TRANSMISSION MEDIA

A Transmission Medium ​can be broadly defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium
for two people having a dinner conversation is the air. The air can also be used to
convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written message, the
transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.
In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission
medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic
cable, or fiber-optic cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a
conversion of data from another form.
 Guided Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal
traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits
of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial

cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form
of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the
form of light.
1. Twisted-Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with

its own plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure 1
 Fig 1 Twisted Pair Cable
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In
addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires
are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires
because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the
receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in
one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next
twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally
affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver,
which calculates the difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals.
The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is
clear that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the
quality of the cable.
 Applications

Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels. The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone
office-commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are
 used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use
the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted- pair cables. Local-area
networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer
metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure
2).

  Fig 2 Coaxial Cable

Applications

Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital
telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600
Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced
today with fiber-optic cable. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the
traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however,
cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid
networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer
premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable. Another common application of
coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of its high bandwidth, and
consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in
early Ethernet LANs.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the
nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction. Figure 3 shows how a
ray of light changes direction when going from a denser to a less dense substance.
As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line
perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical
angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence is
equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater
than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the
denser substance. Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its
value differs from one substance to another.
 Fig 3. Ray of Light changes Direction
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density
of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is
reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. See Figure 4.

Fig 4 Optical Fiber

 
Cable Composition

Figure 5 shows the composition of a typical fiber-optic cable. The outer jacket is
made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen
 the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests.
Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the
center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.

Fig 5 Fiber Optic Cable Construction

 Applications

Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide

bandwidth is cost- effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we
can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. The SONET network provides such a
backbone. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure
while coaxial cable provides the connection to the user premises. This is a
cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user end
does not justify the use of optical fiber. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX
network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages

Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).

1. Higher bandwidth​: Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths

(and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data
rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the
medium but by the signal generation and reception technology available.
2. Less signal attenuation​: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair
cable.
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference​: Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
4. Resistance to corrosive materials​: Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.

5. Light weight​. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.

6. Greater immunity to tapping​. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping

than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be
tapped.

Disadvantages

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

1. Installation and maintenance​. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology.

Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available
 everywhere.
2. Unidirectional light propagation​. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we
need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3. Cost​. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.
 

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them. Unguided signals can travel from the
source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and
line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure 6. In ground propagation, radio waves
travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-
frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance. In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio
waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth. This
type of transmission allows for

greater distances with lower output power. In line-or-sight propagation, very

high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or
close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight
propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.
  
Fig 6 Propagation Methods

Radio Waves

Waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are called radio waves.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be
received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too.
The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band. Radio waves,
particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This
makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because,
for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage
because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building. The radio
wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave band.
When this band is divided into sub bands, the sub bands are also narrow, leading to a low
data rate for digital communications.
Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves,
they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas
need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of
antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Characteristics of Micro wave propagation are Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. The microwave band is
relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub bands can be assigned, and a
high data rate is possible. Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need ​unidirectional antennas ​that send out signals in one direction. Two
types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the
horn. The Fig 7 shows the different types of antenna. A ​parabolic dish antenna ​is
based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of
sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point
called the focus. ​Horn antenna ​looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are
broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow
parallel beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the
scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected
down into the stem. Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.

Fig 7 Types of Antenna

Infrared Waves
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1
mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having
high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; Infrared signals can be used for
short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation Infrared
waves cannot be used outside a building because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an
excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to
transmit digital data with a very high data rate.