Energy conversions-assignment

DC series and parallel circuits

DC series circuit
Figure 1 shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series, with a battery source of V volts.
Since the circuit is closed a current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be
determined from the voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3.

Figure 1
In a series circuit
(a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit and hence the same reading is found on each
of the ammeters shown, and
(b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V,

From Ohm’s law: V1 =IR1, V2 =IR2, V3 =IR3 and V =IR where R is the total circuit resistance.
Since V = V1+V2+V3 then IR = IR1+IR2+IR3. Dividing throughout by I gives

Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is obtained by adding together the values of the
separate resistance’s.

Potential Divider
The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in Fig. 2(a) is given by:
Figure 2

The circuit shown in Fig. 2(b) is often referred to as a potential divider circuit.
Such a circuit can consist of a number of similar elements in series connected across a voltage
source, voltages being taken from connections between the elements.
Frequently the divider consists of two resistors as shown in Fig. 2(b), where

A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower e.m.f. from a source of
higher e.m.f., and is the basic operating mechanism of the potentiometer, a measuring device
for accurately measuring potential differences

Problem 1. Determine the value of voltage V shown in Fig. 3

Figure 3

Figure 3 may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 4, and

 Figure 4

DC parallel circuits
Figure 5 shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected across each other, i.e. in parallel, across a
battery source of V volts.

Figure 5
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current, I,

(b) the source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of the resistors.
This equation must be used when finding the total resistance R of a parallel circuit. For the
special case of two resistors in parallel

Current Division
For the circuit shown in Fig. 6, the total circuit resistance, RT is given by

Figure 6
Summarizing, with reference to Fig. 6

Problem 2.
For the series-parallel arrangement shown in Fig. 7, find
(a) the supply current,
(b) the current flowing through each resistor and
(c) the p.d. across each resistor.

Figure 7

(a) The equivalent resistance Rx of R2 and R3 in parallel is:

The equivalent resistance RT of R1, Rx and R4 in series is:

(c) The current flowing through R1 and R4 is 25A. The current flowing through R2

(d) The equivalent circuit of Fig. 7 is shown in Fig. 8

Figure 8
Network theorems.
Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws state:
Current Law.
At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing towards that junction is equal to the
total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. ∑ I = 0

Voltage Law.
In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops taken around the loop is
equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in that loop.

Note:
If current flows away from the positive terminal of a source, that source is considered by
convention to be positive. Thus moving anticlockwise around the loop of Fig. .2, E1 is positive
and E2 is negative).
Problem
(a) Find the unknown currents marked in Fig. below

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law:

Problem
Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the currents flowing in each branch of the network shown in
Fig. below
Solution
Procedure
1. Use Kirchhoff’s current law and label current directions on the original circuit diagram. (the
direction chosen does not matter)

2. Divide the circuit into loops and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each.
From loop 1

From loop 2

3. Solve Equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2

(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that shown in Fig)

Current flowing through resistance R is

third loop is possible, as shown in Fig. below, giving a third equation which can be used as a check:

Problem.
For the bridge network shown in Fig. below determine the currents in each of the resistors using Kirchoff’s law (6
Mks)
Superposition Theorem
The superposition theorem states:
In any network made up of linear resistances and containing more than one source of e.m.f., the
resultant current flowing in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would flow in
that branch if each source was considered separately, all other sources being replaced at that
time by their respective internal resistances.
The superposition theorem is demonstrated in the following worked problems
Problem 1.
Figure 1 shows a circuit containing two sources of e.m.f., each with their internal resistance.
Determine the current in each branch of the network by using the superposition theorem.

Figure 1
Procedure:

1. Redraw the original circuit with source E2 removed, being replaced by r2 only, as shown in
Fig. 2(a)
 Figure 2
2. Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Fig. 2(a) and determine their
values. (Note that the choice of current directions depends on the battery polarity, which,
by convention is taken as flowing from the positive battery terminal as shown) R in parallel
with r2 gives an equivalent resistance of (4×1)/(4+1)=0.8Ω

From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2(b),

3. Redraw the original circuit with source E1 removed, being replaced by r1 only, as shown in
Fig. 3(a)

Figure 3
4. Label the currents in each branch and their directions as shown in Fig. 3(a) and determine their
values. r1 in parallel with R gives an equivalent resistance of (2×4)/(2+4)=8/6=1.333Ω

From the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3(b)

From Fig. 3(a),

5. Superimpose Fig. 3(a) on to Fig. 2(a) as shown in Fig.4

Figure 4

6. Determine the algebraic sum of the currents flowing in each branch. Resultant current flowing
through source 1, i.e.
I1 − I6 = 1.429 − 0.571
= 0.858A (discharging)
Resultant current flowing through source 2, i.e.
I4 − I3 = 0.857 − 1.143
= −0.286A (charging)
Resultant current flowing through resistor R, i.e.
I2 + I5 = 0.286 + 0.286
= 0.572A
The resultant currents with their directions are shown in Fig. 5
General DC Circuit Theory
The following points involving d.c. circuit analysis need to be appreciated before proceeding
with problems using Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems:
1. The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals AB in Fig. 5 is equal to 10V, since no current
flows through the 2Ω resistor and hence no voltage drop occurs.

