Testing theWater

By Lorene Lindsay Engineering Scientist

Photos and Layout by Julie Black Graphic Designer

of a small drinking water system has many responsibilities, including collecting water samples and testing water quality to make sure it is safe to drink and aesthetically agreeable to customers. Operators should not only know what they are sampling for, they also should be trained in how to properly handle samples. The health of the systems customers depends upon the operators knowledge, skills, and abilities.

The operator

Process Control Testing

The operator must take samples at various treatment stages to make sure that systems are functioning properly. This type of testing is called process control testing and the operator sets up whatever testing methods are necessary. Process control testing requirements will vary depending upon the treatment type, chemicals used, changes in equipment, and changes in raw water quality. In some small systems, turbidity, pH, chlorine residual, and temperature may be the only process control testing done by the operator. The operator performs these simple tests to monitor the raw water quality and make sure that treatment techniques are operating properly. The number of samples taken and the type of analysis may change if new approaches or chemicals are added to the system. Process control samples should be collected and tested in exactly the same way each day to produce comparable data.
Photo of operator Jim Holmes by Julie Black 16 On Tap Spring 2005

Jar testing is the most complex form of process control testing. Jar testing is done to determine the optimum chemical
dose, to compare the performance of different chemicals, and to model the coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation processes. (A Tech Brief about jar testing is included in this publication to provide a more complete description of the procedure.)

Process control testing is a valuable tool for the operator and part of the daily routine for running a small drinking water system. Systems that use surface water depend upon process control testing to adjust the treatment method when the raw water quality changes. The operator collects samples throughout the day to monitor treatment and fine-tune the system when needed. Even in groundwater systems, process control tests are used to make sure that good water quality is maintained in the system. Continuous monitoring devices, such as chlorine residual or turbidity analyzers, are good examples of automatic process control testing. These automatic or in-line analyzers provide continuous data to the operator about how the equipment is operating and the quality of the water produced.

Compliance Testing
Compliance testing refers to the specific required laboratory analyses that must be performed on public drinking water and be reported as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments. Compliance testing must be performed with strict adherence to requirements in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater or using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. The details and methodology described in Standard Methods may seem tedious, but they are necessary to ensure that the data is reliable

and accurate. The tests must be performed exactly as they are prescribed, and all equipment used must meet the specifications described in Standard Methods. For example, a pH meter must be calibrated with at least two buffers and maintain an accuracy of plus or minus 0.1 pH unit. Quality control and quality assurance testing is also necessary so the lab can prove that analytical data is reliable. Standard Methods includes recommended quality control testing for each laboratory analytical method as well as the equipment used in the laboratory. Part 1000 in Standard Methods contains a general discussion of statistics and quality control as well as sampling procedures. Also included in this section is a description of laboratory safety, hazardous materials, protective equipment, chemical hygiene, and waste disposal for the laboratory. All of these topics are important if the laboratory is doing compliance testing.

Laboratory Records
Laboratory records from a municipal treatment system must be kept for a minimum of three years, but if a private company runs the plant, then records may be required to be kept for five years. All laboratory records should be filed and easily accessible for inspection by regulatory personnel. Of course, lab records should be kept in ink and in a bound notebook if possible. When mistakes occur, the correction should be made by drawing one line through the incorrect data, inserting the correct data, and then initialing the correction. Original laboratory bench sheets
www.nesc.wvu.edu 17

should be kept and not recopied. Its okay for them to be water stained and messy. Just be sure there are no coffee stains; no food or beverages allowed in the laboratory!

