 245
psi. What is the pressure in the steam line?
6.6 A steam gauge is installed where it is 15 ft below the steam line. In check-
ing this gauge, how would you set the pointer of the gauge so that it
would indicate the correct steam line pressure?
6.7 What is a thermocouple, and how is it used for the measurement of tem-
perature? Name a common use of thermocouples.
6.9 Explain the difference between a two- and three-element feedwater regu-
lator. Which is the most commonly used system?
6.10 Why is the safety valve the most critical valve on a boiler? How are they
actuated and then closed?
6.11 Explain the differences in use for a safety valve and a relief valve.
6.12 For a drum boiler with a superheater, how are the safety valves set?
What sets the requirements for safety valves?
6.13 What are some of the essential requirements and rules governing safety
valves and their installation and operation?
6.16 Which safety valve should be set to pop first, the one on the boiler or the
one on the superheater? Why?
6.19 To account for safety-valve discharge, what are the precautions that must
be considered in the design installation?
6.20 A safety valve is 41⁄2 in in diameter and the boiler pressure is 250 psi.
What is the total force on the valve?
6.22 How and why is heat recovered from a continuous blowdown system?
6.24 In the design of steam piping, what is a critical evaluation factor in deter-
mining its proper size?
6.25 Prior to operation and after construction or repairs, what must be done to
the steam piping?
6.27 For sootblowers, what cleaning mediums are used, and which of these is
preferred? Provide some advantages and disadvantages for the use of
each.
6.28 Describe the various types of sootblowers, and provide examples of their
locations and use.
6.29 When are sootblowers operated? For modern boiler designs, describe soot-
blower operation.
6.30 Explain the difference between a globe and a gate valve. Where would
you use a globe valve in preference to a gate valve?
6.31 What is a check valve? Where is it normally used? How does it operate?
6.32 Name the most common instruments found in a steam power plant, and
describe their purpose.
6.34 In the control of a boiler, what are some of the major areas that must be
coordinated?
6.36 Describe the benefits that result from an automatic combustion system.
418 Chapter Six
6.38 Compare the operation and advantages of a CEM system and an Orsat
gas analyzer.
6.39 Digital-based instrumentation and control (I&C) systems are part of the
modern power plant. What are the advantages gained with the use of
these systems?
Chapter
7
Operation and Maintenance
of Boilers
419
420 Chapter Seven
used in the most effective manner. Note and memorize the draft-gauge
reading (wind box, furnace, boiler outlet, etc.) when the combustion is
satisfactory. These values should be used as a means of quickly estab-
lishing normal conditions, detecting trouble, and changing capacity. The
draft gauge indicates the airflow to and the products of combustion
from the furnace. (See Chap. 4 for an explanation of draft as applied
to combustion.)
What type of feedwater regulator is used, and where are the bypass
valves located? Is there an auxiliary feedwater piping system?
Water is a very unique substance because it exists in three forms at
normal temperatures: ice, water, and steam. It absorbs more heat for a
given temperature rise than any other common substance. A pound of
water increases its volume by over 1600 times as it evaporates at
atmospheric pressure to form steam. Steam has the capability of carry-
ing large quantities of heat. It is these unique properties of water that
make it an ideal substance for the heating and power-generating
processes.
However, all water is not the same because it contains varying
amounts of dissolved and suspended matter and dissolved gases.
Seawater and freshwater vary significantly, and the amount of impu-
rities in freshwater varies with the source, such as a river, lake, or
well. These impurities are important considerations when the water
is used for steam generation. Because of this, boiler water treatment is
a key factor for a power plant to operate successfully.
The operator’s job is to supply water to the boilers in the quantity
required to replace what is being evaporated. Usually the boilers are
equipped with regulators that control the flow to maintain the right
level, thus relieving the operator of the tedious task of making repeti-
tive adjustments. These automatic devices do not, however, relieve the
operator of the responsibility of maintaining the water level. Frequent
monitoring of the system must include water levels in the heaters and
softeners and water temperature and pressure at the boiler feed pump
discharge. In many cases these important quantities are recorded for
the operator ’s convenience and to provide a permanent record.
Improperly set water columns as well as leaking or stopped-up connec-
tions will cause water columns to show false levels. The water column
must be blown down periodically, and the high- and low-water alarm
must be checked. The feedwater regulator should be blown down and
checked according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The recorders
and other devices are convenient but must be checked frequently with
the water level in the gauge glass. It is desirable to use hot feedwater,
and the temperature should be maintained as high as feasible with
the equipment available and within design limits.
The task of maintaining the water level is difficult because during
operation the boiler is filled with a mixture of water and steam bubbles.
When the water level in the drum drops, there is an obvious tendency
to add water. This tendency occurs with both hand and automatic
control. The addition of water, at a temperature lower than the water
in the boiler, causes the steam in the bubbles to condense. This action
decreases the volume of the steam and water mixture in the boiler
and results in a further drop in level and a tendency to add more
water. Then when the normal ratio of water to steam bubbles is
428 Chapter Seven
restored, the level in the drum will be too high. The result is a cyclic
condition in which the water level in the drum is alternately high and
low. This condition is avoided by the use of two- or three-element
feedwater regulators. Two-element feedwater regulators sense both
the drum level and steam flow rates. This combined signal is used to
actuate the feedwater flow control valve. The three-element feedwater
regulator senses the drum level and the steam and feedwater flow rates
and uses the combined signal to actuate the feedwater flow control
valve. The object of these controls is to keep the feedwater flow equal to
the steam flow. If because of blowing down or other irregularities the
drum level fails to remain within the desired range, the signal from
the drum level corrects the rate of flow of feedwater until the unbal-
anced situation is corrected. (See Sec. 6.4.)
Power producers are well aware of the economic penalties that
occur when a component failure causes a plant shutdown. One of the
heaviest financial burdens is attributable to steam-cycle corrosion,
which accounts for about half the plant forced outages. Attractive
financial returns are possible for improving water chemistry.
Proper water treatment and chemistry control result in the follow-
ing benefits:
1
The name zeolite refers to a group of water-softening chemicals that are capable of
exchanging ions with which they come in contact. Hard water is passed downward
through a bed of sodium-regenerated zeolite that is contained in a steel pressure vessel.
As the water passes through the ion-exchange material, the calcium and magnesium
ions are exchanged for sodium in the zeolite. Regeneration of a zeolite bed is accom-
plished by passing a salt solution through the softener.
432 Chapter Seven
Some of the more common additives for drum boilers are hydroxide,
phosphate, and chelant. Hydroxide (NaOH) is used on very low pres-
sure industrial-type boilers. The use of phosphate is common for
industrial boilers operating below 1000 psi. Phosphate salts are used
extensively to react with the hardness in the water and thus prevent
scale deposits. However, the phosphate reacts with the hardness in
the water to form a sludge, which in some cases may result in objection-
able deposits. Organic compounds are then used to keep the sludge in
circulation until it can be removed through the blowdown. The
amount of sludge formed depends on the amount of hardness intro-
duced to the boiler in the feedwater. Therefore, it is desirable to have
the hardness of the feedwater as low as possible. The phosphate
treatment should be supplied directly to the boiler drum with a chem-
ical pump. If introduced into the suction of the boiler feed pump, most
phosphates will react with the impurities in the water and cause
deposits in the pumps, piping, feedwater regulators, and valves.
Therefore, the phosphate should be dissolved in the condensate to
prevent deposit in the chemical feed pump and lines. The amount of
treatment is controlled by analysis of the boiler water for excess phos-
phate. This analysis consists of a color comparison of a treated sample
with standards. Generally less than 40 ppm is satisfactory to ensure
removal of the hardness. Since this phosphate treatment removes the
hardness, it is not necessary to run a soap hardness test on boiler
water if the specified amount is maintained.
Care must be exercised in introducing phosphate into a boiler that
contains scale. For example, on a fire-tube boiler, the old scale may be
loosened from the tubes by the action of the phosphate and collected in
a mass on the heating surface, causing bags, overheating, and ultimate
failure. When phosphate is supplied to a boiler that already contains
scale, the boiler should be inspected frequently and the amount of excess
maintained at about 20 ppm. In time the phosphate will remove the
old scale, but it is better to start the treatment with a clean boiler.
For industrial boilers, another approach to internal boiler water
conditioning is the use of chemicals that prevent the precipitation of
scale-forming materials. These chemicals have chelating power in that
calcium, magnesium, and other common metals are tied up in the water
and are eventually removed by continuous blowdown. This action pre-
vents the formation of scale and sludge in boilers, heat exchangers,
and piping and is effective over the normal range of alkalinity
encountered in boiler plant operation. Chelant chemicals are sold
under a variety of trade names.
The treatment is introduced into the boiler feed line by means of a
standard chemical feed pump. The pump and piping should be of
corrosion-resistant stainless steel for high pressure and of either
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 433
Figure 7.2 Typical furnace waterwall tube overheat failure. (Babcock & Wilcox, a
McDermott company.)
exact feedwater flow rate is not known precisely, and this flow rate
varies as the load conditions of the boiler changes. These unknowns
prevent exact treatment from being determined by using flow rates.
Another method used by water treatment chemical companies is a wet
chemistry method for the analysis of the treatment concentration.
Such a method requires a significant amount of time for plant opera-
tion to complete the analysis. Both methods are time-dependent, and
because of this, the actual treatment requirements lag the boiler
operating parameters.
Boiler water treatment companies and power plant operators strive
continuously to improve plant performance. One such concept is the use
of a fluorescent tracer in the boiler water treatment chemicals. Since the
success of any water treatment program depends on the correct dosage
of chemicals being applied to the boiler, the use of a tracer is an alter-
native method for maintaining the boiler water concentration.
The application of a tracer to a boiler is shown schematically in Fig.
7.3. The feedwater flow, blowdown, and steam flow are shown, as well
as the added chemicals which include the tracer. Since the tracer is an
integral part of the treatment chemicals added to the feedwater, the
exact concentration ratio of the chemical treatment to the tracer is
known. Therefore, by analyzing the tracer concentration in the feed-
water, the exact concentration of the added boiler treatment is also
known. Boiler cycles can be determined easily by measuring the concen-
tration of a tracer in the feedwater and in the blowdown. The fluores-
cent tracer can be monitored by continuously sampling the feedwater
and blowdown, and controls adjust the chemical feed rate based on
the input signal.
these wide variations occur in daily cycles. Keeping the boilers oper-
ating near their most efficient load results in a fuel savings.
The addition of economizers and air preheaters and improvement in
combustion equipment have resulted in boiler units that have a wide
range of output at nearly maximum efficiency. This is referred to as
having a flat efficiency curve and is essential to large plants when one
boiler supplies all the steam for a turbine generator. For peak
demands, boilers can be operated beyond their most efficient output
as the design allows. Consideration of boiler loading improves plant
economy and decreases outages and maintenance.
The operators should reduce the air leakage into the boiler setting
to a minimum. The air that enters through leaks must be handled by
the stack or induced-draft fan and frequently limits the maximum
output of the boiler. The heat required to raise the air to the exit gas
temperature is lost. A check for air leaks should be made while the
boiler is operating by placing an open flame near points where leaks
are suspected. The flame will be drawn into the setting by the draft. A
torch made with a pipe fitting and wicking, and burning kerosene, is
useful in testing for leaks.
Another method of testing a boiler setting for air leaks is to analyze
both the gases leaving the furnace and those at the induced-draft fan
inlet. The increase in excess air as indicated by these two analyses
represents the air leakage in the setting. However, caution must be
exercised in making these analyses because of the flue gas temperature.
A series of samples must be taken at each location to ensure that the
results represent average values.
Air leaks in boiler settings should be sealed by the application of a
commercial compound manufactured for this purpose. The material
selected should remain pliable to compensate for the movement
resulting from expansion and contraction of the boiler.
The use of the correct amount of excess air is an important consid-
eration for the best overall results. Too much air wastes heat to the
stack, while too little causes overheating of the furnace, unburned
carbon in the ash, smoke, and unburned gases. (See Chaps. 4 and 5
for a discussion of excess air.) Study the conditions in the plant and
regulate the excess air by observing furnace temperature, smoke,
clinker formation, and combustible in the ash to give the best overall
results. After the correct amount of air has been determined by expe-
rience, use draft gauges, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, or oxygen
recorders, and steam-flow–airflow meters as guides in regulating the
supply. In general, the excess air should be lowered until trouble begins
to develop. This may be in the form of smoke, clinkers, high furnace
temperature or stoker maintenance, slagging of the boiler tubes, or high
combustibles in the ash. The combustible material dumped from the
442 Chapter Seven
furnace with the ash represents heat in the original fuel that the fur-
nace failed to develop. It represents a direct loss and must be considered
by the operator. The designers of combustion equipment are continually
striving to design units that will reduce this loss. In the cases of hand
firing and with stokers, the amount of unburned carbon in the ash
depends, to a large extent, on the skill of the operator. Dump the ash or
clean fires as often as required for best overall results. Maintain an
even distribution of fuel on the grates so that the combustible matter
will be burned nearly completely before dumping. Learn to operate so
that the formation of clinkers will be at a minimum. Avoid excessively
high rates of combustion. It is difficult to determine the amount of
unburned carbon in the ash by observation; the only sure way is to
collect a representative sample and send it to a laboratory for analysis.
A deficiency of air or failure to obtain mixing of air and combustible
gases will result in burning the carbon to carbon monoxide rather than
to carbon dioxide. When this occurs, approximately 10,185 Btu of heat
per pound of carbon passes out of the stack unburned (see Sec. 4.2). A
flue gas analysis provides the only sure means of detecting and evalu-
ating the amount of carbon monoxide. High percentages of carbon
monoxide gas are usually accompanied by unburned hydrocarbons,
which produce smoke. Because of particulate control equipment,
smoke may not be readily observed. However, instrumentation such
as continuous-emissions-monitoring (CEM) equipment will identify
the situation for the operator.
After the heat has been developed in the furnace, the largest possible
amount must be absorbed by the water and steam in the boiler. Scale
formation on the water side of the heating surface and soot and ash on
the gas side act as insulators and cause high flue gas temperature. It
has been noted how water treatment can eliminate scale from the
water side of the heating surface. Failure on the part of the water-
treating system to function, due either to an inadequate system or to
unskillful application, will result in the formation of scale. This scale
must be removed either by mechanical methods or by acid cleaning.
Soot and ash are removed by means of sootblowers.
To operate mechanical sootblowers, open the drain of the sootblower
header to remove the accumulation of water. Then open the steam
supply valve. Slowly turn each sootblower through its entire arc of
travel by means of the chain or handwheel. It is advisable to start
with the element nearest the furnace and progress toward the boiler
outlet. Sometimes it is found desirable to increase the draft during
sootblowing to prevent a pressure from developing in the furnace and
to carry away the soot and ash removed from the tubes. Care should
be exercised in draining the steam lines to the sootblowers, since
water will cause warping and breakage of the elements.
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 443
There are two distinct sections in the bed, the dense bed and the
dilute bed. The term bed density is a measure of the weight of the parti-
cle material per volume of flue gas. In the primary zone of the furnace,
there is a higher density and inventory of particles, and in the upper
zone of the furnace, there is a lower density and inventory of particles.
Between these two zones there is a transition area, called freeboard,
where there is a distinct change in particle density.
In order to operate properly, the CFB design must include additional
instrumentation that provides information to the operator for manage-
ment of the bed. This information provides the following:
2
When quick-closing valves are installed on water lines, severe waterhammer or
shock may result when the valve is closed quickly. The resulting surge of pressure
causes excessive shock and vibration in the line. As a method to absorb this surge, a
vertical standpipe is located before the valve.
448 Chapter Seven
detector, as all modern boilers are, the fuel feed will be shut off auto-
matically. When this safety device was not provided, the fuel supply had
to be shut off by the operator. After the flame is out, regulate the air-
flow to about 10 percent of the maximum and allow 5 min for the pul-
verized coal, oil, or gas to be purged from the furnace. Then proceed
to relight as in normal starting.
Power failures or other emergencies make it impossible to remove
all the coal from the pulverizing mill before shutting down. When this
occurs and a mill is to be returned to service within 3 h, the partly
pulverized coal may be allowed to remain. However, if the outage is
to be longer than 3 h, the coal should be cleaned out to avoid the pos-
sibility of fire. If a fire should develop while the pulverizer is out of
service, close all the outlets and, one at a time, open the cleanout or
access doors and drench the interior with water, chemical fire extin-
guisher, or steam. Do not stand in front of the doors or inhale these
gases because they may be poisonous. Guard against possible explo-
sion of the gases formed in the mill. After the fire is out, the material
in the mill has been reduced to a temperature below the ignition
point, and the pulverizer room has been ventilated, remove all the
coal from the mill. Never use an air hose or a vacuum system in
cleaning the pulverizer mill.
Fires in pulverizers during operation are very infrequent, but they
sometimes occur as a result of fire originating in the raw-coal bunker,
failure to clean up after welding, or using inlet air to the pulverizer
that is too high a temperature. The general procedure in this emer-
gency is to reduce the supply of air so that the mixture in the mill
will be too rich to support combustion. Fire in a pulverizer may be
detected by the rapid rise in outlet temperature of the coal-and-air
mixture. When this occurs, increase the fuel feed to maximum and
supply the pulverizer with cold air. Do not increase the air supply or
reduce the fuel feed. If the temperature does not begin to return to
normal within 15 min, shut down the pulverizer and close off the air
supply; then follow the procedure explained above for a fire in a
pulverizer out of service.
When a safety valve will not close but continues to leak at a pres-
sure lower than that for which it is set, try to free it by operating the
lift levers. If this fails to stop the leak, the valve must be repaired or
replaced. Never attempt to stop a leaking safety valve by blocking or
tightening the spring.
When a gauge glass breaks, shut off the flow of steam and water.
While the gauge glass is out of service, check the water level by using
the try cock. Before inserting the new gauge glass, blow out the con-
nections to make sure that no broken pieces remain in the fitting, and
check the glass and the gasket for the correct length and size. Pull up
450 Chapter Seven
the packing slowly and not too tightly to avoid breaking the glass.
When the new glass is in position, open the top or steam valve first
and allow the drain valve to remain open. This permits steam to circu-
late through the glass, gradually heating the entire surface to a uniform
temperature. Then partly open the lower valve. After the water has
reached the normal level, open both valves all the way, and the glass
is in service. When the lower valve is first opened, the glass is subjected
to a variation in temperature that may result in breakage. Always
keep a supply of gauge glasses and gaskets available as part of the
spare-part inventory. Replace gauge glasses that become discolored
and difficult to read.
using the induced-draft fan to circulate cold air through the unit
should be resorted to only after the pressure has been reduced by
normal cooling. When there is no pressure in the boiler, open the
drum vent to prevent the formation of a vacuum. Allow the boiler to
cool as much as possible before draining. If the boiler is drained when
too hot, sludge may be baked on the surfaces or the unequal contrac-
tion may cause tubes to leak. When there are multiple boilers, check
carefully to see if the proper blowoff valves are opened and closed.
In the case of a water-tube boiler, proceed to wash the drums and
tubes. Use the highest water pressure available to remove any sludge
and soft scale. On a bent-tube boiler, the tubes may be washed by
working from inside the drum. To wash straight-tube boilers effectively,
the handhole covers must be removed. This is seldom advisable
because of the labor required to remove and replace the handhole
covers. If, however, these covers are taken off, the deposits should be
removed by passing a mechanical cleaner through the tubes. Wash the
tubes of the return tubular boiler from both the top and the bottom
openings. Allow the wash water to drain through the blowoff lines to
the wastewater-treating system. Exercise care to prevent the water
from getting on the brickwork. If this is unavoidable, dry out the
brickwork slowly before putting the boiler back into service.
There are two ways to proceed in laying up a boiler: One is to keep
the interior dry, and the other is to fill the interior with water. The
choice of methods depends on how long a boiler is to remain out of
service. If for a long period of time, the dry method is recommended.
If for a short or rather indefinite period, it is better to fill the drums
with water.
To take a boiler out of service for an extended period of time, remove
the ashes from the interior, especially where they are in contact with
metal parts. Ashes contain sulfur and tend to collect moisture and
form acid, which is corrosive. Make sure that all connections, including
the steam outlet, feedwater, and blowoff valves, are closed and hold-
ing tightly. Repair or blank off leaking valves. After washing, allow
the interior to dry. Then place hydrated lime, silica gel, or other mois-
ture absorbent in the drum in suitable open boxes or containers to
draw off the trapped moisture. Notify the insurance company that the
boiler is not in service, and ask the company to adjust the insurance
coverage accordingly. The insurance company must again be notified
when the boiler is returned to service. The interior should be inspected
every few months, and the moisture absorbent should be replaced
when required after its effectiveness has been reduced by the absorp-
tion of moisture.
An alternative method of storing a boiler in readiness for almost
immediate use is to condition the water as recommended by the boiler
452 Chapter Seven
1. For the wet method of lay-up, vent the nitrogen, if used. Reduce
the chemical concentrations in the lay-up water to normal operating
levels. This can be accomplished by partially draining the boiler
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 453
with moisture. This corrosion causes thinning of the tubes and even-
tual tube failure. One method of reducing this problem is to reduce the
deposition on the tubes by operating sootblowers just prior to shut-
down. The tubes most distant from the stack should be blown first,
followed sequentially by tubes closer to the stack.
As with normal and abnormal power plant operation, all these pro-
cedures should be part of the plant’s operating and maintenance
(O&M) manual. Water-management companies should be consulted for
recommendations on proper water treatment and chemistry control.
7.6 Maintenance
It has been stated that when a boiler is clean and tight, it is properly
maintained. At first this may appear simple, but “clean and tight”
applies to the entire field of boiler maintenance. Clean applies to both
the interior and the exterior of the tubes, shell, and drums, as well as
to the walls, baffles, and combustion chamber. Tight refers to the
entire pressure section, setting, baffles, etc. When the heating surface
of a boiler is free from scale on the water side and from soot and ash
deposits on the gas side, it will readily absorb heat. When the boiler is
free from steam and water leaks, air leaks, air leakage into the setting,
and gases leaking through baffles, it is in excellent condition. However,
in the overall operation, the combustion equipment, accessories, and
auxiliaries also must be considered.
Boilers are constructed of different materials to withstand the con-
ditions encountered in service. Any refractory in a furnace has little
tensile strength, but it can withstand high temperatures and resist
the penetrating action of the ash. On the other hand, steel used in
pressure parts of a boiler has high tensile strength. However, care must
be exercised to ensure that its temperature limits are not exceeded.
The designer must select materials for the various parts of the boiler
that are suited to the specific requirements. If selection of materials
is correct and the unit is maintained and operated in accordance with
recognized good practice, the service will be satisfactory. When faulty
operation, excessive temperatures, or other abnormal conditions
cause the safe limits of the material to be exceeded, failures will occur
rapidly, and the equivalent of years of normal deterioration may take
place in a short time.
By conducting a program of routine maintenance on a boiler and
other power plant equipment, the production and life of the equip-
ment are optimized. At one time, maintenance focused on the repair
of damaged equipment; however, this operating philosophy has
evolved into a sophisticated set of programs that include assessing
the condition of the equipment, techniques for predicting the life of
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 455
There are two methods for chemically cleaning that are used more
frequently:
that the unit is clean, the solvent is removed and a neutralizing solution
introduced. After the unit has been drained and flushed with water, it
is ready for service.
Acid cleaning produces good results. Not only is the usual type of
scale readily removed, but even difficult forms of silica and plated
copper have been removed successfully. Deposits of silica compounds
in high-pressure boilers have been very difficult to remove with
mechanical cleaners, discounting the labor-intensiveness of this oper-
ation. Copper dissolved from the tubes of feedwater heaters has been
deposited in boilers, causing scale and corrosion. Unlike mechanical
cleaning, this acid cleaning removes the scale from the headers,
tubes, and drums. Chemical cleaning has gone a long way to reduce
the time and drudgery involved in scale removal and is the primary
cleaning method today.
Boilers are designed and built for a maximum output, and when
this is exceeded, maintenance is increased. High rates of steam gener-
ation may disrupt the circulation in the boiler. When this occurs, the
heat will not be carried away, and the metal may become overheated.
The high rate of steam flow may cause moisture to be carried with the
steam that leaves the boiler drum. High gas temperatures may burn
or distort baffles and flues. Slag may form in the furnace or on the
tubes, limiting combustion and obstructing the flow of gases. Higher
gas flows may increase erosion. Though a high capacity may be
obtained for a short time, it may be necessary to take the boiler out of
service because of the formation of slag or the failure of vital parts of
the combustion equipment. Equipment should be operated within
design limitations, and excessive capacities should be avoided.