Figure 5
2. The open-circuit voltage, E, across terminals AB in Fig. 6(a) is the same as the voltage across
the 6Ω resistor. The circuit may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 6(b)

Figure 6

by voltage division in a series circuit, i.e. E=30V

3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 7(a) representing a practical source supplying energy, V =E −Ir,
where E is the battery e.m.f., V is the battery terminal voltage and r is the internal resistance of
the battery. For the circuit shown in Fig. 7(b),
V = E − (−I) r, i.e. V = E + Ir

Figure 7

4. The resistance ‘looking-in’ at terminals AB in Fig. 8(a) is obtained by reducing the circuit in
stages as shown in Figures 8(b) to (d). Hence the equivalent resistance across AB is 7Ω.

Figure 8
5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 9(a), the 3Ω resistor carries no current and the p.d. across the
20Ω resistor is 10V. Redrawing the circuit gives Fig. 9(b), from which

6. If the 10V battery in Fig. 9(a) is removed and replaced by a short-circuit, as shown in Fig.
9(c), then the 20Ω resistor may be removed. The reason for this is that a short circuit has zero
resistance, and 20Ω in parallel with zero ohms gives an equivalent resistance of (20×0)/(20+0)
i.e. 0Ω. The circuit is then as shown in Fig. 9(d), which is redrawn in Fig. 9(e). From Fig. 9(e),
the equivalent resistance across AB,
 Figure 9
7. To find the voltage across AB in Fig. 10: Since the 20V supply is across the 5Ω and 15Ω
resistors in series then, by voltage division, the voltage drop across AC,

Figure 10
VC is at a potential of +20V.
VA = VC − VAC = +20 − 5 = 15V
and VB = VC − VBC = +20 − 16 = 4V.
Hence the voltage between AB is VA −VB = 15−4=11V and current would flow from A to B since
A has a higher potential than B.
8. In Fig. 11(a), to find the equivalent resistance across AB the circuit may be redrawn as in Figs.
11(b) and (c). the equivalent resistance across AB

Figure 11
(ix) From the problems discussed before it may be considered that Thévenin’s and Norton’s
theorems have no obvious advantages compared with, say, Kirchhoff’s laws.
However, these theorems can be used to analyse part of a circuit and in much more complicated
networks the principle of replacing the supply by a constant voltage source in series with a
resistance (or impedance) is very useful.

Thévenin’s theorem
Thévenin’s theorem states:
The current in any branch of a network is that which would result if an e.m.f. equal to the p.d.
across a break made in the branch, were introduced into the branch, all other e.m.f.’s being
removed and represented by the internal resistances of the sources.
The procedure adopted when using Thévenin’s theorem is summarised below. To determine the
current in any branch of an active network (i.e. one containing a source of e.m.f.):
1. remove the resistance R from that branch,
2. determine the open-circuit voltage, E, across the break,
3. remove each source of e.m.f. and replace them by their internal resistances and then
determine the resistance, r, ‘looking-in’ at the break,
4. determine the value of the current from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1, i.e.
 Figure 1
Problem 1.
Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the current flowing in the 10Ω resistor for the circuit shown in
Fig 2

Figure 2
Following the above procedure:
(i) The 10Ω resistance is removed from the circuit as shown in Fig. 3(a)
(ii) There is no current flowing in the 5Ω resistor and current I1 is given by
 Figure 3
P.d. across R2 =I1R2 =1×8=8V. Hence p.d. across AB, i.e. the open-circuit voltage across the
break, E =8V
(iii) Removing the source of e.m.f. gives the circuit of Fig. 3(b) Resistance,

(iv) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in Fig (c)

Hence the current flowing in the 10Ω resistor of Fig. 13.37 is 0.482A.
Problem 9.
Use Thévenin’s theorem to determine the current I flowing in the 4Ω resistor shown in Fig. 4.
Find also the power dissipated in the 4Ω resistor.
 Figure 4
Following the procedure:
(i) The 4Ω resistor is removed from the circuit as shown in Fig. 5(a)

Figure 5
Alternatively,

(ii) Removing the sources of e.m.f. gives the circuit shown in Fig. 5(b), from which, resistance

