Updated Second Term Study Pack

PESMD NOTES FORM ONE TO FOUR
CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316
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MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 It is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles

 It permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates the blood throughout the
body
 The human muscular system is made up of a complex network of soft tissues which are called
muscles
 The muscular system has more than 600 skeletal muscles in the body
A muscle
 It is a band or a bundle of fibrous tissue in the body

 It has the ability to contract and relax thereby producing movement
 A soft tissue muscle provides power, motion, generates heat and also make breathing,
circulation and digestion possible
Voluntary muscles
 These muscles are generally under the direct control of the will of a person
 An individual willfully controls contraction of the muscle
 They are attached to the major parts of the body around the skeleton
Involuntary muscles
 These muscles work independently, away from the direct control of an individual
 They are found in the walls of the blood vessels and hallow organs like the stomach and
intestines
Types of muscles
a) Cardiac muscle –it is a heart muscle and is found only in the heart. It contracts regularly,
continuously and without tiring. It works automatically but is under constant nervous and
chemical control. They are striated in appearance and have one nucleus
b) Skeletal muscle –they are voluntary muscles and they work as we instruct them, they are
under our control. They make our bodies move. We use them for everyday and sporting
activities such as running, jumping and walking
c) Smooth muscles – they are involuntary muscles and they work automatically. They are not
under our conscious control. They work our internal organs such as the stomach, gut and
bladder
Muscle groups
 Biceps -are 2 headed muscles that lie on the upper arm between shoulder and elbow
 Triceps -situated on the upper arm
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 Hamstrings -they are a group of three muscles on the back of your legs or thighs
 Quadriceps-these are a set of four large muscles on the front of your legs
 Calf muscles-made up of 2 powerful muscles on the legs
 Deltoids-these are shoulder muscles
 Abdominals-muscles running vertically on either side of the anterior wall of the human
abdomen
 Latissimus Dorsi-is a stronger shoulder muscle that acts as an adductor when the shoulder is
rotated
 Pectorals-the thoracic muscles, found on the chest or breast
 Gluteals-comprise of three muscles that form your butt
 The largest group of muscles is the gluteus maximus.
Functions of muscles
 Movement – the skeletal muscles enable quick response and expression of emotions.
-People have over 30 facial muscles that create looks like happiness, sadness and frowning.
- It takes more muscles to frown than to smile.
-smooth muscles force substance to move.
-cardiac muscles circulate blood and maintain blood pressure
 Maintaining posture – they overcome gravity effects when sitting or standing
 Stabilising joints – keeping joints in place
 Generating heat – when they contract, and this plays a pivotal role in maintaining normal
body temperature at 37 degrees Celsius
Muscle fibre
 There are 2 types of muscle fibre i.e. a) slow twitch b) fast twitch
a) Slow twitch – they are red in colour
– they work more efficiently over long periods
– long distance runners rely more on the slow twitch
– they are also called type I
– they have a good oxygen supply
–they work for long period of time without tiring
– are not as strong as fast twitch fibre
– they take long to contract – they are used in all types of exercise
– they are mostly used in aerobic exercises
b) Fast twitch oxidative – they are also called type II (a) – they are also red in colour – they
contain more myoglobin and mitochondria – they are more prone to fatigue – they
produce fast, strong muscle contractions – they generate an explosive burst of power for a
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short period of time – they are more suitable for sports like basketball, soccer,
weightlifting, hockey and track and field events
c) Fast twitch glycolytic – they are also called type II b – they are white in colour because of
low myoglobin content – they have fewer mitochondria – they are generally the weakest
in resisting fatigue among all the muscle fibres – they are found in the muscles of the arms
– these fibres are only recruited in activities that only require a burst of power and only
act for a very short period of time
– the slow twitch are recruited first followed by type IIa and the type IIb fibres are taken
to produce maximal strength.
What determines the type of muscle fibre
 There are 3 main factors that determine an individual’s muscle fibre namely: genetic factors,
hormone levels in the blood, training undertaken
Characteristics of muscles
 Excitability – muscle respond to stimulation and become active

 Contractility – a muscle shortens beyond its normal resting length by pulling from both ends
towards the centre
 Extensibility – capable of expanding or stretching
 Elasticity – the tendency of returning to its original shape after it has been stretched or
compressed
Muscle contractions
 Refers to the activation of tension

 These are generating sites within muscle fibre
 A muscle can contract in two 2 different ways namely: isometric and isotonic muscle
contractions
a) Isometric contractions
 Occurs when the muscle contracts but there is no movement
 They generate force without changing the length of the muscle
 Muscles stay the same way as they contract
 Shoulder muscles work in this way when we pull in a tug of war
b) Isotonic contractions
 Occurs when the muscle shortens especially when the body is working
 It generates force by changing the length of the muscle
 There are 2 types of isotonic muscle contractions namely: concentric and eccentric
i) Concentric contractions
 Occurs when muscles shorten as they contract
 Muscle shortens in length in order to make the bone move
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 The ends of the muscle move closer together

 Biceps work in this way when we do a pull up
ii) Eccentric contractions
 When the muscle contracts it increase in length
 They cause the muscle to elongate in response to a greater opposing force
 The ends of the muscle move further apart
 Biceps work in this work in this way when we lower our body from a pull-up position
 Plyometric exercises uses eccentric contraction
How muscles work together
 Flexors – contracting to bend our joints

 Extensors – contracting to straighten our joints
 Prime movers – (or agonists) contracting to start a movement
 Antagonists – relaxing to allow a movement to take place
 Fixators – contracting to steady parts of the body to give the working muscles a firm base
 Synergists – reducing unnecessary movement when a prime mover contracts. They can also
fine tune movement
a) Muscle fatigue – it is a temporary inability of the muscular system to perform work or a
decrement in performance
b) Muscle soreness – it is a muscular pain or stiffness, due to accumulation of fluid or water in
the muscles, which develops edema. It is due to prolonged or intensive muscular activity
c) Muscle sprain – it is a partial or complete tearing of ligaments, which binds joint
d) Muscle strain – it results in tearing and disruption of the muscle fibres, connective tissue and
blood vessels
e) Muscle tone–it is the constant continuous partial contractions of muscles even at rest
Tendon – it is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone
Ligament – it is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches bone to bone
Effects of exercise on the muscular system
 Causes muscle soreness

 Causes muscle sprain
 Causes muscle strain
 Causes muscle fatigue
 Improve muscle strength
 Improve muscle endurance
 Increase muscle size
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QUESTIONS
1. Muscles are made up of……………. A. silica B. polyester C. calcium D. fibres

2. The muscular system comprise of more than………….muscles A. 700 B.500 C. 600 D.300
3. The set of four large muscles on the front of your legs are called…… A. calves B. quadriceps
C. hamstrings D. deltoids
4. Define the muscular system [2]
5. Briefly explain how the muscular system works with the skeletal system [3]
6. Name the three types of muscles [3]
7. Give any 2 functions of the muscular system [2]
8. The cardiac muscle is a………….muscle [1]
9. Involuntary muscles are…………………… [1]
10. State the four characteristics of muscles [4]
11. List any five muscle groups that you know [5]
12. In what parts of the body are these muscles found (i) triceps (ii) trapezius [2]
13. Name two major muscles of the leg [2]
14. The following are types of muscles except……….. A. biceps muscles B. smooth muscles C.
cardiac muscles D. skeletal muscles
15. Slow twitch muscles fibre are……. A. type I B. type II C. type IIa D. type IIb
16. How many types of muscle fibre? [1]
17. Type IIb fibres are…………….. in color A. red B. pink C. white D. brown
18. Define the following terms a) cardiac muscle b) smooth muscle c) skeletal muscle
19. Muscles are made up of …..A. fats and water B. calcium and water C. vitamins and water
D. proteins and water
20. Actin and myosin filaments are types of………. A. sarcolema B. sarcoplasma C. myoglobin
D. myofilaments
21. Give an example of sporting discipline where athletes have the following muscle fibre types (i)
type I (ii) type II a (iii) type II b [3]
22. Explain what happens to our muscles as we exercise. Give 6 changes [6]
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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 It also referred to as the circulatory system