The correct amount and distribution of combustion air are impor-
tant considerations in reducing maintenance (see Chaps. 4 and 5). Too
much combustion air results in serious loss of heat in the stack gases,
while insufficient air causes excessive furnace temperatures. This
may cause slagging and early failure of such areas as the furnace
walls, arches, and grates.
Although sootblowers are valuable in removing soot, ashes, and
slag from the gas side of the tubes, they also can be the cause of boiler
outages and maintenance. When sootblowers are adjusted incorrectly,
steam from the nozzles will erode the boiler tubes and cause failure.
To prevent possible damage, the sootblower elements should be
adjusted so that the nozzles do not blow directly against the tubes
and baffles.
Slag on the boiler tubes restricts the flow of gases and reduces the
amount of heat that can be absorbed. This tends to reduce the maxi-
mum output of the boiler and cause high furnace temperatures. The
formation of slag may be caused by incorrect operation of the combus-
tion equipment or by the fuel being unsuited for the furnace, such as
460 Chapter Seven
all baffles to see that the gases are not short-circuiting and thereby
failing to come into contact with all the heating surface. Open the fan
inlet damper to see that it opens wide and closes tightly.
Observe the condition of the exterior of the boiler, piping, and
accessories. Check the arrangement of valves, and inspect the follow-
ing piping systems: main steam line, nonreturn valve and drains,
feedwater piping, steam-gauge connections, sootblower supply lines,
main and continuous blowoff, safety valves, discharge and drains, and
chemical supply to the boiler drum. Inspect the induced-draft fan for
any excessive erosion of fly ash. Operate the combustion-control mech-
anism that moves the damper and coal-feed device. Check the stoker
for burned, plugged, or worn grates and wear or damage to the fuel-
feed mechanism.
Check the sootblowers when the boiler is being inspected. Look for
missing or defective bearings, bent or broken elements, and missing
nozzles. Operate each element and compare the blowing angle with
the specifications. Make sure that the blowing angle is adequate for
cleaning but avoids direct “blow” on the tubes, which can result in
erosion. Make the necessary repairs and adjustments.
After the necessary work has been completed, the boiler is ready to
be closed and filled with water. Make sure that all maintenance equip-
ment has been removed and that all personnel are out of the boiler.
Always put a hydrostatic test on a boiler after it has been opened for
inspection or repairs. Unless extensive repairs have been made to
the drum or shell, it is not necessary to hydrostatically test at 11⁄2 times
the design pressure. The pressure developed by the boiler feed pumps
is sufficient to check for leaking tubes and handhole and manhole gas-
kets. If there are no leaks in the pressure section of the boiler, it is
ready for service.
therefore, the drum is made of carbon steel and is not subject to sig-
nificant creep. Creep is the slow deformation of continuously stressed
metal over time, which could lead eventually to a fracture.
Damage to a drum is primarily due to internal metal loss. This
can be caused by corrosion and oxidation, which can occur during
extended outages if proper precautions are not taken. Damage also
can occur from mechanical and thermal stresses on the drum, which
concentrate at nozzle and attachment welds. These stresses occur
often in boilers that are cycled frequently in an on/off mode of
operation. The feedwater penetration area has the greatest thermal dif-
ferential because incoming feedwater can be several hundred degrees
below the drum temperature.
Steam drums with rolled tubes (e.g., a two-drum boiler) have prob-
lems with tube seat leakage, where there is a slight seeping of water
through the rolled joint. Caustic embrittlement can result if the leak
is not stopped.
In lower drums of industrial-type boilers, large thermal differen-
tial or mechanical stresses are not present; however, rolled-tube
seat leakage can occur, with similar problems resulting as with the
steam drum.
Superheater and reheater tubes are affected by both erosion and
corrosion. In addition, the high temperature results in increased
stress on the tubes. These factors lead to tube cracks and eventual
leaks.
Water-cooled tubes such as the furnace walls, boiler bank, and
economizer operate at or below saturation temperature and therefore
are not subject to significant creep. Proper water chemistry is impor-
tant in maintaining tube life, and if necessary, water-side deposits
can be cleaned by chemicals when required. Erosion and corrosion are
the primary problems of the tubes, assuming that good water chem-
istry is practiced. If not, deposits form on the inside of the tubes, and
heat transfer is affected, which can result in high metal temperatures
and eventual failure of the tube.
These and other components and auxiliaries of the boiler must be
examined and maintained properly during planned outages. This is
proper operation, which will lead to high plant availability.
A typical inspection schedule for an oil- or natural gas–fired boil-
er is shown in Table 7.1. The recommended inspection varies based
on the boiler design and the type of fuel burned. The recommended
procedures are provided by the supplier of the boiler, and they
should be incorporated into the plant’s O&M manual. Computer
software programs are available for the record keeping of all
inspections. These records provide a continuous history of boiler
operation and maintenance and also identify any unusual observa-
tions.
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 467
1. Pressure-part welding
2. Pressure-part to non-pressure-part welding
3. Non-pressure-part welding
All welds for nonpressure parts should meet the requirements of the
American Welding Society. These types of welds can include flues,
ducts, hoppers, casing, and structural steel.
The replacement of tube sections requires a minimum of 12 in of
tube to be replaced. The tube can be removed by a saw or cutoff tool.
However, generally because of limited access, the tube section is
removed with an acetylene torch. The tube ends must be prepared
properly for welding of the new tube section. The use of backing rings
is a common procedure in the welding process. Welding techniques and
procedures are generally furnished by the boiler manufacturer, and
the welding is performed by qualified welders who have passed the
required code testing. The use of postweld heat treatment is required to
relieve residual stresses that are created in the welding process.
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 469
1
Source: Babcock Power, Inc.
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 471
7.3 Identify the procedures that are necessary during startup prior to the
firing of a boiler.
7.4 In the burning of a solid fuel, what significant effect on the boiler opera-
tion does ash have? How is this corrected or managed?
7.5 What are the unique properties of water and steam that make them ideal
for heating and power generation?
7.6 What are the benefits that result from proper water treatment and chem-
istry control?
7.7 What is scale, and how can it affect the operation of a boiler? What is
corrosion?
7.8 What is meant by priming and foaming? What is the difference between
them?
7.10 How is free oxygen removed from boiler feedwater? Why is its removal
important?
7.11 Impurities are often contained in the boiler feedwater. How are these
effectively removed?
7.12 Leaks in boiler tubes occur often. Name several ways in which these can
be detected. Provide some of the major causes of these leaks and methods
for prevention.
7.13 Describe how ultrasonic testing (UT) of tubes can be an effective method
for evaluating the condition of tubes.
7.16 What are the heat losses that must be calculated in order to determine a
test for an accurate boiler efficiency?
7.17 Why does the addition of economizers and air heaters in the overall boiler
design result in higher boiler efficiencies?
7.18 Name several situations that cause high flue gas temperature. What
are the major changes in boiler operation that can change the boiler
efficiency?
7.19 List the benefits that result from a boiler that is properly insulated.
7.20 As compared with a conventional drum-type boiler, what are some of the
more important characteristics of a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler?
7.22 How is the combustion air of a CFB boiler divided? Why is this split so
critical?
7.23 In a bubbling fluid bed (BFB) boiler, what operating procedures are dif-
ferent from a conventional boiler? What additional instrumentation is
required?
7.24 What should an operator do if the water drops below the minimum
required?
7.25 What procedures should be followed in the case of tube failures? What
modern technology is available to determine tube leaks?
7.26 If an induced-draft fan fails, describe the system that safely shuts the
boiler down.
7.27 For a pulverizer, what precautions must be taken for its shutdown?
7.28 If a safety valve is leaking, can the spring be tightened? Why or why not?
What are the proper procedures for repairing a leaking safety valve?
7.31 Develop a tagging procedure for a boiler that is out of service. Identify
whether this should be part of the plant’s operating procedures.
474 Chapter Seven
7.32 For a boiler that is temporarily out of service, describe the procedures for
wet storage.
7.33 Describe the procedures used for returning an idle boiler to normal
operation.
7.36 Why is chemical cleaning preferred over mechanical cleaning of the boiler
internals?
7.37 What are the two most frequently used chemical cleaning methods for a
boiler?
7.38 What are some of the major consequences of operating a boiler in excess
of its design capacity?
7.39 What potential problem can result from improper sootblower operation?
7.44 How should an inspection of a boiler be made? What are the most
important things to look for?
7.45 Describe the most common nondestructive tests that are used in boiler
inspections, boiler construction, and boiler repair. How are they used?
7.46 In the inspection of a water-tube boiler, what are the major areas that
require investigation?
7.47 How would you inspect a sootblower installation to make sure that it was
in good operating condition?
7.48 Describe the two types of steam drums and the common problems that
must be evaluated periodically.
7.49 What are the primary maintenance problems found in all tubes of a
boiler?
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers 475
7.50 Following most welding procedures on pressure parts, what must be done
to relieve the stresses that occur during the welding process?
7.51 What are the reasons that refractory furnace wall designs have been
replaced with designs incorporating water-cooled furnace walls?
7.52 For an HRSG, what are the major areas of inspection that should be con-
ducted? What maintenance issues are unique to HRSGs?
Chapter
8
Pumps
Pumps are used for many purposes and a variety of services: for gen-
eral utility service, cooling water, boiler feed, and lubrication; with
condensing water and sumps; as booster pumps, etc. There is a pump
design best suited to each purpose and individual service.
Turbines and boilers have increased in size, requiring larger boiler
feed pumps. Many of today’s utility boilers operate above the super-
critical pressure of 3206 psi. With increased pump reliability, many
generating stations use fewer pumps, perhaps a single pump for each
boiler-turbine unit. Steam-turbine-driven pumps are often used as
compared with motor-driven pumps. The steam-turbine drive’s
advantages are (1) decreased electric power consumption, (2) ideal
speed operation with the elimination of hydraulic couplings, and (3)
exhaust steam that can be used to improve the station heat balance.
Although there are a variety of pumps found in a power plant, the
basic steam power plant cycle includes a combination of a condensing
and a feedwater heating cycle, and this requires a minimum of three
pumps:
Pumps that are found in power plants come in a variety of sizes and
designs that depend on the fluid and the service. However, pumps are
divided into two major categories: dynamic and displacement pumps.
477
478 Chapter Eight
8.1 Pumps
There are a great variety of pumps from which to make a selection, and
each pump has its specific advantages that need to be analyzed for a
specific application. The simplest pump is the injector or jet pump,
which has been used on small boilers and portable units and has pro-
vided a low first cost and a simple design. Reciprocating pumps find
ready acceptance, particularly in the smaller plant, where first cost is
a factor. They are simple in construction, easy to repair, and reliable
in operation. Rotary pumps find application in handling oil and lubri-
cants. Centrifugal pumps are available for a variety of services and
purposes having an almost unlimited range of industrial applications.
Pumps may be required to lift or raise water on the suction side.
The extent to which this can be done is determined by the type of
pump and the atmospheric pressure. Actually, the pressure of the
atmosphere pushes the water up into the pump suction; the pump
creates a vacuum by movement of the tight-fitting piston or action of
the impeller into which the water (or other liquid) rushes. The height
to which water can be lifted is then influenced by the atmospheric
pressure and water temperature. Consideration must be given to
these variables when pumping installations are being designed.
The total head developed by the pump, usually called the total
dynamic head, is made up of the following:
Pumps 479
1. Total static head of discharge above the level of the suction water
2. Pressure at the point of discharge
3. Pipe friction, including fittings
8.2 Injectors
The injector (Fig. 8.1) is perhaps the simplest pump. It is a device that
was designed to lift and force water into a boiler that was operating
under pressure. It operated on the principle of steam expanding
through a nozzle, imparting its velocity energy to a mass of water.
The injector is often called a jet pump, and is a pump that has no
moving parts and utilizes fluids in motion under controlled condi-
tions. The motive power is provided by a high-pressure stream of fluid
that is directed through a nozzle designed to produce the highest
possible velocity. The resulting jet of high-velocity fluid creates a low-
pressure area in the mixing chamber, causing the suction fluid to flow
into the chamber.
The boiler injector is a jet pump that uses steam as a motive fluid
to entrain water, and it was also used as a boiler feedwater heater
and pump. The now obsolete steam locomotive was the largest user of
this type of injector.
The essential parts of the injector are the steam jet, the suction jet,
the combining and delivery tube and ring, and the overflow and dis-
charge tube. In operation, steam flows from the nozzle (8). The steam
pressure drops as it passes through the jet but gains in velocity. As
the steam passes between the steam jet (8) and the suction jet (7), a
vacuum is created in the “suction” chamber. As a result, water is
drawn into the suction chamber from either the main water supply,
the overhead water-storage tank, or the underground water reservoir.
The high-speed steam jet picks up the water as it crosses the space
between (8) and (7), forcing the water along with the steam into the
combining tube and finally into the delivery tube (6). Here the steam
is condensed; the delivery tube receiving the water (and condensate)
is designed to change a considerable amount of the velocity energy of
the jet into pressure. The heat energy in the expanding steam not
only provides sufficient energy to force the feedwater into the boiler
but in addition heats the water, thus providing both a pump and a
heater in one operation.
480 Chapter Eight
Figure 8.1 (a) Automatic injector installation. (b) Sectional view of injector.
(Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.; no longer manufactured.)
The injector was installed as shown in Fig. 8.1a. The main lever is
used in regulating the inspirator; a check valve (C) is located in the
delivery line ahead of the stop valve (D) to prevent the return of water
from the boiler. The steam line was the same size as the injector con-
nection and was connected to the highest point on the boiler to ensure
Pumps 481
dry steam. A stop valve was provided so that the injector could be
removed. The overflow was as large as or larger than the injector con-
nection and as straight as possible, and it was open to the atmosphere
and not piped below the surface of the water. The suction line had to be
tight. If water entered the injector under pressure from an overhead
storage tank, the line was equipped with a globe valve (B).
The delivery line was at least as large as the injector connection. It
was equipped with a check valve (C) and a globe valve (D). The globe
valve was always positioned wide open except when repairs to the
check valve or injector became necessary.
To operate, the main lever was pulled back until the resistance of
the main steam valve was felt. This lifted the water. When water
appeared at the overflow, the lever was pulled back slowly and steadily
as far as it would go. To stop, the lever was pushed all the way forward.
The maximum water temperature that an injector was considered
capable of handling was 130 to 150°F. Increased lift was accompanied
by a decrease in water temperature. When the water came in contact
with steam, the heat caused some of the impurities to drop out in the
injector. This tended to scale up the nozzles so that the injector failed
to function properly.
Injectors were inefficient pumping units. They were practical only on
small boilers, and they were not entirely reliable. Since modern power
plant practice favors high feedwater temperatures, and since an injector
cannot handle these high water temperatures and because it is also
unreliable, this method of feeding boilers has been discontinued.
The injector offered several advantages. It was very simple and had
no moving parts to get out of order and require replacement. It was
compact and occupied little room, and both the initial cost and the
installation cost were low. It heated the feedwater without the aid of a
heater, and thermally, it was very efficient. It served a valuable ser-
vice in its day.
The duplex pumps, as shown in Figs. 8.2 and 8.3, have two steam and
two water cylinders. Only one of each is shown because the other cylin-
ders are directly behind these. The steam enters the system through
the top chamber on the left, where the steam valve slides back and
forth over the various intake and exhaust ports.
On the water end of the pump shown on the right, the lower two
valves are the intake valves, and the upper valves are the discharge
valves. A hydraulic accumulator is usually located just above the
pump to smooth the flow and prevent water hammer.
Pump dimensions are given in this manner: 3 by 2 by 3. The first
figure refers to the diameter of the steam cylinder, the second to the
diameter of the water cylinder, and the third to the length of the stroke.
All dimensions are in inches.
Each of the two pumps of the duplex pump has a steam cylinder on
one end and a water cylinder on the other. The rocker arm of one
pump operates the steam valve of the opposite pump. A cross section
of a duplex piston pump is shown in Fig. 8.3, and Fig. 8.4 shows a
plunger pump. The steam cylinders are fitted with pistons. They are
equipped with self-adjusting iron piston rings fitted to the cylinder
bore. Above each steam cylinder are four ports; the two outside are
called steam ports, and the two inside, exhaust ports. A D-type slide
valve controls the admission and exhaust of steam.
An inside guide is provided for the valve rod where the valve rod
enters the cylinder head. A packing gland is provided for the piston
rod where the piston rod enters the valve chest. The gland prevents
leakage of steam at these points. One rocker arm has a direct motion
and the other an indirect motion. One valve rod moves in the same
direction as the piston that is operating it; the other moves in the
opposite direction. Midway on the piston rod is mounted a crosshead,
483
Figure 8.3 Horizontal duplex piston pump. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
484 Chapter Eight
Figure 8.4 Horizontal duplex plunger pump. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
to which is attached the rocker arm. On the other end of the piston rod
is located a piston (or plunger in the case of the plunger pump) in the
water cylinder. It has a renewable liner and is actuated by the steam
piston, which transmits its power to the water side. The water piston is
fitted with a removable follower using fibrous or metallic packing rings
and moves back and forth in a bored cylinder. The ends of the cylinder
are fitted with drain plugs similar to those of the steam cylinder. Above
the cylinder are located two decks of valves, the lower group being the
suction valves and the upper deck the discharge valves.
The seats of these valves are screwed into the decks on tapered
thread and can be refaced without being removed from the decks. The
lower valves are set over the suction inlet, and the discharge goes
directly to the discharge pipe through the upper ones. An air cock is
mounted on top of the chamber and is called a vent. This vent is used
to remove entrapped air from the pump when it starts.
The slide valve is very simple and is operated by direct-lever con-
nection. Motion is imparted to the valve by a rocker arm actuated by
the piston rod on the opposite cylinder. After admitting steam to the
other cylinder, the piston completes its stroke and waits for its own
valve to be operated on by the other piston so that it may return on
the next stroke. One of the valves is always open. Dead centers are
not encountered.
The lost motion between the lugs on the back side of the valve and
the nut does not permit the valve to move until the piston that actuates
Pumps 485
it (on the other side) has traveled some distance. The amount of lost
motion permitted enables the valves to close slowly and quietly before
the pump reverses the stroke. The flow of water, however, is not inter-
rupted. While the one piston is being slowly brought to a stop, the
other continues in action. This prevents fluctuations in the pressure
and ensures a uniform flow. The lost motion usually allowed in the
valve mechanism permits the piston to travel one-half its stroke
before operating the valve.
Lost motion is provided in several ways. In one model, the valve rod
has threads on which is screwed a small block. The block fits between
the lugs on the back of the valve. Lost motion is the distance from the
edge of the block to the lug. With this arrangement the amount of lost
motion cannot be altered unless the block is replaced or the width
changed. On another model the valve rod is threaded and the nuts
are adjustable outside the lugs on the valve. Lost motion can then be
adjusted by moving the locknuts. In a third type the lost-motion
adjustment lies outside the steam chest, between the link connecting
the valve rod to the rocker arm and the valve-rod headpin. The
advantage of this arrangement is that the valve can be adjusted for
lost motion with the pump running.
Clearance space has been defined as that volume which the steam
occupies when the piston is at the end of the stroke, i.e., the space
between the face of the piston and the underside of the valve. The
steam occupying this space does no useful work, and hence a pump
short-stroking increases clearance volume and as a result increases
the steam consumption.
The duplex pumps shown in Fig. 8.5a and b are designed to reduce
this clearance and increase the economy. The two large admission
ports are eliminated, and a much smaller port is substituted. Steam
enters this port, slowly moving the piston forward until the main
body of steam strikes it. This reduction in clearance decreases the
steam consumption and results in economical operation.
On some high-pressure duplex pumps a piston valve is used instead
of the usual slide valve. This is a balanced valve, and its advantages
are that it is light, perfectly balanced, and very simple. Valves on a
duplex pump have neither lap nor lead. Since lap is necessary to cut
off the steam before the piston reaches the end of the stroke in order
to obtain expansion, it is evident that a duplex pump must take steam
the full length of the stroke.
Valves on the water end are called suction and discharge. The suc-
tion valves are for the purpose of admitting water to the cylinder and
preventing a return of water to the pump suction. The discharge
valves are for the purpose of discharging the water from the cylinder
486 Chapter Eight
Figure 8.5 Duplex pumps: (a) packed piston pattern, valve plate
type; (b) outside center-packed plunger pattern, valve plate type;
(c) outside center-packed plunger pattern, turret type; (d) outside
end-packed pot valve plunger pattern. (American-Marsh Pumps,
Inc.)
Pumps 487
In piston pumps, the piston works back and forth in a bored cylinder
(see Fig. 8.3). Here the packing rings are fastened securely to the piston
and move with it. The type of ring depends on the nature of the liquid
to be pumped and on the pressure and temperature. Pistons used for
general service use soft canvas packing. This packing consists of a
cotton fiber, square in cross section. Some pistons are fitted with
grooved metallic packing rings.
In plunger pumps the plunger moves back and forth in a packing
gland (see Fig. 8.4) instead of in a bored cylinder. The plunger type of
pump can be distinguished easily from the piston type by this charac-
teristic. Moreover, plungers are longer than pistons and are long in
comparison with the length of stroke. Plunger pumps are packed in
different ways:
Figure 8.6 Volume control with step-valve design. (Milton Roy Co.)
490 Chapter Eight
Figure 8.7 Metering pump: (a) major components; (b) polar crank drive. (Milton Roy Co.)
492 Chapter Eight
uid, forces it around the casing, and expels it through the discharge.
Unlike the reciprocating pump, the rotary pump discharges a smooth
flow of liquid. This is accomplished by the use of a rotating shaft or
shafts. In these pumps, the main pumping action is covered by the
relative movement between the rotating and stationary elements of
the pump. The rotary motion of these pumps is the design feature
that is different from reciprocating positive-displacement pumps,
where the main motion of moving elements is reciprocating.
The rotating shaft or shafts are rotors consisting of gears, vanes, or
screws that operate in a close-fitting casing. Normal rotary-pump
designs do not incorporate the use of valves, which permits the pump to
operate efficiently on both low- and high-viscosity liquids with a low net
positive suction head (NPSH) requirement (see Sec. 8.9 for an explana-
tion of NPSH and Sec. 8.12 for an explanation of head).
Since the rotary pump is a positive-displacement machine, its theo-
retical displacement is a straight horizontal line when plotted against
pressure with speed constant. A variation in displacement as pressure
varies is not present as it would be with a centrifugal pump. When low-
viscosity liquids are being handled, however, there is a loss in delivery
because of slip at higher pressures. The actual pump capacity at any
given speed and viscosity is the difference between the theoretical dis-
placement and slip, slip being the leakage from the discharge back to
the suction side of the pump through pump clearances. Low-viscosity
liquids can short-circuit more easily as the pressure increases.
Rotary pumps have the following advantages: They are self-priming,
are capable of high suction lifts, have low NPSH requirements, can
handle high-viscosity liquids at high efficiency, have a wide speed
range, and are available for low-capacity, high-head or high-capacity,
high-head applications. There are many different designs, of which a
few follow:
1. The gear pump has two or more gears that mesh and provide the
pumping action. There are two types of gear pumps, external and
internal.
a. The external gear pump is probably the most widely used rotary
pump. It consists of two meshing gears in a close-fitting housing.
Gear rotors are cut externally, and in this type of pump, fluid is
carried between the gear teeth and displaced when they mesh.
The gears can be spur, single-helical, or double-helical (herring-
bone type). Figure 8.10a and b shows a herringbone gear
design. In operation, the liquid enters between the gear teeth
and housing on each side of the pump casing, as shown in the
schematic in Fig. 8.10c.
b. The internal gear pump design has one rotor with internally cut
gear teeth that mesh with an externally cut gear. On the outer
Pumps 495
Figure 8.10 (a) Gear pump, external view. (b) Gear pump, internal view of major compo-
nents. (c) Gear pump, schematic of fluid flow through pump. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
Figure 8.13 Cross section of multistage centrifugal pump equipped with forced-
feed lubrication. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
Figure 8.14 Centrifugal pump parts: (a) inner assembly; (b) channel ring and impeller;
(c) channel ring; (d) impeller; (e) key;. (f) retaining ring; (g) split ring. (Ingersoll Dresser
Pump Co.)
500 Chapter Eight
spiral casing in the volute pump. It takes the water from the impeller
and changes velocity head to pressure head. The quantity of water
pumped depends on the size of the impeller and its speed.