(iii) The equivalent Thévenin’s circuit is shown in Fig. 5(c), from which, current,

Norton’s theorem
Norton’s theorem states:
The current that flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which would flow in the
branch if it were connected across a source of electrical energy, the short-circuit current of
which is equal to the current that would flow in a short-circuit across the branch, and the
internal resistance of which is equal to the resistance which appears across the open-circuited
branch terminals.
The procedure adopted when using Norton’s theorem is summarized below. To determine the
current flowing in a resistance R of a branch AB of an active network:
1. short-circuit branch AB
2. determine the short-circuit current ISC flowing in the branch
3. remove all sources of e.m.f. and replace them by their internal resistance (or, if a current
source exists, replace with an open-circuit), then determine the resistance r, ‘looking-in’at
a break made between A and B
4. determine the current I flowing in resistance R from the Norton equivalent network
shown in Fig. 1, i.e.
Problem 2.
Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current flowing in the 10Ω resistance for the circuit
shown in Fig. 2

Figure 2
Following the above procedure:
(i) The branch containing the 10Ω resistance is short-circuited as shown in Fig. 3(a)
(ii) Fig. 3(b) is equivalent to Fig. 3(a).

(iii) If the 10V source of e.m.f. is removed from Fig. 3(a) the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break
made between A and B is given by:
 Figure 3
(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in Fig. 3(c) the current in the 10Ω resistance, by
current division, is given by:

Problem 4.
Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current I flowing in the 4Ω resistance shown in Fig. 4

Figure 4
Following the procedure:
(i) The 4Ω branch is short-circuited as shown in Fig. 5(a)
(ii) From Fig. 5(a),
 Figure 5
(iii) If the sources of e.m.f. are removed the resistance ‘looking-in’ at a break made between A
and B is given by:

(iv) From the Norton equivalent network shown in Fig. 5(b) the current in the 4Ω resistance is
given by:

The maximum power transfer theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem states:
The power transferred from a supply source to a load is at its maximum when the resistance of
the load is equal to the internal resistance of the source.
Hence, in Fig. 4, when R=r the power transferred from the source to the load is a maximum.

Figure 4

Problem 3.
A d.c. source has an open-circuit voltage of 30V and an internal resistance of 1.5Ω. State the
value of load resistance that gives maximum power dissipation and determine the value of this
power.
From the maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum power dissipation, RL =r =1.5Ω

From Fig. above, current I =E/(r +RL)

Assignment for presentation

Mesh Analysis
Nodal analysis
Millman’s Theorem
Reciprocity theorem
Compensation theorem

Energy conversions
Magnetic circuits
Magnetic Field
A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which
has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials.
A permanent magnet will position itself in a north and south direction when freely suspended.
The north-seeking end of the magnet is called the north pole, N, and the south-seeking end the
south pole, S.
The area around a magnet is called the magnetic field and it is in this area that the effects of
the magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected. A magnetic field cannot be seen,
felt or heard and therefore is difficult to represent.
Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be represented pictorially, by
imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the
distribution and density of the field to be carried out.
The distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar magnet
is placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is sprinkled some iron filings.
If the cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume a pattern similar to that shown in Fig. 1.
If a number of magnets of different strength are used, it is found that the stronger the field the
closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus a magnetic field has the property of
exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron filings to move into the pattern
shown. The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet. It should
be realized, of course, that the magnetic field is three dimensional in its effect, and not acting in
one plane as appears to be the case in this experiment.

Fig. 1
If a compass is placed in the magnetic field in various positions, the direction of the lines of flux
may be determined by noting the direction of the compass pointer. The direction of a magnetic
field at any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking pole of a compass needle points
when suspended in the field. The direction of a line of flux is from the north pole to the south
pole on the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to continue through the magnet back to
the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus such lines of flux always form complete
closed loops or paths, they never intersect and always have a definite direction.
Magnetic Attraction
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets.
In Fig. 2(a), with unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes place. Lines of flux are imagined to
contract and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is strongest in between the two
magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close together. In Fig. 2(b), with similar poles
adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north poles try to push each other
apart, since magnetic flux lines running side by side in the same direction repel.
Figure 2
Magnetic flux and Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by a
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is ɸ (‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is the
weber, Wb.
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular
to the direction of the flux:

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T,
where 1 T = 1Wb/m2. Hence

where A(m2) is the area

Problem 1.

A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200mm by 100 mm. If the
total flux emerging from the pole is 150 μWb, calculate the flux density.
Problem 2.
The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8T and the effective area of a
pole face is circular in cross-section. If the total magnetic flux produced is 353 mWb, determine
the radius of the pole face.