 The circulatory system is made up of blood, blood vessels, pulmonary circulation, systematic
circulation and the heart
 It transport oxygen and nutrients to every cell
 It removes carbon dioxide and other waste products from every cell
 It carries hormones from the endocrine glands to different parts of the body
 It maintains temperature and fluid levels
 It prevents infection from invading germs
Pulmonary circulation – it carries deoxygenated blood from our heart through the pulmonary artery
to our lungs for purification/oxygenation and then oxygenated blood is transported back to the heart
through the pulmonary vein to be given pressure in the heart
Systemic circulation – it is when oxygenated blood from the heart is transported through arteries to
the rest of the body organs and then deoxygenated blood from body parts is transported back to the
heart through veins.
Components of the circulatory system
a) The heart
b) Blood
c) Blood vessels
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The heart
 It is a muscular organ responsible for the pumping of blood to the whole body
 It is also referred to as the body’s engine
 It is made up of special cardiac muscles which contracts regularly, without tiring
 It pumps blood first to the lungs, to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen
Three stages of heart action
a) Cardiac cycle – is one complete cycle of these three stages

b) Heartbeat – is one complete contraction of the heart
c) Heart rate ( pulse) – is the number of heart beats per minute
Blood
 It is a red fluid that is pumped through the body by the heart and contains plasma, blood cells
and platelets
Components of blood
 Plasma
 Platelets (thrombocytes)
 Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 White blood cells (leukocytes)
Plasma
 It is a watery liquid
 It is pale yellow in colour
 It contains dissolved substances: salts and calcium, nutrients including glucose, hormones,
carbon dioxide and other waste products from body cells
Platelets (thrombocytes)
 They are made in bone marrow

 They stick to each other easily
 They produce clots when a blood vessel is damaged
 They work with fibrinogen to make blood clot
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 They are made in the red marrow of long bones, sternum, ribs, vertebrae
 They are extremely numerous
 They give blood its colour
 They can contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to all body cells
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 They have no nucleus and last for about 120 days

 They are replaced in very large numbers
White blood cells (leukocytes)
 They are made in our bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen
 They are far fewer than red blood cells
 They are three times the size of red blood cells
 They are a mobile guard system to deal with infection and disease: some eat up germs, some
produce antibodies to destroy germs
Functions of blood
 Transportation – carries nutrients, oxygen and hormones to body cells and carries carbon
dioxide, other waste from body cells and excess water from the kidneys
 Protection – carries white blood cells to sites of infection, carries antibodies to destroy germs
and also carries platelets to damaged areas to form clots
 Temperature regulation – carries heat away from working muscles and centre of body to skin.
It also maintains temperature within the body
 Maintaining body’s equilibrium – reduces the effect of lactic acid produced in the working
muscle. It regulates fluid balance. It also enable hormones and enzymes to work
Blood vessels
 They are defined as networks of hallow tubes that transport blood

 There are three major blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries
 They carry blood away from the heart to body parts

 They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery
 The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for re-
oxygenation
 They branch into smaller tubes called arterioles
 They are muscular and elastic such that they must transport blood under a high pressure from
the pumping action of the heart
Veins
 They carry blood towards the heart from body parts

 They return deoxygenated blood to the heart except pulmonary vein
 They are thin walled and non elastic because the blood is under low pressure
 They branch into smaller tubes called venules
 They have valves to stop blood flowing backwards
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Capillaries
 They are the smallest blood vessels that connects arterioles and venules
 They help enable exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as nutrients and waste
products that is: it allows food and oxygen to pass out to body tissues and allows carbon
dioxide and wastes to pass into the blood from body tissues
Heart rate
 It is the number of times the heart beats per minute

 At each heartbeat the blood is pumped out of the heart into the arteries
 Arteries are then forced to expand and then contract which is the pulse
 The number of pulses in one minute is the heart rate
 For a normal adult when resting this will be about 70 beats per minute
 A pulse can be felt at points in the body where arteries are near to the skin
Stroke volume
 It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in each beat

 During exercise stroke volume increase for a number of reasons: working muscles squeeze
blood in our veins, forcing more blood back to the heart. The heart stretches as it fills up with
the extra blood and in turn it contracts more strongly, this results in more blood being
pumped out of the heart for each beat
Cardiac output
 It is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute

 It is controlled by both heart rate and stroke volume
 Heart rate X stroke volume = cardiac output
Blood pressure
 It is the force of the blood against the walls of the blood vessels
 The instrument used to measure blood pressure is called sphygmomanometer
What affects blood pressure?
 a) Age – blood pressure increases as we grow older because our arteries are less elastic
 b) Exercise – BP increases when we exercise but returns to normal after exercises. Regular
exercise helps lower resting BP and prevent cardiovascular disease
 c) Stress – stress causes hormones to be released into the blood which increases BP
 d) Smoking – it increases BP because nicotine reduces the efficiency of capillaries
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 e) Diet – a diet high in fat or salt may lead to increase in BP. This is because fatty deposits may
block up or harden arteries. Excess salt intake may lead to an imbalance in the body’s
chemistry
 f) Weight – being overweight puts an extra strain on the circulatory system and so raises BP
Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system
 improve the blood circulation

 increase the cardiac out put
 increase blood pressure (short term)
 lowers blood pressure (long term)
 increase stroke volume
 increase heart rate
QUESTIONS
1. ………….carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart A. arteries B. veins C. ventricles D. atrium
2. The volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat is called…… A. heart rate
B. stroke volume C. heart volume D. stroke rate
3. In an organ what reflects its metabolic activity? A. quantity and volume B. quantity and
volume of arteries C. quantity and volume of veins D. quantity and volume of arterioles
4. Pulmonary arteries……………. A. carry blood from the heart B. carry blood to the heart C. carry
deoxygenated blood to the heart D. carry oxygen to the heart
5. Red blood cells are produced in the………… A. capillaries B. platelets C. synovial fluid D. bone
marrow
6. Which vessels receive blood straight from the heart? A. capillaries B. bronchioles C. arteries D.
veins
7. Give the definitions of the following (a) blood (b) plasma (c) veins (d) arteries (e) platelets [10]
8. Explain briefly how capillaries work [3]
9. State the functions of the following (a) veins (b) arteries [4]
10. Name the four chambers of the heart [4]
11. Briefly outline how the cardiovascular system works [3]
12. The heart muscle is made up of which type of muscle? [1]
13. Describe the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system [6]
14. Describe the effects of exercise on blood pressure [2]
15. Describe how the cardiac output increase with exercise [2]
16. How does exercise affect the cardiovascular system over a long period [3]
17. What is meant by: a) heart rate b) stroke volume [4]
18. Name 2 functions of the circulatory system [2]
19. Name the components of blood which: a) help clotting b) carry oxygen [2]
20. Give any 3 functions of blood [3]
21. Suggest two ways in which the pulse can be used to show our level of fitness [2]
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22. Describe the difference between the systematic and pulmonary circulation systems [4]
23. Explain why an efficient circulatory system is important for sportspeople [4]
24. Give the components of the cardiovascular system [3]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 It is a process of taking in oxygen and expelling of carbon dioxide into the air
Breathing / Respiration
 It is the process of the inhaling and exhaling air through the nasal and oral passage
 It is the process of taking in oxygen from the air and releasing carbon dioxide into the air
Respiration occurs in two ways, that is (a) aerobic respiration (b) anaerobic respiration
a) Aerobic respiration – can be defined as a process where food is oxidised in order to form
energy through the use of oxygen, thereby releasing carbon dioxide and water.
- This process entirely relies on oxygen.
- The process of aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria
– it is active in activities like jogging, and long distance running, where an athlete needs more
endurance
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b) Anaerobic respiration – this process is possible in the absence of oxygen