A single-suction pump is one in which the water enters on only one
side of the impeller (Figs. 8.15 and 8.16). In Fig. 8.16 is shown a two-
stage, hydraulically balanced opposed-impeller pump.
A double-suction pump (see Fig. 8.12) is one in which the water
enters on both sides of the impeller.
A single-stage pump is one in which only one impeller is mounted
on a shaft (see Figs. 8.12 and 8.15).
A double-stage (two-stage) pump is one in which two impellers are
mounted on a shaft (see Fig. 8.16). This pump has opposed impellers.
A multistage pump (see Fig. 8.13) is one in which two or more
impellers are mounted on a shaft, the water passing from the dis-
charge of one impeller to the suction of the next.
The single-stage pump shown in Fig. 8.15 is cradle-mounted, flexible-
coupled, and driven by a standard motor. Pump and motor are mounted
on a steel plate providing maximum rigidity to prevent distortion and
misalignment. The back-pullout design permits fast, easy access to
stuffing box, impeller, and casing rings without disturbing suction or
centerline, with suction and discharge nozzles cast integrally with the
lower half. The upper half of the casing can then be removed without
disrupting the piping or the pump setting. The pump is designed to
handle hot or cold liquid, capacities to 20,000 gpm, pressures to 300
psi, and temperatures to 300°F.
The advantages of this pump are as follows: (1) It has a wide range
of applications, sustains high efficiency, and permits high suction
pressure. (2) It requires minimum stuffing-box maintenance and
allows for longer wear of rings and bearings. (3) It has prelubricated,
grease-packed, or oil-lubricated bearings and requires only periodic
maintenance.
A cross-sectional view of a two-stage, hydraulically balanced cen-
trifugal pump with opposed impellers is shown in Fig. 8.16. This
arrangement reduces thrust to a minimum. The pump shaft has ball
bearings. Details of the oiled sleeve bearings are shown.
A cross section of a multistage centrifugal pump with forced-feed
lubrication is shown in Fig. 8.13. It is designed for applications in
which liquids must be handled at high pressures. This is a single-suc-
tion multistage diffuser-type unit featuring cylindrical double-case con-
struction and unit-type rotor assembly. Such pumps are available for
pressures to 7000 psi, capacities to 23,000 gpm, and heads to 14,000 ft.
The unit shown consists of two vertically split, concentric cylindri-
cal casings, a high-strength outer casing built for full discharge pres-
sure, and a segmented inner casing formed by interlocking channel
rings. The rotor (see Fig. 8.14) is contained within the inner casing.
The symmetrical design of both casings permits equalized expansion
in all directions, thus eliminating any stress or distortion due to tem-
perature changes. Since the space between the inner and outer cas-
ings is under discharge pressure, and since this pressure acts on the
discharge end of the inner casing assembly, interstage gasket sealing
is ensured by keeping the assembly under a compression force. The
entire inner casing (and rotor) can be pulled out without disturbing
piping connections or driver.
The outer casing is made of forged steel proportioned to withstand
maximum operating pressures. Suction and discharge nozzles are
welded in position. Individual channel rings are interlocked with
aligning rings. Adjacent parts have ground joints that make metal-to-
metal contact when the pump is assembled. The outboard end of the
rotor is equipped with a balancing drum (Fig. 8.17b) to take the axial
thrust of the rotor. A thrust bearing is also provided (Fig. 8.17a).
Mounted at the outboard end of the pump is a gear oil pump located
in the oil reservoir and driven through gears from the pump shaft. Oil
from the pump is made to pass through a filter and cooler before
reaching the bearings. An auxiliary motor-driven centrifugal pump is
Pumps 503
Figure 8.17 Centrifugal pump: (a) tilting-shoe bearing arrangement; (b) balanc-
ing drum. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
mounted on top of the oil reservoir for startup purposes or for use if
oil pressure falls below a safe level.
Impellers of the enclosed type are usually made of chrome steel.
Alloy steels are also used in impeller design. The materials used are
based on the water or fluid handled and conditions imposed by the
liquids that are pumped.
The impellers have curved radial passages or vanes that connect
with the hub. Each impeller mounted on the shaft is provided with an
impeller ring and casing ring, which reduce to a minimum the leakage
from the discharge to the suction side. The casing ring is held stationary
in the casing, while the impeller ring is attached to the impeller and
rotates with it.
Around the impeller (Fig. 8.14b) is placed a diffusion ring that is held
stationary in the casing. The ring contains slots or openings that
receive the water from the impellers at a high velocity. By means of the
gradually increasing area of the opening, the velocity head is converted
to pressure. This procedure then makes it possible for the water to
advance from one impeller to the next, with little loss of energy.
In operation, the water enters at the right and proceeds to the first
impeller, which is revolving at high speed. Immediately on entering
the impeller, it comes under the influence of the centrifugal force
resulting from the rotation and is moved to the outer edge of the
impeller at a gradually increasing speed, finally leaving at a high
velocity. It then immediately enters the diffusion ring.
It enters the ring at a high velocity, which is to be changed into
useful pressure and also reduced so that the turn of 180° at the top
504 Chapter Eight
Advantages Disadvantages
Absence of parts such as valves and Lower efficiency than that of piston
packing pumps
Simplicity Frequent difficulty with the end thrust
Application of motor or turbine drive Not suitable for high head requirements
at low flow rates
Ability to maintain a uniform flow
Care necessary to align high-speed pumps
Small floor-space requirement
properly
Low initial cost
Possibility of overloading motor due to
Ease of regulation certain load characteristics
Economy of operation Difficulty of regulating with wide fluctua-
tions in load
Ease of maintenance
Difficulty of operating at very low speed
to know the various types of pumps that are used in a power plant
and how to select them for a specific purpose, but it is also necessary
to understand the more important definitions that reflect this tech-
nology, which is generally classified as hydraulics and pumping. The
following are some of the more important definitions covering this
subject that are used in this book and which are found in a detailed
study of fluid technology.
1. Hydraulics. This is a study of fluids at rest or in motion, with the
fluids including both liquids and gases.
2. Density. This is sometimes referred to as specific weight, and it
is the weight per unit volume of a substance. The density of water is
62.4 lb/ft3 at sea level and 60°F.
3. Specific gravity. This is the ratio of the density (or specific
weight) of a substance to that of a standard substance. For liquids,
the standard used is water at 60°F. Since most pump performance
characteristics are determined using water and are based on a spe-
cific gravity of 1.0, it is very important to know the specific gravity
of the liquid to be pumped so that the proper corrections can be
made. Specific gravity is a dimensionless number. Specific gravities
of less than 1.0 indicate liquids that are lighter than water and
therefore will float on water.
4. Pressure. This is the force exerted per unit area of a fluid. The most
common unit for designating pressure is pounds per square inch (psi).
5. Vacuum. This term is used to refer to pressures that are below atmos-
pheric pressure. With the use of a gauge having a column of mercury to
measure vacuum, vacuum is usually expressed in inches of mercury
(14.7 psi atmospheric pressure is equal to 30 in Hg at sea level).
Pumps 511
For a rotary pump, the required NPSH is the amount of energy (in
psi) required:
1. To overcome friction losses from the suction opening into the gears
or vanes
2. To create the desired velocity of flow into the gears or vanes
Since the NPSH varies with pump design, the special operating
conditions of the pump must be provided to the pump manufacturer.
Abnormally high suction lifts cause a serious reduction in the
capacity and efficiency of a pump, thus leading to problems during
operation.
If the static pressure at the impeller vanes falls below the vapor
pressure corresponding to its temperature, a portion of the water will
flash into steam, and cavitation will occur. It is therefore important to
ensure that the proper NPSH is available at the pump.
Piping to and from the pump is also important. The suction line to
a centrifugal pump should be as short and straight as possible. If at
all possible, long suction lines should be avoided. If a long suction line
is unavoidable, it should be made several diameters larger than the
inlet to the pump to keep friction loss to a minimum. Directly after
the pump, a check valve and a gate valve must be located. A gate
Pumps 513
valve should be placed ahead of the pump. The check valve relieves
the pressure from the pump when it is starting up and prevents the
waterhammer from damaging the pump. When the pump stops, the gate
valve should be closed to relieve the strain on the check valve.
Hot water requires an increase in suction head. Since head varies
with the temperature of water, sufficient head is required to compress
the vapors and to prevent the pump from becoming steam-bound. For
a given condition, increasing the water temperature decreases the
head and capacity.
The output of centrifugal pumps can be controlled by throttling the
discharge valve or by changing the speed of the pump (speed regula-
tion). If the load is reduced to such an extent that the flow is almost
completely stopped (throttled), the pump may become overheated.
Where it becomes necessary to throttle the flow to such an extent, it
is advisable to install a bypass orifice.
The bypass line is installed on the discharge side of the pump and
ahead of the check valve. The bypass line contains an orifice, with a
gate valve ahead and behind the orifice, to permit removal for cleaning,
if necessary. There should be a minimum of 3 ft of straight run of pipe on
either side of the orifice to reduce turbulence and noise. The recirculat-
ing line should enter the feedwater heater at a point below the mini-
mum water level and as far away from the pump suction as possible.
If performance curves are provided (see Fig. 8.21), they will show the
relation of head, power consumption, and the efficiency of the pump to
the capacity of the pump. As capacity increases, the total head that the
pump is capable of developing is reduced. The highest head generally
occurs at a point where there is little or no flow through the pump, i.e.,
when the discharge valve is closed and the pump is running. Depending
on design, these characteristics will vary for each pump.
Difficulties are frequently encountered in the operation of pumps. If
no water is being delivered, the following conditions may exist: speed
too low, discharge head too high, pump in need of priming, suction lift
too high, or pump motor running in the wrong direction. If not enough
water is being delivered, the following conditions may be the cause:
air leaks in the suction line or stuffing box, speed too low, motor run-
ning the pump in the wrong direction, obstruction in the suction line,
pump in need of repair in that wearing rings are worn and impeller
damaged, water too hot and insufficient head, and suction lift too
high. If the pump is not developing enough pressure, the speed may be
too low, the pump may be in need of repair, or air leaks may be present.
Entrained solids The amount and type of solids that are entrained
in the liquid influence the characteristics of the pumped fluid and
therefore influence the pumping system and the pump application. In
heavy solid concentrations, mixtures of solids and liquids are called
slurries. Slurries not only have higher specific gravities, but the
viscosity of the fluid is increased considerably because of the solids
content.
The pump is provided with a steel baseplate to which the pump and
motor are attached. This baseplate must be bolted securely to the
foundation. In most cases, larger bases are grouted into place, but
this may not be required on smaller units if the foundation is rigid
and the baseplate can be bolted down securely.
The piping should run to a pump as directly as possible, avoiding
sharp bends. Entrance to the pump should be provided with long-
radius ells or bends to reduce inlet friction to a minimum, and the
suction piping should run straight into the pump. Piping must be
supported to take the strain from the pump and provide for expansion
and contraction to avoid pump misalignment. Expansion joints or
loops should be used when hot liquids are being handled.
The suction piping should be large enough to minimize the friction
losses. Short suction lines are recommended but are not always possi-
ble. In order to avoid problems experienced with long intake pipes
and high suction lifts, an individual suction line should be provided
for each pump. If this is impractical, the suction-header size should be
approximately 50 percent larger than the pump connection and should
be reduced at the pump flange. The use of tees or right-angle fittings
should be avoided, and long-radius ells or bends should be used instead.
The suction header should be sloped upward from the reservoir to the
pump, and high spots in the header, where air might collect, should
be avoided. The suction end should be flared, and the suction inlet
should be well below the low-water level to eliminate the possibility of
air entrainment. The suction should not be located close to the point
of makeup or returning water, since eddy currents may interfere with
pump operation. When supplying two or more pumps from a long
intake header, a tapering header with Y branches to the pump suction
should be used. For pumps operating under high suction lift, stuffing
boxes should be sealed, using water taken from the discharge header
or from a separate source of supply.
The suction lift should be limited to 10 to 15 ft, since only clean cold
water can be raised this distance without experiencing operating dif-
ficulties. For hot water, it is necessary to bring the water to the pump
under a positive head. The velocity should be low, and a suction head
of 10 to 20 ft is desirable.
When starting up new boiler-feedwater or high-temperature-water
circulating pumps, a strainer is frequently installed to prevent foreign
material from getting into the pumps (and lines) or clogging the suction
intake. The strainers can be removed when the system is cleaned. All
strainers should be inspected periodically.
A pump that has its suction line below the pump centerline
requires priming; i.e., the air must be evacuated from the pump suc-
tion before water will enter the pump and fill the piping and casing.
516 Chapter Eight
free. Prime the pump and fill the pump full of liquid, and with suction
valve open and discharge valve closed, start the pump, noting suc-
tion and discharge pressure. (All pumps should be fitted with pressure
gauges on both the suction and discharge sides.) After running the
pump this way for a minute or two with the air vent open, close vent
valves and open the discharge valve slowly. Observe gauges closely,
and if anything unusual occurs or pressures seem unusual, stop the
pump and check thoroughly.
Start and stop the pump several times and observe performance. If
all looks satisfactory, continue to operate for 1⁄2 to 1 h, meanwhile
observing bearing temperatures and watching gauges, lubrication,
and general actions of pump and motor for overheating. Then shut the
pump down, recheck alignment, tighten all bolts, and give the entire
installation a careful check.
Place the pump again in operation; observe the packing gland, gland
seals, lubrication, and overheating. Never run a pump for an extended
period of time with the discharge valve closed unless the vents are open
or the pump is equipped with a bypass to permit some water to circu-
late through the pump at all times.
The pump manufacturer provides recommended installation, startup,
and operating procedures. These recommendations have been developed
over many years based on the experience gained with many different
pumps in many different services. The plant operating staff should use
these procedures as well as those procedures which have been used suc-
cessfully in their own operating plant. These procedures should be an
essential part of the plant’s operating and maintenance (O&M) manual.
determine the head in feet or the height to which the water can be
pumped. Suppose that the gauge at the pump reads 119 psi; the head
to which this water can be pumped can be determined as
Figure 8.21 Performance curves for centrifugal pumps: (a) head and brake horse-
power versus capacity; (b) efficiency, head, and brake horsepower versus capacity.
520 Chapter Eight
It is obvious from the performance curves (see Fig. 8.21) that as the
pump capacity increases, the head decreases (there is a drop in pres-
sure); and that an increase in pump capacity requires more horsepower
input. The efficiency of the pump increases until it reaches some max-
imum point, after which it drops off.
A centrifugal pump will develop a given total head regardless of the
specific gravity of the liquid, but because of the specific gravity of the
liquid, the discharge pressure will vary. For example, when hot water
is being pumped, the head in feet will be the same as when cold water
is being pumped, but the pressure will be less.
A centrifugal pump operates most efficiently under a head and a
speed that approximate design conditions. For a given pump,
Capacity1 speed1
Capacity2 speed2
Example Assume that a centrifugal pump has its speed increased from
1750 to 3500 rpm without changing the impeller size. The initial flow was
1000 gallons per minute (gpm), the initial head was 300 ft and the initial
power required was 75 hp. With this increase in speed, what are the result-
ing changes in the capacity flow, head, and power?
Solution
a. Capacity
Capacity Speed
1 1
Capacity2 Speed2
1000 1750
Capacity2 3500
b. Head
Head Speed 2
1 1
Head2 冢
Speed2 冣
300 1750 2
Head2 3500冢 冣
300 1
Head2 4
Head2 1200 ft
c. Power
Power Speed 3
1 1
Power2 冢
Speed2 冣
75 1750 3
Power2 3500冢 冣
75 1
Power2 8
Power2 600 hp
Q 8.33 H sp gr
kW input
33,000 Ep Em 1.341
Solution 1 gal of water weighs approximately 8.33 lb; the pump handles
1000 lb/min.
1000
gpm 120 gpm
8.33
6.06
Required hp 8.6 hp
0.70
If the electrical input to the motor drive is required, the motor efficiency
must be included. For example, if the motor efficiency is 90 percent, then
the required motor input is
8.6
kW input 7.12 kW
0.90 1.341
Example A pump is discharging 50 gpm against a head of 300 ft. What
horsepower is required if friction and losses are neglected?
Solution
50 8.33 300 1.0
Theoretical hp 3.79 hp
33,000
Example Consider a duplex pump 8 by 6 by 10, with a 2-in piston rod,
making 50 strokes (1 stroke of a duplex pump is both pistons moving once
over their path) per minute against a head of 150 ft. The pump is 75 per-
cent efficient and has a slip of 6 percent.
Determine the capacity of this pump in gallons, pounds, and cubic feet per
minute; also determine the horsepower developed.
Solution
(6)2
Area of head end 28.27 in2
4
(2)2
Area of crosshead end 28.27 25.13 in2
4
Displacement of head end 28.27 10 25 strokes/min
7067.5 in3/min
Displacement of crosshead end 25.13 10 25
6282.5 in3/min
Displacement of one side of pump 7067.5 6282.5 13,350 in3/min
Pumps 523
The total head developed by the pump (see Sec. 8.1) is composed of (1)
static head, (2) pressure at the point of discharge, and (3) pipe friction.
Example Find the total head required for a pump to operate under the
following conditions: capacity, 40 gpm; discharge pressure, 15 psi; point of
discharge, 30 ft above pump; suction lift, 5 ft; pipe and fittings, 2-in size;
pipe, 150 ft long; 6 elbows in line.
Note: Elbows offer resistance equivalent to running length of pipe; friction
loss is given from tables not included in text.
Solution
Static head 30 ft (discharge head) 5 ft (suction lift) 35 ft
1 ft
Discharge pressure 15 psi 34.6 ft
0.433 psi
Given six 2-in elbows 48 ft equivalent pipe length,
198 6.6
Pipe friction loss 13.1 ft
100
Total head required 35 34.6 13.1 82.7 ft
Note: Velocity head here is considered minor and is not included. If fluid
comes to the pump from above or is delivered to the pump under pressure,
this suction head or pressure is deducted, whereas in the example it is added.
should be cut diagonally and each joint lapped. The number of rings
varies from one to four, and the width depends on the design of the
pump. Before packing a pump with rings of canvas, the packing may
be expanded to its working size by soaking it in water for several
hours prior to packing. If this is not done, short stroking frequently
results because of swelling that occurs shortly after the pistons have
been packed. Moreover, the packing should not be jammed or crowded
into position. Allow enough room for expansion when the pump packing
becomes wet.
Scored piston rods are a sign of improperly installed packing, pack-
ing that is too tight, or incorrect packing. Leaks around the packing
glands are always difficult to detect in the early stages, as in valve
leakage. Leakage past the piston is usually detected in the operation
of the pump. A careful operator can detect any unusual conditions
that occur from time to time. If it is required to run the pump consid-
erably faster than usual to maintain the same service conditions, the
packing or valves are evidently leaking. The first procedure, then, is
to inspect the valves. After these have been examined, the actual
capacity of the pump can be determined and compared with the dis-
placement volume. In these calculations about 5 to 10 percent should
be allowed for slip.
Leakage in the water-suction valves can be determined by the
appearance of the valves on examination, by the erratic action of
the pump, and by the failure of the pump to deliver the required
amount of water or the desired water pressure (by leakage of water
back into the suction chamber). At times this type of leakage also may
be detected by the fact that the pump seems to speed up at points in
the stroke rather than maintain a uniform speed. Leakage of the
water-discharge valves also can be detected by their appearance on
examination, or the valves may be tested by blocking the piston in
midstroke and closing the main suction valve on the pump. This will
trap water between the head and the underside of the discharge
valve. The drain cock on the bottom of the pump on the side being
tested should be opened. If water continues to pass through the cock
after the water present in the cylinder has been drained, it is reason-
ably sure that the discharge valve or valves on that side of the pump
are leaking, assuming that the piston is packed satisfactorily.
The leakage of the steam valves can be detected by the erratic
pump operation. Leakage can frequently be determined from the gen-
eral appearance of the valve.
Steam valves wear in the seats, and after a while leakage occurs on
both ends of the piston simultaneously. It is far less expensive to
replace a valve that is thought to be giving trouble than to spend a
great deal of time trying to determine how badly it leaks. Usually
Pumps 525
visual examination should suffice; when there is any doubt, the valve
should be replaced. Valves stick because of broken springs and foreign
matter getting under them. When leakage occurs, it can sometimes be
detected by the jerky action of the piston. If the piston can be moved
back and forth with the pump stopped, the gate valve closed, and the
discharge valves in good condition, leaking of the suction valves natu-
rally is indicated.
Difficulty is frequently experienced with slippage of the crosshead.
The crosshead can be reset without removing the steam-chest cover
by disconnecting the rocker arm from the piston rod and pushing the
piston to the head of the cylinder. Make a mark on the rod where it
passes through the packing gland. Now push the piston until it
strikes the opposite head of the cylinder. Again mark the piston rod at
the packing gland. Find the center of these two positions marked on the
rod. Mark and place this position at the packing gland. The piston is now
centered up in the cylinder. Drop the rocker arm vertically, and fasten
to the piston rod. The pump is now ready to run.
Another operating difficulty is the deposit of solids on water valves,
causing leakage. This can be removed by scraping but more readily by
cleaning with dilute acid solution. Also, piston rings wear and must be
replaced. Though difficulties are more frequently encountered on the
water end of the pump, generally, any part of the pump can give trouble.
Many pump problems, such as vibration, bearing failure, shaft fail-
ure, and short coupling life, may be traced to misalignment between
pump and driver. The flexible coupling does not provide the adjust-
ment for misalignment. It is important that the manufacturer’s
instructions be read carefully before starting up the pump. The align-
ment record should become part of the permanent maintenance
record for the pump.
Assuming alignment to be satisfactory on startup, this in no way
ensures that the pump will remain in this condition. It is therefore
desirable to check the alignment periodically or whenever trouble is
experienced. Alignment should be checked when the pump and shaft
are at room temperature and again when they are operating at elevated
temperatures, since expansion (or a shifting foundation) frequently
can change the alignment.
Bearing life depends primarily on lubrication and keeping the
bearings free from dirt and foreign matter. Bearing life is extended
in proportion to the care exercised in providing an excellent lubri-
cant free from moisture and impurities. A preventive-maintenance
schedule should ensure that the lubricant is drained and the bearing
flushed at regular intervals. Use oil recommended by the pump
manufacturer. In all cases, stock spare bearings, although bearings
and thrust shoes can be repaired. If bearing linings are renewed,
provide both lower and upper halves, since if one face is worn, the
526 Chapter Eight
new shoe will have to carry the entire thrust. Ball bearings must be
lubricated separately from the babbitt bearings. They should be
lubricated with oil, not grease. There are so many different types of
bearings that no effort will be made to cover them here. Rather, it is
important to read the instructions provided with each pump, in
which are presented the procedures to be followed for maintaining
the bearings of that specific pump.
An indication that a pump is operating with too much thrust in one
direction is overheating or wearing out of thrust shoes and damage to
the impeller. Overheating of the bearing can be detected by placing
the back of the hand on the bearing housing. If it is impossible to
keep the hand in contact with the bearing, the bearing is running too
hot, and the pump is out of alignment or has excessive clearance.
In single-stage pumps, the impeller should be in the center of the casing
rings. This can be determined with the top half of the casing removed.
The life of a centrifugal pump as well as its reliable operation depends
on the sealing or wearing rings and the thrust imposed. As the sealing
or wearing rings begin to wear between high and low pressure, the
pump begins to lose efficiency; it is then time to renew the rings.
The amount of wear is influenced by the amount of clearance origi-
nally permitted, by the accuracy of the pump alignment, and by the
nature of the liquid pumped.
Packing used for a specific pump should follow the recommenda-
tions of the manufacturer. Exercise care in installing this packing,
first making certain that all old packing has been removed. In adjust-
ing the gland nuts, pull up evenly on the studs, preferably while the
pump is running. Permit a slight leakage to lubricate the packing.
Pulling up a gland too tightly will cause excessive shaft-sleeve wear
and ruin the packing. If the packing gland has been pulled up too
tightly, this will be indicated by an increase in temperature and
power consumption. If the packing is installed properly and the gland
adjusted correctly, the shaft should turn freely by hand. Should the
packing gland leak excessively, do not pull up the gland nuts tightly
to stop the leak; rather, take the pump out of service and repack. Nor
should time be wasted in trying to pack a pump that has a scored
shaft sleeve. Scored piston rods on reciprocating pumps and shafts on
centrifugal pumps can be repaired by metallizing.
In packing against high suction pressures, the packing must fit the
box exactly, and the shaft sleeves must run true and not be scored.