Magnetomotive force and Magnetic field strength

Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) is the force that sets up a magnetic field within and around an
object. It is also the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit,

where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in amperes. The unit of m.m.f
is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’.
However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the S.I. unit of m.m.f. is the ampere.

Magnetic field strength (or magnetising force),

where l is the mean length of the flux path in metres

Thus

Problem 3.
A magnetising force of 8000A/m is applied to a circular magnetic circuit of mean diameter 30
cm by passing a current through a coil wound on the circuit. If the coil is uniformly wound
around the circuit and has 750 turns, find the current in the coil.
Permeability and B–H curve
For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetising force is a
constant, i.e. B/H =a constant. This constant is μ0, the permeability of free space (or the
magnetic space constant) and is equal to 4π×10−7 H/m, i.e. for air, or any non-magnetic
medium, the ratio

(Although all non-magnetic materials, including air, exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can
effectively be neglected.)
For all media other than free space,

where μr is the relative permeability, and is defined as

μr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no
unit. From its definition, μr for a vacuum is 1.

μ0μr = μ, called the absolute permeability

By plotting measured values of flux density B against magnetic field strength H, a

magnetisation curve (or B–H curve) is produced.
For non-magnetic materials this is a straight line. Typical curves for four magnetic materials are
shown in Fig..3
Figure .3
The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is proportional to the slope of the B–H
curve and thus varies with the magnetic field strength.
Problem 4.
A flux density of 1.2T is produced in a piece of cast steel by a magnetising force of 1250 A/m.
Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions.

Problem 5.
Determine the magnetic field strength and the m.m.f. required to produce a flux density of 0.25T
in an air gap of length 12 mm.
Reluctance
Reluctance S (or RM) is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic circuit to the presence of
magnetic flux.
Reluctance,

The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H−1) or A/Wb. Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance
and can be used as magnetic screens to prevent magnetic fields affecting materials within the
screen.
Problem 1.
Determine the reluctance of a piece of metal of length 150mm and cross-sectional area 1800mm2
when the relative permeability is 4000. Find also the absolute permeability of the metal.

Hysteresis loop
Let a ferromagnetic material which is completely demagnetised, i.e. one in which B=H =0 be
subjected to increasing values of magnetic field strength H and the corresponding flux density B
measured. The resulting relationship between B and H is shown by the curve Oab in Fig. 1. At a
particular value of H, shown as Oy, it becomes difficult to increase the flux density any further.
The material is said to be saturated. Thus by is the saturation flux density.

Figure 1
If the value of H is now reduced it is found that the flux density follows curve bc. When H is
reduced to zero, flux remains in the iron. This remanent flux density or remanence is shown as
Oc in Fig. 1
When H is increased in the opposite direction, the flux density decreases until, at a value shown
as Od, the flux density has been reduced to zero. The magnetic field strength Od required to
remove the residual magnetism, i.e. reduce B to zero, is called the coercive force.
Further increase of H in the reverse direction causes the flux density to increase in the reverse
direction until saturation is reached, as shown by curve de. If H is varied backwards from Ox to
Oy, the flux density follows the curve efgb, similar to curve bcde. It is seen from Fig. 1that the
flux density changes lag behind the changes in the magnetic field strength. This effect is called
hysteresis. The closed figure bcdefgb is called the hysteresis loop (or the B/H loop).

Hysteresis loss
A disturbance in the alignment of the domains (i.e. groups of atoms) of a ferromagnetic material
causes energy to be expended/used in taking it through a cycle of magnetisation. This energy
appears as heat in the specimen and is called the hysteresis loss. The energy loss associated
with hysteresis is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop.
The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the energy loss,
is much greater for hard materials than for soft materials.
Figure 2 shows typical hysteresis loops for:
a. hard material, which has a high remanence Oc and a large coercivity Od
b. soft steel, which has a large remanence and small coercivity
 c. ferrite, this being a ceramic-like magnetic substance made from oxides of iron, nickel,
cobalt, magnesium, aluminium and mangenese; the hysteresis of ferrite is very small.

For a.c.-excited devices the hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle of alternating current. Thus a
hysteresis loop with a large area (as with hard steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss
would be considerable. Silicon steel has a narrow hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis loss,
and is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine armatures.

Generation of alternating Emf

Introduction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut through the lines of force (or
flux), an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of
a closed circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric current to flow round the circuit.
Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor as a result of its movement
across the magnetic field. This effect is known as ‘electromagnetic induction’.
Figure 1(a) shows a coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a sensitive
ammeter with the zero-current position in the centre of the scale.
 Figure 1

When the magnet is moved at constant speed towards the coil (Fig. 1(a)), a deflection is noted on
the galvanometer showing that a current has been produced in the coil.
(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as in (a) but away from the coil the same
deflection is noted but is in the opposite direction (see Fig.1(b))
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within the coil, no deflection is recorded.
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as in (a) and the magnet held stationary the same
galvanometer deflection is noted.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the galvanometer deflection is doubled.
(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater galvanometer deflection is noted.
(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is increased, a greater galvanometer deflection
is noted.