– it produces less energy when compared to aerobic respiration
– it happens when the body needs more energy, and there is not enough oxygen to oxidize the
glucose
– it occurs during vigorous activities, if oxygen is not available, the cells can produce extra
energy, but then lactic acid is formed.
– in sprinting events, in athletics and swimming, the body depends on anaerobic respiration
Breathing in/ inspiration/ inhalation
 Refers to the intake of oxygen when breathing in

 The diaphragm contracts and flattens when air is inhaled
 The ribs move outwards while the volume of the thoracic cavity increases
 Through the air pressure the lungs are enlarged
Breathing out/ expiration/ exhalation
 Refers to the release of carbon dioxide when breathing out

 The diaphragm arches upwards when air is exhaled
 The ribs move downwards while the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
 The lungs are compressed as the air pressure inside them increases
There are three essential processes for the transfer of oxygen from the outside air to the blood
flowing through the lungs. These are ventilation, diffusion, and perfusion
a) Ventilation – it a process whereby air moves in and out of the lungs. – pulmonary ventilation
provides air to the alveoli for the gas exchange process
b) Diffusion – it refers to the spontaneous movement of gasses, without the use of energy or
effort by the body
c) Perfusion – it is the process by which the cardiovascular system pumps blood throughout the
lungs. It is the passage of fluid through the circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ
or tissue
Functions of the respiratory system
 Breathing
 Gas exchange in the lungs
 Gas exchange at tissue level
 Causing sound through the larynx
 The sense of smell
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Breathing – it is the process of inhaling air through the nasal cavity and oral passages, pharynx, the
larynx, the trachea and the lungs. The diaphragm, the intercostals muscle and the rib cage also take
part in the breathing in and out of air
Gas exchange – external respiration occurs between the lungs and the bloodstream. This involves the
passage of oxygen from the air in the alveoli / air sacs
– internal respiration occurs between the bloodstream and the body tissues. This involves the
transportation of oxygenated blood from the heart to all body parts of the body. Oxygen is delivered
to the transportation to the body tissues and cells for energy and metabolism. Carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the blood
Sound – in order to produce sound, there is vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx. This is rather
more specialized a function in which air passing over the vocal cords is modulated by special laryngeal
muscles pushing the vocal cords together, so they vibrate thereby creating sound
The sense of smell – it occurs when air passes over some fibres in the nasal cavities that sense certain
chemicals in the inhaled air. A signal is then sent to the brain, in order to identify what has been smelt
Respiratory organs
 Nose
 Mouth
 Larynx
 Pharynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Lungs
 Alveoli
Functions of respiratory organs
Nose
 It is made up of cartilage, bone muscle and skin

 The nasal cavity is a hallow space within the nose, which is lined with hairs and mucus
membrane
 It is the first section of the body’s airway
 It is a respiratory tract through which air passes
 When we breath in the air is filtered, moistened and warmed in the nose
Mouth
 It is also known as the oral cavity

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 It can be used to supplement breathing, though it does not warm, filters and moistens the air
 Breathing through the mouth gives an advantage because it is shorter a distance, hence more
air quickly enters the body
Larynx
 It contains the vocal cords, whose vibration produces sound or the voice
 It connects the pharynx and the trachea
Epiglottis
 It is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as a switch between the trachea and the esophagus
 It prevents choking, by disallowing food from entering the trachea during swallowing
 It also ensures that air passes into the trachea by covering the opening of the esophagus
Wind pipe/ trachea
 It provides a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs
 The lining in the trachea produces mucus that traps dust and other contaminants, preventing
them from reaching the lungs
Pharynx
 It is also referred to as the throat

 It is a muscular funnel that extends from nasal cavity to the esophagus and the larynx
 It provides a passage for the inhaled air from the nasal cavity
 It also used to swallow food
Bronchi
 At the end of the trachea, the airway splits into two left and right braches
 The two runs into each lung before branching further into smaller branches called bronchioles
that spread through the lungs
Bronchioles
 These are finer branches of the bronchi whose function is to provide passage of air between
the bronchi and the alveoli
 They are different from bronchi because they do not contain any cartilage at all
Lungs
 They are a pair of spongy organs found on the left and right side of the thorax
 They are slightly different in size and shape, due to the heart pointing to the left side of the
body
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 The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three lobes
 Inside the lungs there are many capillaries and air sacs/ alveoli
 It is in the alveoli where gaseous exchange take place
Respiratory rate
 It is how many breath we take in one minute
Tidal volume
 It the amount of air we can take in or out with one breath
Minute volume
 Is the amount of air we can breathe in, in one minute

 The formula is minute volume = tidal volume x respiratory rate
Vital capacity
 Is the largest amount of air that we can force out of our lungs after breathing in as deeply as
possible. It is usually about 4.8 litres in adults
Residual volume
 Is the amount of air left in the lungs after breathing out as hard as possible. We need some air
in our lungs to prevent them collapsing. It usually about 1.2 litres
Total lung capacity
 Is vital capacity added to residual volume
Effects of exercise on the respiratory system
 Increase breathing rate

 Increase the residual volume
 Improve vital capacity
 Improve oxidation of blood
 Increase the minute volume
 Increase the tidal volume
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QUESTIONS
1. Which gas is expelled by the respiratory system during respiratory process? A. oxygen B. gas
C. carbon dioxide D. carbon monoxide
2. During the respiratory process, the ……………….collects carbon dioxide and transport it to the
lungs. A. heart B. red blood cells C. capillaries D. bronchi
3. Where does gaseous exchange occur? A. heart B. lungs C. alveoli D. larynx
4. Which part of the respiratory system connects with the mouth cavity, nasal cavity, the larynx
and the esophagus A. lungs B. trachea C. pharynx D. bronchi
5. What is the other name for the voice box A. larynx B. pharynx C. ciliated epithelium D. alveoli
6. The body’s ability for oxygen consumption during maximal activity is tested using…….A. bleep
test B. VO2 test C. Illinois test D. broad jump test
7. Which exercise does not improve the respiratory system functioning? A. jogging B. rowing
C. biking D. sprinting
8. The alveoli are surrounded by A. capillaries B. arteries C. veins D. plasma
9. Air is filtered, moistened and warmed in the……………
10. The……………..prevents choking by food
11. Outline the functions of each of the following i) nose ii) lungs iii) alveoli
12. Draw and label the respiratory system diagram [10]
13. State the three processes involved in gaseous exchange [3]
14. What is the importance of blood to the respiratory system [3]
15. What are the significance of exercise on the respiratory system [2]
16. Define a) oxygen b) carbon dioxide [4]
17. State how sound is produced in the larynx [3]
18. Define a) respiratory rate b) VO2 max [4]
19. Distinguish aerobic respiration from anaerobic respiration [5]
20. Describe the effects of exercise on the respiratory system [4]
21. Outline 3 activities that can be done to improve the respiratory system [3]
22. Give any 2 long term effects of exercise on the respiratory system [2]
23. Expired air contains about 79% nitrogen. What is the percentage of: i) oxygen ii) carbon
dioxide [2]
24. What is meant by a) vital cavity b) residual volume [4]
25. Explain why an efficient respiratory system is vital for some sports people [2]
26. Explain what is meant by a) tidal volume b) minute volume c) respiratory rate [6]
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MARKETING IN SPORT
 It is defined as the specific application of marketing principles and processes to sport products
and to the marketing of non-sport products through association with sport.
Funding models
 Funding simply means “sponsoring”

