Statistical Analysis with Computer

Applications

Dr. Angelica M. Aquino

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 Table of Contents

Module 2: Organization and Presentation of Data 32

Introduction 32
Learning Outcomes 32
Lesson 1. Data Presentation and its Method 33
Lesson 2. General Guidelines for Successful Graphics 41
Lesson 3. Presentation of Data Using MS Excel 42

Module 3: Frequency Distribution 49

Introduction 49
Learning Outcomes 49
Lesson 1. What is Frequency Distribution? 49
Lesson 2. Parts of Frequency Table 50
Lesson 3. Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution Table 52

Summary 58
References 59

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 MODULE 2
ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

Introduction

The summary and interpretation of data from quantitative research entail the use
of statistics. A statistic is a number that is obtained by the mathematical manipulation of the data.
We use descriptive statistics to describe data and Inferential statistics to analyze research
observations and measurements.

In previous chapters we examined how interviews, observations and measurement are

used to produce data in clinical investigations or research. It can be difficult to make sense of
raw data when they consist of a large number of measurements. Before we can interpret or
communicate the information provided by a research project, the raw data must be organized
and presented in a clear and intelligible fashion. We do this using descriptive statistics.

In this module we will outline methods used in descriptive statistics for the organization,
tabulation and graphic presentation of data. We will also examine the use of some simple
statistics directly derived from the tabulation of the data.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each form of presenting data.
2. Recognize the uses of different forms of presenting data.
3. Organize collected data and present them in an appropriate form.
4. Construct graphs and charts in a creative way; and
5. Calculate summation of values.

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Lesson 1. Data Presentation and its Methods (Ali et al., 2016)

According to Ali et al., (2016), presentation of data refers to the organization of data into
tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the
collected measurements.

There are three methods of presenting data (Ali et al., 2016):

1. Textual presentation
- The data gathered are presented in paragraph form.
- Data are written and read.
- It is a combination of texts and figures.

Figure 2.1 Example of Textual presentation

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

2. Tabular presentation
- Data collected are presented in the form of rows and columns.
- Data presented can be easily understood and easily be used for
comparison and facilitate analysis of relationships between and
among the variables presented.
- Tabulation is the process of condensing classified data and arranging
them in a table.
- Classification is the process of putting together similar items from the
mass of datacollected based on such characteristics such as
occupation, sex, height, income, weight, nationality, IQ, length of
service and so on.

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 Major parts of a statistical table:
1. Table heading- consists of table number and title
2. Stubs- classifications and categories are found at the left side of the
body of the table.
3. Box Head- the top of the column
-it identifies what are contained in the column.
-included in the box head are the stub head, the master
caption and the column captions.
4. Body- the main part of the table
-this contains the substance or the figures on one’s data.

Figure 22. Parts of the Statistical Table

Source: http://studyofplant.blogspot.com/2016/08/biostatistics-tabulation-of-data-and-parts-of-table.html

Advantages of Tabular Presentation

- It is brief; it reduces the matter to the minimum.

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 - It provides the reader a good grasp of the meaning of the
quantitative relationship indicated in the report.
- It tells the whole story without the necessity of mixing textual matter
with figures.
- The systematic arrangement of columns and rows makes them
easily read and readily understood.
- The column and rows make comparison easier.
3. Graphical Presentation
This form is the most effective means of organizing and presenting
statistical data because the important relationships are brought out more clearly
and creatively in virtually solid and colorful figures.

Different kinds of graphs and charts:

1. Line Graph- An important tool for the graphical presentation of data. This
shows the relationship between two or more sets of quantities.

Some rules in making line graphs

- The title of the graph must be clearly stated.
- All axes should be scaled and labeled with the variables they
represent.
- Sources and footnotes should be provided when necessary.
- The zero point should always be shown. Equal spares should be
scaled for the units they represent.
- The graph should not be loaded with many curves. If two or more
variables are compared in a graph, the lines should be clearly
discerned for basis of comparison.
- The vertical axis may show “broken line” to indicate that some points
in the scale are unnecessary or have been compressed because
they do not have corresponding values in the data.