Likewise, in using metallic packing, care must be exercised in order
that the packing fit the box exactly. Furthermore, the metallic pack-
ing must be lubricated thoroughly, or difficulty with leaks and scored
shafts will be experienced. Metallic packing should never be used
where soft packing will do.
Pumps 527
8.2 What pumps are required in a basic steam power plant cycle? Describe
their purpose.
8.3 What are the two major categories of pumps? Provide examples of each.
8.4 Describe how an injector operates. What are its advantages and disadvan-
tages?
8.8 Describe the primary difference between a duplex pump and a power
pump.
8.9 How are power pumps used in a power plant, and what is their advan-
tage?
8.13 How does a rotary pump operate? What are its advantages?
8.14 Name the various types of rotary pumps. What application do they serve
in a power plant?
8.21 Provide examples of pumps that are found in a power plant and are of the
centrifugal pump design.
8.22 If a liquid has a specific gravity of less than 1.0, what does this mean?
What if it is more than 1.0?
8.24 What is vapor pressure, and what impact does it have on pump opera-
tion?
8.25 Describe the effect of cavitation on the operation of a pump. How can it be
avoided?
8.26 Describe the net positive suction head (NPSH) for both a centrifugal and
a rotary pump.
8.27 How can the output of a centrifugal pump be controlled without causing
the pump to overheat?
8.28 Before selecting a type of pump for a particular application, what are the
major characteristics that must be considered?
8.29 What are slurries, and how do they affect pump design?
8.32 Would you prefer that a water supply tank be located above or below a
pump? Why?
8.35 A pressure gauge reads 125 psi at the pump discharge. How high can the
water be lifted?
8.36 A tank is 101⁄2 ft long, 4 ft wide, and 20 ft high and is filled with water.
How many cubic feet of water does it contain? Cubic inches? Pounds?
Gallons?
8.38 A pump 6 by 4 by 8 makes 111 strokes per minute. How many gallons of
water will it deliver per minute? Per hour?
8.39 How long will it take the pump in Problem 8.38 to empty the tank in
Problem 8.36?
8.40 With reference to the pump in Problem 8.38, how long will it take to
empty a water-filled tank that is 15 ft in diameter and 20 ft high?
8.41 A pump 8 by 5 by 10 uses steam at 100 psi. What pressure will be devel-
oped on the water side? How high can this water be pumped?
8.43 If the atmospheric pressure were 14.3 psi, what would be the theoretical
lift?
8.44 A pump 4 by 3 by 6 delivers water at 200 psi. What steam pressure would
be required to operate this pump?
8.45 A pump with a 5-in steam piston operating with 150 psi delivers water at
300 psi. What is the size of the water piston?
8.46 How fast will a duplex pump 5 by 3 by 8 run to supply 25,000 lb of water
per hour?
8.48 A centrifugal pump delivers 300,000 gal of water per hour to a height of
250 ft. The pump is 65 percent efficient. What horsepower is required to
deliver this water?
8.49 If the motor drive for the pump in Problem 8.48 is 92 percent efficient,
what commercial size motor would be selected for this application? What
is the electrical input to this motor?
8.50 What severe maintenance problems can occur when there is a misalign-
ment between a pump and its drive?
8.52 For centrifugal pumps, what would a recommended set of spare parts
include? For this type of pump, where should periodic maintenance be
concentrated?
9
Steam Turbines, Condensers,
and Cooling Towers
533
534 Chapter Nine
Figure 9.1 (a) Simple illustration of impulse force only. (b) Simple illustration of
impulse and reaction forces.
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 535
limited pressure drop in one set of nozzles. After the steam from a set
of nozzles has passed the rotating element (blades), it is expanded in
another set of nozzles. Figure 9.2b shows how the steam expands
through nozzles (A) and after passing the blading is again expanded
further through additional nozzles (AA). A turbine may have many
sets of nozzles (pressure stages), each increasing in size to accommo-
date the increased volume of the steam.
The principle of velocity compounding is also used in the operation
of impulse turbines. This means applying the velocity energy in steam
coming from the nozzles to two or more sets of moving blades. The
536 Chapter Nine
Figure 9.4 The reaction turbine: (a) earliest reaction-steam turbine. (b)
diagrammatic illustration of section of blading of reaction turbine.
(Mobil Oil Corp.)
(MSW), wood wastes, and waste coal, plant sizes often are in the ranges
from 10 to 80 MW, and they operate with the same reliability criteria
as a large electric utility.
Turbines operate at rotating speeds of 3600 rpm for 60-Hz applica-
tions and 3000 rpm for 50-Hz applications. The maximum exhaust
moisture in the turbine is generally limited to between 10 and 15 per-
cent steam by weight. Moisture in the steam is highly erosive, especially
at the high rotating speeds of the turbine. Special blade materials and
limitations on blade length are used to minimize any erosion and the
resulting maintenance costs and loss of revenues due to plant outages
that would be required for unplanned repairs.
Figure 9.5Turbine room of utility power plant showing three 600-MW steam turbine
generators. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Solution
Using the steam tables and interpolating:
∆h 16.6
0.033/psi
psi 3000 − 2500
Turbines are classified in two ways: (1) steam supply and exhaust
conditions and (2) casing or shaft arrangement. These are further
described below.
Figure 9.8 Condensing steam turbine for approximately 65-MW output. (Siemens
Westinghouse Power Corp.)
Figure 9.9 Turbine rotor for condensing steam turbine. (Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corp.)
Reaction turbine. This design uses the reaction force resulting from
the steam accelerating through the nozzles. The nozzles are actually
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 547
Steam in
Nozzle Moving
vanes buckets
created by the blades, as shown in Fig. 9.13. Each stage of the turbine
consists of a stationary set of blades and a row of rotating blades on a
shaft. Since there is a continuous drop of pressure throughout each
stage, steam is admitted around the entire circumference of the
blades and, therefore, the stationary blades extend around the entire
circumference. Steam passes through a set of stationary blades that
direct the steam against the rotating blades. As the steam passes
through these rotating blades, there is a pressure drop from the
entrance side to the exit side that increases the velocity of the steam
and produces rotation by the reaction of the steam on the blades.
Rotor shaft and bearings. The rotor shaft is supported at each end by
bearings. These are normally ball bearings on small turbines; however,
on the larger turbines, a pressure-lubricated journal bearing is used.
Because of the axial thrust along the shaft that results from the dif-
ference in steam pressure across the stages of the turbine, thrust
bearings are used to maintain the clearances between the moving
blades and the stationary portions in each stage of the turbine.
Casings and seals. Casings are steel castings whose purpose is to sup-
port the rotor bearings and to have internal surfaces that will efficiently
assist in the flow of steam through the turbine. The casing also sup-
ports the stationary blades and nozzles for all stages.
At the turbine inlet, steam enters through a stop valve and steam
chest. In high-temperature turbines these components are separate from
the main turbine structure. In smaller units, the steam chest is usually
mounted directly on the casing. At the outlet of the turbine, an exhaust
hood guides the steam from the last stage to the condenser inlet.
Figure 9.16 shows a cross section of a steam admission section.
This design has the stop valves located in the steam chest, and when
necessary, this can be removed without having to dismantle piping.
The control valves are suspended on a cross-bar that is moved by two
stems. Therefore, only two stuffing boxes are required for passing the
stems through the casing, although four or five control valves are pro-
vided for nozzle group control.
The steam chest and valve assembly shown in Fig. 9.17 show
another design, and the illustration identifies the major components,
Figure 9.16 Turbine steam admission section. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 551
Figure 9.17 Turbine steam chest and valve assembly. (Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corp.)
including the steam inlet, the throttle valve, governor valve, and
valve actuators.
In addition to being designed to support the weight of the station-
ary nozzles and blades, the casing also must resist the mechanical
stresses that are caused by the reaction forces on these nozzles and
blades as well as the thermal stresses that are caused by the steam
temperature differentials that occur during operation in the various
stages of the turbine.
Since the shaft penetrates through the casing as shown in Fig. 9.14,
seals are necessary to minimize the leakage of steam. In small, low-
temperature turbines, carbon packing ring seals are used. These seals
are located directly on the shaft and are held in place by a spring
assembly. In larger turbines, labyrinth seals are used to control steam
leakage. In many turbine designs, a combination of the two types of
seals are used at the ends of the shaft.
The steam from the boiler passes through the HP section of the tur-
bine. The exhaust steam from this section is returned to the boiler’s
reheater, where it is reheated to generally the same superheated
steam temperature as the HP steam but at a lower pressure. The
steam is then returned to the IP section of the turbine. In some tur-
bine designs, the HP and IP sections of the turbine are combined into
one casing, and the steam flows in opposite directions in order to
equalize the axial forces in the turbine.
The IP turbine is used with boilers that have a reheat cycle, and
this generally is found in large utility power plants. The IP turbine can
use single or double flow depending on the pressure and steam flow.
The LP turbine receives steam from either the HP turbine in nonre-
heat units or an IP turbine. Since the steam has expanded and its
volume has increased significantly, the blades of the LP turbine are
much longer than those of the HP and IP stages in order to handle
the steam flow.
The blades are assembled on the disk, and a shroud ring is placed
around their outer ends (Figs. 9.18, 9.19f, and 9.21). The tips of the
blades pass through holes in the shroud ring. The ends are then welded
so that they are held securely by the ring. When the blades are very
long, extra lacing is sometimes used to tie them together to provide
the necessary support.
Rotors for small turbines consist of a machined-steel disk shrunk and
keyed onto a heavy steel shaft. The shaft is rust protected at the gland
zones by a sprayed coating of stainless steel. The rotor is statically
and dynamically balanced to ensure smooth operation throughout its
operating range.
The small steam turbine (see Fig. 9.18) is used as a mechanical
drive. Figure 9.19 shows the major component parts of this turbine.
The steam chest is bolted to the base and is made of iron or steel. It
contains a governor valve, a strainer, and an operating hand valve
that is used for manual adjustment to obtain maximum efficiency.
Regardless of whether or not a hand valve is provided, the steam is
made to pass through the governor-controlled admission valve contained
in the steam chest. These are only typical illustrations of a small tur-
bine design, since there are numerous designs with different features
that vary between manufacturers.
The governor valve located in the right end of the steam chest is a
double-seated balanced valve operating in a renewable cage (Fig. 9.19c).
Figure 9.19 Typical component parts of a general-purpose turbine: (a) steam chest;
(b) speed-regulating governor; (c) governing valve; (d) overspeed trip; (e) nozzles;
(f) rotors and blades.
The valve and cage are made of noncorrosive material, and the valve
stem is made of stainless steel. Packing is provided where the valve stem
passes through the chest cover.
Speed regulation is maintained by means of the governor (Fig. 9.19b).
This governor is of the centrifugal-weight type and is connected to the
admission valve by the arm and linkage shown in Fig. 9.18. Movement
of the governor weights is opposed by the compression spring to
556 Chapter Nine
Figure 9.20 (a) Typical turbine casing. (b) Hydraulic orifice governor.
558 Chapter Nine
On units larger than that shown in Fig. 9.18, oil for governing and
flood lubrication is supplied by a shaft-driven gear-type pump. If
lubrication requirements exceed the capacity of a single pump, a sep-
arate gear-type pump is furnished to supply lubricating oil. The
direct-acting oil governor with hand-speed changer for 3:1 maximum
speed adjustment is used for variable-speed applications, such as
driving fans, blowers, etc. For the mechanically driven turbine, the
speed is frequently automatically controlled by the draft, air pressure,
feedwater pressure, and other means. Note: Design standards for
materials and governor performance are covered in publications of
the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).
On large turbines there are normally high- and low-pressure sec-
tions, with the steam chest integral with the high-pressure section.
Cylinders are split along the horizontal plane. Blades may be assembled
in separate blade rings or directly in the cylinder, depending on the
turbine size and pressure and on temperature conditions. In order to
minimize misalignment and distortion, turbines are so designed as
to permit expansion and contraction in response to temperature
changes.
Larger turbines have their rotors (Fig. 9.21) formed from a single-
piece forging, including both the journals and the coupling flange.
Thrust-bearing collar and oil impeller may be carried on a stub shaft
bolted to the end of the rotor. Forgings of this type are carefully heat
treated and must conform to specifications. Rotors are machined, and
after the blades are in place, they are dynamically balanced and tested.
As with the small turbine, the efficiency and life of larger turbines
are influenced chiefly by the form or shape of the blades, the man-
ner in which they are fastened in place, and the materials from
which they are made. Rotating blades are secured by a T-root fas-
tening with lugs (Fig. 9.22) machined on the shank, straddling the
blade groove. Blades are held against a shoulder in the groove by
half-round sections caulked in place at the bottom. Stationary
blades are anchored in straight-sided grooves by a series of short
keys that fit into auxiliary grooves cut in the blade shank and in
the side of the main groove. If high-pressure and high-temperature
steam is used, steam leakage across impulse stages is controlled
by thin sealing strips (Fig. 9.22a) that can be set with close run-
ning clearance. On reaction turbines of the larger sizes where high-
pressure and high-temperature steam is used, shrouded blades (Fig.
9.22b) are used with radial seal strips to control leakage between stages.
Seal strips are made very thin, permitting close running clearances.
Two types of nozzles are used (Fig. 9.22a): round nozzles with holes
drilled and reamed in a solid block of steel and curved-vane nozzles.
The interstage diaphragms are located in grooves that are accurately
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 559
Figure 9.21 Rotors for various types of turbines: (a) rotor for condensing
turbine; (b) rotor for noncondensing turbine; (c) rotor for noncondensing
single-extraction turbine; (d) rotor for condensing double-extraction
turbine. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
spaced and machined into the casing. The upper halves are attached
to, and lift with, the casing cover. Labyrinth seals (see Fig. 9.27) min-
imize steam leaks along the shaft where it passes through the
diaphragm. The seal rings are spring backed, and they are made of a
material that permits close running clearances with complete safety.
560
Figure 9.22Turbine blades: (a) nozzles and impulse blading. (Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corp.)
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 561
Figure 9.22 Turbine blades: (b) reaction blading showing moisture catcher and seal
strips. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
side of the shell has a spherical section at the middle. This fits into a
similarly shaped seat in the bearing support pedestal and is an aid in
properly aligning the bearing. In most cases the top half is grooved on
the trailing side of the bearing in such a manner that there is a ten-
dency to draw or aspirate oil into the bearing. The bottom half of a
split bearing should be relieved on each side of the joint by scraping it
clear of the shaft. The clearance of the bearing can be measured by
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 563
Figure 9.25 Main and thrust bearings: (a) main bearing; (b) section of thrust bearing
and housing; (c) thrust bearing cage in place. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
placing a soft lead wire on the shaft and bolting the top half down
tight. The flattened wire can be removed and the thickness measured
by a micrometer. The clearance in the bearing should be 0.002 in per
inch of shaft diameter. Each turbine manufacturer provides operating
instructions and recommendations to ensure that clearances are
established properly. These should be followed.
Oil is supplied through a hole drilled in the bearing housing that
matches a similar hole in the lower supporting block. For large bear-
ings, orifice outlets are provided for positive control.
The pressure drop through the rotating blades of the reaction tur-
bine produces a force that tends to push the turbine rotor toward the
low-pressure end. In some turbines this force is balanced by what is
known as the double-flow principle. In this case, steam enters the
middle of the turbine and flows in both directions. This produces two
forces that balance each other. Another method is to use balancing or
dummy pistons, as shown in Fig. 9.26.
one side and atmospheric pressure is exerted on the other side. The
difference in pressure produces a force that balances the thrust exerted
on the rotating blades. If the shaft starts to move in either direction, the
collar comes into contact with the shoes, and the shaft is held in proper
position. Larger thrust bearings have several collars on the shaft and
a corresponding number of stationary shoes.
The Kingsbury thrust bearing (Fig. 9.25) is used when a large thrust
load must be carried to maintain the proper axial position in the tur-
bine cylinder. (The one shown in Fig. 9.25 is a combination of the
Kingsbury and collar types.) The thrust collar is the same as that used
in the common type of thrust bearing. The thrust shoes are made up
of segments that are individually pivoted. With this arrangement, the
pressure is distributed equally not only between the different seg-
ments but also on the individual segments. The openings between the
segments permit the oil to enter the bearing surfaces. Almost 10
times as much pressure per square inch can be carried on the
Kingsbury-type bearing as on the ordinary thrust bearing. Axial posi-
tion of the bearing and turbine rotor may be adjusted by liners, located
at the retainer rings, on each end of the bearing. The bearing is lubri-
cated by circulating oil to all its moving parts.
The impulse turbine does not require as large a thrust bearing as
the reaction turbine because there is little or no pressure drop
through the rotating blades. However, the thrust bearing must be
used to ensure proper clearance between the stationary and rotating
elements. Reaction turbines that do not have some method of balanc-
ing the force caused by the drop in pressure in the rotating blades
must be equipped with large thrust bearings.
Turbine bearings are subjected to very severe service and require
careful attention on the part of the operator. Most turbines operate at
high speed (3600 rpm) and are subjected to the heat generated in the
bearing itself as well as that received from the high-temperature
steam. These conditions make necessary some method of cooling. In
some cases the bearings are cooled by water jacketing; in others the
oil is circulated through a cooler.
9.2.2 Packing
The shaft at the high-pressure end of the turbine must be packed to
prevent leakage of steam from the turbine. The one at the low-pressure
end of a condensing turbine must be packed to prevent the leakage of
air into the condenser.
Labyrinth packing is used widely in steam turbine practice. It gets
its name from the fact that it is so constructed that steam in leaking
must follow a winding path and change its direction many times. This
device consists of a drum that turns with the shaft and is grooved on
566 Chapter Nine
the outside. The drum turns inside a stationary cylinder that is grooved
on the inside (Figs. 9.26 and 9.27). There are many different types of
labyrinth packing, but the general principle involved is the same for
all. Steam in leaking past the packing is subjected to a throttling
action. This action produces a reduction in pressure with each groove
that the steam passes. The amount of leakage past the packing
depends on the clearance between the stationary and the rotating ele-
ments. The amount of clearance necessary depends on the type of
equipment, steam temperatures, and general service conditions. The
steam that leaks past the labyrinth packing is piped to some low-
pressure system or to a low stage on the turbine.
A water-packed gland consists of a centrifugal-pump runner
attached to the turbine shaft. The runner rotates in a chamber in the
gland casing. In some designs, water is supplied to the chamber at a
pressure of 3 to 8 psi and is thrown out against the sides by the runner,
forming a seal. Water seals are used in connection with labyrinth pack-
ing to prevent the steam that passes the packing from leaking into
the turbine room. Such a seal is also used on the low-pressure end of
condensing turbines. In this case the leakage to the condenser is
water instead of air.
Figure 9.27 shows water-sealed glands and labyrinth seals as used
on the high-pressure end of condensing turbines. They are used singly
or in combination, depending on the service required. Each labyrinth
consists of a multiplicity of seals to minimize steam leakage. The seal
rings are spring backed and made of material that permits close run-
ning clearances with safety. The glands are usually supplied with con-
densate water for sealing to prevent contamination of the condensate
Figure 9.27 (a) Water-sealed glands and labyrinth seals as used on the high-pressure
end of condensing turbines. (b) Labyrinth-type gland as used on noncondensing
turbines. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 567
9.2.3 Governors
A close control of turbine speed is essential from the standpoint of
safety and satisfactory service. The same theory of centrifugal force
that applied to steam engine flywheels also applies to the rotating
elements of turbines. If the turbine runs at a speed far above that for
which it was designed, the blading will be thrown out of the rotor.
When a turbine is thrown apart in this manner, the resulting damage
may be as great as, or even greater than, that caused by a boiler
explosion. Turbines operating electric generators producing ac cur-
rent must operate at constant speed (3600 or 3000 rpm). Some electri-
cal appliances are seriously affected by a slight change of frequency in
the power supply. The speed of the generator determines the frequen-
cy of the electric-current generator (60 Hz for 3600 rpm and 50 Hz for
3000 rpm). 1 Even with generators producing dc current, a small
change in speed will affect the voltage.
There are two ways of changing the turbine supply of steam to meet
the load demand. One consists of throttling the steam, by means of a
valve, in such a manner that the pressure on the first-stage elements
1
Hz hertz, a unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
568 Chapter Nine
is changed with the load demand. Small turbines, like those shown in
Figs. 9.18 and 9.28, have a main governor of the throttling type. The
operating mechanism is driven directly by the main turbine shaft.
Overload is taken care of by means of hand-operated valves that
admit additional steam to the turbine. The other method uses several
valves, governor-operated, that are opened separately to supply
steam to secondary nozzles as the load increases. This arrangement is
shown in Fig. 9.29; it is used only on large turbines.
Economical partial-load operation is obtained by minimizing throt-
tling losses. This is accomplished by dividing the first-stage nozzles
into several groups and providing a separate valve to control the flow
of steam to each group. Valves are then opened and closed in
sequence, and the number of nozzle groups in service is proportional
to the load on the unit. Valve seats are of the diffuser type to mini-
mize pressure drop, and these valve seats are renewable.
The multivalve steam chest (Fig. 9.29) is cast integrally with the
cylinder cover with a cored passage from each valve to a nozzle group.
Single-seated valves are used, arranged in parallel within the steam
chest and surrounded by steam at throttle pressure. The governor
mechanism raises and lowers the valve-lift bar in a horizontal plane,
opening the valves in sequence, with an unbalanced force tending to
close the valves.
In the oil-relay system, the governor operates a small valve that
admits oil to and allows it to drain from a cylinder. This oil cylinder
obtained. One turbine design uses a grid-type extraction valve (Fig. 9.31)
at normal pressure and temperature. This valve consists of a stationary
port ring and a rotating grid. The rotating grid turns against the stationary
ring and opens the ports in sequence. Thus simple hydraulic interconnec-
tions are obtained between the several components of the control system,
such as the accurate and positive control of speed or the load carried by
the unit, and of the extraction steam pressures.
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 571
opened the correct amount when it is in the open position. The speed
adjustment must be such that the governor will be in the open position
when the turbine is at rated speed, and the speed regulation (i.e., the
change in speed from no load to full load) must be adjusted.
Turbine governors require very little attention on the part of the
operator. They must, however, be kept oiled and the joints kept work-
ing freely. With the oil-relay system, oil leaks must be stopped as soon
as possible. The overspeed trip must be checked at regular intervals.
It is good practice to operate the overspeed every time that the tur-
bine is placed in service.
9.2.4 Lubrication
Proper lubrication is of utmost importance in the operation of a steam
turbine. High journal speed, heat conducted from the steam to the bear-
ing, and possible water leakage into the oil are some of the conditions
that make lubrication difficult.
There are two methods of lubricating turbine bearings. One utilizes
oil rings in supplying oil to the bearings; the other consists of a pressure
system that circulates the oil to the bearings.
The oil-ring system is used on small turbines. There is an oil well
under each bearing. The oil level in the bearing is kept below the
bottom of the shaft. The oil rings have a larger diameter than that
of the shaft. They hang over the shaft, and a section extends into
the oil. When the shaft rotates, the rings also turn and the oil that
adheres to them is carried to the bearing. The bearings are grooved
in such a manner that the oil is properly distributed to the bearing
surfaces.
A typical self-contained oil-pumping system for a large turbine gen-
erator is shown in Fig. 9.34. This system is designed to supply bearing
oil at 25 psig and hydraulic oil at 200 psig, approximately. It operates
as follows: During the startup of the turbine, the steam-driven oil
pump provides hydraulic oil to the control system, a portion of the
hydraulic oil being fed to the booster-pump controls. Part of this oil
pressure is reduced as the oil passes through the oil cooler to the
bearing header for journal lubrication. The remainder of the oil to
the booster pump drives an oil turbine coupled to the booster pump
itself. The function of the booster pump is to provide suction pressure
to the shaft-driven oil pump.
When the main turbine reaches near-rated speed, the shaft-driven
pump supplies the hydraulic oil to the controls as well as hydraulic oil
to the booster pump. At this point, the steam-driven oil pump can be put
in standby service. The bearing-oil pump is used to provide bearing oil
only when the turbine is shut down and when it is operating on turning
gear. During this period, oil is required for the bearing journals.
574 Chapter Nine
575
576
Figure 9.35 (b) Digital electrohydraulic (DEH) control system. (Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corp.)
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 577
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.36 (a) Rupture disk–reverse buckling unit.
(b) Rupture disk installed in series with relief valve.
Figure 9.39 Stator for 120-MW air-cooled electric generator. (Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corp.)