 When related to sport it means the sponsoring of a sporting event, sport clubs, or individual
athlete.
Sport funding in Zimbabwe
 Sponsorship
 Funds from media rights
 Funds from the social responsibility and donations
 Funds from the public sector that is from the Ministry of Sport and Recreational and local
authorities
 Funds from levies and charges on State Lotteries, betting and gambling operations
Funds from sponsorship
 Sponsorship is responsible for 70% of the income of most professional sports club in
Zimbabwe and the world over
 The relationship between the club being sponsored and the sponsoring organization should be
a symbiotic one (win-win) relationship.
 Clubs and individual rely on corporate organizations for financial and material support. At the
same time the corporate organizations will have marketing benefits, for example, a brand
logo on the clubs uniforms as a marketing strategy
Sport sponsors
 Heineken and Amstel companies are funding football in Europe

 Castle lager a beverage brand of Delta Beverages is sponsoring football in Zimbabwe
 Banc ABC is sponsoring Dynamos and Highlanders
 Croco-Motors is sponsoring cricket
Funds from media rights
 These funds include those coming from television and media houses through broadcasting
rights fees to televise a sporting event
 The state owned media houses include the Zimpapers where find The Herald and The Sunday
Mail. The is also the state owned television and radio stations
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 Private owned media houses include the Daily News and the News Day newspapers. There is
also supersport and kwese sport as television stations.
Funds from the corporate social responsibility and donations
 These funds are realised when most organizations want to reach out to communities through
sport
 A good example is the partnering of the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) with FC-
Barcelona, a Spanish based football club
 Zimplats is another corporate sponsoring Platinum FC based in Zvishavane and Ngezi
platinum based in Mhondoro and both teams are in local Castle premier Soccer League
Funds from the public sector
 These funds come from the local authorities, that is, council and also from the government
through the Ministry of sports and recreation
 The Zimbabwean government funds grass roots sport through schools and mass sport through
recreational facilities.
 Professional sport is funded mostly by the corporate organizations. The government of
Zimbabwe only supports professional sport through adhoc funding as per request through
Sports and Recreation Commission (SRC)
Local authorities or city council
a) Provision of sport facilities

 They most of the sport facilities such as, NSS, Rufaro, Mucheke, Chipadze, Rudhaka, Barbour
fields and Chikondoma stadiums, aquatic complex for swimming in Chitungwiza
b) Provision of financial support
 The proceeds from the rentals of the facilities and the rate payers are channeled towards
funding professional council teams
 Examples are Harare City FC and Bulawayo City FC all funded by their respective city councils
Funding from levies on state lotteries, betting and gambling
 These are funds from legally registered lotteries, betting and gambling operations in
Zimbabwe
The way forward for sport in Zimbabwe
 Improve publicity of various sports

 Improve accountability and transparency in various sporting governing boards and
federations
 Improve corporate world and individuals view sport in general
 Government should provide proper funding and not ad-hoc funding
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 Persuade everyone that investing in sport is sound and has far reaching outcomes as it
cross boundaries i.e. it is international in nature
MARKETING MIX
 It refers to a unique blend of product, place, promotion and pricing strategies put to produce
mutually satisfying exchanges with a target group
 Sport marketing mix includes the 4Ps that is:
 Product
 Price
 Place (distribution)
 Promotion
a) Sport product
 It can be defined as a good, a service or any combination of the two that is designed to give
benefits to a sport spectator, participant, or sponsor.
 The core product – this refers to the participation of sport teams or individuals. Spectators pay
a ticket charge
 Product extensions – these include related activities such as the appearance of the sport
facility, video screens, half-time entertainment, consuming food and beverages merchandise
b) Price
 Reflection of price value – sport users are willing to spend part of their disposable income if
live attendance holds more value than watching the sport on television.
 For example the national soccer team matches are which are failing to attract large
numbers of spectators due to the Warrior’s poor performances since early 2000 to
date
 Price can be presented differently – price can be substituted by the following examples as
marketing tactics:
 Licence fee
 Ticket charge
 Admission fee
 League fee
 Sponsorship fee
 Salary
 Price is market sensitive – e.g. a highly priced boxing match will unlikely attract spectators if
there is a football match with lower prices
c) Place
 This refers to how the sport products reach the targeted consumer and goods.
 Intangible sport product – sport as an intangible product or service is uniquely distributed, for
example when attending a cricket match at Harare Sports Club there are encompassing
support service that must be at the venue and these include the following:
21
 Ablution facilities
 Type of seating
 Ticket distribution
 Media coverage distribution
 Related services such as number of entry gates
 Food and beverages
 Accessibility of the facility
 The factor of place in marketing mix can be applied in Zimbabwe in the case of the Rufaro
stadium and the NSS. The NSS in outlook is more appealing than the Rufaro stadium but in
terms of accessible than the good looking NSS
d) Promotion
 It serves to communicate the sport product’s ability to satisfy the customer through
advertising, personal selling, public relations and promotional licensing
 Corporate organizations like Tanganda Tea Company is using sponsorship of netball in
secondary schools as its promotional mix tool. The same is happening in high school soccer
where coca cola and proton are sponsoring the soccer different age groups as their
promotional mix tool
MARKETING STRATEGIES IN SPORT
 It means creating value for customers

 Marketing strategies in sport are as follows:
 Segmentation
 Positioning
 Pricing
Segmentation
 It allows marketers to effectively increase marketing efforts by knowing who is using their
products and why they are using them.
 Benefits of market segmentation are as follows:
 Allowing managers to identify customer groups with the product market (sporting event)
 Having buyers’ similar requirements regarding the sport product
 Giving marketers an opportunity to tailor-make their products and capabilities to the buyers’
value requirements
 Increasing customer satisfaction
Positioning
 It refers to how a sport customer perceives the sport product relative to competitive offerings
 When using positioning as a marketing strategy the marketers are:
 Allowing customers to experience life in their own terms
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 Motivating customers within group status by avoiding attractions linked to group