Figure 1(c) shows the magnetic field associated with the magnet. As the magnet is moved
towards the coil, the magnetic flux of the magnet moves across, or cuts, the coil. It is the
relative movement of the magnetic flux and the coil that causes an e.m.f. and thus current,
to be induced in the coil. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction.

The laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction state:
(i) An induced e.m.f. is set up whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit changes.
(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in any circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linking the circuit.
Lenz’s law states:
The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the
motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.

An alternative method to Lenz’s law of determining relative directions is given by Fleming’s

Right-hand rule (often called the geneRator rule) which states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that they are all
at right angles to each other (as shown in Fig.2). If the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, then the second finger will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f.
Summarising:

Figure 2

In a generator, conductors forming an electric circuit are made to move through a magnetic field.
By Faraday’s law an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors and thus a source of e.m.f. is created.
The induced e.m.f. E set up between the ends of the conductor shown in Fig. 3 is given by:
E=Blv volts
Figure 3
where B, the flux density, is measured in teslas, l, the length of conductor in the magnetic field,
is measured in metres, and v, the conductor velocity, is measured in metres per second.
If the conductor moves at an angle θ◦ to the magnetic field (instead of at 90◦ as assumed above)
then
E=Blv sin θ volts

Problem.
At what velocity must a conductor 75mm long cut a magnetic field of flux density 0.6T if an
e.m.f. of 9V is to be induced in it? Assume the conductor, the field and the direction of motion
are mutually perpendicular.

Problem.
A conductor moves with a velocity of 15 m/s at an angle of (a) 90◦ (b) 60◦ and (c) 30◦ to a
magnetic field produced between two square-faced poles of side length 2 cm. If the flux leaving
a pole face is 5 μWb, find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in each case.

v=15 m/s, length of conductor in magnetic field, l =2 cm=0.02 m, A=2×2 cm2 =4×10−4 m2 and
=5×10−6 Wb

Rotating of a loop in a Magnetic Field

Figure 4 shows a view of a looped conductor whose sides are moving across a magnetic field.
The left-hand side is moving in an upward direction (check using Fleming’s right-hand rule),
with length l cutting the lines of flux which are travelling from left to right. By definition, the
induced e.m.f. will be equal to Blv sin θ and flowing into the page.
Figure 4
The right-hand side is moving in a downward direction (again, check using Fleming’s right-hand
rule), with length l cutting the same lines of flux as above.
The induced e.m.f. will also be equal to Blv sin θ but flowing out of the page. Therefore the total
e.m.f. for the loop conductor =2Blv sin θ
Now consider a coil made up of a number of turns N The total e.m.f. E for the loop conductor is
now given by:
E = 2NBlv sin θ

Inductance
Inductance is the name given to the property of a circuit whereby there is an e.m.f. induced into
the circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by a current change.
When the e.m.f. is induced in the same circuit as that in which the current is changing, the
property is called self inductance, L. When the e.m.f. is induced in a circuit by a change of flux
due to current changing in an adjacent circuit, the property is called mutual inductance, M. The
unit of inductance is the henry, H.
A circuit has an inductance of one henry when an e.m.f. of one volt is induced in it by a current
changing at the rate of one ampere per second
Induced e.m.f. in a coil of N turns,

where 𝑑ɸ is the change in flux in Webers, and dt is the time taken for the flux to change in
seconds (i.e. 𝑑ɸ/𝑑𝑡 is the rate of change of flux).
Induced e.m.f. in a coil of inductance L henrys,

where dI is the change in current in amperes and dt is the time taken for the current to change in
seconds (i.e. 𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡 is the rate of change of current).
The minus sign in each of the above two equations remind us of its direction (given by
Lenz’s law.
Problem 1.
Determine the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of flux of 25mWb
linking with it in 50 ms.

Problem 2.
A flux of 400 μWb passing through a 150-turn coil is reversed in 40 ms. Find the average e.m.f.
induced. Since the flux reverses, the flux changes from+400 μWb to −400 μWb, a total change of
flux of 800 μWb.

Hence, the average e.m.f. induced, E=−3 volts

Problem 3.
Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of inductance 12H by a current changing at the rate of 4A/s.