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 Figure 2.3 Example of Line Graph
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

2. Bar Graph
The bar graph is one of the most common and widely used to illustrate
data and make easy comparison between and among different sets of data.

- Simple bar chart

- Compound (multiple) bar chart- sometimes two or more bars are
drawn from each item.
- Composite bar chart- this chart divides or breaks down total
quantities into their component parts.

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 Simple Bar Chart Compound (multiple) Bar Chart

Figure 2.4 Example of Bar Chart

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

Figure 2.5 Example of Composite Bar Chart

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

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 Guidelines for Constructing Bar Charts:

- Label frequencies or percentage along one axis, and labe categories

of the variable along other axis.
- Construct a rectangle at each category of the variable, with a height
equal to the frequency or percentage of observations in the category.
- Leave a space after each category to common distinct, separate
categories and to clarify the presentation.

3. Circle Graph or Pie Chart

- It shows how parts of the data are related to the whole and to each
other.
- A complete circle represents the whole quantity and the angle in the
center is 360 degrees since the angel of the sector is proportional to
the are of the sector.

Figure 2.6 Example of Pie Chart

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

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 Guidelines for constructing Pie Charts:

- Choose a small number of categories for the variable- preferably a

maximum of five or six. Too many categories make the pie chart
difficult to interpret.
- Whenever possible, construct the pie chart so that percentages are
arranged in either ascending or descending order.

4. Pictograph
- It is sometimes called pictogram
- It uses small identical picture or figures of objects called isotopes in
making comparisons. Each picture represents a definite quantity.
Normally, a note indicating the unit or amount represented by each
figure is given.

Figure 2.7 Example of Pictograph

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

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 Guidelines in Constructing a Pictograph

- Determine how large a quantity each object represents.

- Determine how many objects are needed for each row by dividing
the quantity to be represented by the quantity that each object
represents.
- Use any fractional unit if necessary.
- The objects should have a uniform distance apart from each other in
the rows.
- Add the title at the bottom of the graph to show what the graph tells.

5. Map Graph or Cartogram

It is one of the best ways to present geographical data. This kind of

graph is always accompanied by a legend which tells us the meaning of the
lines, colors, or other symbols used and positioned in a map.

Figure 2.8 Example of Map Graph

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

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 6. Scatter Point Diagram-

It is a graphical device to show the relationship between two

quantitative variables. Unlike the line graph, the plotted points for every pair
of X and Y set of quantities are not connected by line segments but are
simply scattered on the Cartesian coordinate plane.

Figure 2.9 Example of Scatter Point Diagram

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

Lesson 2. General Guidelines for Successful Graphics

(Srivastava, 2018)
As mentioned by Srivastava (2018), graphs in Excel turn out to represent various
variations, in values of the data point over a specific period of time. Graphs are simple when
compared to charts as you will be dealing with different data parameters.

Before constructing a graph, set your priorities. What messages should the viewer get.

1. Choose the type of graph.

2. Pay attention to the title. One of the most important aspects of a graph is its title. The
title should immediately inform the viewer of the point of the graph and should draw
the eye towards the most important element of the graph.
3. Fight the urge to use many type sizes, styles, and color changes. The indiscriminate
and possibly excessive use of different type sizes and styles and of numerous colors
will confuse the viewer. Generally, it is recommended to use only two typefaces: color
changes and italics should be used only in one or two places.

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 4. Convey the tone of your graph by using colors and patterns. The more intense, warm
colors (yellows, oranges, and reds) are more dramatic than the blues and purples,
and hence, help to stimulate enthusiasm in the viewer. On the other hand, pastels
(particularly grays) convey a conservative business-like tone. Similarly, the simple
patterns convey a conservative tone, whereas the busier patterns help to stimulate
more excitement.