consumptions as in segmentation
 Allowing individuals to define sport as unique
 Giving customers a sense of personal accomplishment and excitement
Pricing
 This is the most flexible and quickest of all the strategies to change
 Customers are concerned about the value they obtain versus the amount they have to spend
 Price reflects the value of the product or service. This means if the ticket fee to watch a live
hockey match is perceived too much by customers they will opt other alternatives that can
satisfy them e.g. they can watch them match on TV
 There is need for tactical presentation of the price to the consumer e.g. renaming or
substituting the word price with words like league fee, commission, admission fee,
registration fee
Definition of terms
a) A licensing fee – the price a sports clothing organization pays to sell a T-shirt with the team’s
logo on it
b) The ticket charge – the fee laid down as a requirement to enter a facility and watch a match
c) A membership fee – the price one pays to become a member of an organization
d) Admission – the price to enter into an event
e) A league fee – the amount of money a club has to pay to enter and participate in a league
f) A sponsorship fee – what a corporate organization pays to be the sponsor of a sporting event
or team
g) Registration fee – the price paid for an athlete to attend a coaching clinic
h) A signing bonus – is part of the price a professional team pays to assure the services of a
player from one of the feeder unions
i) A salary – money that a club pays for the services of coaches and players
j) Commission – is the extra bonus-oriented price a sport marketing organization would pay its
sales people for their services
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QUESTIONS
1. What makes sport marketing unique? A. sport organization compete against each other but
have to work together B. sport is not a business C. sport is wasteful D. sport does not have
universal impact
2. State what percentage sport sponsoring accounts for at professional club level A. 60% B. 70%
C. 80% D. 90%
3. From the following sport models below which one is not a sport funding model A. sponsorship
B. media rights C. local authorities D. Coca Cola company
4. In Europe which companies sponsor football league ( EPL) A. castle lager B. Kwese TV C, Multi-
Choice TV D. Heineken and Amstel
5. ………….is a TV house based in Zimbabwe A. SABC-TV B. Super-sport TV C. ZBC TV D. Mbare TV
6. Name the type of fee paid in order for clubs to have the opportunity to enjoy live screening or
coverage of their sporting events A. admission fee B. ticket charge C. broadcasting fee
D. league fee
7. Which of the following clubs is owned by a local council A. Dynamos FC B. Hwange FC
C. Highlanders FC D. Bulawayo city FC
8. Which one of the following which does not constitute the 4Ps of the marketing mix A. place
B. price C. people D. promotion
9. Define a league fee [2]
10. Briefly define sport marketing [2]
11. State ways in which sport marketing is regarded unique [2]
12. List benefits of sport marketing to the corporate organization sponsoring sport [2]
13. List any four sport funding models [4]
14. Differentiate marketing mix from marketing strategy [4]
15. Briefly explain segmentation as a marketing strategy [3]
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SPORT ENTERPRISE
What is a club?
 It is a organization composed of people who voluntarily meet on a regular basis for a mutual
purpose
 A club normally promotes good fellowship and social intercourse, based on educational
religious, charitable or financial reasons
The club concept
 The essence of having a club is to cultivate social activities interaction, stimulating a positive
environment for sharing developmental ideas for the benefit of society.
 Some clubs are formed for profit making while others are non-profit making
Types of clubs
 There are several clubs raging from social activities clubs, political, religious, ad sports clubs
 Some clubs are operational I school setups while others are community based
 Club members often take part in the club activities on a voluntary basis
1. Social activities club
 It caters for various social aspects like charity work, fishing and hunting
 It hinges upon common interests, hobbies occupation or activities among the club members
2. Political club
 Members of a political club are often brought together by virtue of belonging to the same
political party or interest in the leadership of a particular political leader
3. Religious club
 This is a club whereby members meet to pray, praise and share the Word. This is because they
share the same beliefs
 For example, a Christian union club may be formed by virtue of believing in the same God
4. Sports clubs
 This is a sporting club, formed for the purpose of playing sport.
 Members may play together or engage similar clubs in competitively sport occasionally
5. Service club
 It aims at promoting community welfare and goodwill
Reasons for forming sports clubs
 To bring together people with a shared interest, so they can achieve their dreams together
 To help develop and nurture sporting talent
 For community development
 To provide essential social services
 For entertainment purposes
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Basic requirements of a club
 A club name
 A physical address
 A constitution
 A mission statement
 A list of members
 An organogram
Steps to follow when forming a club
i) Identify the club’s objectives

ii) Determine the club’s structure
iii) Define your membership clearly
iv) Outline the financial structure
v) Design a periodic strategic plan, for example five year strategic plan
1. Identifying the club’s objective
 Why form a club?
 What are your long-term goals for the club?
 Will you hold events?
 Will you raise funds?
 Will you offer services or resources to members?
 Will you be charging membership fees?
2. Outlining the leadership structure
 Chairperson
 Vice – chairperson
 Treasurer
 Secretary
 Committee members
Duties of leadership members
a) The chairperson
 Stands as the key leader or representative who can lead the club and act as a spokesperson
 Can be called president, board chair or resolving meeting leader
b) Vice – chairperson
 This person holds a supportive role that offers back up for the chairperson. In the absence of
the chair, he/she takes over his/her leadership role
c) Treasurer
 Responsible for keeping track of club moneys, fees, expenses, payment of bills.
 It is also their duty to keep all the financial records of the club
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d) Secretary
 This is the communications manager
 Their role is to write meeting minutes, draft objectives, keeping track of goals for activities,
dates for gatherings, sending out meeting reminders and invitations and many other duties
assigned by the chair
e) Committee member
 They often come in to assist with other operations of the club
A club organogram
 It is a club’s hierarchy or committee structure that is set to ensure the club is run smoothly
and effectively
Sport and recreation
 Sport is any physical activity demanding physical exertion and skill, while recreation is an
activity of leisure.
 Recreational activities are usually done for enjoyment, amusement or pleasure and are
considered to be fun.
Organization of the Sports and Recreation in Zimbabwe
 The department was formed in 1991 and operates under the then Ministry of Education, Sport
and Culture
 The ministry appoints the Board of Commissioners in the SRC
SRC mandate
 It facilitate the accessibility of sports and recreation programmes to the people of Zimbabwe
 In overseeing the running of the sport and recreation programmes in the country
Structure of Administration
 At secretariat level, the SRC is led by the Director General who is assisted by three Directors in
running the affairs of the commission
These directors are:
a) Director Sport development

b) Director Business Development
c) Director corporate service
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Programmes run by the SRC
 Zimbabwe National Youth Games

 Zimbabwe National Paralympic Games
 Youth Education through Sport Initiative
 Community Sport Development Programme
 Sports Governance
 Development and High performance Programmes
 Zimbabwe Sports Hall of Fame
Facilities
 The SRC has the responsibility to develop, supervise and manage sporting facilities in
Zimbabwe
 These are some of the facilities in Zimbabwe, that the SRC is responsible for:
 Magamba hockey stadium
 The national sports stadium
 Chitungwiza aquatic Sports complex
 The SRC Commission also works with National Sports Governing Bodies like NAAZ, ZIFA, ZC
Stakeholders in sport and recreation
 These are individuals or organizations whose attitudes and actions influence the success of a
sports team, participant or entire sport.
 These stakeholders include athletes, sponsors, spectators, media, participants, community,
civic and political leaders as well as businesses.
1. Participants
 These are fundamental stakeholders in sport and recreation.
 The government even recognizes these participants for they do not only make names for
themselves sometimes but for the nation
2. Spectators
 These are uniquely important, for participants and clubs in sports need them.
 Clubs and teams raise revenue through these spectators
 Players get moral support that motivates them to perform better in sport
3. Governing Bodies
 They set rules for different sports and ensure they are followed.
 They also train the coaches and officials in their sporting disciplines
 They work with SRC towards the development of their respective sports.
 They lobby government to attract financial support, negotiate broadcasting rights and also
sponsorship deals on behalf of their teams
4. Community
 The community is influential in sport in a number of ways.
28
 Teams aim to attract participants, spectators and volunteers from the community.
 The building of new sporting facilities or holding major events calls for community
participation and support
 Sport comes in with noise and traffic congestion that may inconvenience a community unless
they are fully understanding and supportive
5. Business and the corporate world
 These come in with pivotal sponsorship deals that give a financial boost to sport.
 Teams and participants sometimes have to depend on sponsorship in order to fulfill
international competitions
6. The government
 A government that supports sport is the best for any nation that values fitness and health for
its citizens
 They budget and provide financial resources for the development of sport infrastructure and
development
 The government recognizes the participants , the media and puts in place a sports Commission
to ensure that sport is done in the country and citizens benefit from it
 The government makes policies that support sport
The club constitution and the law
 A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to

which an organization is acknowledged to be governed
 A constitution is a law determining the fundamental principles of a club
Steps to follow when forming a club constitution
 Name of the club