TABLE 1
Acidity
SAMPLE

Alkalinity

Paper, Glass Paper, Glass Paper, Glass Paper, Glass

CONTAINERS

4 C 4 C 4 C

PRESERVATIVE

24 hours-14 days 24 h-14 d 28 d

(1) MAXIMUM HOLDING TIME

Chlorine, Residual Conductivity

None

Analyze immediately

Paper 28 d None Fluoride Samples for laboratory testing should be Paper, Glass HNO3 to pH < 2 Hardness 6 months representative of the Paper, Glass HNO3 to pH < 2 6 months Metals, total water being tested. That sounds so simple Paper, Glass HNO3 to pH < 2 Mercury 28 d but can be difficult to Paper, Glass 4 C 48 h48 h Nitrite achieve, especially for samples taken from the Paper, Glass 4 C None/14 d Nitrate distribution system. Drinking water treatH2SO4 to pH 2 and Paper, Glass None/14 d Nitrate + Nitrite ment requires samples 4 C of raw water, treatment Paper, Glass None PH Analyze immediately processes, finished water, and water in the Paper, Glass None Analyze immediately Temperature distribution system. Paper, Glass 4 C Turbidity 24 h48 h Samples of raw water must be collected at Source: REI Consultants, Inc. the well for groundwater supplies or at the ples, a fire hydrant or frost-free hydrant is not an intake structure for a surface water supply. Many acceptable sampling location. utilities install a sampling port at the wellhead to Once an adequate sample location has been allow easy sample collection. selected, the proper sample container must be Collecting samples to monitor the treatment used. Most water samples are now collected in process and the finished water may be grab samplastic sample bottles, and the bottle often conples taken at various points in the treatment tains a preservative and should not be rinsed out. process, or continuous monitoring devices may For coliform testing the bottle must be sterile and collect the data. Continuous monitoring may be should contain a dechlorination agent such as required for turbidity and chlorine residual. sodium thiosulfate. Continuous monitoring equipment is a great timeCollecting samples for bacteriological analysis saver for the operator but the equipment must be must be carefully done and requires some skill. maintained and calibrated precisely. Collecting samples from the distribution system Most state agencies provide instructions for the collection of samples, and new operators should may be difficult for some small systems. In recent have hands-on training in sterile technique to years, the requirements for lead and copper testproperly collect these samples. ing have required that samples be taken from all Sample preservation, handling, and chain of areas of the distribution system, and the sampling custody have become extremely important for plan must be submitted for approval. operators who collect samples and the laboratory The Total Coliform Rule has also complicated sample collection in the distribution system. Under technicians that analyze them. The chain of custody is a complete history of the sample from the the Total Coliform Rule, if a sample from the distime of sample collection through the analysis. tribution system is positive, then repeat samples Each person who handles the sample must be from the distribution system are required above documented in the chain of custody as well as and below the point where the positive sample preservation methods. If a complete chain of cusoccurred. Bacteriological samples must be carefully collected, and the point of collection must meet tody does not accompany a sample, the laboratory will not process it. Most laboratories will include a specific requirements. Installing special sampling taps may be the best way for the utility to provide chain of custody with each sample bottle. For small utilities that do some of their own testproper sample locations. ing, the chain of custody may be a simple docuOlder distribution systems that experience more leaks and have dead-end lines may require more sam- ment; however, when samples are collected and then transported to a private laboratory for analysis, pling due to poor water quality. When repairs are the chain of custody may become quite lengthy. made in the distribution system, the lines should be If the laboratory receives a sample that is disinfected and sampled for coliform bacteria before older than the prescribed holding time without returned to service. These samples are termed special preservation, it will not be processed. Small utilisamples and the results may or may not be required ties often need to ship or transport samples to by the regulatory agency. Remember, for these sam-

Sampling

18

On Tap Spring 2005

testing have made automatic recording probes a necessity for many systems. The automatic probes provide accurate, timely information on water quality, but maintaining and calibrating the probes can take up a lot of the operators time. The good news is that the technology is improving and becoming more reliable and operator friendly. Even with all of the new automatic sampling equipment, some of the lab work for even a small drinking water system relies on wet chemistrya term used for the various laboratory analyses that require adding various chemicals to the sample and measuring the results. Examples of common wet chemistry processes include testing for alkalinity and hardness. These two tests are examples of a lab process called a titrationwhere the sample is treated with various chemicals including a color indicator to produce a chemical reaction based on the amount of the substance being tested. When the chemicals are first added to the sample, a particular color will be produced. Then, another chemical (called the titrant) is added very slowly until a color change occurs. The color change occurs when Why would Monk be a good lab tech? enough titrant is added to react with the origAdrian Monk (Tony Shalhoub), the character from the popular USA Netinal amount of alkalinity in the sample. The work TV program, has an obsessive-compulsive personality. He may amount of titrant used to produce the color spend hours fretting over a particular situation, repeatedly checking change can then be used to calculate the its status just to make sure everything is OK. He may even count amount of alkalinity in the original sample. objects over and again to be sure he was correct the first time. Chemicals used in the laboratory must be of the highest quality and properly stored. He would make the perfect candidate for laboratory work. He is: The exact composition and concentration of the chemicals must be exactly as prescribed organized, inquisitive, in the methodology. If the quality or concentra precise, absorbed, and tion is not exactly as specified, then the results detail oriented, blessed with total recall. of the analysis will not be correct. The chemi structured, Photo by Alan Zenuk - 2002 USA Network cals that are used for laboratory testing must be of reagent grade and can be ordered from a number of supply companies. The chemiother cities for analysis. The operator must make cals will have an expiration date, and old chemicals sure they know the laboratory hours of operation, must be disposed of properly. holiday schedules, and shipping times. Most priIn addition, the laboratory chemicals must be vate laboratories and state-run laboratories do not properly stored according to the instructions on operate on weekends or holidays. Samples must the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). The MSDS be shipped so they will arrive at the laboratory contains reactivity hazards, recommended personwith enough time to be processed within the preal protective equipment for proper use, and first scribed holding time. Sample preservation and aid in the event of exposure. The MSDS sheets holding times are given in Table 1. must be kept in the area where the chemical is For coliform samples that require 24 hours of being used. For the laboratory, this means that a incubation, the sample must arrive at the lab no complete set of MSDS sheets must be accessible. later than Thursday so the analysis can be comChemicals that are incompatible must be stored pleted before the weekend. Operators must in separate areas. Highly flammable chemicals remember to check the holiday schedule and be must be stored in approved containers and firesure to take required samples early enough in the proof cabinets. month to be certain that compliance information will be ready for reporting purposes.

The Obsessive Compulsive Detective

Meters, Probes, and Wet Chemistry

New technology is available everywhere, including the laboratory. Digital meters and automatic recording probes are now available for monitoring common water quality parameters. New requirements for turbidity and chlorine residual

Lorene Lindsay has 26 years experience in water and wastewater treatment and is a certified operator in the state of Missouri.

www.nesc.wvu.edu

19