Figure 9.40 Rotor for electric generator. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)
9.4 Condensers
The condenser is a major component of the power plant system. It
receives exhaust steam from the last stage of a turbine and condenses
it to water for reuse as feedwater in the boiler system. Refer to
Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 for schematics of the power plant cycle. For large
utility turbines that have a design incorporating high-, intermediate-,
and low-pressure sections, the exhaust steam comes from the low-
pressure section of the turbine.
There are two general types of condensers:
Example What is the volume of steam at 14.7 psia as compared with the
volume of water at 1 psia?
Solution Referring to Table C.1 in Appendix C:
Specific volume of steam at 14.7 psia 26.8 ft3/lb
Specific volume of water at 1 psia 0.01614 ft3/lb
The steam occupies over 1660 times more volume than does the water (26.8
0.01614).
586 Chapter Nine
1. Space. The space required for the feedwater heater and for its tube
bundle removal is significant, and a large area is necessary in the
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 589
Waterbox
Circulating Manway
Water Load Carrying
Nozzle Members
Condensate Sump
Tube Support Plates with Screen
Figure 9.42 Typical steam surface condenser with feedwater heaters in the neck of the con-
denser. [Thermal Engineering International (USA) Inc., a Babcock Power Inc. company.]
This is an example of one of the cost saving innovations that have been
incorporated into a power plant design in the continuing goal of reduc-
ing costs and improving reliability.
1. Direct acting
2. Indirect acting
quality steel plate, and all seams are welded. Shells are flanged or
butt-welded for air takeoffs, condensate pump suction, return vents,
drains, etc. Tube heads are made of Muntz metal, aluminum bronze,
silicon bronze, copper nickel, or steel. Sheets are machined and
drilled to receive the tubes. If the tubes are welded to the tube sheets,
the tube sheets are made of silicon bronze to facilitate welding.
Tube supports are provided across the width and length of the con-
denser to hold the tubes in place and avoid the tube damage that may
result from vibration. The support plates are made of steel, and the
interior bolting and cap nuts exposed to the circulating water are
made of corrosion-resisting composition or steel. The plates in turn
are welded to the shell. The necessary drains and vents must be pro-
vided for removing condensate, for venting pumps back to the con-
denser, etc. Braces, drain plates, baffles, and supports in the steam
space are welded in place. Water boxes are fabricated of steel for
freshwater, although for unusual conditions, cast iron is used. For salt
water, the boxes are made of cast iron or suitably lined fabricated
steel in order to minimize the corrosion effect of the salt water.
Condenser tubes are made of Admiralty Metal, titanium, and various
stainless-steel compositions. For freshwater, Admiralty metal is the
typical tube material used, whereas for salt or brackish water, titanium
and stainless steel tubes are the choice. Although more expensive, tita-
nium and corrosive-resistant stainless steel are used more often
because of their high corrosion resistance and reduced risk of tube
leaks. Copper alloys present problems in high-pressure boiler systems
because of the potential for copper transport into the boiler, where
deposition can occur, and this results in a degradation of heat transfer.
Tubes are small, usually 1⁄2 or 1 in in diameter, and fit into tube-sheet
holes that are drilled and machined to receive them. Condensers may
have stationary tube sheets, or they may be constructed with a floating
tube sheet on one end. The floating-tube-sheet design accommodates
tube expansion.
592 Chapter Nine
1. Removes the heat that the cooling water absorbed in the condenser
2. Minimizes the use of cooling water
3. Provides cooling water to the condenser to obtain high plant thermal
efficiency
Cooling towers are generally configured with the air and water in a
counterflow or cross-flow arrangement. In counterflow units, water
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 595
falls down through the fill while the air moves upward. In cross-flow
units, water cascades downward while the air moves horizontally,
which is perpendicular to the water flow. These cooling towers are
generally classified by the method used to move the air. These are
commonly known as (1) mechanical-draft units and (2) natural-draft
or hyperbolic units.
1. Forced draft. The fan is located in the ambient air stream enter-
ing the cooling tower, and the air is blown through the unit as
shown in Fig. 9.45.
2. Induced draft. The fan is located at the exit of the airflow and
draws air through the tower as shown in Fig. 9.46.
air stream also provides protection against the formation of ice. These
advantages lead to the widespread use of mechanical induced-draft
towers.
Mechanical-draft cooling towers also can be classified by their
shape, either rectilinear or round towers. Figure 9.47 shows towers
that are constructed in cellular fashion, and these have been
increased linearly to the length and number of cells necessary to meet
the required thermal performance.
Two configurations of round towers are shown in Fig. 9.48 and 9.49
with fans clustered as close as practicable around the centerpoint of
the tower. These tower arrangements can handle large heat loads but
with considerably less site area requirements than multiple rectilinear
towers.
A double-flow-principle mechanical-induced-draft tower shown in
Fig. 9.50 with a transverse cross section shown in Fig. 9.51 serves a
100-MW plant, cooling 50,000 gpm. This unit features 28-ft cells, 24-ft
fans, 6-ft fiberglass fan cylinder bases, and a 12-ft laminated-wood
velocity-recovery stack extension. Special mechanical equipment-
handling devices include removal davits and dollies and a monorail
system for transporting heavy equipment to tower end walls.
The double-flow tower consists of two identical sections divided at the
tower center by a partition that extends from the water level in the
basin to a point close to the fan inlet housing. The housing consists of
vertical columns made from sturdy timbers that are spaced on close cen-
ters for added strength. The vertical members are supported mechani-
cally by bracing to provide rigidity where required. Transverse bracing
as well as longitudinal bracing is provided to give maximum strength.
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 597
The material under each “section” is filled with splash bars set in
fiberglass supports, which are impervious to all corrosive conditions.
These high-strength grids are on close centers so that there can be no
sagging fill or channeling of water flow. Splash bars are securely
retained without nails or other corrosive fasteners and can elongate or
shrink without distortion or cracking. Between the filling and the center
longitudinal partition are herringbone drift eliminators for removing
water entrained in the air. The drift eliminators also function as effec-
tive diffusers, equalizing pressure through the cooling chamber.
For large fans, blades of glass-fiber-reinforced polyester are used to
eliminate corrosion. Aluminum blades are also available. The gear
Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Cooling Towers 599
Directly over the center of the tower are located the induced-draft
fans. The motors are removed from the airstream and set outside the fan
housing. Figure 9.50 shows seven individual towers making up one cool-
ing tower unit. The louvered openings are on the side through which
the air is drawn. Across the top of the tower are the open-distribution
hot-water basins. The bottom of each basin contains a series of porce-
lain nozzles that are placed to provide uniform water distribution to
the “filling” below. Flow-control valves are provided for each tower
and are used to vary the flow if desired. In the center of the fan housing
is the fan assembly with gear-reducer drive and flexible-drive shaft.
Two-speed motors are available for low-load operation.
The level is held constant by automatic-control float makeup valves
to replenish the water supply by automatic control of the blowdown
from the basin and by the overflow pipe to the drain. If well designed,
the water-distribution system should be readily accessible for regula-
tion of flow and for cleaning and inspection. With the double-flow
tower, one-half of any cell may be shut down while the other half
remains in service.
Large cooling towers are usually provided with concrete basins. These
basins should be watertight and deep enough to store an adequate
amount of water. Sufficient space and clearance should be permitted
for ease in cleaning and painting. Access doors should be conveniently
located and large enough to permit equipment that is necessary for
repairs and maintenance to be moved into the tower’s interior.
In designing and locating a cooling tower, consideration should be
given to the prevailing wind direction and to any obstructions sur-
rounding the tower, since any interference will reduce the efficiency of
operation and influence the performance. Cooling towers must be
designed and built to support their own weight, together with the
weight of the water and the force produced by the wind. Standard
wind-pressure design is 30-psi wind load, though in certain areas where
windstorms prevail, additional safeguards must be taken to with-
stand loading. Wood towers are to be recommended over steel towers
to avoid corrosion. If bolts are used, they should be bronze or galva-
nized. Nails are never used to carry a load. Consideration should be
given to fire prevention, to proper access to facilities, and to walkways
for adjustments, servicing, and maintenance.
cooling towers tend to be quite large, since they often handle large
quantities of cooling water, 250,000 gpm and greater. Because of the
relatively small temperature and density differences of the inside and
outside air, these cooling towers are generally very tall, in the range
of 300 to 500 ft high.
The shape of the tower shell is hyperbolic, thus the name of this type
of cooling tower. This shape has little effect on the natural-draft capabili-
ties, but it offers superior strength and resists wind loads and therefore
requires less material than other designs, thus being more cost-effective.
Natural-draft cooling towers operate most effectively in areas that
have a higher humidity as compared with plants located in an arid
region or one located at a high altitude. Such plant sites would most
probably use mechanical-draft cooling towers or possibly an air-cooled
condenser system.
Hyperbolic cooling towers are more expensive than mechanical-draft
cooling towers, and they are used extensively in large utility power
plants. However, because of their lower operating cost as a result of no
fan power requirements, the overall costs over the plant life are lower,
which justifies the higher initial capital cost. For any plant design, a
careful evaluation of the initial capital costs and the operating and
maintenance costs must be made of the various designs when the plant
size is such that natural-draft towers are known to be a possibility.
An illustration of a hyperbolic natural-draft cooling tower is shown
in Fig. 9.53. This unit is part of a 265-MW power plant and handles
120,000 gpm of cooling water from 110 to 87°F. It has a diameter of
approximately 130 ft at the top and 245 ft at the bottom and is 320 ft
high.
602 Chapter Nine
a period of time, which would allow them to dry out. In order to pro-
vide protection, designs incorporating wood have fire-protection sys-
tems as part of their design. In fact, during construction, the plant’s
fire-protection system must be operational to protect against the pos-
sibility of fire as a result of welding operations, etc. With the use of
more noncombustible material such as PVC and concrete, approval
of designs without a fire-protection system has been granted.
Figure 9.54 Circulating water pump: (a) mixed-flow pumping element; (b) axial-flow
impeller pump. (Ingersoll Dresser Pump Co.)
9.5 For an electrical output with 60-Hz applications, what must the rotating
speed of the turbine be? In order to prevent severe turbine blade erosion,
what is the moisture limit in a turbine?
9.6 What is the net plant heat rate? How is it expressed? Why is it impor-
tant?
9.7 A utility boiler produces 4,300,000 lb/h of steam at 2800 psig and 1000°F
when supplied with feedwater at 380°F. The gross electrical output of the
turbine generator is 540 MW, and the plant’s in-house electrical load
requirement is 3 percent of the plant’s gross output. Calculate the plant’s
net plant heat rate (NPHR) and the plant’s efficiency.
9.9 Describe the turbine stage design, and identify the major components.
9.14 What prevents steam from leaking at the point where the rotating shaft
penetrates through the casing?
9.16 What is the potential problem of having blades that are very long?
9.17 Describe the change in the steam as it passes through the turbine. What
impact does this have on turbine design?
9.23 For piping connections to a turbine, list several design concepts to account
for piping expansion.
9.26 What are the major components of an electric generator? Why is hydro-
gen used to cool an electric generator?
9.29 Which is the type of condenser that is the most common in a power plant?
What are its features?
9.30 Why does the condensation of steam create a vacuum in the condenser?
9.32 How are noncondensable gases removed from a condenser? Why are they
removed?
9.33 When is an air-cooled condenser used? Describe its operation. What are
its advantages and disadvantages?
9.37 In a modern steam power plant, approximately how much of the total
heat input is rejected to the atmosphere in some manner? How much of
this results from the condensing of the exhaust steam from the turbine?
9.39 How does a cooling tower work, and what are its major features?
9.40 Describe the two classifications of cooling towers and how they operate.
9.46 Name some of the more important materials in cooling tower design.
10
Operating and Maintaining
Steam Turbines,
Condensers, Cooling Towers, and
Auxiliaries
10.1 Turbines
As described in Chap. 9, there are two general ways of classifying tur-
bines: (1) by their steam supply and exhaust conditions and (2) by
their casing or shaft arrangement. They are also identified by the
equipment they drive, either mechanical equipment or an electric
generator. The type of drive, either direct or geared, is also used in
describing a turbine.
For large electric utility fossil-fuel-fired power plants in the United
States, where plant sizes range from 100 to 1300 MW, many of the
large plant designs are based on one of two system cycles:
611
612 Chapter Ten
Figure 10.1 Steam turbine types and applications. (a) Condensing; used when
exhaust steam from the turbine cannot be used and power must be generated on a
minimum amount of steam. (b) Noncondensing; used when all or practically all the
exhaust steam from the turbine can be used for process or heating. (c) Single extrac-
tion; used when process steam requirements are variable or intermittent. (A noncon-
densing extraction turbine can be used when process steam is required at two different
pressures.) (d) Mixed pressure; used when excess steam is available at lower than
inlet pressure and when this supply is intermittent. (e) Mixed-pressure extraction;
used to supply process steam when necessary and to use a surplus of process steam
when available. (f) Double-extraction; used when process steam is required at two dif-
ferent pressures (or at three different pressures if noncondensing).
Some turbines use a reheat cycle. This consists of passing the high-
temperature steam through a turbine, then returning it to a special
superheater (reheater), and resuperheating it before it is expanded
further in the low-pressure turbine. This system makes it possible to
have dry steam in all but the last few stages of the turbine. It would
be possible, but is seldom economically advisable, to use more than
one stage of reheating.
Turbines are well adapted to the utilization of high-pressure steam.
At 100 to 150 psi pressure, there is a decrease in steam rate1 of 11⁄4
percent for each 10 psi increase in pressure. From 150 to 250 psi pres-
sure, this decrease becomes 3⁄4 percent for each 10 psi increase in
pressure. At higher pressures, the reduction in steam rate is lower.
Condensing turbines are operated effectively and efficiently with low
backpressure (vacuum). Surface condensers are used, and the use of
these condensers decreases the steam rate by approximately 5 percent
for each inch of mercury improvement in vacuum within the range of
25 to 29 in Hg. Exhaust pressures of 3.5 to 1.0 in Hg are common in
modern power plants. Thus, by operating at a vacuum as created by
the condenser, the turbine can produce more power, just as it would
with an increase in steam pressure, but much more economically.
The impact and importance of a condenser that creates a vacuum
can be illustrated by the use of a simple equation for the thermal effi-
ciency of a perfect heat engine or turbine that ignores any losses due
to radiation or friction.
T1T2
E 100
T1
where E efficiency (%)
T1 absolute temperature of entering steam
T2 absolute temperature of leaving steam
Without condenser:
860672
E 100 21.8 percent
860
1
Steam rate is the number of pounds of steam supplied per unit of work, e.g., pounds
per kWh.
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 617
With condenser:
860 624
E 100 27.4 percent
860
1. Fill all grease cups and oil the governor and other miscellaneous parts.
2. Open drains on the header, separator, casing, and exhaust lines.
If these are equipped with traps, open the bypass line.
3. Slowly open the exhaust-line shutoff valve.
4. If the turbine has a pressure lubricating system with an auxil-
iary oil pump, start the pump.
5. Inspect the bearings for ample flow of oil; check the oil pressure
and see if the pump is operating properly; 3 to 5 psi pressure is
sufficient.
6. Turn on the cooling water for the bearings or oil cooler.
7. Open the throttle quickly to start the turbine. During this time
observe the turbine carefully for signs of rubbing (a small pipe or
618 Chapter Ten
rod placed between the ear and the points to be checked will aid
in detecting unusual noise and rubbing, or check the vibration
monitoring equipment, if provided).
8. Slowly bring the turbine up to speed, approximately 300 rpm,
and operate it at this speed for a period of 15 to 30 min.
9. Trip the emergency valve by hand to see that it closes properly.
10. Open the throttle wide and allow the governor to regulate the
speed; keep a close check to prevent overspeeding. Note: If the
governor will not control the speed at no load, the hand throttle
may be used until the load is on.
11. Inspect the bearings to make certain that they are getting oil. Oil
should be up to the level recommended by the manufacturer.
Usually the level drops when oil fills all the various cavities in
the system.
12. The drains, which were opened before the turbine was started,
should now be closed or arranged to discharge through the trap.
13. Gradually increase the load on the turbine while keeping a close
check on the oil, cooling-water, and bearing temperatures.
1. Inspect the governor mechanism, fill all grease cups, and oil
where necessary.
2. If the boiler stop valve is not open, open it to permit as much
heating of the steam line as possible and avoid condensation in
the line.
3. Open the following drains: header, separator, throttle, and tur-
bine casing.
4. Open the stop valve in the steam supply to the auxiliary oil
pump. Note: The operation of this pump is controlled by a governor
to shut off the supply of steam after the main oil pump has deliv-
ered oil at normal pressure; it opens when the pressure fails.
5. Adjust needle valves to obtain 10 to 15 psi oil pressure on the
main bearings and 15 to 20 psi oil pressure on the thrust bear-
ing; make sure gauges are in operating condition and have been
calibrated.
6. Start the condensing equipment, circulating pumps, and dry
vacuum pump; operate the condensate pumps as found necessary
to remove water during the warming-up period.
7. The turbine steam or water seal should be turned on and the
vacuum maintained at 24 to 26 in Hg during the warmup period;
maintain approximately 1 psi pressure in the packing chamber.
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 619
8. Turn on the water to the generator air cooler, and see that water
flows properly to this and other points requiring water.
9. If the drain ahead of the throttle valve has been closed for any
reason, open it again and keep it open until all water from con-
densation has been removed.
10. Now open the throttle valve quickly to set the rotor in motion.
11. As soon as the turbine is rolling, trip the overspeed by using the
hand lever. This is to determine if the tripping mechanism operates
properly and to prevent the turbine from accelerating too rapidly.
12. Reset the emergency overspeed valve, and before the turbine
comes to rest, adjust the throttle so that the turbine will operate
between 200 and 300 rpm.
13. While the rotor revolves slowly, use a metal rod or listening
device to determine rubbing or mechanical difficulty, or observe
the vibration monitoring equipment, if provided.
14. When the oil leaving the bearing reaches a temperature of
approximately 110 to 120°F, start the circulating water through
the oil cooler to maintain these temperatures. At this time, the
bearing oil pressure should again be checked.
15. Gradually increase the speed. The rate depends on the size of the
turbine. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
16. Adjust the water seal on the turbine and the atmospheric relief
valve.
17. When normal operating speed has been reached and the turbine
is under the control of the governor, test the emergency governor
by opening the valve in the oil line to it. See that all valves con-
trolled by this tripping mechanism close promptly. Reset, open
the throttle valve, and restore speed to normal.
18. If high-pressure packing is of the water-seal type, adjust the
water to 15 psi pressure and shut off the steam.
19. Close the drains mentioned in step 3.
20. Open the leak-off from the high-pressure packing so that any
excess steam may flow to the feedwater heater or to one of the
lower stages of the turbine.
21. Synchronize the generator and tie it in the line.
22. With the throttle valve wide open, the speed is controlled by the
governor. The turbine is now ready for load and is regulated from
the turbine control panel.
only detrimental to efficiency but also can have a drastic effect on tur-
bine reliability because of increased thrust loading and the possibility
of stress-corrosion cracking of components from high levels of caustic
carry-over. Boiler water chemistry, therefore, is of critical importance.
Water washing, detergent soaking, grit blasting, and hand polishing
are typical methods of removing deposits.
Since turbine rotors rotate at high speed, one of the difficulties
encountered is vibration. Vibration in many cases is caused by unbal-
anced weight in the rotating parts and misalignment of the shafts.
Vibration due to an unbalanced condition changes with the speed at
which the machine is operating. It may be caused by broken, eroded,
or corroded blades, by a bent shaft, by distortion due to unequal heat-
ing, or by scale deposits on the blading.
Improper alignment of turbine and rotor shafts causes a vibration
that does not change with the turbine speed but which increases as
the load on the turbine increases. It might be caused by improper
alignment of a new turbine. Foundation settling or strains due to pipe
expansion could cause vibration in a turbine that has been in opera-
tion for some time.
Turbine vibration also occurs from water coming over from the boiler
with the steam, which will cause the turbine to become noisy and, in
severe cases, will cause vibration; electric-generator troubles, such as
an unequal air gap or a loose coil in the stator; internal rubbing of
parts caused by warping of bladings or diaphragms, improper adjust-
ment, or worn thrust bearings; too much clearance in the main bear-
ings; and overheating due to faulty lubrication or lack of cooling. Also,
vibration may result if the shaft becomes distorted as a result of heat
generated by having the packing rub.
The remedy for most of these difficulties immediately suggests
itself: The different parts of the equipment must be supported rigidly
and aligned properly, the bearing clearance must be within proper
limits, and all bolts must be well tightened.
The rotor of the turbine is held in correct axial clearance by the
thrust bearing (see Figs. 9.25 and 9.26) and is adjusted with shims.
The space provided for the shims is greater than the internal clear-
ance between the wheel and the nozzles on one side and the stationary
buckets on the other. With shims removed, the striking limits of the
rotor can be determined and measured at the bearing. Assuming a
rotor with two rows of buckets on the first wheel and with a total
clearance of 0.160 in or less, the thrust must be shimmed so that the
clearance is divided equally and the rotor is in midposition between
striking limits when washers are set. If wear occurs, a complete
thrust bearing should be ordered as an assembly; a spare should
always be carried in stock.
624 Chapter Ten
Carbon packing rings are used at the high- and low-pressure ends
of turbines that operate condensing, on those turbines exhausting
against high backpressure, and where high initial steam temperature
and pressure are used. Metallic packing rings are placed at the shaft
bore of diaphragms to minimize steam leakage along the shaft due to
the difference in pressure between the stages.
The recommended packing (carbon) clearance of the bore of the ring
in excess of the diameter of the shaft for 2- to 3-in-diameter shafts is
0.002 to 0.005 in. When diaphragm packing is used, the bore of the teeth
of the packing ring must be 0.010 to 0.013 in larger than the shaft.
Again, the manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed.
Proper maintenance of the emergency governor is likewise important.
To ensure proper operation, the governor should be tested at frequent
intervals. All parts should be kept clean and pins and bearings oiled.
Alteration in the tripping speed on most governors is accomplished by
altering the number or thickness of shims. The emergency governor
should be tested weekly or when being placed in operation after an
extended outage.
Lubrication is of extreme importance to the successful operation of
the turbine. Proper lubrication of a steam turbine depends on the
proper application of oil to the bearings, the selection of a suitable oil,
and maintenance of the oil in good condition after it is in the turbine.
The proper method of application of the oil to the bearing is part of
the turbine design. With use of the manufacturer’s recommendations,
the operator is responsible for selection of the proper oil and for keep-
ing it in good condition after it is in service in the turbine.
Oil having the proper viscosity must be selected. A thin oil is recom-
mended, but it must not thin out and lose its lubricating properties
when heated to operating temperature. It should have the ability to
separate readily from water. Some oils mix with water and form
sludge, which is very objectionable in the lubricating system. Oil
must be free from acid so that it will not corrode the highly polished
surface of the bearings. It must not give off volatile gases when heated
to temperatures of 325 to 350°F. Oils that have their gases distilled
off at low temperatures lose their lubricating properties after they
have been in use for some time. Some oils leave a sludge deposit in
lines, tanks, etc.
Oils in service pick up particles of dirt mixed with water and tend to
become acid. Medium-sized and large turbine installations have filters
and cleaners for keeping the oil in good condition. Several different
methods are used: bypass filtration, in which part of the oil is contin-
ually circulated through a filtration system; continuous filtration, in
which the entire amount of oil returning from the turbine is filtered;
makeup system, in which quantities of oil are drawn off at intervals
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 625
c. When the governor trips, shutting the oil valve and determining
whether the governor returns to normal; then resetting the trip-
ping mechanism. Never keep a turbine in service unless you are
certain that the emergency devices are reliable. A complete
record should be kept of the changes and adjustments made
when tests are conducted.
1. Bucket and nozzle losses are the result of friction between the
steam and the ports through which the steam flows. These losses can
be reduced by a redesign of the shape of the buckets and nozzles.
2. High-velocity steam from the last-stage turbine blades results in
kinetic energy lost to the condenser. This loss can be decreased by
increasing the area through which the steam flows, and one
method is to increase the length of the last-stage blades (LSB).
The plant heat rate can be improved with this modification.
3. Losses due to steam leaks is the major contributor to the loss of
turbine efficiency. The primary source of leaks is from the shaft
packing or around the bucket tips. A change to the turbine to cor-
rect these losses often includes the resizing of steam balance holes
between the diaphragm packing and the rotor or by adding tip
sealing over the buckets.