 Club purpose and objectives
 Club membership, eligibility, requirements, rights/ privileges
 Club meetings
 The club executive board
 Club elections
 Club finances
 Committees or divisions
 Affiliations
 Coach/ instructor/ resource person
 Ratification – explain how the constitution will be approved by the members of the club
 Amendments
 Rules and regulations
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QUESTIONS
1. Define a club
2. State the organogram of a sports club
3. List types of clubs
4. Give the requirements of forming a club
5. What are the reasons for forming a club
6. State any 4 stakeholders of sports club
7. List any 5 Zimbabwean sports clubs
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ADVENTURE GAMES: CAMPING
 A camp is an outdoor place acting as temporary accommodation. This can be tents or other
temporary structures
 There are a number of activities that can be done during camping, for recreational, for fitness
or for sport and these activities include climbing and abseiling
Climbing
 It involves balance, movement and efficiency of motion
Effective climbing depends on your ability to:
 Use your feet

 Maintain balance
 Climb efficiently
Climbing techniques
 Edging
 Lay-backing
 Stemming
 Smearing
Edging
 It is best used for navigating narrow footholds

 You must place the outer or inner edge of your shoe on the clear hold, like a wrinkle, a flake
or a nub in the rock
 This position should be used to step off into your next move
Lay-back
 It used for climbing up cracks and corners

 You should grasp your hands (arms straight) and push against the wall
 Keep your hands in place and slowly walk up the surface
 Lay-backing is when you pull and lean off one side of flake or crack and push your feet against
the other side
Stemming
 It is most effective for manoeuvering up wide crevasses

 It is pushing against two opposing surfaces
 Press your feet and hands on opposite walls
31
Smearing
 Is best used for scaling a smooth surface

 Use the friction between your sticky, rubber-soled shoes and the rock by pushing your toes
down against the wall.
 Climbing shoes let you grip a flat wall like a gecko
Indoor climbing
 Indoor climbing is done on specially designed walls that have protrusions that aid as holds for
the climber
Indoor climbing techniques
 Back step
 Drop knee
 Flagging
 Mantle
 Undercling
 Side pull
 Gaston
 Palming
Abseiling
 It is a controlled descent off a vertical drop such as a rock face, using a fixed rope
 It is mainly used by climbers when a cliff is too steep or dangerous to descend without
protection
 It is also called rappelling
Equipment used in abseiling
 Ropes
 Anchors for abseiling
 Descenders – they are also called rappelling devices
 Climbing harness
 Auto block knot
 Helmets
 Gloves
 Boots
 Knee and elbow pads
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Techniques in abseiling
 Australian rappel – it involves descending facing down

 Tandem or spider rappelling – it involves two climbers descending on the same belay device.
Mainly done in rescue situations when one climber is incapacitated
 Simultaneously rappelling – it when two climbers descend at the same time using the same
rope or using two ropes tied together
 Counterbalance rappelling – it is used by a leader to reach an injured second
 Releasable abseil – it is used with inexperienced abseiler
 Classical abseiling (non-mechanical method) – it involves descending without the aid of
mechanical devices, wrapping the rope around the body. It is dangerous and used only in
emergencies when no other option is available
 Fireman’s belay – a method to backup an abseil by a partner on the ground who is able to pull
down the rope from below to arrest the descent. A safety technique, particularly for
inexperienced abseilers
ORIENTEERING
Team building
 It is the act of improving and maximizing a group of people who collaborate or work together
to achieve a common goal
Stages in team building
STAGE DESCRIPTION
Forming  Define team, individual roles, task and
strategy
 Develop trust, communication and norms
Storming  Realization of task difficulty
 Fluctuation in attitude about chances of
success and poor collaboration
Norming  Members accepts team and individuality
of fellow members
 Members start helping each other
Performing  Teams are able to function as a unit as
they find ways to get the job done
smoothly and effectively without in
appropriate conflict
33
Factors to consider in successful team performance (SCORE)
S – strategy
C – clear roles and responsibilities
O – open communication
R – rapid response
E – effective leadership
Team building activities
 There are four main types which are communication activities, problem solving and decision
making, adaptability and planning activities and activities that focus on building trust
Activities
 Sports relay races

 Tug of war
 Sports hot potato
 Teams must stand in a circle and throw, kick or pass the ball to one another
 Every time a pass is complete, they take one step backwards
 As the circle gets larger, the game become more difficult
 After a couple of minutes, the biggest wins
Human knot
 Another exercise that goes big on communication and teamwork, the human knot gets team
members working together to solve problems
 With the group standing in a circle, each person grabs a hand across from them.
 When all hands are connected, the circle should resemble one big mess of hands that teams
must work their way out of the without letting go.
 This activity builds problem solving as a team and relies on communication in a sensible,
concise manner
Leadership
 It is a process whereby an individual influence a group of individuals to achieve a common

goal
34
Principles of leadership
 Know yourself and seek self-improvement

 Be technically proficient
 Seek responsibilities and take responsibility for your actions
 Make sound and timely decisions
 Set the example
 Know your teammates and look out for their well-being
 Keep your teammates informed
 Develop a sense of responsibility in your teammates
 Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised and accomplished
 Use the full capacity of your team
Collaboration
 It is to work together with others to achieve a common goal

 In team sports their success is banked on their collaboration skills
Collaboration skills
 Willingness to work together

 Readiness to collaborate through education, maturity and prior experience
 Understand your own limits and boundaries
 There should be effective communication (speaking and listening)
 You should trust one another
 You should be committed to working together
How a team can a develop collaboration skills
 Clarification of values and expectations at the beginning

 Keeping the commitment and activities simple at first
 Prioritise clear communication
 Get to know each other
 Being clear on personal and team needs
 Avoid conflict
 Clearly define the roles of the participants
 It should be fun and interesting
35
QUESTIONS
1. Which component is crucial for climbers? A. balance B. edging C. smearing D. lay-back

2. Which of the following is not a climbing technique? A. edging B. lay-back C. abseiling
D. smearing
3. What is the best technique for climbing up cracks and corners? A. stemming B. lay-back
C. edging D. smearing
4. For climbing smooth surfaces, the best techniques is……….A. stemming B. lay-back C. edging
D. smearing
5. Flagging is ………….. A. counter balancing by using a limb to shift your weight B. when you push
down on a hold and bring feet up to meet hands C. an undercling when you use the underside
of a hold D. any hold that is oriented for a sideways pull
6. What is the inverse of a side pull? A. palming B. gaston C. undercling D. side pull
7. Ropes, descenders, auto block knots and climbing harness are equipment for? A. abseiling
B. climbing C. team building D. sportsmanship
8. ………………..can be used as safety back-up in case the abseiler loses control of the abseil
A. boots B. climbing harness C. auto-block knot D. knee pads
9. What is the performing state in team building? A. teams are able to work as a unit
B. members accept team and individuality of fellow members C.realisation of task difficulty D.
define team, individual roles task and strategy
10. A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal is
called……… A. innovation B. collaboration C. leadership D. critical thinking
11. Which one is not a skill for innovation?
I) Subject based
II) Behavioural and social
III) Thinking and creativity
IV) Inference A. i B. ii C. iii D. iv
12. How many skills are needed by an athlete to become a critical thinker? A. 2 B. 6 C. 4 D. 10
13. The ability of a team to work together is called…… A. collaboration B. innovation C. critical
thinking D. team building
14. Define the technique of abseiling which involves descending facing down? A. rappelling B.
tandem C. Australian rappelling D. counter balance rappelling
15. Which aspect is a common team building, collaboration and leadership technique A. skill
B. time C. communication D. balance
16. What are the three determinants of effective climbing? [3]
17. Give four techniques used in indoor climbing [4]
18. Define the following terms a) edging b) abseiling [4]
19. List four items of equipment used in abseiling [4]
20. Define the following terms i) team building ii) innovation iii) collaboration [6]
21. What does SCORE stand for in team building performance [5]
22. Give any two principles of leadership [2]
36
MASS DISPLAYS
 Mass as a terminology suggests a huge gathering or group or a large number.

