CITY OF MALABON UNIVERSITY

Pampano corner Maya-maya St., Longos, Malabon City

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
City of Malabon University Open University

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

This course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current research and theories
on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of development. Further, this includes factors
that affect the progress of development of the learners and appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
developmental level of the learners. The course also addresses laws, policies, guidelines, and procedures that
provide safe and secure learning environments, and the use of positive and non-violent discipline in the
management of learner behavior.

COURSE OUTCOMES

[1] demonstrate content knowledge and its application within and /or across curriculum teaching areas.
[2] demonstrate an understanding of the different research-based theories related to the broad dimensions of
child and adolescent development and their application to each developmental level of the learners.
[3] demonstrate understanding of pedagogical principles suited to diverse learners’ needs and experiences at
different developmental levels.
[4] demonstrate knowledge of laws, policies, guidelines, and procedures that provide safe and secure learning
environments; and
[5] demonstrate knowledge of positive and non-violent discipline in the management of learner behavior.

MODULE 11 WEEK 4
UNIT 4: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Overview

Self-regulation theories focus on the role individuals play in directing the course of their development by
selecting and pursuing goals and modifying goal pursuit based on opportunities and constraints. Adolescence
brings new challenges for the maturation of self-regulation as the person experiences changing physical,
cognitive, emotional, and social capacities, and encounters expanding educational, social, and societal demands
and opportunities. Self-regulation takes on new adaptive significance in adolescence, as it addresses the capacity
to select and pursue personally meaningful and societally valued goals, and the ability to resist or redirect impulses
that might pose risks to health, growth, and life satisfaction. Following an explanation of theoretical approaches
to the processes of self-regulation, the constructs associated with self-regulation theories are applied to
homework, leisure time physical activity, reflecting on purpose in life, parenting, and therapy.

Learning Objectives

In this module, you are expected to:

1. Discuss the concepts and theories related to the socio-emotional development of children and
adolescents.
2. Make connections, using knowledge on current research literature, between socio-emotional
development theories and developmentally appropriate teaching approaches suited to learners’
gender, needs, strengths, interests, and experiences.
3. Compare and contrast various approaches to learning and describe how they are manifested in the
classroom.
4. Apply behavior analysis in teaching child and adolescent learners across curriculum areas
5. Discuss the laws, policies, guidelines, and procedures that protect children’s rights and assure their
safety and security

Key Words and Concepts

Hierarchy of needs, motivation, models, theories, reinforcement, expectancy, self-regulation

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Content

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTIVATION AND SELF-REGULATION

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model

of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the
hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the
hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-
actualization.

Deficiency needs vs. growth needs

This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first
four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as
growth or being needs (B-needs). Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate
people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the
longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the hungrier
they will become. Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower-level deficit needs
before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction
of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given
“the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987,
p. 69).

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 When a deficit need has been 'more or less' satisfied it will go away, and our activities become
habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then
become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger
once they have been engaged. Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from
a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be
able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to
move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted
by a failure to meet lower-level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause
an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Therefore, not everyone will move through
the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types
of needs.

The original hierarchy of needs fivestage model includes:

Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some
needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the
first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates
us, and so on. The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

• Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink,
shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot
function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other
needs become secondary until these needs are met.
• Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
• Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third
level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal
relationships motivates behavior. Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance,
receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
• Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity,
achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most
important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
• Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming” (Maslow,
1987, p. 64).

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

Clayton Alderfer developed Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs into a three-factor model of motivation
known as the ERG model. In this model the letter E, R, & G each stand for a different human need:
existence, relatedness, and growth. The ERG model is a content theory of motivation. Alderfer’s
model says that all humans are motivated by these three needs. The most concrete and motivating
of Alderfer’s three needs is existence, which really relates to physical and psychological survival. The
next level is the need for relatedness, a sense of community and a good relationship with yourself.
The least concrete, but still important, of Alderfer’s needs in the ERG model is growth, which really
relates to self-development, fulfillment, and the sense of achieving your potential.