Inductors
A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance is required in a circuit.
The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire.
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor include:
i. the number of turns of wire — the more turns the higher the inductance
ii. the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire — the greater the cross-sectional area the higher
the inductance
iii. the presence of a magnetic core — when the coil is wound on an iron core the same current
sets up a more concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is increased
iv. the way the turns are arranged — a short thick coil of wire has a higher inductance than a
long thin one.
Energy Stored
An inductor possesses an ability to store energy. The energy stored, W, in the magnetic field of
an inductor is given by:

Problem 4.
An 8H inductor has a current of 3A flowing through it. How much energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor?
Inductance of a Coil
If a current changing from 0 to I amperes, produces a flux change from 0 to ɸ webers, then dI =I
and dɸ=ɸ. Then,

from which, inductance of coil,

Problem 5.
A flux of 25mWb links with a 1500 turn coil when a current of 3A passes through the coil.
Calculate (a) the inductance of the coil,
(b) the energy stored in the magnetic field, and
(c) the average e.m.f. induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.

Problem 6.
A silicon iron ring is wound with 800 turns, the ring having a mean diameter of 120mm and a
cross-sectional area of 400mm2. If when carrying a current of 0.5A the relative permeability is
found to be 3000, calculate
(a) the self-inductance of the coil, (b)
(b) the induced e.m.f. if the current is reduced to zero in 80 ms.
Mutually Inductance
Mutually induced e.m.f. in the second coil,

where M is the mutual inductance between two coils, in henrys, and (dI1/dt) is the rate of
change of current in the first coil.
The phenomenon of mutual inductance is used in transformers
Another expression for M
Let an iron ring have two coils, A and B, wound on it. If the fluxes ɸ1 and ɸ2 are produced from
currents I1 and I2 in coils A and B respectively, then the reluctance could be expressed as:
If the flux in coils A and B are the same and produced from the current I1 in coil A only,
assuming 100% coupling, then the mutual inductance can be expressed as:

Problem 7.
Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H. If the current in one coil is changed from 10A to
4A in 10 ms, calculate
(a) the average induced e.m.f. in the second coil,
(b) the change of flux linked with the second coil if it is wound with 500 turns.
Electrostatics
Electrostatic Field
Figure 1 represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials. If an
electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force will act on the electron
tending to push it away from the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A. Similarly, a
positive charge would be acted on by a force tending to move it toward the negative plate.
Any region such as that shown between the plates in Fig. 1, in which an electric charge
experiences a force, is called an electrostatic field.
The direction of the field is defined as that of the force acting on a positive charge placed in the
field. In Fig. 1, the direction of the force is from the positive plate to the negative plate. Such
a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric force drawn between
the charged surfaces.
The closeness of the lines is an indication of the field strength. Whenever a p.d. is established
between two points, an electric field will always exist.

Figure 1
Figure 2(a) shows a typical field pattern for an isolated point charge, and Figure 2(b) shows the
field pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity.

Figure 2
Electric lines of force (often called electric flux lines) are continuous and start and finish on point
charges; also, the lines cannot cross each other.
When a charged body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged
body terminate on its surface.
The concept of field lines or lines of force is used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However, it should be remembered that they are only aids to the imagination.
The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional
to the magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating them, i.e.
where constant k ≈9×109. This is known as Coulomb’s law.
Hence the force between two charged spheres in air with their centres 16mm apart and each
carrying a charge of +1.6 μC is given by:

Electric Field Strength

Figure 3 shows two parallel conducting plates separated from each other by air. They are
connected to opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts.

Figure 3
There is therefore an electric field in the space between the plates.
If the plates are close together, the electric lines of force will be straight and parallel and equally
spaced, except near the edge where fringing will occur. Over the area in which there is negligible
fringing,

where d is the distance between the plates. Electric field strength is also called potential
gradient.

Capacitance
Static electric fields arise from electric charges, electric field lines beginning and ending on
electric charges.
Thus the presence of the field indicates the presence of equal positive and negative electric
charges on the two plates of Fig. 3.
Let the charge be +Q coulombs on one plate and −Q coulombs on the other.
The property of this pair of plates which determines how much charge corresponds to a given
p.d. between the plates is called their capacitance:
The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more usually μF=10−6 F or pF =10−12 F), which is
defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt appears across the plates when charged with
one coulomb.

Introduction to Capacitors
A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy.
Capacitors are used extensively in electrical and electronic circuits.
For example, capacitors are used to smoothen rectified a.c. outputs, they are used in
telecommunication equipment – such as radio receivers – for tuning to the required frequency,
they are used in time delay circuits, in electrical filters, in oscillator circuits, and in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) in medical body scanners, to name but a few practical applications.
(a) Capacitors connected in parallel
Figure 1 shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3, connected in parallel with a supply voltage V
applied across the arrangement.
When the charging current I reaches point A it divides, some flowing into C1, some flowing into
C2 and some into C3. Hence the total charge QT (=I ×t) is divided between the three capacitors.