Don’t underestimate the effectiveness of a simple straightforward graph. Practice drawing

graphs frequently. As with almost anything, practice improves skills.

Lesson 3. Presentation of Data Using MS Excel

A simple chart in Excel can say more than a sheet full of numbers. As you'll see, creating charts
is very easy (Charts, n.d. Retrieved from https://www.excel-easy.com/data-analysis/charts.html).

Create a Chart

To create a line chart, execute the following steps.

1. Select the range A1:D7.

2. On the Insert tab, in the Charts group, click the Line symbol.

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3. Click Line with Markers.

Result:

Note: enter a title by clicking on Chart Title. For example, Wildlife Population.

Change Chart Type

You can easily change to a different type of chart at any time.

1. Select the chart.

2. On the Design tab, in the Type group, click Change Chart Type.
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3. On the left side, click Column.

4. Click OK.

Switch Row/Column

If you want to display the animals (instead of the months) on the horizontal axis, execute the
following steps.

1. Select the chart.

2. On the Design tab, in the Data group, click Switch Row/Column.

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Legend Position

To move the legend to the right side of the chart, execute the following steps.

1. Select the chart.

2. Click the + button on the right side of the chart, click the arrow next to Legend and click
Right.

Data Labels

You can use data labels to focus your readers' attention on a single data series or data point.

1. Select the chart.

2. Click a green bar to select the Jun data series.

3. Hold down CTRL and use your arrow keys to select the population of Dolphins in June (tiny
green bar).

4. Click the + button on the right side of the chart and click the check box next to Data Labels.

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 Summary

In this module, we have learned the different methods of presenting data

using MS Excel. Guidelines were discussed to create a successful graphics. Sample
graphs and charts were provided to see how they differ in terms of data presentation.
Furthermore, the procedure on how to create charts in MS Excel are explained.

Assessment Task 1

Given the following data, draw, a circle/pie graph using EXCEL:

Departments Enrollment

Elementary 525
High School 1,379
Senior High School 1,525
College 1,128
Graduate School 226
Short-term courses 144

Save your file as LN_M1_AT1.xls

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Assessment Task 2

Use MS EXCEL to draw a compound bar chart showing the comparative enrollment
for the two semesters indicated:

Courses Enrollment Enrollment

1st Semester 2nd Semester
BSA/BSAIS 112 91
BSE 163 152
BSCS 171 129
BSED/BEED 99 80
BSTM 91 82
BSIT 120 113
BSME 98 85
Save your file as LN_M1_AT2.xls

Assessment Task 3

Use MS EXCEL to make a component (stacked) bar chart for the following data on
the applications to take the licensure examinations by gender:

Year Men Women

2016 7,672 7,119
2017 8,018 7,717
2018 8,636 8,747
2019 9,293 9,815
2020 7,546 7, 548

Save your file as LN_M1_AT3.xls

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Assessment Task 4

Refer to the presented data of Assessment Task 3. From the data showed, perform
analysis and interpretation of data that could summarize and describe sample
characteristics.

Save your file as LN_M1_AT4.docx

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 MODULE 3
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Introduction

A frequency distribution is an overview of all distinct values in some variable and

the number of times they occur. This module covers different types of frequency
distribution, construction of frequency distribution tables and the graphical presentation.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Construct a frequency distribution for a given set of data
2. Prepare a frequency distribution table.

3. Graph the frequency histograms and polygons.

4. Draw the relative frequency or percentage frequencies

5. Interpret the results of the graphs.

Lesson 1. What is Frequency Distribution?

A frequency distribution is a tabulation or grouping of data into appropriate categories
showing the number of observations in each group or category (Toppr. Data Handling, n.d.).

In statistics, it provides the information of the number of occurrences (frequency) of

distinct values distributed within a given period of time or interval, in a list, table, or graphical
representation (Toppr. Data Handling, n.d.).