How the model works?

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of
need at the same time, and that the level which is most important to them can change over time. In
other words, an individual’s priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move between the
existence, relatedness, and growth levels of need over time. They can move upwards, and they can
move downwards.

Comparing Alderfer and Maslow

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals need to have satisfied one level of needs before
moving on to the next one. For example, they need to have satisfied their safety needs before being
motivated by social belonging. Alderfer disagreed. In his model, individuals do not need to have
satisfied their existence needs before being motivated by their relatedness need.

In fact, Alderfer went further and said that different individuals potentially prioritize the needs in
different orders based on their life views. A standard example of this could be the starving actor who’s
motivated by growth through their art, potentially at the expense of their existence (i.e. they can’t
pay their rent but are pursuing their passion).

Alderfer also noted that how individuals perceive their progression in relation to each of the levels
of need is important. If an individual feels they are making great progress at relatedness, they may be
increasingly motivated by growth even though their relatedness need has not been fully satisfied.
Similarly, if an individual feels frustrated with the progress they are making in relation to growth, they
may abandon it and redouble their motivation in relation to relatedness.

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 The ERG model in the world of work

In Maslow’s model, individuals remain at a fixed level of need until they have satisfied it. This
would mean that individuals at work should work towards satisfying their current stage of need, and
that leaders and managers should focus on helping the members of their teams achieve one specific
level of needs at a time.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation, though, upends this thinking. Under Alderfer’s model
individuals can be motivated by different levels at the same time, and have their motivational
priorities change in relation to their sense of progress. Given this, individuals should not focus on one
level of need at a time. Instead, they may wish to balance their motivations across levels. Similarly,
leaders should not focus on helping the members of their team satisfy one level of need at a time.
Instead, they should be aware of the blend of needs that human can have and help their team
members progress in relation to a blend of needs, which will change over time.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

David McClelland’s research indicates that individuals are motivated based on three needs:

• Need for achievement (NAch): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.
• Need for power (NPower): The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise.
• Need for affiliation (NAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.

Unlike Maslow, McClelland did not differentiate between any certain transition among the needs.
He indicates that some people have higher levels of one need than others. People who have high
achievement needs are different from others in the following ways:

1. They seek personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems. This means they
take the initiative to find results, sometimes even when it isn’t their problem!
2. They need rapid feedback on their performance. They are usually very frustrated by
not receiving feedback, and the quicker the better!
3. They are not gamblers, but instead set appropriately challenging goals. High
achievers like to control their own success; they don’t like to “win the lottery” or
anything by chance!
4. They want to stretch themselves, so they set goals that are challenging but ones that
they perceive they have at least a 50% chance of attaining.

People who have a high need for power are not power mongers! Instead, they understand the
use of power and that it enables people to get things done and make a difference in a positive way.
Keep in mind that power is not a negative construct! It is necessary to use these processes to make
change and to make a difference! People who have a healthy need for power have the following
characteristics:
• They like to be “in charge.” Part of this is because they know their own strengths and
weaknesses and know they can trust their own judgment and skills. They are often
uncertain about the abilities of others, so they want to be in charge!
• Since they know they can be effective, they strive for influence over others.
• High power people enjoy competition and status-oriented positions.
• They do enjoy prestige and sometimes this gets in the way of their effectiveness on
the actual job.

McClelland found that people who have a high need for affiliation have the following
characteristics:
• They enjoy being with people and being accepted and liked by the people around
them.
• They prefer cooperation over competition.
• They strive to make and keep relationships with a high amount of trust and mutual
understanding.

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 Process Theories

Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)

B.F Skinner’s work is built on the assumption that behavior is influenced by its consequences.
Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling consequences of the behavior.
Reinforcement theory proposes that you can change someone's behavior by using reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction. Rewards are used to reinforce the behavior you want and punishment
are used to prevent the behavior you do not want. Extinction is a means to stop someone from
performing a learned behavior. The technical term for these processes is called ‘operant
conditioning’.