 Display refers to a show or spectacle.
 It is an artistic performance in which large numbers of people perform as a unit bringing out
the aesthetic value of sound, movement and art.
Purpose of mass displays
 Fostering a collective spirit in a nation

 Promoting good health for the performers
 Expressing the people’s past and present
 Providing entertainment at gatherings
History of mass displays
 The origins of these displays can be traced from as early as 776 BC in ancient Greece when the
Olympic Games began
 In these games gymnastics were the main attraction
 In ancient African history mass displays were performed in the form of dancing
History of MDs in Zimbabwe
 MDs have been provided for through plays and games that are unique to the diversified
cultures in the country
 MDs have provided good health, productivity and entertainment in Zimbabwe
 After 54 instructors were trained by experts in Korea in 1982, modern MDs came into form
 MDs are now being used in official opening ceremonies at sporting events, traditional
ceremonies in some societies, national days’ celebrations
Components of mass displays
1. Music
 It is an art form, created by organizing of pitch, rhythm and sound made by musical
instruments and sometimes singing
 Music is used to conduct the gymnastics or dance in an arena
 It is also used as background music
 Music guides speed and movement of performers
 The choice of music in a display is determined by the theme of the event
37
2. Arena displays or gymnastics

 Gymnastics is a performance of sequence of movements requiring physical strength, flexibility
and kinesthetic awareness
 The gymnastics performances may include traditional dance, the gymnastics, the aerobics,
traditional games and sport
 Some gymnastics are performed using apparatus
Theme Apparatus
Agriculture good harvest Winnowing baskets
Sport excellence Balls, ropes
Liberation struggle Riffle, spears
Culture Bows and arrows
Machinery Cartwheels and human towers
3. Background art
 It gives meaning to all other parts of the performance
 The main purpose of background art is to interpret and explain the gymnastics and music
being displayed.
 There is the use of wording, colours and patterns by artists.
 Consider the following: the people’s history, colours, designs, pattern of the society and the
type of act being displayed
THEMES FOR CHOREOGRAPHY
 A theme is the main subject of MD performance and it is derived from the type of event for
the performance
 In ancient times displays were done at ceremonial celebrations of special functions. Some of
the ceremonies included
 Harvesting ceremonies
 Adulthood initiation ceremonies
 Inauguration ceremonies
 Birth and death ceremonies
 Victory ceremonies
 War preparation ceremonies
 Courtship
 A theme was created in accordance to the event to be displayed at or even the audience to be
entertained.
38
Event Theme
Price giving day/ graduation day Education for all or excellence in education
Sports day A healthy body through sport
Inter-schools sports competitions Sports diversified
Community celebrations (independence day) Freedom, peace, work
SASSAF, CASSAF, DASSAF Unpacking learners potential
Choreography
 It is the art or job of deciding how dancers will move in a performance and /or the movements
that are done by dancers in a performance
Types of choreography
a) Free style – less complex, generic, looser in structure and more repetitions
b) Structured style – specific structured, sophisticated and complex movements
Factors to consider when choreographing
 Theme of the event

 Gymnastics to be performed
 Apparatus to be used in the act
FORMATIONS
 It is the way in which a moving group of people or things is organized into a particular shape
or pattern
 MD trainers should come up with formations first before gestures
 There are types of formations that is simple(basic) and complex(symbolic) formations
a) Simple formations
 These include exercise formations, files, columns, oblique, circles and squares
i) Exercise formations
 It is when the gymnasts are standing at their exercising points.
 The exercise point is where the gymnast or performer stands as his/ her starting position
 It is 2.5m from the next gymnast either directions
 All other formations simple or complex are derived from the exercise formation
 Exercise points are arranged in files and columns
39
Fig. 1 exercise points
b) File formation – these are vertical lines of gymnasts or performers, concentrated one behind
the other
c) Column formation – these are horizontal lines of gymnasts or performers, concentrated
abreast
d) Oblique formations – these are lines at 450 to the horizontal of gymnasts or performers
concentrated in line of that angle
Fig. 3 an oblique formation
e) Circle formations – this is a circle of gymnasts or performers concentrated along the line of the
circle
f) Square formation – these are the square of gymnasts or performers concentrated along the
sides of the square
Symbolic or complicated formations
i) Star formation – this is a combination of columns and obliques

ii) Flower formation – complicated in that most of the participants fall outside datum points
BACKGROUND AND PERFORMING MUSIC
 Music is art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organised in time.
 Elements of music include: rhythm, pitch, dynamics, sonic qualities of timbre and texture
 Music is performed with a vast range of instruments and vocal techniques ranging from
singing to rapping
 Rhythm is the aspect of music comprising of all the elements such as accent, meter and tempo
that relate to forward movement
Musical beats and tempo
 They indicate change of one formation to the next formation using crotchet or drumbeat
 2 over 2 is a quick tempo
 1 to 8 is a full bar
 1 to 4 is a half bar
 4 over 4 is normal tempo which is usually used for marching and dancing
40
Counting beats
64 beat counts
 The next step is to divide it into beats for each of the performance from entry to exit.
participants will be aware, e.g. that each bar they should change into another activity which is
a progression of what was happening before the half beat
 For example, counts such as: 1,2,3,4 represent a half bar, then 5,6,7,8 represent another bar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (16 counts)
3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (32 counts)
5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (48 counts)
7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (64 counts)
Background art
 It is the dictionary of the whole performance
Sketch plain paper ………design paper ……… graph extension paper ………Background art book
 The artists transfer the picture onto a design paper which a scale drawing of the actual picture
 Each box on the graph extension paper represents an art book
 The books are numbered so that each performer maintains his/her position
 Hundreds of art books with painted themes are mounted in the grand stand behind the
gymnasts
 The grand stand is the sitting area at a stadium. The books are opened at the same time page
by page to show the painted themes
 The music and the arena display correspond with the messages on the background art
 The grand finale is the conclusion of the display
 For background art, apart from the art books you can also use art boards, manila sheets, or
improvise with banners
Steps in making background art
 Sketch on plain paper

 Transfer sketch to design paper
 Transfer image to extension paper
 Finally transfer image to A3 background book
41
QUESTIONS
1. How many Zimbabwean MDs trainers were trained in Korean A. 24 B. 34 C. 44 D. 54