Figure 1
The capacitors each store a charge and these are shown as Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively. Hence

But QT =CV, Q1 =C1V, Q2 =C2V and Q3 =C3V. Therefore CV =C1V +C2V +C3V where C is the
total equivalent circuit capacitance, i.e.

It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallel connected capacitors is the sum of the
capacitances of the individual capacitors. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for
resistors connected in series).

(b) Capacitors connected in series

Figure 2 shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3, connected in series across a supply voltage V. Let
the p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1, V2 and V3
respectively as shown.

Figure 2
Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor C1 be +Q coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite
charge of −Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor between plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is electrically
isolated from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but opposite charge of +Q coulombs must
appear on plate ‘c’, which, in turn, induces an equal and opposite charge of −Q coulombs on
plate ‘d’, and so on.
Hence when capacitors are connected in series the charge on each is the same. In a series circuit:

i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. (Note that this formula is similar to that
used for resistors connected in parallel).
Electric flux density
Unit flux is defined as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric flux ψ is
measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q coulombs, the flux ψ =Q coulombs.
Electric flux density D is the amount of flux passing through a defined area A that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux:

Electric flux density is also called charge density, σ.

Permittivity

At any point in an electric field, the electric field strength E maintains the electric flux and
produces a particular value of electric flux density D at that point. For a field established in
vacuum (or for practical purposes in air), the ratio D/E is a constant ε0, where ε0 is called the
permittivity of free space or the free space constant. The value of ε0 is 8.85×10−12 F/m.

When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper, plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the
region of an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified:

where εr, the relative permittivity of the insulating material, indicates its insulating power
compared with that of vacuum:

εr has no unit. Typical values of εr include air, 1.00; polythene, 2.3; mica, 3–7; glass, 5–10; water,
80;
ceramics, 6–1000.
The product ε0εr is called the absolute permittivity,
ε, i.e.

The insulating medium separating charged surfaces is called a dielectric. Compared with
conductors, dielectric materials have very high resistivities. They are therefore used to separate
conductors at different potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric power lines.

Permeability
For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetising force is a
constant, i.e. B/H =a constant. This constant is μ0, the permeability of free space (or the
magnetic space constant) and is equal to 4π×10−7 H/m,

The Parallel-Plate Capacitor

For a parallel-plate capacitor, as shown in Fig. (a), experiments show that capacitance C is
proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e. the
dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature of the dielectric:

where ε0 =8.85×10−12 F/m (constant)

εr =relative permittivity
A=area of one of the plates, in m2, and
d =thickness of dielectric in m
Typical values of εr include air/vacuum/free apace is 1
𝜀 𝐴
C= 0𝑑

Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig.
(b). Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair
of plates. If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (n−1). Thus capacitance

Dielectric Strength
The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric
strength of the material. Dielectric strength,

Since q=cv then for air we can write

𝜀0 𝐴
Q= 𝑥Ed = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴
𝑑
The energy stored in a capacitor
The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by
 𝑞2
As q=cv then q2=c2v2, hence q2/c= c2v2/c= cv2= 𝐶
We can also write

1 𝑞2 𝑞2
W=2 𝐶𝑉 2 =2𝐶 = 2𝐶

Waveforms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is
called a waveform.
Some typical waveforms are shown in Fig. 1. Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional
waveforms, although they vary considerably with time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they
do not cross the time axis and become negative). Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating
waveforms since their quantities are continually changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive
and negative).
A waveform of the type shown in Fig. 1(g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform
of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.
One complete series of values is called a cycle (i.e. from O to Pin Fig. 1(g)).
The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period or the
periodic time, T, of the waveform.
The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency, f, of the supply and is
measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz

Figure 1
AC values
Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of time. They are
represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc., (see Fig. 1(f) and (g)).
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the maximum value or the
amplitude of the waveform. Such values are represented by Vm, Im, Em, etc. (see Fig. 1 (f)
and
 (g)). A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown in Fig. 1 (g) and is the difference between the
maximum and minimum values in a cycle.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the
average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete cycle the average value is
zero).

The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as the trapezoidal rule, the mid-
ordinate rule or Simpson’s rule. Average values are represented by VAV, IAV, EAV, etc.

The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will produce the same heating
effect as an equivalent direct current. The effective value is called the root mean square (r.m.s.)
value and whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the rms value.
For example, the domestic mains supply in Great Britain is 240V and is assumed to mean ‘240V
rms’.
The symbols used for r.m.s. values are I, V, E, etc

The values of form and peak factors give an indication of the shape of waveforms
The equation of a sinusoidal wave form
A rotating vector is known as a phasor
In Fig. 2, 0A represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity
of ω rad/s.