4. When steam is contaminated with iron oxide, solid particles erode the
turbine blades, and performance degradation results. These deposits
come from the inside surfaces of the boiler and steam piping, and the
problem in the turbine is primarily in the first stage of the high-
pressure turbine and the first stage of the reheat or low-pressure
turbine. Proper chemical cleaning of the boiler and water treatment
procedures must be followed strictly to prevent this serious problem.
628 Chapter Ten
10.2 Condensers
The condenser reduces the backpressure, thereby increasing the output
and efficiency of the turbine. The condensed steam becomes excellent
feedwater and is returned to the boiler. The vacuum created in the
condenser depends on the cooling water temperature entering the con-
denser, the effectiveness of the air-removal devices, and many other
factors.
Some of the major areas of condenser operation that affect overall
plant performance and turbine backpressure include cooling water
temperature, temperature differential between exhaust steam and
inlet cooling water, degree of tube fouling, and the velocity of the cool-
ing water. Condenser fouling is common, especially when the cooling
water is from a natural source, such as a lake, river, or ocean. The
fouling results from sediment, scaling, corrosion, and biologic growth.
When cooling water is part of a closed system with a cooling tower,
fouling of the condenser is minimized because the water chemistry
can be controlled and plugging from debris has been eliminated.
The operation of surface condensers can be enhanced by the following
design and operational features:
When tubes become plugged with debris, proper backflush valve and
piping arrangements can remove this debris. In addition, various
mechanical and chemical water treatment procedures are available to
minimize fouling.
1. Open the discharge and inlet valves to and from the condenser and
start the circulating pump.
2. Open the steam-jet air-ejector valves and slowly bring up the vacuum.
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 629
Example Assume the heat in the exhaust steam to be 1100 Btu; the tem-
perature t0 100, t1 80, and t2 90. Calculate the amount of cooling
water required to condense 1 lb of steam.
Solution
1100(10032) 1032
Q
9080 10
or
1 gal 1h
gpm 10,320,000 lb/h
8.33 lb 60 min
20,648 gpm
arise in which the leakage is not so easily noted, as in the former case.
Small amounts of water leaking into the hot well are best determined
by running a chemical analysis on the condensate from time to time or
by testing the condensate to determine the resistance or conductivity
of a given sample of water.
If a tube is split, temporary repairs may be made by driving a plug into
the end of the tube or by replacing the ferrules with a special brass cap.
Permanent repairs are made by replacing the tube. In the case of tubes
expanded in the tube sheet, care must be exercised to obtain a tight joint
without bending the tubes by overexpanding them. When packing is used
to prevent leakage between the tubes and the tube sheet, the specified
amount of packing is placed in the box, and the ferrule is screwed down
tightly but with care to prevent crushing (necking) the tube.
Approximately 80 percent of all tube failures occur within the first
couple of inches of the tube inlet end of the condenser. The inlet end of
many heat exchangers also experiences this same failure. Erosion of
the inlet end is the cause of these failures. As a solution to this prob-
lem, a thin-walled metal tube insert, called a ferrule, is expanded into
the inlet end of a condenser or heat exchanger. Ferrules are approxi-
mately 6 in in length and are designed to ensure a smooth transition
of the fluid at the inlet. The ferrule is sacrificial and is designed to
absorb the damage that otherwise would occur on the condenser tube.
The replacement of ferrules is far less expensive than replacement of
the tube itself, and therefore many condenser designs incorporate the
ferrule inserts when the condensers are manufactured.
Air leaks that develop are difficult to detect and locate because of the
large surface area of the condenser and the many valves, fittings, and
auxiliaries attached to it. These leaks are detected by (1) examining all
the joints for leaks using a candle, (2) filling the entire condenser with
water and maintaining a slight pressure on the system, and (3) using
low-pressure air and checking for leaks using a soap solution on the
joints. The leaks must be checked around all auxiliaries connecting the
turbine seals, bleeder connections, etc.; this is very often a slow and
tedious job. Plastic compounds are often used to seal the leaking joint
when it is located.
A convenient method of determining the extent of leakage is to pull
a vacuum on the system and close down, permitting the unit to stand
for a while. If the vacuum drops more than 2 to 4 in Hg per hour, it
will be necessary to hunt for leaks. Another method frequently used
to determine whether the condenser is leaking air is to check the
pressure and see if the pressure in the condenser corresponds to the
condensate temperature. Should the pressure be higher, air leaks or
noncondensable gases are present in the condenser.
As an example, suppose the pressure in the condenser is 1.932 in
Hg absolute (0.9486 psia) and the temperature in the hot well is 96°F.
632 Chapter Ten
2
Interpolation is required between 90 and 100°F.
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 633
1. Shut off the fans to the tower or run the motor at low speed.
2. Shut down cells and run the water over fewer compartments.
3. Bypass some of the water to the tower and reduce the number of
cells operating.
4. If ice forms on the deck filling or louvers, shut down the fans tem-
porarily while continuing to circulate the water.
Operators also must ensure that the water loading is balanced and
that fans and motors are running properly.
As noted previously, during the operation of cooling towers in cold
climates, the formation of ice is an important concern. Special care
should be given to the air intakes and fill, where buildups of ice will
jeopardize performance. One method of minimizing severe buildup of
ice on a mechanical cooling tower is to reverse the direction of the
fans, which shifts relatively warm water over the ice formation.
Also, some mechanical-draft cooling towers incorporate variable-
speed fans. This feature can reduce power and thus operating costs
when climatic conditions do not require the design output of the fans.
An economic evaluation of increased capital costs versus lower operating
Operating and Maintaining Steam Turbines 639
10.4 Auxiliaries
10.4.1 Traveling screens
When a natural source of cooling water is used from a lake, river, or
ocean, a traveling screen is placed in the intake tunnel that supplies
640 Chapter Ten
water to the plant and is operated at variable speed. This permits the
screen to be rotated fast or slowly, continuously or intermittently.
Operating costs can be reduced if the screen is run only when necessary.
The frequency of operation can best be determined by installing an indi-
cating or recording gauge to notify the operator when the pressure drop
(differential head or water-level drop) across the screen has
increased, indicating that the screen needs to be cleaned. Allowance
must be made, however, for the head of water on the inlet side
because the pressure drop across the screen will vary with the area
exposed to the inlet water.
The usual operation is to run the revolving screen at intervals fre-
quent enough to expose a new set of screens or buckets to the water
flowing to the tunnel to avoid pressure drop across the screen. Since
the pressure drop occurs because of foreign material on the screen,
the simplest way to determine whether screens are clean or dirty is to
operate as follows:
Assuming the water is 20 ft deep and each screen is 1 ft wide,
1. Turn the screens over slowly until all 20 ft (20 buckets) have been
exposed. Check the screens for foreign material.
2. If the screens are dirty, continue to run them until they begin to
run clean.
3. Determine the frequency of running necessary to keep them in this
condition. Without a gauge, this is best determined by operating
experience.
4. Once the frequency of rotation has been determined, a schedule can
be set up to rotate or raise the screens to the necessary height once
each hour or less frequently, depending on the condition of the water.
10.4.2 Pumps
Of all the auxiliaries, the circulating pump requires the most power
because of the large quantity of water that it handles. Most condensers
are equipped with two circulating pumps, both operated at maximum
load, while at partial load only one is required to maintain the vacuum
desired. Some circulating pumps are provided with two-speed or
variable-speed motors to reduce operating cost to a minimum.
Circulating pumps (see Fig. 9.54) are operated at relatively low
speed and normally require little attention once alignment has been
made correctly. Properly lubricated, operated, and maintained, circu-
lating pumps will run for extended periods of time without difficulty.
Some pumps are set above the normal water level and have to be
primed to be placed in service. Priming is accomplished by evacuating
the air in the pump until water is ejected from the siphon. At this point
the motor is started, and subsequently the discharge valve is opened
slowly so as not to lose the vacuum. The priming is then discontinued.
If strainers are provided ahead of the pump, they must be inspected
at frequent intervals. If twin strainers are provided, the cleaning can
be accomplished without taking the pump out of service. If not, one
condenser must be taken out of service for this inspection. The clean-
liness of the strainer can be determined by placing a set of pressure
gauges before and after the strainer and noting the pressure drop
(loss) across the strainer.
Condensate (hot-well) pumps and other auxiliary pumps used on
heater drains and sumps require the same type of service and main-
tenance as that outlined for pumps in Chap. 8.
642 Chapter Ten
10.2 For smaller utility or IPP plant sizes, why are significantly lower steam
pressures and temperatures used?
10.3 Describe by use of a sketch the flow of steam through a tandem com-
pound turbine consisting of a high-pressure turbine and a double-flow
low-pressure turbine with the steam from the low-pressure turbine
exhausting to a condenser.
10.5 Other than to drive a generator for electric production, what types of
equipment are suitable to be driven by steam turbines?
10.10 For modern power plants, what are common exhaust pressures in inches
of mercury and in pounds per square inch? Why are these pressures con-
sidered to be vacuums?
10.12 What are the more important things to watch for in bringing a turbine
on line? After it is on line and operating? Why is a training program
important?
10.16 How is turbine performance affected over time? Where do the major losses
occur, and how can they be corrected?
10.20 How would you proceed to determine whether a condenser was leaking?
How would you repair a tube leak? Would this have a significant impact
on the performance of the condenser?
10.21 How would you determine the reason for low vacuum that had suddenly
occurred on a condensing turbine?
10.22 What is used in condenser and heat exchanger tubing to minimize the
potential for inlet tube erosion?
10.24 When are cooling towers selected to provide circulating water to con-
densers?
10.25 Define relative humidity and explain how it is determined. How does the
relative humidity of the outside air affect the operation of a cooling
tower?
10.28 Explain the operation of a traveling screen when it is used with a natural
source of cooling water.
10.30 The vacuum gauge reads 26.3 in Hg and the barometer reads 30.03 in
Hg. What is the absolute pressure in pounds per square inch?
10.31 The pressure of the atmosphere is 14.36 psi and the vacuum gauge reads
28.23 in Hg. What is the backpressure in pounds per square inch
absolute (psia)?
10.32 A turbine operates with a backpressure of 1.5 in Hg. What is the pressure
in pounds per square inch (psi)?
Chapter
11
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment
647
648 Chapter Eleven
TABLE 11.1 Common Impurities Found in Water, the Difficulties Caused, and
Means of Treatment
The number and type of feedwater heaters used depend on the steam
cycle, the operating pressure of the cycle, and the plant economics, i.e.,
where lower operating costs can offset the additional capital cost expen-
diture. In general, smaller plants have fewer units. In utility and large
industrial plants, five to seven stages of feedwater heaters are often
part of the design. Feedwater heaters are classified as either closed or
open designs and are designed for operating at low or high pressure.
STAINLESS STEEL
IMPINGEMENT PLATE
HEMISPHERICAL
HEAD CHANNEL
MANWAY
(OPTIONAL
DESIGNS
AVAILABLE)
PARTITION
COVER
Figure 11.1 U-tube type of feedwater heater. (Thermal Engineering International USA
Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 653
Figure 11.2 Four-pass closed feedwater heater. (API Ketema, Inc., a subsidiary
of American Precision Industries, Inc.)
1. A water box at the top, where water enters the unit through valves
or nozzles
2. A spray area immediately below, where sprayed water interacts with
steam to do 95 percent of the deaerating and heating of the feedwater
3. A tray section, where the final 5 percent of the deaeration and
heating takes place
656 Chapter Eleven
final polishing. These trays are also made from stainless steel for
corrosion protection.
Below the tray station, at the bottom of the heater tank, there is a
section where deaerated water is briefly retained before it drops into
a separate storage tank. In one-piece heaters, the heater storage vol-
ume must be sufficient to permit water to be drawn off and directed
to the boiler feed pumps.
Figure 11.6 Deaerator outside location on roof of boiler building. (The Graver Company,
Graver Water Division.)
Figure 11.7Series of deaerators located on roof of boiler building for large utility plant.
(The Graver Company, Graver Water Division.)
660 Chapter Eleven
(a)
Figure 11.9 Deaerating heater. (a) section view; (b, c) flow diagrams. (Crane
Environmental.)
662 Chapter Eleven
WATER
INLET
STEAM
INLET
Figure 11.11 Package deaerator unit with piping, boiler feed pumps, and controls.
(Cleaver-Brooks, a Division of Aqua-Chem, Inc..)
Partially heated and deaerated water falls onto the exchange packing,
where it then flows down the packing in very thin, turbulent films.
After being deaerated, the fully heated water falls to the storage tank
for flow to the boiler feed pumps.
The heating and conditioning of feedwater are performed by a hot-
process water softener. A typical installation is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 11.12a, and a section through the heater and softener unit is
shown in Fig. 11.12b. There are no provisions for the introduction of
664 Chapter Eleven
condensate into this unit. It is intended for use where there is 100
percent makeup water or where the condensate returns are delivered
to an independent deaerator. The installation includes a system that
proportions the chemical feed to the rate of flow of makeup water; a
combination heater, softener, and settling tank; a sludge-recirculating
pump; filters; and a wash pump. The flow of cold makeup water to the
softener is regulated by means of a flow-control valve to maintain a
constant level in the treated-water chamber. An orifice-type flowmeter
actuates the chemical feed in proportion to the rate of water flow. The
raw water is sprayed into the steam-filled sections at the top of the
softener. The oxygen and other noncondensable gases are discharged
through the vent to the atmosphere. The sludge-recirculation pump
transfers the sludge from the bottom of the softener into the chemical
reaction portion of the softener. This recirculation of sludge acceler-
ates the chemical action, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the
reaction chamber. Treated water is discharged from the inverted-funnel-
shaped baffle to the pressure filters and then to the boiler feed
pumps. The filter backwash pump suction line is also located below
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 665
this funnel-shaped baffle. After passing through the filters, the wash
water is discharged to the upper section of the softener, thus reclaiming
the filter backwash water.
These open feedwater heaters and hot-process softeners are essen-
tially automatic, but there are some points that require the attention
of the operator. Adequate steam must be supplied to maintain the
specified pressure; this steam is usually obtained from the exhaust
of plant auxiliaries, and when this exhaust is not sufficient, steam
from the high-pressure lines is admitted through a reducing valve.
These heaters and softeners may be designed for any desired steam
pressure to satisfy plant conditions, but they are usually operated at
3 to 10 psig. Some softeners are equipped to receive and blend con-
densate with the makeup water. When the condensate returns are not
sufficient to meet the demands for boiler feedwater, the level in the
heater drops and makeup is added. The controls should be adjusted to
666 Chapter Eleven
1
Titration for alkalinity consists of adding a few drops of a dye, phenolphthalein, to
the sample. The sample turns pink, indicating the presence of hydroxides and carbon-
ates. A standard-strength acid solution is then added in sufficient quantity to just
remove the pink color. The quantity of acid used is the P alkalinity. Then another dye,
methyl orange, is added, and the sample becomes a straw color, indicating the presence
of hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates. As more standard-strength acid is added,
the sample color will change from straw to pink. The quantity of acid added during this
second titration is the M alkalinity.
One method of determining hardness is to add a standard-strength soap solution to
the sample and record the amount required to produce a lather. A second method is by
titration using an organic dye that causes the sample of hard water to turn red. Then a
standard-strength sequestering (separating) agent is added in sufficient amount to
change the color of the sample from red to blue. The milliliters of the titrating agent
added multiplied by a constant gives the hardness H of the sample. The constant cor-
rects for the size of the sample and strength of the titrating solution.
2
Parts per million refers to a concentration of 1 in 1 million, that is to say, 1 lb of
salts in 1,000,000 lb of water. Another way of expressing solids in water is grains per
gallon, a grain being 1/7000 lb. To convert from grains per gallon to parts per million,
multiply by 17.1. The P and M readings denote the alkalinity of the water. The M quan-
tity is known as the total alkalinity. The alkalinity and hardness are expressed as calci-
um carbonate so that they may be added and subtracted directly. This procedure sim-
plifies the calculations used in determining the necessary changes in treatment as
indicated by the control test.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 667
are also used. Units can have 10 to 30 percent of their tubes plugged
and still meet thermal performance, although the pressure drop does
increase and the condensate and boiler feed pumps must be designed
to handle this additional pressure requirement.
The feedwater heater system has a significant impact on steam
system performance. Much of the deposits found in steam-generating
systems come from corrosion products and contaminants whose
source is the feedwater heater system. Copper-based tubing has been
replaced by other materials in order to reduce the carry-over of dis-
solved copper. Proper chemistry control and deaeration operation can
minimize corrosion in the feedwater heater system and reduce corro-
sion product carry-over into the boiler. The proper control of oxygen is
very important so that corrosion of the boiler system is minimized.
Feedwater heaters may be taken out of service for maintenance
during plant operation by bypassing the feedwater around them and
shutting off the extraction steam to them. However, this requires
additional piping and valves, and the system must be designed to
accommodate the bypassing.
11.4.2 Evaporators
Impurities in water are effectively removed by evaporators. Heat is
applied, and the steam or vapor produced leaves the impurities to
concentrate in the remaining water. When the steam or vapor is con-
densed, the resulting condensate has a high degree of purity.
The typical evaporator consists of a steel shell with the necessary
outlets and a bank of tubes that constitute the heating surface. Steam
supplied to the inside of the tubes gives up heat to the surrounding
water and is thereby condensed. The condensate is removed through
a trap that prevents the tubes from becoming flooded with condensate
3
Pure water has a high resistance to the flow of electricity; therefore, its conductivity,
the reciprocal of resistance, is low. The purity of the water is frequently determined by
measuring its conductivity, using a dip cell and conductivity bridge. The results are
expressed in microsiemens of specific conductivity. The relation between microsiemens
of specific conductivity and parts per million of dissolved solids varies to some extent
with the kind of dissolved solids in the water. The presence of carbon dioxide and
ammonia in the water also affects the conductivity, and the readings must be corrected
accordingly in order to determine the total dissolved solids.
In samples that do not contain carbon dioxide or ammonia, or when corrections for
them have been made, the approximate purity in parts per million of dissolved solids
can be determined by multiplying the conductivity in microsiemens by 0.55. In addition
to checking relatively pure water, this method may, with suitably calibrated dip cells
and conductivity bridges, be used to determine the concentration of boiler water.
In the past, micromhos (mho) was the term for the basic unit of electrical conductivity
instead of siemens (S). Thus 1 micromho 1 microsiemens (S).
676 Chapter Eleven
and at the same time prevents steam from being discharged and
wasted. The heat received from the steam causes the water surrounding
the tubes to evaporate, forming vapor, which leaves the unit through the
outlet while the impurities remain in the shell of the evaporator.
The vapor is at a lower pressure and hence a lower temperature than
the steam supplied to the evaporator. The rate of evaporation depends
on this temperature difference between the steam in the coils and the
water surrounding them.
In the design and operation of an evaporator, consideration must
be given to several details to ensure service and performance. Both
the tube bundle and the shell must be designed to be strong enough
to withstand the pressure involved. The shell must have a safety
valve to prevent damage as a result of accidental overpressure.
Priming and foaming, as experienced in boiler operation, also may
occur in evaporators. This fault is overcome by designing the unit for
sufficient water surface to prevent excessive agitation by steam bub-
bles and by installing moisture eliminators in the top of the shell at
the steam outlet. The operator must keep the concentration of the
liquid low enough to prevent foaming and to see that the water is at
the specified level in the gauge glass. Careless operation results in a
carry-over of solids with the vapor, thus diminishing the advantages
derived from the use of the evaporator.
Except for radiation and blowdown losses, the heat supplied by the
steam is returned to the condensate by the vapor condenser. The opera-
tor must remove the solids from the water in the evaporator by blowing
down in order to prevent priming and foaming, since this would cause
solids to be carried over with the vapor, thus defeating the purpose of
the evaporator. The vapor must be checked to make sure that the water
being produced is of the desired quality. The output of the evaporator
may be controlled by varying the steam pressure to provide the neces-
sary quality of distilled makeup water. Scale deposits on the evaporator
tubes lower the maximum capacity but do not affect the efficiency or
cause tube failures. Some scale is permissible as long as sufficient dis-
tilled water can be produced. Evaporators should be large enough to
provide the necessary water with some scale on the tubes. Some plants
prevent the formation of an excessive amount of scale by pretreating the
water or by adding chemicals to the water in the evaporator. Another
method of control consists of allowing the scale to deposit for several
hours and then taking the evaporator out of service and subjecting the
tubes to a rapid temperature change, which causes the hard scale to
chip off the tubes. Evaporators are built to give a considerable tube
movement with a change of temperature to cause the scale to chip off
with this method of operation. When cold water is supplied to
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 677
evaporators, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases are driven off in
the vapor, causing it to be corrosive. This difficulty has been overcome
by the installation of hot-process softeners and deaerators to condition
the water before it is fed to the evaporators.
When it is necessary to obtain a large quantity of distilled water,
multiple-effect evaporators are used. These units consist of a number
of successive stages, or effects, through which the vapor generated in
one effect flows to the tubes of the next. This multistage operation
increases the amount of distilled water that can be obtained from a
given amount of steam.
Savings:
If cost per ton of coal is known, annual fuel cost savings can be determined.
For example, if coal costs $40 per ton, the annual savings would be approx-
imately $88,000 for this plant.
莦0莦.7莦8莦
冪 5莦
4莦
144Q
D
V
where D diameter of the pipe (in)
Q ft3/min of steam
V velocity of steam (ft/min)
Example Consider 10,000 lb of steam per hour flowing through a pipe at 100
psia pressure. Assume a velocity of 8000 ft/min. What size of pipe is required?
Solution Saturated steam at 100 psia has a volume of 4.432 ft3/lb (see
steam tables in App. C).
10,000
Q 4.432 738.7 ft3 of steam per minute
60
D
冪莦莦莦莦莦莦莦莦莦莦
144 738.7
4.11
8000 0.7854
A 4.5-in pipe is therefore required.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 681
Example Assume 400,000 lb/h of steam at 800 psia and 900°F flowing
through the main steam line to a turbine. Assume a design velocity of
10,000 ft/min. What is the size of the main steam line?
Solution
冪
莦10莦莦,0莦0莦0莦莦
莦莦0莦.7莦85莦莦4 10.85 in
144 6422
D
P
Schedule numbers 1000
S
where P steam pressure (lb/in2)
S working stress of pipe material (usually taken as 10 to 15
percent of ultimate strength)
remains the same, the extrastrong pipe has a smaller inside diameter
than a standard pipe having the same normal size designation (see
Table 11.2). This also applies to piping when the thickness is specified
by schedule numbers.
There is no essential difference between piping and tubing from the
standpoint of geometric shape and physical construction. However,
pipe sizes generally are designated by their nominal inside diameter
for a particular type of service, and tube sizes usually are specified in
terms of outside diameter and a minimum wall thickness.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 683
4
The chemical analysis and manufacturing procedure for steel to meet these code
requirements are fully explained in ASTM Standard for Ferrous Metal.
These ASTM specifications cover pipe for all applications, from the ordinary low pres-
sure to steels containing various percentages of molybdenum, chrome, nickel, and other
materials for high-temperature applications.
684 Chapter Eleven
D2
Thrust P
4
(12)2
150
4
16,965 lb
Example Consider 8-in pipe carrying steam at 160 psig, with a loss per
linear foot of bare pipe of 2140 Btu/h. Loss per linear foot of 2-in high-grade
insulation is 190 Btu/h. The saving per linear foot of pipe resulting from
insulation is 1950 Btu/h. With 13,500 Btu per pound of coal and 70 percent
boiler efficiency, the insulation on 1000 ft of 8-in pipe would save (using 30
days per month and 24 hours per day)
1950 1000 30 24
74.3 tons of coal per month
13,500 0.70 2000 as compared with bare pipe
For most power plants, the insulation is designed to provide safety
for personnel and to minimize heat loss. For units that are located
indoors, ventilation is required both for the comfort of plant personnel
and for the changing of room air.
The materials used predominantly for insulation are
1. Mineral wool block and blankets, which are used to insulate mem-
brane tube walls and boiler casings
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 689
headers, separators, and purifiers, where they remove the water formed
as the result of unavoidable condensation or carry-over from the boilers.
They are also used on all kinds of steam-heating equipment in which
the steam gives up heat and is converted into condensate. Coils used
in heating buildings, in water heaters, and in a wide range of indus-
trial processing equipment are included in this classification.
Whether a trap is used to keep condensate from accumulating in a
steam line or to discharge water from a steam-heated piece of equip-
ment, its operation is important. If it leaks, steam will be wasted; if it
fails to operate, water will accumulate. A satisfactory trap installation
must pass all the water that flows to it without discharging steam, must
not be rendered inoperative by particles of dirt or by an accumulation
of air, and must be rugged in construction with few moving parts so
that it will remain operative with a minimum of attention. Several
principles are used in the operation of traps.