Frequency tells you how often something happened. The frequency of an observation
tells you the number of times the observation occurs in the data (Toppr. Data Handling, n.d.) .

For example, in the following list of numbers, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because
it occurs 5 times):

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9.

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 Data can be tabulated or organized into frequency distribution table headed by a number
and title.

Tables can show either categorical variables (sometimes called qualitative variables)
or quantitative variables (sometimes called numeric variables). You can think of categorical
variables as categories (like eye color or brand of dog food) and quantitative variables as
numbers.

In the example below, qualitative variables are the injury types.

Lesson 2. Parts of Frequency Table

A frequency table is a method of organizing raw data in a compact form by displaying a

series of scores in ascending or descending order, together with their frequencies—the number
of times each score occurs in the respective data set. Included in a frequency table are typically

a column for the scores and a column showing the frequency of each score in the data set
(Salkind, 2010).

Below are parts of a frequency table (Salkind, 2010):

1. Class limits- groupings or categories defined by lower (UL) and upper limits (UL).

This corresponds to a class interval. Example:

16 – 20 LL is 16, UL is 20
21 – 25 LL is 21, UL is 25
26 – 30 LL is 26, UL is 25
Lower class limits are the smallest number that belong to the different classes
Upper class limits are the highest numbers that belong to the different classes.

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2. Class size- width of each class interval.

LL UL

16 - 20

Class size is 5.

21 - 25

3. Class boundaries- are the numbers used to separate class but without gaps created

by class limits. The number to be added or subtracted is half the difference between
the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of next class.

Example:
Class Intervals (CI) Class Boundaries (CB)
LL UP LCB UCB
16 -20 15.5 - 20.5
21 - 25 20.5 - 25.5
26 - 30 25.5 - 30.5

31- 35 30.5 - 35.5

4. Class marks- are the midpoints of the lower and upper class limits. They can be
found by adding the lower and upper limits and then divide by 2.

Example:
CI Class mark (X)
16 – 20 18 (16+20)/2
21 – 25 23
26 - 30 28
25 - 35 33

5. Relative frequency- these are the percentage distribution in every class interval.
6. Class frequency- it refers to the number of observations belonging to a class
interval, or the number of items within a category.

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Lesson 3. Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution Table
The article “How to construct a Frequency Distribution” (Retrieved from
https://financetrain.com/how-to-construct-a-frequency-distribution/) provides steps on how to
construct frequency distribution table:

Consider the given data below which show the scores of 60 students in a statistics test.

5 13 8 6 13 10 5 13 15 16

8 12 15 10 12 16 12 9 3 7

11 15 11 7 15 2 13 5 9 12

13 9 12 9 9 14 12 11 19 13

16 18 3 13 18 10 15 14 18 11

10 12 6 9 5 17 9 6 9 18

The numbers shown above are called raw data.

Steps in constructing a frequency distribution table:

1. Determine the range by getting the difference between the highest and

lowest value in the set of data.

Range = Highest value - Lowest value

R = 19 - 2
R = 17

2. Determine the class width by dividing the range by the desired number of

groupings. The class size is the width of each class interval.

________range______________
C = desired number of class intervals

(The ideal number of class intervals is 5 – 20)

Or use Sturge’s formula
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k = 1 + 3.3 log n

where k refers to the number of class intervals

and n refers to the total number of observations

k = 1 + 3.3 (1.77815)
k = 6.867 or approximately 7 class intervals
Thus,
C = 17 ÷ 7
C = 2.42
C ̴ 3

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Assessment Task 1

1. Arrange the following data in ascending order.

(a) 7, 2, 10, 14, 0, 6, 15, 24, 8, 3

Answer: ___________________________________________________________

(b) 4.6, 8.1, 2.0, 3.5, 0.7, 9.3, 1.4, 0.8

Answer: _____________________________________________________________

2. Arrange the following data in descending order.

(a) 14, 2, 0, 10, 6, 1, 22, 13, 28, 4, 8, 16

Answer: _____________________________________________________________

(b) 1.2, 3.5, 0.1, 0.3, 2.4, 8.6, 5.0, 3.7, 0.7, 0.9

Answer:
_____________________________________________________________

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 Assessment Task 2

The marks obtained out of 25 by 30 students of a class in the examination are given
below.