2. In which year were the Zimbabwean trainers trained in Korea for MDs A. 1980 B.1880 C. 1982
D. 1882
3. Which of the following is not a component of mass displays A. arena B. music C. gymnastics
D. art
4. What guides the speed and movement of performers in a display A. calendars B. music
C. routine D. art
5. Motions of limbs or the body are called………………… A gestures B. choreography C. acts
D. themes
6. …………………is a unit or complete activity that is found within the country A. routine B. oblique
C. motion D. chapter
7. A routine is………… A. a theme of an event B. a type of choreography used C. a course of action
to be followed regularly D. story line
8. Which one is a characteristic of a free-style choreography A. generic B. specific C. structured
D. sophisticated
9. What are the types of formations A. gestures and acts B. basic and symbolic C. horizontal and
vertical D. stars and circles
10. What is the distance between exercise points A.1.5m B. 2.5m C. 3.5m D. 4.5m
11. …………are lines of gymnasts, concentrated one behind the other. A. oblique B. column C. file
D. star
12. Oblique formations have lines at……………to the horizontal of the gymnasts A. 150 B.900 C. 600
D. 450
13. What formations are a combination of columns and obliques A. circle B. file C. square D.
star
14. Traditional songs can be used for what type of act A. sports B. culture C. agriculture
D. independence
15. What is a MD A. it is a religious ceremony B. it is a form of feast C. it is an activity which is
native to Africa D. is a spectacular performance conducted to celebrate a particular theme
16. Which country has greatly influenced the introduction of MDs in Zimbabwe A. USA B. China
C. Japan D. Korea
17. What is the basic formation in MD A. circles and squares B. symbols and short columns C. files
and columns D. stars and rectangles
18. What name is given to the exercise point at which a performer is assigned during a
performance A. exercise point B. linear point C. column point D. performance point
19. Movement in a performance is guided by……….. A. audience B. time C. counts D. performance
20. What name is given to objects that are used in the arena during a performance A. flags
B. sticks C. props D. costumes
21. Background art is usually displayed from the ……. A. podium B. ground C. grand finale D.
grand stand
42
22. Red, blue and yellow are………….. A. bold colours B. simple colours C. secondary colours
D. primary colours
23. The selection of background art is based on….. A. fitness levels B. costumes C. props D. themes
24. Grand finale comes……… A. at the beginning of an act B. before an act C. at the end of an act
D. after the act
25. A grand stand is used for……….A. background music B. arena choreography C. background art
D. gymnastics
26. MDs were introduced in the PESMDs curriculum in………. A. 1980 B. 1975 C.1982 D. 2015
27. Jerusalema and………… are traditional dances A. clucks B. rhumba C. freestyle D. mhande
28. Define MDs [2]
29. State 3 reasons why people participate in MDs [3]
30. Outline the development of MDs in Zimbabwe [2]
31.
Event Theme
Price giving day/ graduation day ……………………………..
Sports day ……………………………
Inter-schools sports competitions …………………………………..
Community celebrations (independence day) …………………………………….
SASSAF, CASSAF, DASSAF ………………………………
Field day ………………………….
ZIMASSET …………………..
32. Give three factors to consider when choosing a theme [3]
33. Define choreography [2]
34. What is an arena [2]
35. What does the acronym BPM stand for [1]
36. Define the following terms i) gestures ii) theme iii) exercise point iv) Act [8]
37. Give 2 factors to consider when formulating gestures [2]
38.
43
EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS
 It is a sport practiced by men and women that requires balance, strength, flexibility, agility,
coordination, endurance and control
 Gymnastics evolved from exercise used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting
and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills
 The world governing body for competitive gymnastics is the Federation of International
Gymnastics (FIG) which was founded in 1881
 Women’s events include vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise
 Men’s events include floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel and horizontal
bars
 Gymnastics is a three-pronged competitive discipline which covers artistic, rhythmic and
trampoline
 Artistic and trampoline gymnastics are a part of male and female competitions
 Rhythmic gymnastics is open only to females
44
 Artistic gymnastics – it is divided into men’s and women’s gymnastics

 Rhythmic gymnastics – gymnasts compete on a mat about 12.5m2. They perform
choreographed movements set to music, some acrobatic movements are allowed. No flight
elements such as flips and handsprings are allowed
 Trampoline – gymnasts bounce up and down while performing somersaults or twists and any
other movements. Gymnasts can bounce up to 9m high, some gymnasts have been known to
stay in the air for up to two seconds
Safety in gymnastics
 Selection of apparatus – proper and best quality equipment

 Care and repair of apparatus – broken & faulty equipment must be repaired
 Use of mats for protection -
 Use of mats for spotting – in dangerous stunts like somersaults
Components of fitness for gymnastics
 Flexibility – the ability to move/ bend joints in wide range of motion with ease and withou t injury
 Strength –is the ability of a muscular unit or combination of muscular units to apply force
 Agility – is the ability to transition between several positions efficiently and quickly
 Endurance – is the muscle’s ability to continuously perform without getting tired
 Body composition – a precise body mass measurement of fat and muscle
Movement patterns in gymnastics
1. Landing
 Proper landing technique helps reduce the force of landings
 Safe landing techniques include the following:
i) Knees slightly bent to absorb the impact of landing
ii) Straight spine to keep the neck stable and prevent falling forward
iii) Arms extended to the front, straight and level with the heart in order to keep chest up on
the landing
2. Balancing
Single balances
3. Locomotion
 It is the movement from one place to another
 This can be achieved using the following techniques:
 Walking leaping frog jumps
 Crawling galloping
 Tip toe walking one leg jumps
45
 Skipping two leg jumps

 Spinning bear walks
 Walk on your heels cartwheel
 Long jump backward roll
 Tuck jumps forward roll
Gymnastics team composition, judges and scoring
 Each team has 7 members. 6 members compete in each event

 Judges score each member’s performance using a 10 point scale
 A 10 is the highest score a judge can give
 For each event highest 5 scores on each team are added together
 The team with the highest overall score for all events wins the competition
QUESTIONS
1. ……………is the ability to continuously perform without getting fatigue A. flexibility B.

endurance
2. When was the Federation of International Gymnastics formed? A. 1881 B. 1891 C.1981 D.
1991
3. Which one is not a type of balance A. upright B. cartwheel C. inverted D. symmetrical
4. Which one is not a type of a spring skill in educational gymnastics A. handspring B. headspring
C. elbow spring D. neck spring
5. Define a hula hoop [2]
6. Describe a trampoline performance [2]
7. How would you describe an acrobatic event [2]
8. Only women can take part in……………..gymnastics [1]
9. Why is warming up before activities important [2]
10. Define the terms: i) stunt ii) dismount [4]
11. Name any three floor exercises [3]
12. List any three the apparatus used in gymnastics [3]
13. Gymnasts apply powder on their hands when performing vaulting stunts. What are the
reasons for doing that
14. Which components are tested in gymnastics
46

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PESMD NOTES FORM ONE TO FOUR

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

 It is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles

 It is a band or a bundle of fibrous tissue in the body

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

What determines the type of muscle fibre

 Excitability – muscle respond to stimulation and become active

 Refers to the activation of tension

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

 The ends of the muscle move closer together

How muscles work together

 Flexors – contracting to bend our joints

Ligament – it is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches bone to bone

Effects of exercise on the muscular system

 Causes muscle soreness

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

1. Muscles are made up of……………. A. silica B. polyester C. calcium D. fibres

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

 It also referred to as the circulatory system

Components of the circulatory system

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

Three stages of heart action

a) Cardiac cycle – is one complete cycle of these three stages

 They are made in bone marrow

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

 They have no nucleus and last for about 120 days

White blood cells (leukocytes)

 They are defined as networks of hallow tubes that transport blood

 They carry blood away from the heart to body parts

 They carry blood towards the heart from body parts

 It is the number of times the heart beats per minute

 It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in each beat

 It is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute

What affects blood pressure?

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system

 improve the blood circulation

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

b) Anaerobic respiration – this process is possible in the absence of oxygen

Breathing in/ inspiration/ inhalation

 Refers to the intake of oxygen when breathing in

Breathing out/ expiration/ exhalation

 Refers to the release of carbon dioxide when breathing out

Functions of the respiratory system

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

Functions of respiratory organs

 It is made up of cartilage, bone muscle and skin

 It is also known as the oral cavity

Wind pipe/ trachea

 It is also referred to as the throat

CHOKWENDA C (DIP IN ED PESMD, MTC and HBScSSM, BUSE) 0774706316

 It is how many breath we take in one minute

 It the amount of air we can take in or out with one breath

 Is the amount of air we can breathe in, in one minute

Total lung capacity

 Is vital capacity added to residual volume