Figure 11.20 shows a schematic of a steam trap piping arrangement.
When there is heat loss in the distribution system, either through radia-
tion losses or through a heat exchanger, condensate forms, and the sys-
tem requires steam traps at natural low points or ahead of control
valves. In heat exchangers, the steam traps perform the vital function of
removing the condensate before it becomes a barrier to heat transfer.
Hot condensate is returned to the boiler through the traps for reuse.
The operation of an inverted-bucket steam trap that is based on the
difference in density between steam and water is shown in Fig. 11.21.
Figure 11.21a shows this type of steam trap installed in a drain line
between a steam-heated piece of equipment and the condensate return
header. At startup, the bucket is down, and the valve is wide open. As
the condensate flows into the trap, it flows under the bucket, fills the
trap body, and completely submerges the bucket. The condensate then
discharges through the wide-open valve to the return header.
Steam also enters the trap under the bottom of the bucket, where it
rises and collects at the top, imparting buoyancy, as shown in Fig.
11.21b. The bucket then rises and lifts the valve, which is connected
to the bucket, toward its seat until the valve is snapped tightly shut.
Air and CO2 continuously pass through the bucket vent (shown at the
top of the inverted bucket) and collect at the top of the trap. Any
steam that passes through the vent is condensed.
Referring to Fig. 11.21c, as the entering condensate starts to fill the
bucket, the bucket begins to exert a pull on the lever. As the conden-
sate continues to rise, more force is exerted until there is enough to
open the valve against the differential pressure.
As the valve starts to open, as shown in Fig. 11.21d, the pressure
force across the valve is reduced. The bucket then sinks rapidly and
fully opens the valve. Accumulated air is discharged first, followed by
50.3 psig
297.97 F
100 psig PRV
337.9 F
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap
Trap Trap
Vent
691
692 Chapter Eleven
Figure 11.21 Operation of the inverted-bucket steam trap. (Armstrong International, Inc..)
condensate. The flow under the bottom of the bucket picks up dirt and
sweeps it out of the trap. Discharge continues until more steam floats
the bucket, and the cycle repeats. The valve and seat of these traps
are made of stainless steel for wear and corrosion resistance.
There are a number of steam trap designs, and selection of the
proper trap depends on its application. A type of trap that is used
often in industrial applications is the float and thermostatic steam
trap shown schematically in Fig. 11.22. This is a mechanical trap
that operates on both density and temperature principles.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 693
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 11.22 Operation of the float and thermostatic steam trap. (Armstrong
International, Inc..)
A lever connects the ball float to the valve and seat. Once the con-
densate reaches a certain level in the trap, the float rises, opens the
orifice, and drains the condensate. A water seal formed by the conden-
sate prevents any steamloss.
Since the discharge valve is under water, it is not capable of vent-
ing air and noncondensable gases. When the accumulation of air and
noncondensable gases causes a significant temperature drop, a ther-
mostatic air vent in the top of the trap discharges it. Figure 11.22
illustrates this operation.
On startup, low system pressure forces air out through the thermo-
static air vent, as shown in Fig. 11.22a. A high condensate load nor-
mally follows air venting and lifts the float, which opens the main
valve. The remaining air continues to discharge through the open
vent.
When steam reaches the trap, as shown in Fig. 11.22b, the thermo-
static air vent closes in response to higher temperature. Condensate
continues to flow through the main valve, which is positioned by the
694 Chapter Eleven
Figure 11.24Steam and compressed-air separators: (a) for horizontal lines; (b) for
downward flow in vertical lines. (Crane Environmental.)
the inlet pipe. On entering the separator, the flow is directed against
this ribbed baffle. The particles of moisture or oil are first deposited
on the baffle and then drip into the collecting chamber. The ribs in
the baffle retain the film of water or oil while the flow of steam or air
passes through ports at the sides of the baffle. This arrangement pre-
vents the flow from coming in contact with the water or oil drops as
they fall into the chamber, thereby decreasing the tendency of water
and oil to be picked up by the flow of steam or compressed air. The
collecting chamber is provided with a trap for drainage and a gauge
glass to check the liquid level.
A live-steam separator (Fig. 11.25) is suitable for use in a vertical
steam line between the boiler and a pump or turbine. This is the baffle-
type separator in which both the baffle and the walls contain slanting
corrugations. The moisture is collected by these corrugations, deposited
in the well, and drained off by use of a steam trap. The complete
reversal of flow at the lower edge of the baffle separates the steam
from the moisture.
Centrifugal separators are used to remove oil, moisture, and solids
from steam, compressed air, and gas. Figure 11.26 shows how these
separators function to remove the entrainment.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 697
Figure 11.26 Centrifugal separators for steam, air, and gas: (a) line-type for use in sup-
ply lines ahead of equipment; (b) T-type for compact in-line mounting. (Hayward
Industrial Products, Inc.)
Figure 11.30 Lubrication schedules: (a) Form 10; (b) Form 15.
Auxiliary Steam-Plant Equipment 705
11.2 Identify some of the common impurities which are found in water.
What difficulties are encountered with each and what are the means of
treatment?
11.3 Name the commonly used chemicals for the treatment of the following in
the feedwater: scale; hardness; and oxygen.
11.4 Name the variety of sources of feedwater. What is the best economic
choice? Why?
11.5 What gases are formed in the condensate system? Why are they a problem?
What means are used for their control?
11.8 Describe the design for a closed feedwater heater. Why is the U-tube
type the preferred design in today’s power plants?
11.10 What are the two types of deaerators used in today’s power plants?
11.11 Name some of the common locations where deaerators are found in a
power plant.
11.12 What are the primary problems associated with feedwater heaters?
What is a common correction for a tube leak?
11.13 Compare the quality of the condensate that returns from a condensing
turbine with that of water from an industrial power plant where a larger
quantity of makeup water is common.
11.15 What are the advantages of condensate polishing? List possible arrange-
ments for this system.
11.16 Why does raw water for power plant use have to be treated?
11.19 When is water considered hard water, and what problems occur with
hard water?
11.20 What is the purpose of a sodium zeolite water softener? How does it
operate?
11.21 Explain the procedure for regenerating a sodium zeolite water softener.
11.22 What difficulties are likely to be encountered when using a sodium zeo-
lite softener to condition boiler makeup water? What system is often
used in connection with sodium zeolite softeners?
11.26 What is the purpose of blowdown from a boiler? What are the disadvan-
tages of a blowdown system?
11.27 A boiler produces 450,000 lb/h of steam at 750 psia and 800°F when
burning coal that has a heating value of 12,800 Btu/lb. The percentage of
blowdown is 5 percent. The drum pressure is 775 psia. What annual fuel
savings would result if the cost of coal were $75 per ton and a blowdown
heat-recovery system were installed that reduced the blowdown water
temperature to 100°F? Assume that the plant operates at this capacity
for 95 percent of the year.
11.28 A boiler produces 225,000 lb/h of steam at 685 psig and 700°F to a tur-
bine. The design velocity of the steam line is 9000 ft/min. Calculate and
select the diameter of the main steam line.
11.30 On the admission of steam to the main steam line, the temperature
changes from 80 to 650°F. If the line is 135 ft long, what is its expansion?
11.31 What are two methods used to account for the expansion in steam lines?
11.32 What are the reasons for insulating hot and cold piping?
11.34 What is a steam trap, and how does it operate? Identify typical steam
trap locations.
11.36 What is meant by lubrication? Describe the qualities that are essential
to a good lubricant.
11.38 What is meant by the viscosity of oil? When would you use a low- or a
high-viscosity oil?
11.39 How would you proceed to establish a lubrication program for a steam
power plant?
Chapter
12
Environmental Control Systems
12.1 Introduction
The operators of today’s industrial and utility power plants not only
must be concerned with the production of steam for process or for the
generation of electricity that will meet the demands of the plant, but also
they must meet these demands within the confines of environmental
restrictions. Thus the operators must be well aware of restrictions
associated with their operating permit as related to air pollution, water
pollution, noise, and other restrictive areas.
Operators must be well aware of the need for meeting all environmental
requirements or their plants will face possible shutdowns and/or severe
monetary penalties for not adhering to imposed regulations.
This chapter will concentrate on air pollution requirements and the
equipment available to ensure compliance.
709
710 Chapter Twelve
TABLE 12.1 Emissions from a Typical 500-MW Coal-Fired Power Plant (with Coal
at 2.5 Percent Sulfur, 16 Percent Ash, 12,360 Btu/lb)
*As fly ash emissions to air decline because of collection of precipitator or baghouse, ash
shipped to landfill increases.
SOURCE: Courtesy of Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.
Figure 12.1 Emissions from steam power plant. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
711
712 Chapter Twelve
form nitrogen and water, and the SNCR process can reduce NOx
emissions by 30 to 50 percent.
b. SCR. SCR technology is the most effective method of reducing
the NOx emissions, especially where high removal efficiencies are
required. This process removes NOx from the flue gas by a reac-
tion with ammonia in the presence of a catalyst. Reaction takes
place in the temperature range of 500 to 800°F, and therefore, an
SCR is located typically downstream of the economizer on a boiler
and prior to the air heater.
The ammonia is injected into the flue gas stream, where it
passes over a catalyst and is absorbed onto the surface of the cat-
alyst that has the geometry of a flat plate or a honeycomb. The
catalyst is typically a vanadium and titanium mixture, but other
materials are used often.
Ammonia on the SCR catalyst surface reacts with NOx in the
presence of oxygen to form nitrogen and water, and the process
results in NOx emissions of 80 to 90 percent. The efficiency of the
SCR process reactions allows very effective reagent injection con-
trol based on feedback of measured NOx concentrations in the
flue gas at the economizer outlet. The ammonia injection grid is
located in the flue leading to the SCR catalyst at a point far
enough upstream to ensure optimal flue gas and reagent distrib-
ution across the cross section of the catalyst.
In most SCR processes, anhydrous or aqueous ammonia is the
reducing agent for the conversion of NOx to inert nitrogen gas
and water vapor. Because ammonia is considered a toxic sub-
stance, many areas restrict its transportation, storage, and han-
dling. This has resulted in some power plants using systems
installed at the plant for the conversion of urea to ammonia,
thereby reducing the risk of handling ammonia.
2. Fabric filters. These units also have high draft loss, but they can
achieve collection efficiencies greater than 99.9 percent. They also
have the ability to enhance SO2 capture in dry scrubbing systems.
3. Electrostatic precipitators. These units also can achieve collection
efficiencies greater than 99.9 percent and with very low draft loss.
However, they require high electric power usage and therefore are
equivalent to fabric filters in overall power requirements.
Figure 12.2 San Miguel Power Project. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
717
718 Chapter Twelve
Example A boiler plant generates 225,000 lb of steam per hour and burns
13.9 tons of coal per hour. The coal has a heating value of 11,400 Btu/lb. A
test of the particulates leaving the boiler shows that 3804 lb of particulate
is being discharged per hour.
1. What is the particulate discharged per million Btu heat input to the furnace?
2. What must the efficiency of the precipitator or bag filterhouse be to reduce this
emission to 0.03 lb per million Btu?
Solution
Table 12.2 summarizes the preceding and shows typical coals that
are affected by these requirements.
These regulations require a sulfur dioxide removal system on every
new utility boiler, even when it is burning the lowest-sulfur coal
available, but they allow the use of a less expensive dry sulfur dioxide
scrubbing system, requiring a 70 percent removal efficiency, if the
fuel’s sulfur content is low.
These regulations represent the minimum acceptable emission levels
established by federal standards. State and local requirements may
impose stricter limits to meet their own air-quality standards.
TABLE 12.2 Sulfur Dioxide Removal Requirements (for boiler heat inputs greater
than 250 10 6 Btu/h)
limit on coal-fired units is 0.05 lb per million Btu for all boilers hav-
ing a heat input of 30 million Btu/h (30 106 Btu/h) or greater.
For SO 2 removal on coal-fired units, the requirements are as
follows:
Figure 12.11 Rapping system for electrostatic precipitator. (Babcock & Wilcox,
a McDermott company.)
plate curtain and one hammer on each discharge frame section. This
rapping system is effective because
The rapping design shown in Figs. 12.8 and 12.10 is a top rapping
design incorporating magnetic-impulse gravity-impact rappers, which
provide multiple rapping to both the discharge electrodes and the col-
lecting plates. They utilize one moving part and are located outside
the dirty gas environment.
The type of design selected must be evaluated carefully for the type
of application required, since each design has its advantages.
Environmental Control Systems 729
Figure 12.12 Types of bag filterhouses: (a) pulse jet; (b) reverse
air; (c) shaker. (Power Magazine, a McGraw-Hill publication.)
Environmental Control Systems 731
Bag filterhouses remove more than 99.9 percent of the fly ash from
the flue gas, and for low-sulfur coals, where the ash has a high resis-
tivity, they are preferred in many cases over electrostatic precipitators.
Of course, careful evaluation of each collecting device is required to
determine the proper equipment for the application. This evaluation
would consider such areas as maintenance costs, power costs, draft loss,
bag replacement costs, etc. Fabric filters operate at high pressure drops
as compared with precipitators (6 in of water as opposed to 0.5 in),
which is a highly important consideration as it increases power costs.
The principal advantage of filters over precipitators is that coal sulfur
content (resistivity) does not influence the collection efficiency. Another
benefit of reverse-air filters is that their compartmented design permits
maintenance while the unit is operating. Fabric filters also can capture
the very fine particulates and, when used with a dry scrubber, assist in
the capture of acid gases because of the accumulation of a dust cake
through which the flue gas passes.
Figure 12.13 shows a typical reverse-air fabric filter system. In
operation, fly ash–laden flue gas from the boiler enters the system
through the ash hopper below the bag compartment. The flue gas
flows into the bags from the bottom, and particulate is collected on
the inside surface of the fabric, forming a filter cake. It is the filter
cake that performs the cleaning, not the fabric itself. The gas passes
through the filter cake and the fabric to the stack.
Figure 12.14 shows another reverse-air baghouse design that is
applicable to both utility and industrial boilers. These units provide
gentle cleaning of the bags, resulting in long bag life. It is relatively
simple to operate and has few moving parts, and its performance
results in low emission levels. For utility boiler applications, these bag-
houses can become quite large, as shown in Fig. 12.15. The baghouse
shown is on a 350-MW boiler designed to burn low-sulfur western
coal, and it handles 1.7 million ft3/min of flue gases at 270°F.
Figure 12.14 Reverse-air fabric filter system showing internal arrangement of fil-
ter bags. (Wheelabrator Air Pollution Control, Inc.)
Environmental Control Systems 733
Figure 12.15 Reverse-air fabric filter for 350-MW pulverized coal–fired boiler.
(Wheelabrator Air Pollution Control, Inc.)
designers generally agree that the 2:1 ratio provides good balance
among bag life, pressure drop, and time between cleaning cycles.
If operating conditions are such that the bags do not clean properly,
the high pressure drop would force a reduction in plant output or
even a plant shutdown. Another problem is the failure of individual
bags, which could quickly put the plant out of compliance if a significant
number of bags failed. However, designs incorporate spare compart-
ments for both maintenance and spare capacity. There is also concern
about the use of fabric filters in cycling plants because of the potential
for corrosion problems during startup and low-load operation. On stoker-
fired coal-burning boilers, fires are a possibility in fabric filters if
glowing char is carried over into the collector, but the installation of a
mechanical collector ahead of the filter can prevent this from occurring.
Bag failures and subsequent replacement costs present a very high
potential maintenance cost to the bag filterhouse. Various bag materials
are continually being examined and tested to develop a long-life bag
that can withstand high temperatures and provide both acid and
alkaline resistance.
Operation below a dew point may attack the bag fibers and shorten
bag life. Factors that affect this action are the specific compounds
condensed, the fiber materials and the influence of protective coatings
on the filters, and the neutralizing materials present in the collected
dust. Regardless of chemical attack, water alone may allow salt
recrystallization within the fiber structure, resulting in stiffening and
failure of the bags by physical action.
Dew point protection is designed into the bag filterhouse by careful
insulation procedures and careful control of air in-leakage that could
cause localized cold zones.
Various types of filter bags and bag coatings are available. Their
selection will vary from one application to another according to dust
loading, particle size, stickiness of dust, available time for complete
cleaning cycle, and type of dust. Teflon-B coatings and acid-resistant
finishes are popular, as are fiberglass bags.
Cleaning cycles of the baghouse can be controlled by timed cycles,
pressure drop across the fabric filter, or pressure drop across individual
compartments. Pressure drop across the fabric filter is generally used
because it provides longer bag life by minimizing cleaning cycles.
A pulse-jet type of baghouse is often used for industrial-sized
power plants, and it is gaining rapid acceptance on utility-sized boilers.
A schematic of this type of baghouse is shown in Fig. 12.16, and this
system uses vertically suspended filter bags that are designed for
outside collection of ash. The bags are arranged in rows inside
gastight compartments that permit cleaning of the bags while the
unit is operational.
Environmental Control Systems 735
Fly ash–laden flue gas enters the hoppers through an inlet mani-
fold and is distributed over the outer surfaces of the filter bags.
Heavier fly ash particles that are entrained in the flue gas settle in
the hoppers by gravity because of the very low gas velocity. Finer fly ash
is separated from the flue gas as it passes from the outside to the inside
of the bag, and the fly ash particulates are deposited on the outside of
the bag in the form of a filter cake.
At prescribed intervals set by operating duration or usually by pres-
sure drop, the bag compartments are cleaned. Compressed-air headers
that are mounted above the bag rows provide compressed-air pulses into
the bags, which cause the bags to expand. As the bags expand, the
dust filter cake is dislodged and falls into the hopper.
Because of their high collection efficiency, of their ability to collect
fine particulates, and of their immunity of resistivity of fly ash, bag
filterhouses have gained acceptance in many applications as an alter-
native design to electrostatic precipitators. Thus selection of the proper
equipment must carefully consider all the fuels that are planned for
use and the operating features and operating costs that are associated
with each technology.
Figure 12.17Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) wet scrubber system. (ALSTOM Power, Inc.,
Environmental Systems.)
738 Chapter Twelve
The first section is the quencher, which is the area where the flue
gas enters the tower and comes into contact with the first series of
sprays. This section can be totally separate, as with two-loop systems,
or integrated with the tower, as in spray-tower designs.
The second section is the absorption section, where incoming sulfur
dioxide is removed by bringing the flue gas into contact with a lime or
limestone slurry. Several types of absorption sections exist, such as the
spray tower, with its open design, and other designs that incorporate
internal components such as packed beds or trays.
The third section is the mist eliminator, which is a fiberglass or
plastic chevron-type design.
One of the major considerations in absorber design is materials of
construction. Normal operation involves slurries with low pH, which
create both corrosive and abrasive conditions for the absorbers. In
addition, operation with zero discharge or operation in a closed loop
causes a significant buildup of chlorides. Towers must be constructed
of materials to withstand the hostile environment for long periods.
Thus equipment made of stainless steel or rubber-lined carbon steel
has been predominant.
The absorption loop is supported by a variety of subsystems that
can be divided into two broad groupings, slurry and nonslurry. The
major slurry subsystems are (1) reagent or limestone preparation, (2)
waste slurry, (3) dewatering, and (4) solids disposal. The nonslurry
subsystems include (1) water reclamation, (2) mist eliminator wash,
(3) seal water, and (4) makeup or potable water. These systems vary
in design and are not discussed in this book.
The sulfur dioxide removed in the absorber is converted to calcium
sulfite (CaSO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO4). These are the waste
products that must be removed continuously and sent to disposal.
Another type of wet scrubber design is the double-loop wet lime-
stone FGD system. This wet scrubbing method uses limestone to
reduce SO2 emission levels while producing quality gypsum, an envi-
ronmentally compatible and reusable product used in commercial dry
wall. The system is contained within a single tower, and it operates
as follows:
1. Lower loop. Flue gas exiting from an electrostatic precipitator
or fabric filter is quenched with a recirculating limestone slurry in
the prescrubber and quencher or the lower loop. The reaction occurs
at a pH of about 4.0. Conditions are optimum for oxidation and the
formation of gypsum.
2. Upper loop. In the absorber or upper loop, flue gas contacts a
recirculating limestone slurry at a pH of 5.8 to 6.0. Optimal SO2
removal rates are ensured by efficient contact between slurry and flue
gas in the tower as well as precise limestone residence time in the
scrubbing loop system.
Environmental Control Systems 739
Wet scrubbing systems can use limestone, lime slurry, or soda ash
liquor and are a combination of many subsystems ranging from
reagent-preparation equipment to spent-slurry-disposal equipment.
The actual SO2 absorption takes place in the absorber tower.
Figure 12.18 shows another type of wet scrubber design. With this
design, flue gas first flows into the absorber tower’s quench section,
where spray nozzles inject a lime slurry into the gas stream, resulting
in the initial stage of SO2 absorption. The walls of the quench section
are washed continuously with slurry to eliminate any wet-dry zones
so that deposition and scaling are prevented.
Intimate contact between slurry and flue gas is important for oper-
ating stability and for efficient SO2 absorption. Therefore, the slurry
and the flue gas must be equally distributed across the absorber
tower’s cross section.
The flue gas than passes through a perforated tray. Further SO2
absorption takes place in this section because of the violent, frothing
action that takes place on the tray.
The flue gas passing upward through the absorbing tower carries
droplets with it. Therefore, droplet separation is essential to prevent
slurry carry-over as well as corrosion and deposition in the flue down-
stream of the absorber. This separation occurs in chevron moisture
separators. (Chevrons are closely spaced corrugated plates that collect
slurry deposits.)
The slurry in the recirculation tank is agitated to keep the solids in
suspension. Multiple side-entering agitators on the recirculation tank
provide uniform mixing of the slurry.
There are a variety of methods for sludge disposal. They include
landfill, mine disposal, ocean disposal, and sludge utilization such as
gypsum extraction, as described above. Selection of any of these
methods is very site specific and economic dependent.
A common method for disposal is landfill. In this process, the
dewatered sludge is mixed with fly ash. The lime in the fly ash creates
a pozzolanic (cement-like) reaction in the mixture. If lime in the fly
ash is insufficient, quicklime can be added.
740 Chapter Twelve
Figure 12.18 Wet flue gas desulfurization system with single-loop absorber spray tower.
(Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Advantages
Disadvantages
lower capital costs of dry scrubbers have made them attractive alter-
natives to wet scrubbers.
There are basically two types of designs used in the dry scrubber
systems: (1) rotary atomizers and (2) dual-fluid nozzles utilizing nozzles
with fluid atomization, similar to that used in the combustion of liquid
fuels.
Figure 12.21 Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) dry scrubber system, rotary atomizer design.
(Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Environmental Control Systems 745
Figure 12.24 Spray-dryer assembly module with gas disperser and rotary
atomizer. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
The flue gas exits from the spray-dryer absorbers carrying some of
the dry-reacted chemicals to a baghouse or precipitator, as shown in
Fig. 12.19. Additional reaction between the dry chemicals and flue
gas takes place during removal of the particulates. From the precipi-
tator or the baghouse, the cleaned flue gas flows to the induced-draft
fan and then to the stack.
The waste-product material and fly ash received from the spray-
dryer absorbers and the baghouse or precipitator hoppers have the
appearance of being totally dry. The material is pneumatically or
mechanically transported to the ash-disposal bins for disposal in a
landfill. Based on economics, a portion of the collected material may
be recirculated to mix with the reagent feed to provide improved lime
slurry utilization.
spray of finely atomized lime slurry is mixed uniformly with the hot
flue gas. The sulfur dioxide in the gas reacts with the lime in the
droplets and forms calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate. Flue gas heat
dries the reaction products and any unreacted lime into a powder.
The system controls water input so that the gas temperature
remains above the dew point as it passes into the precipitator or
baghouse. The waste product produced from this type of design is
handled in a similar manner to that described above for the rotary
atomizer design.
A dual-fluid spray dryer is shown schematically in Fig. 12.25. This
is a vertical flow design and is used on both industrial and utility
boilers as well as boilers that burn municipal solid waste (MSW). In
this system, an alkaline slurry is atomized vertically downward into
the flue gas in the spray-dryer absorber (scrubber). The finely atom-
ized droplets absorb SO2 and other acid gases (such as HC on MSW
units), while the heat of the flue gas evaporates the droplets. The
solid particulates and the dried reaction products that are contained
in the flue gas are then collected in a fabric filter or an electrostatic
precipitator. Some products do fall into the hopper below the spray
dryer.
