Dr. Naitik D Trivedi & Dr. Upama N. Trivedi: Energetics
Dr. Naitik D Trivedi & Dr. Upama N. Trivedi: Energetics
Dr. Naitik D Trivedi & Dr. Upama N. Trivedi: Energetics
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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ENERGETICS
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molecule in the living cells.
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It consists of an adenine, a ribose and a triphosphate moiety.
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in the triphosphate unit.
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The hydrolysis of ATP is a classical example of exergonic reaction
ATP+H2O ADP + Pi (G° = –7.3 Cal/mol)
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FORMATION OF ATP
ATP can be synthesized in two ways
1. Oxidative phosphorylation :
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This is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms. It is linked with the
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ATP.
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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Inner mitochondrial membrane:
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The electron transport chain and ATP synthesizing system are located on the inner
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mitochondrial membran.
It is impermeable to ions (H+, K+, Na+) and small molecules (ADP, ATP).
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the phosphorylating subunits which are the centres for ATP production.
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Mitochondrial matrix:
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The enzyme complexes (I-IV) and the mobile carriers are collectively involved in the
transport of electrons.
COMPLEX I
To start ETC, two electrons are carried to the first complex on chain NADH.
Complex I is composed of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and an enzyme containing
iron-sulfur (Fe-S).
FMN, which is prosthetic groups or co-factors in the ETC. A prosthetic group is a non-
protein molecule required for the activity of a protein.
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The enzyme in complex I is NADH dehydrogenase, a very large protein containing 45
amino acid chains. Complex I can pump four hydrogen ions from the matrix into the
intermembrane space’ IV
UBIQUINONE (Q) AND COMPLEX II
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Complex II directly receives FADH2, which does not pass through complex I.
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The compound connecting the first and second complexes to the third is ubiquinone
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(Q).
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The Q molecule is reduced to QH2, & delivers its electrons to the next complex in the
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ETC.
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Q receives the electrons from NADH from complex I and from the FADH2 from
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COMPLEX III
The third complex is composed of cytochrome B, another Fe-S protein, rieske center
(2Fe-2S center), and cytochrome C proteins; this complex is also called cytochrome
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oxidoreductase.
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Cytochrome proteins have a prosthetic heme group. The heme molecule carries
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electrons.
Complex III pumps protons through the membrane and passes its electrons to
cytochrome c for transport to the fourth complex of proteins and enzymes.
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COMPLEX IV
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
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The transport of electrons through the ETC is linked with the release of free energy.
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The process of synthesizing ATP from ADP and Pi coupled with the electron transport
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ATP synthase, present in the complex V, utilizes the proton gradient for the synthesis
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of ATP.
ATP synthase is a complex enzyme and consists of two functional subunits, namely F1
and F0.
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
According to the binding change mechanism, the three subunits of F-ATP synthase
adopt different conformations.
One subunit has 1st open (O) conformation, the second has loose (L) conformation
while the third one has tight (T)conformation).
The rotation of γ subunit, which in turn induces conformation changes in β subunits.
The substrates ADP and Pi bind to β subunit in L-conformation.
The L site changes to T conformation, and this leads to the synthesis of ATP.
The O site changes to L conformation which binds to ADP and Pi.
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The T site changes to O conformation, and releases ATP. This cycle of conformation
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changes of subunits is repeated.
And three ATP are generated for each revolution.
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cell.
The main role of ATP is to provide energy. Below are the ways it provides energy which
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1. A source of energy.
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- ADP and phosphate are then released and a new ATP molecule binds to
myosin.
3. Structural Maintenance
- ATP plays a very important role in preserving the structure of the cell by
helping the assembly of the cytoskeletal elements.
4. Cell Signaling
- ATP has key functions both in intracellular and extracellular signaling.
5. Active Transport
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- ATP plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules such as proteins
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and lipids into and out of the cell.
6. Synthesis of DNA and RNA
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- During DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) reduces the sugar
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residue from ribonucleoside diphosphates to form deoxyribonucleoside
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diphosphates such as dADP.
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CREATININE PHOSPHATE
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The muscles of the body function through the use of ATP, or adenosine triphosphate,
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to power contractions.
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When one molecule of ATP is used in the contraction process, it is hydrolyzed to ADP,
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Formula: Creatine~PO 3-
The high energy phosphate bond in phosphocreatine has more energy than the bond
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Creatine phosphate can be obtained from two sources: ingestion of meat and internal
production by the liver and kidneys.
Creatine and creatinine (fromed from the metabolism of creatine) waste is removed
from the body through the kidneys and urinary system.
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BASAL METABOLIC RATE
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Basal metabolism or basal metabolic rate (BMR) is defined as the minimum amount of
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energy required by the body to maintain life at complete physical and mental rest in
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the postabsorptive state (i.e. 12 hours after the last meal).
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Measurement :
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The BMR is determined either by the apparatus of Benedict and Roth (closed circuit
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Let this be A liters for 6 minutes. The standard calorific value for one liter O2 consumed
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is 4.825 Cal.
- Heat produced in 6 min = 4.825 ˟ A
- Heat produced in one hour = 4.825A ˟ 10
Units of BMR :
- BMR is expressed as Calories per square meter of body surface area per hour
i.e. Cal/sq.m/hr.
For the calculation of body surface area, the simple formula devised by Du Bois is used.
A = H 0.725 ˟ W 71.84 ˟ 0.425
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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Some authors continue to represent BMR as Cal/day.
For an adult man BMR is around 1,600 Cal/day
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For an adult woman around 1,400 Cal/day.
This is particularly important for easily calculating energy requirements per
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day.
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FACTORS AFFECTING BMR
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1. Surface area : The BMR is directly proportional to the surface area. Surface area is
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2. Sex : Men have marginally higher (about 5%) BMR than women. This is due to the
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5. Hormones : Thyroid hormones (T) have a stimulatory effect on the metabolism of the
body and, therefore, BMR. Thus, BMR is raised in hyperthyroidism and reduced in
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hypothyroidism. In fact, the measurement of BMR was earlier used to assess thyroid
function.
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