Key Concepts of Reinforcement Theory

The fundamental concepts of this theory are reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

Reinforcement can be divided into positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement as follows:

• Positive reinforcement occurs when the consequence resulting in the behavior you are
attempting to produce increases the probability that the desired behavior will continue. If a
salesperson performs well, that salesperson may receive a bonus, which reinforces the desire
to make sales because of the positive consequence of doing so.
• Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative consequence is withheld if the behavior you
desire is demonstrated, which will increase the probability that the behavior you are seeking
will continue. For example, let's say that your company is opening a new office in The Outer
Hebrides. No one wants to move there. The company decides to let the top ten salespeople
in the office pick if they go to the Outer Hebrides or stay at the old office. You work very hard
to be in the top ten so you can avoid the negative consequence of relocating there. You will
continue to perform your best to avoid the negative consequence. Negative reinforcement,
however, is not the same as punishment. Reinforcement theory suggests that when positive
reinforcement for a learned response is withheld, individuals carry on practicing that
behavior for some period. However, after a while if the non-reinforcement continues, the
behavior will decrease in frequency and intensity and will eventually disappear.

Punishment occurs when you impose a negative consequence to reduce an undesirable behavior.
While negative reinforcement involves withholding a negative consequence to encourage a desirable
behavior, punishment is imposing a negative consequence to discourage an unwanted behavior. For
example, getting your wages docked for being late to work is a punishment that is imposed on late
workers to discourage workers from being late - an undesirable behavior. However, punishment is
often used as a last resort to reshape the employee's behavior because it can result in bad
consequences and create more pressure and stress for the employee.

Extinction is a means to stop someone's learned behavior. You attempt to extinguish a behavior
by withholding the positive reinforcement that encouraged the behavior. For example, let's say that
you manage a production facility that had a hard time keeping up with orders for the past few months.
You used overtime pay as a positive reinforcement to bring workers in on weekends and to delay
holidays. Now that you have the orders under control, you stop approving overtime. Workers no
longer come in on the weekends to work. Their learned behavior has been extinguished.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is a process theory of motivation. It says that an
individual’s motivation is affected by their expectations about the future.

Specifically, Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is affected by how much they value any
reward associated with an action (Valence), how much they believe that by putting effort into
something they will be able to generate good results (Expectancy) and how much they believe that
generating good results will result in a reward (Instrumentality).

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 It’s important to note that rewards could be intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are
external things such as money and promotion. Intrinsic motivations are internal things such as a sense
of fulfillment and achievement.

What Vroom’s model means for individuals

Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is product of several factors:

Valence: How much they value the potential rewards associated with the specific results or behaviors,

Expectancy: How much they believe that their additional effort will help them achieve the target
results of behaviors, and

Instrumentality: How much they believe the rewards will appear should they achieve the desired
outcomes or behaviors.

From an individual perspective this means that if any of these factors are lacking, you may lack
motivation.

If, as an individual, you find yourself feeling unmotivated in the world of work, it’s worth stepping
back and considering these factors. It may be that one or two of them are lacking for you. For
example, you may not value the intrinsic or extrinsic rewards associated with the work you are doing.
Similarly, you may simply believe that you don’t have the ability to achieve an outcome that would
trigger a reward.

If you assess your motivation through the lens of Vroom’s expectancy theory, you may identify
root causes for your lack of motivation. In turn, this might help identify actions you could take to
restore it. As ever, you may need help from others to restore your motivation. you may benefit from
discussing your thoughts with a peer, friend or even your line manager.

Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

Self-Determination is a theory of human motivation developed by psychologists Edward Deci and

Richard Ryan. Motivation, in this context, is what moves us to act. [1] The theory looks at the inherent,
positive human tendency to move towards growth, and outlines three core needs which facilitate
that growth. Those needs are Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness.

Competence – The need to experience our behaviors as effectively enacted (to feel like we’ve done
a good job).