Figure 2
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then

If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a
sine curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be
represented as a phasor.
A sine curve may not always start at 0◦. To show this a periodic function is represented by
y=sin(ωt ±ɸ), where ɸ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with y= sin ωt. In Fig. 3 (a),
y2 =sin(ωt +ɸ) starts ɸ radians earlier than y1 = sin ωt and is thus said to lead y1 by ɸ radians.
Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Fig. 3(b) at the time when t =0.

Figure 3
In Fig. 3 (c), y4 =sin(ωt −ɸ) starts ɸ radians later than y3 = sin ωt and is thus said to lag y3 by ɸ
radians.
Phasors y3 and y4 are shown in Fig. 3(d) at the time when t =0.

Problem 1.
The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by: i=120 sin (100πt +0.36) amperes.
Find:
(a) the peak value, the periodic time, the frequency and phase angle relative to 120 sin 100πt
(b) the value of the current when t =0
(c) the value of the current when t =8 ms
(d) the time when the current first reaches 60A, and
(e) the time when the current is first a maximum.
Combination of Waveforms
The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two sinusoidal quantities may be determined
either:
(a) by plotting the periodic functions graphically
(b) by resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation

Problem 2
The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are given by i1 =20 sin ωt amperes and i2
=10 sin (ωt +π/3) amperes. By plotting i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same scale, over one
cycle, and adding ordinates at intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for i1 +i2.
Ordinates of i1 and i2 are added at, say, 30◦ intervals (a pair of dividers are useful for this).

The resultant waveform for i1 +i2 is shown by the broken line in Fig. above. It has the same
period, and hence frequency, as i1 and i2. The amplitude or peak value is 26A
The resultant waveform leads the curve i1 =20 sin ωt by 19◦ i.e. (19×π/180) rads=0.332 rads
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i1 +i2 is given by:
𝑖𝑅=𝑖1+𝑖2=26𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡+0.332) 𝐴
Problem 3.
Two alternating voltages are represented by v1 =50 sin ωt volts and v2 =100 sin (ωt −π/6) V.
Draw the phasor diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression to represent v1 + v2.
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when time t =0. Thus v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units
long and v2 is drawn 100 units long lagging v1 by π/6 rads, i.e. 30◦. This is shown in Fig. 4(a)
where 0 is the point of rotation of the phasors.
Figure 4
Procedure to draw phasor diagram to represent v1 +v2:
(i) Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long, i.e. oa of Fig. 4(b)
(ii) Join v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle, i.e. ab of Fig. 4(b)
(iii) The resultant vR =v1 +v2 is given by the length ob and its phase angle may be measured with
respect to v1
Alternatively, when two phasors are being added the resultant is always the diagonal of the
parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 4(c).
From the drawing, by measurement, vR =145V and angle φ=20◦ lagging v1. A more accurate
solution is obtained by calculation, using the cosine and sine rules. Using the cosine rule on
triangle 0ab of Fig.4 (b) gives:
Generation of 3 Phase E.M.Fs in a 3 Phase Circuit

The three-phase power is generally used for transmission and allocation of electrical power
because of their advantage. It is inexpensive compared to single phase power and requires three
live conductors for power supply.

In a 3 phase system, there are three equal voltages or EMFs of the same frequency having a
phase difference of 120 degrees. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator
having three identical windings displaced apart from each other by 120 degrees electrical.

When these windings are rotated, and the magnetic field is kept stationary as shown in the figure
A below or when the windings are kept stationary, and the magnetic field is rotated as shown
below in figure B, an emf is induced in each winding. The magnitude and frequency of these
EMFs are same but are displaced apart from one another by an angle of 120 degrees.
Consider three identical coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a1,
b1 and c1 are the starting terminals, whereas a2, b2 and c2 are the finish terminals of the three
coils. The phase difference of 120 degrees has to be maintained between the starts terminals a1,
b1 and c1.

Now, let the three coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either keeping coil
stationary and moving the magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω)
radians per seconds. Three EMFs are induced in the three coils respectively.
Considering the figure C, the analysis about their magnitudes and directions are given as follows.

The emf induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by
the waveform in the above figure C represented as ea1a2.

The coil b1b2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in this coil is
negative and is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.

Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120 degrees electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say that the
coil c1c2 is 240 degrees behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in the coil is positive and is
decreasing as shown in the figure C represented by the waveform ec1c2.

Phasor Diagram
The EMFs induced in the three coils in a 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and
frequency and are displaced by an angle of 120 degrees from each other as shown below in the
phasor diagram.

These EMFs of a 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given
below.