Figure 12.26 is an illustration of three spray dryers and fabric filters
that control emissions from three boilers that burn 2250 tons per day
of municipal solid waste.
The schematic drawing in Fig. 2.48 (Chap. 2) shows the design of a
demonstration project to evaluate clean-coal technology. This particu-
lar project uses a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler for the com-
bustion of coal and the control of emissions such as SO2 and NOx.
Because of the sensitivity of the site location, the project also
includes an environmental control system incorporating a dry scrubber
for the further reduction of SO2 and a fabric filter for the control of
particulates. Figure 12.27 is a process flow diagram showing the dry
scrubber and particulate control system.
Even though a CFB boiler controls the SO2 produced from the com-
bustion process, a dry scrubber is also required to meet the low design
emission rate of SO2 of 0.15 lb/106 Btu. Fabric filters are used to meet
the emission rate for particulates of 0.011 lb/106 Btu.
The scrubber is a spray dryer absorber (SDA) and fabric filter com-
bination. The SDA uses a dual fluid nozzle atomized with air, and the
Figure 12.26 Vertical dual fluid spray-dryer scrubbers and fabric filters for control of
emissions from three MSW-fired boilers at a 2250-ton/day waste-to-energy plant.
(Wheelabrator Air Pollution Control, Inc.)
750
ATOMIZING AIR
FLUE GAS
FROM UNIT 2
ID FANS
FEED SLURRY
PUMP
STACK
(BY OTHERS)
SPRAY
DRYER
AIR ABSORBER
FABRIC FILTER 1
HEATER
ID FANS
SDA 1 BYPRODUCT
ASH DISPOSAL
FROM BALL MILL SDA 1 ASH CONVEYOR DELUMPER
SLAKER SYSTEM
RECYCLE
AREA STORAGE
SUMPS BIN
RECYCLE SLURRY RECYCLE
SEPARATOR FEEDER
FROM
HEATED
LIME SLURRY RECYCLE
STORAGE TANK WATER
HEADER
Figure 12.27 Process flow diagram of dry scrubbing system for JEA Northside Units 1 and
2 Repowering Project. (Wheelabrator Air Pollution Control, Inc.)
Environmental Control Systems 751
12.2 If environmental restrictions are not met, what are the potential conse-
quences of such action?
12.3 List the emissions that must be controlled from a coal-fired power plant.
12.4 As more particulate and SO2 emissions are collected from power plants,
what additional disposal problem does this create? Does this solution
present an environmental situation that also must be dealt with? If so,
what problems must be considered?
Environmental Control Systems 753
12.6 How can NOx emissions be controlled? Describe SNCR and SCR tech-
nologies.
12.7 What are the primary means for the control of particulates? Describe the
operation of each, and identify the advantages and disadvantages of
each.
12.8 For coal-fired boilers with heat inputs over 250 106 Btu/h, what are
the sulfur dioxide removal requirements?
12.9 What do the solid particles in the flue gas consist of? Why does the
nature of these particles vary? What type of firing would result in parti-
cles having a small micron size?
12.10 What are the permissible particulate emissions for utility boilers and
industrial boilers? What are the heat-input limitations for these
restrictions?
12.13 What is ash resistivity? How does it vary for high- and low-sulfur coals,
and why is this important in the sizing of an electrostatic precipitator?
12.15 How does the draft loss through an electrostatic precipitator compare
with that of a mechanical collector and a bag filterhouse? Why is this of
concern to an operator?
12.17 What system ensures cleanliness of the precipitator? Why is this system
important?
12.19 What are the advantages of baghouses over precipitators? What are the
disadvantages?
12.20 How are bags cleaned with a reverse-air type of fabric filter? With a
pulse-jet filter? What device prevents the bags from collapsing?
754 Chapter Twelve
12.21 What portion of the bag filterhouse has the highest potential for mainte-
nance? Why?
12.22 What is sulfur dioxide, and how is it formed? Name two types of scrubber
systems used for SO2 removal. What other techniques can be used for
reducing SO2 emissions?
12.23 Describe the operation of a wet scrubber system. Identify its location
relative to the arrangement of the particulate collector of a power plant.
Why is its location different from a dry scrubber?
12.24 What reagents are commonly used to absorb sulfur dioxide in a wet
scrubber system? Which is the most commonly used? Why?
12.25 What are the three major sections of a wet scrubber spray tower?
Describe their functions.
12.29 What is a dry scrubber? Describe its operation. Identify the location of a
dry scrubber system relative to the arrangement of the particulate col-
lector of a power plant. Why is its location different from a wet scrubber?
12.30 What are the advantages and disadvantages of a dry scrubber system?
12.31 Briefly describe the operating characteristics of the two types of dry
scrubbing systems.
12.32 What reagent is commonly used with dry scrubbers? Why do some systems
recirculate a portion of the collected dry powder from the particulate col-
lector such as a baghouse?
12.34 Describe an SCR system for the reduction of NOx emissions. What is the
major operating cost for this system?
Chapter
13
Waste-to-Energy Plants
13.1 Introduction
Waste-to-energy facilities are part of the solution of the worldwide
solid waste disposal problem. These facilities, when combined with
recycling of critical materials, composting, and landfilling, will be a
long-term economic solution as long as they are designed and operated
in an environmentally acceptable manner. All these options have
problems, since they involve considerations such as politics, siting,
public acceptance, and financing. However, these problems must be
overcome because vast quantities of solid wastes are produced each
day, and this waste has to be disposed of in some manner.
Resource-recovery facilities (waste-to-energy facilities) are not a
new idea; in the 1890s the city of Hamburg, Germany, incinerated
municipal refuse and used the resulting energy to produce steam
and electricity. This technology was created in Europe because of
the lack of available land for landfilling, and today Europe is a
world leader in waste-to-energy facilities. Many portions of the
United States now face this same problem. In 1903, the first solid-
waste-fired plant that produced electricity in the United States was
installed in New York City.
Refuse incinerators, as they were originally called, were basically
refractory-lined furnaces that were designed to reduce waste.
However, most of these incinerators did not recover the heat energy
resulting from the combustion. A few installations did use separate
waste-heat boilers for steam production. However, it was not until the
early 1950s that waterwall incinerators (boilers) started to be
designed and built.
In the 1970s, nearly all the municipal solid waste (MSW) generated
in the United States was disposed of in landfills. Some areas used
755
756 Chapter Thirteen
incinerators for waste reduction, but these plants did not recover the
generated heat that resulted from combustion. Incinerators had little,
if any, pollution-control equipment, and they became unacceptable
because of the air pollution requirements that were imposed and also
because of the availability of inexpensive landfills.
The term municipal solid waste (MSW) describes the stream of
solid waste (often referred to as trash or garbage) that is produced by
households, commercial businesses, industries, and institutions.
MSW can consist of the following in various quantities, and each can
vary daily in its content:
■ Product packaging
■ Grass and tree clippings
■ Furniture
■ Clothing
■ Plastic and glass bottles
■ Food wastes
■ Newspaper
■ Appliances
■ Steel and aluminum cans
■ Paint
*
Assumes operation at 85 percent design capacity.
†
Excludes RDF processing only.
SOURCE: Integrated Waste Services Association.
1. Source reduction
2. Recycling, including composting
3. Conversion to energy
4. Landfilling
The potential for increasing the production of energy from waste is
high. However, the decision makers often let politics stand in the way,
and current thinking is that recycling is the answer, and, as a result,
Waste-to-Energy Plants 759
new waste-to-energy plants are delayed. But it is not only one option
that solves this problem. The best solution is one that integrates a
combination of recycling, waste-to-energy plants, and landfilling into
a satisfactory economic and environmental solution.
This chapter will discuss some of the various options available as a
solution to this solid waste disposal problem, and steam power plants
play a very important role in this process.
Table 13.2 shows the composition of the preceding MSW and the
percentage recovered by recycling and composting. Note how consistent
this MSW composition analysis is as compared with that in Table 13.5,
which was based on a Franklin Associates study. MSW can change sig-
nificantly at various locations in the world and in individual countries,
as well as at different times of the year, so variations in analyses are
expected.
By analyzing the preceding methods of disposal and Table 13.2, it is
obvious that a significant amount of combustible material is disposed of
in landfills. Not only do landfills reach their capacity, but this prevents
the use of this energy source in waste-to-energy plants, whose use can
conserve valuable fossil fuel assets.
In 1960, approximately 31 percent of the MSW was combusted with
no energy recovery and without air pollution controls. In 1970, only
20 percent of the MSW was combusted, but less than 1 percent was
converted to energy recovery.
By 1990, approximately 17 percent of the MSW was combusted,
with 16 percent of it for energy recovery, and in 1993, nearly all
combustion was for energy recovery, and all the plants required air
pollution controls.
760 Chapter Thirteen
In the early 2000s, less than 15 percent of the total MSW was han-
dled by waste-to-energy plants. Another factor to consider is that since
1960 the waste that each person produces has increased dramatically,
which naturally has increased the annual waste disposal requirements.
The recovery of materials from MSW for recycling and composting
was less than 10 percent until about 1985. This increased to about 30
percent by the early 2000s.
The increase in recycling over the years is attributable to several
factors, including people’s belief that it is the right thing to do and,
perhaps more important, the mandate from states and local commu-
nities to specific rates of recycling. Unfortunately, this latter political
decision is based on the belief that the solid waste disposal problem
can be solved only by recycling, and, therefore, new waste-to-energy
plants, as part of an integrated plan, have been delayed indefinitely
in most areas of the United States.
As a result, there has been a significant increase in facilities to
receive and process recyclables. In addition to an increase in these
material recycling facilities (MRFs), there also has been a significant
increase in buy-back centers, dropoff centers, curbside recycling, and
Waste-to-Energy Plants 761
other methods for the public to participate. However, the key to suc-
cess of any recycling program is to have the necessary markets for the
recovered materials. Unfortunately, when market prices are
depressed, these recovered materials have found their way into the
landfill, thus compounding the problem of the landfill being filled and
of the costs of recovery being absorbed, with no benefit of the actual
recovery of materials.
The combustion of MSW has developed into a technology that has
demonstrated reliable and environmentally sound operation. It forms
an integral part of waste management for many industrialized nations.
The United States, however, disposes of most of its waste in land-
fills and has one of the lowest uses of waste-to-energy plants for dis-
posal as compared with many industrialized nations. Refer to Table
13.3. A major reason for this is political, since the impression that the
general public has is that a waste-to-energy plant is damaging to the
environment. However, as will be shown later, each waste disposal
option has its costs and its risks, and landfilling has significant
potential problems for both air and ground pollution.
*Includes composting.
SOURCE: Energy Technology Support Unit for the United Kingdom Department of Trade and
Industry.
13.4 Landfills
Today the strongest competition to a waste-to-energy facility is the
landfill. The landfills designed today are often called sanitary landfills
because of the care taken in using multiple liners that prevent leaching
of contaminated liquids to surrounding soil and groundwater. Such
designs are very different from those landfills designed without syn-
thetic liners and where leaching has resulted in the contamination of
groundwater. The first sanitary landfills were unlined pits covered
with dirt. The disposal fee often covered only the cost of putting a
daily layer of dirt over the trash.
Landfills originally represented a low-cost solution to the solid waste
problem because they often occupied land that was considered worth-
less, such as swamps, estuaries, and even open water. Now state, local,
and federal laws have imposed strict environmental pollution laws
because of surface and groundwater pollution that resulted from
improperly located and poorly designed and operated landfills. The sani-
tary landfill design of today requires important practices and systems
that include leachate collection and recovery systems, extensive
methane gas monitoring and collection systems, groundwater monitor-
ing systems, and, finally, elaborate capping, closure, and postclosure
requirements.
With or without waste-to-energy plants, landfills are a necessity.
The problem is the rapid filling of existing landfills and the difficulty
in siting new ones. Thus disposal problems will become overwhelming
if critical decisions are not made soon.
Waste-to-Energy Plants 763
1
The ultimate analysis is the chemical analysis of a fuel determining carbon, hydrogen,
sulfur, nitrogen, chlorine, oxygen, and ash as percentages of the total weight of the sample.
764 Chapter Thirteen
Hardwood Municipal
Pine bark, % bark, % refuse, %
Ultimate analysis
Ash 1.5 5.3 14.4
Sulfur 0.1 0.1 0.2
Hydrogen 5.5 5.4 5.7
Carbon 55.3 49.7 42.5
Oxygen and nitrogen 37.6 39.5 37.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
HHV on ash- and
moisture-free basis, Btu/lb 9300 8830 8600
TABLE 13.6 Waste Composition and Refuse-Derived Fuel Analysis in Palm Beach
County, Florida
Ultimate analysis, %
4728 5500
by location, and when Tables 13.2, 13.5, and 13.6 are compared, several
important similarities and differences should be noted. The percentages
of paper and plastics are very comparable. The percentage of yard
wastes, however, are significantly different. The reason for this may be
a source-separation program used by the local community for possible
composting. The ultimate analysis for the MSW in Table 13.6 shows a
high moisture content (25.3 percent) and a relatively high ash content
(23.65 percent). The actual heating value for this MSW is 4728 Btu/lb.
Knowledge of the MSW’s composition is of critical importance to
the operating performance of a waste-to-energy facility. Various
constituents of the waste stream have different heating values and
also cause varying degrees of problems in the operating plant.
The composition of MSW can vary greatly because the definition of
solid waste can vary significantly. In Florida, for example, solid waste
means garbage, refuse, yard trash, clean debris, white goods (dish-
washers, clothes dryers, etc.), ashes, and sludge or other discarded
material (including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material
resulting from domestic, industrial, commercial, mining, agricultural,
or governmental operations). With such a variety of solid waste, a num-
ber of solid waste solutions must be utilized. The refuse coming to a
waste-to-energy facility obviously can vary significantly, based on the
waste-management plan used in the region.
Perhaps the two most important properties of waste that most
directly affect the operating performance of a waste-to-energy facility
are moisture content and heating value. These properties are interre-
lated in that the higher the moisture content, the lower is the heating
value. This is best illustrated with yard waste. Yard waste typically
has a high moisture content as compared with other waste. Operators
of waste-to-energy plants constantly seek ways to reduce or eliminate
yard waste from the waste stream. The handling of yard waste is
often part of a local composting program.
Even without a waste-to-energy plant, yard waste takes up signifi-
cant landfill volume, and composting this material will both reduce the
need for landfills and contribute to the recycling effort by producing a
marketable compost. The recycling of other reusable materials in the
waste stream, such as plastics, glass, ferrous metal, aluminum cans,
and some paper products, is also an important part of an integrated
waste management plan, as will be discussed later in this chapter.
A unique feature of a design for a waste-to-energy plant is that it
must be sized to handle the quantity of MSW that is delivered to that
plant, regardless of the heating value of the MSW. The boiler, however,
is a heat-input device that must be sized for the maximum heat input
expected. In the design of the boiler, the tons per day of MSW and the
typical range of expected heating value for the MSW are required. As
Waste-to-Energy Plants 767
■ Pyrolysis
■ Fluidized bed combustion
■ Methane recovery from sanitary landfills
■ Mass burning
■ Conversion of municipal solid waste to refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
and then burning the RDF
Figure 13.1 Typical mass-burn waste-to-energy plant. 1 tipping floor; 2 refuse hold-
ing pit; 3 feed crane; 4 feed chute; 5 Martin stoker grate; 6 combustion air fan;
7 Martin ash discharger and handling system; 8 combustion chamber; 9 radiant
zone (furnace); 10 convection zone; 11 superheater; 12 economizer; 13 dry gas
scrubber; 14 baghouse or electrostatic precipitator; 15 fly ash handling system; 16
induced draft fan; 17 stack. (Ogden Projects, Inc.)
Prior to the ash being carried to the landfill, the iron and steel con-
tained in the ash can be removed by magnets for recycling.
The furnaces and boilers that are used vary based on the experience
and criteria established by the designers. The principles used and the
equipment selected are similar to those described in previous chapters.
Flue gas cleaning equipment, similar to that described in Chap. 12, is
utilized to ensure that the facility meets all the air permit regulations.
Figure 13.1 shows a typical layout in this area with the use of a dry
scrubber for the removal of acid gas, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl)
and sulfur dioxide (SO2), and a collector for particulates, such as a
baghouse or an electrostatic precipitator.
The steam produced in the boiler can be sold to an industrial cus-
tomer for process, or it can be used for heating. It is very common for
the steam to be used in the production of electricity by way of a steam
turbine.
The boilers in waste-to-energy plants are subjected to a much more
hostile operating environment than other types of boilers. They there-
fore require certain features.
Because fuel for a mass-burn plant consists of solid waste, objects in
the MSW can vary greatly in size. Large noncombustibles are common
in the waste stream, and since they will not burn, they will come out
of the boiler with the ash into the ash-handling system. Larger ash
openings with a more complex structure than that found in a
fossil-fuel-fired boiler are required at the back end of the boiler.
MSW normally has a high moisture content and is often very wet
from rains. Thus the combustion air is vented through a number of
underfire and overfire windboxes or compartments. The air from
these compartments helps dry the waste and creates turbulence so
that the waste is burned more efficiently.
Because of the plastics and other corrosive materials in the MSW,
boilers must be designed so that their size and materials will minimize
any accelerated corrosion. This corrosion will cause costly outages,
resulting in high maintenance and loss of revenue.
Corrosion in refuse-fired boilers, whether they be for mass or RDF fir-
ing, is usually caused by the chlorides that deposit on the tubes in the
furnace, superheater, and boiler bank. The rate of tube metal loss due to
corrosion is temperature-dependent, with high rates of metal loss directly
related to high metal temperatures. Refuse boilers that operate at high
steam pressures have higher-temperature saturated water in the fur-
nace tubes, and, therefore, these tubes have higher metal temperatures.
Superheater tube metal temperatures are directly related to steam tem-
perature inside the tubes. It is the temperature of the water or steam
inside the tube that is dominant in the tube metal temperature rather
than the temperature of the flue gas outside the tube.
Waste-to-Energy Plants 771
Figure 13.2 Mass-burn waste-to-energy plant using roller-grate stoker design. (American
REF-Fuel.)
Waste-to-Energy Plants 773
Figure 13.5 Side view of 750-ton/day mass-burn boiler. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott
company.)
776 Chapter Thirteen
Figure 13.8 Reciprograte stoker for mass burning of municipal solid waste. (Detroit
Stoker Company, subsidiary of United Industrial Corp.)
Figure 13.9 Modern municipal solid waste (MSW) boiler designed for mass burning in a
waste-to-energy plant. (Riley Power, Inc., a Babcock Power, Inc., company.)
Figure 13.11 RDF processing system, Palm Beach County, Florida. (Babcock &
Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Figure 13.12 Arrangement of equipment for RDF processing of 2000 tons/day of municipal
solid waste (MSW), Palm Beach County, Florida. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott compa-
781
ny.)
782 Chapter Thirteen
The air pollution control equipment for RDF plants is similar to that
required for mass-burn plants. Dry scrubbers with either a baghouse
Figure 13.13 RDF waste-to-energy plant, Palm Beach County, Florida. (Babcock & Wilcox, a
783
McDermott company.)
784 Chapter Thirteen
Figure 13.14 Aerial view of a 2000-ton/day RDF waste-to-energy plant, Palm Beach
County, Florida. (Babcock & Wilcox, a McDermott company.)
Changes in both the boiler design and the boiler operation have
been used to reduce corrosion. Some of these include the following:
1. The use of refractory can protect tubes in the lower waterwall sec-
tion of the furnace. However, the benefits of refractory for corrosion
resistance are offset by a reduction in heat transfer. This reduced
heat transfer lowers the boiler’s efficiency and accelerates furnace
fouling due to slagging, which leads to increased maintenance costs.
The use of refractory also can lead to higher initial costs for the
boiler because a larger boiler is required to meet the same furnace
exit gas temperature.
2. Increasing the tube spacing in the convection sections of the boiler
will decrease flue gas velocity. This, however, increases heat-transfer
surface requirements.
3. The use of higher-grade materials such as stainless steel and nickel-
based alloys, such as Inconel, instead of carbon steel and low-alloy
steel.
4. The most effective operational corrosion-control strategy is more
frequent inspections. Inspections of the stoker grate can detect over-
loaded grate sections, where operational corrections could be made
to avoid grate section failures, and to identify where combustion is
incomplete, thus minimizing corrosive reducing atmospheres, i.e.,
where insufficient air exists. Inspections to detect slagging, partic-
ularly in areas around secondary air nozzles, will ensure proper air-
flow and good combustion conditions. Frequent monitoring of the
tubing, erosion shields, rappers, and other components for deterio-
ration will allow their timely repair or replacement before a more
expensive failure occurs. In many facilities, scheduled maintenance
periods bring boilers off line once a year for 2 weeks to conduct
thorough inspections and to complete routine maintenance.
13.10 Recycling
The compatibility of recycling with waste-to-energy plants is a clear
trend in some areas and one that should be adopted in all parts of the
world. As regards MSW as a fuel, rather than reducing the availability
of combustible refuse, recycling actually improves the quality of the
waste as a fuel.
Waste-to-Energy Plants 789
1. The size of the community and the amount of waste that can be
expected to be delivered to the facility
2. Any state or local regulations that require certain materials to be
collected or certain volumes to be diverted from landfills
3. The financial aspects of the project
Waste-to-Energy Plants 793
The design of the MRF must be consistent with the methods by which
the waste is picked up at its source. This facility has separate trucks
that deliver bulky waste (called type 13 in the diagram) to a specific
location on the tipping floor. A grapple sorts out portions of the waste
containing metals and cardboard and places them in small piles for final
sorting by operating personnel. Recovered materials are stored for sub-
sequent load out. Unrecovered waste is placed into trailers for disposal
to a landfill.
Residential and commercial waste (called type 10 in the diagram) is
unloaded on the tipping floor similar to that shown in Fig. 13.17. This
MRF design performs gross sorting on the tipping floor, where the
recyclable-rich waste proceeds to the sorting station for recovery and
the remaining MSW is baled and sent to a landfill.
The recyclable-rich waste is fed into two steel apron conveyors by a
front-end loader similar to that shown in Fig. 13.18. These conveyors
feed two parallel sorting belt conveyors. Workers at each sorting
conveyor rip open any bags and expose materials for subsequent
recovery. In some MRF designs, the bag-opening process is performed
mechanically by a flail mill, a trommel, or similar piece of equipment.
Sorters stand on each side of the belts and manually remove the tar-
geted recyclables such as cardboard, newspaper, mixed paper, and plas-
tic bottles, similar to that shown in Fig. 13.19. These collected materials
drop down chutes into storage bunkers where they are eventually put
into a baler feed conveyer and baled as shown in Figs. 13.20 and 13.21.
13.2 What are the four parts of an effective waste-management plan that lead
to a practical solution of the solid waste disposal problem?
13.3 What is unique about the municipal solid waste (MSW) found in the
United States as compared with other places in the world? How does this
affect a boiler design? How do the seasons of the year affect MSW?
13.4 Why are waste-to-energy plants so important to the solution of the solid
waste disposal problem?
13.6 Provide the primary reasons for recycling. What happens if there is little
or no market for the recycled materials?
13.7 Approximately how much daily waste is generated by each person in the
United States, and how much annual waste does this equate to?
13.8 What are the advantages of putting this potential energy to use?
13.9 What is the importance of landfills? What are some of their major prob-
lems? With a waste-to-energy plant, what is the potential volume reduc-
tion of solid waste?
13.12 What contents of solid waste have a significant impact on its heating
value?
13.13 In analyzing the waste composition of two different locations, you notice
that there is a significant difference in the percentage of yard waste.
What would be some reasons for this?
13.14 In the sizing of a boiler for the combustion of MSW, how must the varia-
tion of heating value and MSW quantity, in tons per day, be evaluated?
13.15 Name and describe the various types of technologies that have been
used to recover energy from solid waste. Which are the types used pri-
marily today?
13.16 Describe a mass-burn facility. What is its unique feature? Name some
advantages and disadvantages of this technology.
13.21 When operating a boiler designed for burning MSW, name the major
operating problems encountered. What can be done to minimize these
potential problems?
13.24 Explain how recycling can complement the efficient operation of a waste-
to-energy plant.
13.25 What are the primary disadvantages of recycling? How can a recycling
program have a detrimental impact on the environment?
13.27 What is a material recovery facility (MRF), and for what types of waste
can such a facility be designed?
13.28 Why does the method of waste collection have an impact on the MRF
design?