Autonomy – The need to experience behavior as voluntary and “…reflectively self-endorsed” [2] (to
feel like we have control over what we do).

Relatedness – The need to “…interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others” [3] (to have
meaningful relationships and interactions with other people).

Here’s why these needs are so critical: SDT outlines two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic.
The three needs promote intrinsic motivation. This type of motivation initiates “behavior for its own
sake,” because it’s inherently satisfying or engaging. That innate human tendency to move towards
growth, mentioned earlier is, essentially, intrinsic motivation.

On the flip side, extrinsic motivation initiates behavior for the sake of getting a reward (more on this
later) or achieving an external goal. While extrinsic motivation doesn’t automatically lend itself to the
satisfaction of the three core needs, SDT defines different types of extrinsic motivation that can
(through a process called internalization) ultimately provide support for them.
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 Back to the idea of rewards – within this concept of extrinsic motivation, there are both extrinsic and
intrinsic rewards.

An extrinsic reward is tangible – like a salary raise, for instance. An intrinsic reward is intangible
and internal, like getting a sense of recognition through praise from your boss. It’s helpful to
understand this distinction because it is easy to confuse intrinsic motivation with intrinsic rewards. A
simple way to remember it is that motivation always relates to the behavior or activity, and rewards
are always an outcome. So, rewards (whether they’re intrinsic or extrinsic) fall under extrinsic
motivation.

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Assessments and Evaluations

Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Mr. Garcia wants to teach self-regulation to his students. Which of the following would you recommend
him?
a) Ask his students to test themselves once they finish a lesson.
b) Ask his students to have a journal where they write what they learn in class every day.
c) Teach his students how to make a chart of academic progress.
d) I would recommend all of these.

2. The part of the self-regulation cycle in which learners establish short- and long-term goals is the _____
phase.
a) forethought
b) performance (volitional) control
c) self-reflection
d) self-reaction

3. A learner's evaluation of current performance level compared to desired performance level is known as
_____.
a) self-judgment
b) self-reaction
c) self-awareness
d) self-reflection

4. Motivation is:
a) our ability to understand and perceive emotions
b) an internal state that guides our behavior to attain the goal
c) our ability to understand cultural norms and values
d) our ability to adapt to our environment

5. Melissa is a good role model for her teammates. She wants to make sure her team does well and wins
the conference championship. Her desire to attain this goal is described as:
a) intrinsic motivation
b) extrinsic motivation
c) a drive
d) a need

Essay:

1. How will the the theories discussed in this module help you as a future teacher in creating your own
strategy in teaching students?

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Summary and Reflection:

In summary, self-regulated learning is an important aspect of learning and achievement in academic

contexts. Students who are self-regulating are much more likely to be successful in school, to learn more, and to
achieve at higher levels. Accordingly, it is important for schools and classrooms to attempt to foster the
development of expertise in self-regulated learning. Of course, there are developmental, motivational, and
contextual factors that can facilitate or constrain self-regulated learning, but there are implicit and explicit ways
to help foster self-regulated learning. In the twenty-first century and as the explosion of information and multiple
ways of learning increase, it will become even more important that individuals know how to self-regulate their
learning and that fostering self-regulated learning becomes an important goal for all educational systems.

References:

Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Brenda B. Corpuz PHD
Ma. Rita D. Lucas PHD
Heidi Grace L. Borabo PHD
Paz I. Lucido PHD

The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Teresita T. Rungduin PHD
Darwin C. Runguin M.A.

https://changecom.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/braden_pamela_a-_2000_-
_mcclellandc2b4s_theory_of_needs.pdf

https://www.potentialunearthed.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Reinforcement-Theory.pdf

https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/vrooms-expectancy-theory-of-motivation/

https://www.gqrgm.com/what-is-self-determination-theory-sdt-why-does-it-matter/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/self-regulation-theory

https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2249/Motivation-SELF-REGULATED-LEARNING.html

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