20, 6, 23, 19, 9, 14, 15, 3, 1, 12, 10, 20, 13, 3, 17, 10, 11, 6, 21, 9, 6, 10, 9, 4, 5, 1, 5,
11, 7, 24

Represent the above data as a grouped data taking the class interval 0 – 5

Assessment Task 3

C.I.
Frequency

Range: ______________________

8. The frequency distribution of weights (in kg) of 40 persons is given below.

Weights (in kg) 30 - 35 35 - 40 40 - 45 45 - 50 50 - 55

Frequency 6 13 14 4 3

(a) What is the lower limit of fourth class interval? Answer: _______________________

(b) What is the class size of each class interval? Answer: __________________________

(c ) Which class interval has the highest frequency? Answer: _________________________

(d) Find the class marks of all the class intervals? Answer: _________________________

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Other Exercises

If the class marks in a frequency distribution of weights of volleyball players are 128, 137, 146,
155, 164, 173, and 182 pounds. Find:

a. Class interval size Answer: __________________

b. The class boundaries c. Class limits

__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________
__________________ _______________________

Construct a frequency distribution table with 7 as the number of class intervals.

1 2 10 5 3 3 2 20 1 1

6 3 13 2 2 1 26 3 1 3

1 2 1 7 1 2 3 1 2 12

1 4 2 2 29 1 1 1 8 5

1 4 2 1 1 1 1 6 1 2

3 3 6 1 3 1 1 5 1 18

2 13 13 1 6

Solution:

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Given the following table, fill up the ˂cf, ˃cf and rf columns

Class limits f
28-32 1
33-37 3
38-42 3
43-47 13
48-52 14
53-57 12
58-62 9
63-67 0
68-72 4
73-77 1
Solution:

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 Summary

In statistical analysis, the four phases such as collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data are all important activities in doing descriptive research. There were
methods of presenting data using data analysis software. To name one, MS excel is a program
for basic data management and analysis. It provides users with descriptive statistical functions
that becomes useful for an evaluation that does include a rigorous experimental design.

Furthermore, the discussions about frequency distribution provides us a method of

organizing facts whew collected data values can be arranged in ascending order of magnitude
with their corresponding frequencies.

References

Ali, Z. & Bhaskar S. (2016). Basic Statistical Tools in Research and Data Analysis .
Indian journal of anaesthesia 60(9):662 · September 2016 with 185,956 Reads
DOI: 10.4103/0019-5049.190623
Comprehensive Medicinal Chemistry III. (2017). Statistical Analysis. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/statistical-analysis

Fhi360. (2011). Qualitative Research Methods. Retrieved from

https://www.fhi360.org

Formplus. (2020). 7 Data Collection Methods & Tools For Research. Retrieved from
https://www.formpl.us/blog/data-collection-method

Reference for Business. (n.d.). Statistics. Retrieved from

https://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Sc-
Str/Statistics.html#ixzz6VXYCQJOv

Responsible Conduct in Data Management. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/n_illinois_u/datamanagement/dctopic.html

Research Paper Writer. (2020). 35 Accounting Research Paper Topics to Choose From .
Retrieved from https://researchpaperwriter.net/accounting-research-paper-topics/

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 Salkind, N. (2010). Frequency Table. Retrieved from
https://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyc-of-research-design/n159.xml

Toppr. Data Handling. (n.d). Frequency Distribution and Data. Retrieved from
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/data-handling/data-and-its-frequency-
distribution/

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