Fdocuments - in Apv Dairy Technology 01 2003

Invensys APV Dairy Technology
Dairy Technology
Invensys APV
Pasteursvej
8600 Silkeborg
Denmark
Tel. +45 70 278 333
Copyright 2002 Invensys APV, Silkeborg, Denmark, Dairy Technology 08/02
Fax +45 70 278 330

[email protected]
www.apv.invensys.com
Anhydro A/S
Østmarken 7
2860 Søborg
Denmark
Tel. +45 70 278 222
Fax +45 70 278 223
[email protected]
UK/2002
www.anhydro.com
Table of contents
MILK
Composition of Danish Cow’s Milk 2002:.........................3
Density of Milk..................................................................3
Yields from Whole milk etc...............................................4
Pasteurisation...................................................................4
UHT/ESL...........................................................................6
ESL - Extended shelf life..................................................7
UHT - Ultra High Temperature..........................................9
High Heat Infusion Steriliser...........................................16
Determination of Fat Content in Milk and Cream...........17
Determination of Protein Content in
Milk and Cream...............................................................19
Detection of Preservatives and Antibiotics in Milk.........20
Acidity of Milk..............................................................20
The Phosphatase Test....................................................22
Standardisation of Whole Milk and Cream.....................23
Standard Deviation.........................................................26
Calculating the Extent of Random Sampling.................27
BUTTER
Composition of Butter.....................................................30
Yields..............................................................................30
Buttermaking...................................................................30
Calculating Butter Yield..................................................33
Churning Recovery.........................................................33
Adjusting Moisture Content in Butter.............................36
Determination of Salt Content in Butter..........................36
lodine Value and Refractive Index..................................37
Fluctuations in lodine Value and
Temperature Treatment of Cream...................................37
CHEESE
Cheese Varieties.............................................................39
Cheesemaking................................................................40
Standardisation of Cheesemilk and Calculation of
Cheese Yield...................................................................40
Utilisation Value of Skimmilk in Cheesemaking..............44
Strength, Acidity and Temperature
of Brine for Salting..........................................................45
MEMBRANE FILTRATION
Definitions.......................................................................47
Membrane Processes.....................................................47
Membrane Elements.......................................................53
CIP..................................................................................55
Milk and Whey Composition...........................................59
EVAPORATION AND DRYING

Evaporation.....................................................................63
Drying..............................................................................64
CLEANING AND DISINFECTING

CIP Cleaning in General.................................................66
Cleaning Methods...........................................................69
CIP Cleaning Programs for Pipes and Tanks.................70
CIP Cleaning Programs for Plate Pasteurisers..............72
General Comments to Defects/Faults
in CIP Cleaning...............................................................75
Manual Cleaning.............................................................75
Check of the Cleaning Effect..........................................75
Control of Cleaning Solutions.........................................77
Dairy Effluent..................................................................80
TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Stainless Steel Pipes......................................................83
Friction Loss Equivalent in m Straight
Stainless Steel Pipe for One Fitting................................84
Velocity in Stainless Steel Pipes....................................84
Volume in Stainless Steel Pipes.....................................85
Friction Loss in m H2O per 100 m Straight
Pipe with Different Pipe Dimensions and Capacities
(Non-stainless steel).......................................................86
UNITS OF MEASURE
The MKSA System.........................................................88
The SI Unit System.........................................................90
Tables showing conversion Factors between
SI Units and other Common Unit Systems....................92
Input and Output of Electric Motors...............................97
Fuel Table........................................................................98
Saturated Steam Table...................................................99
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boiling Points of the
Elements.......................................................................100
Prefixes with Symbols used in Forming
Decimal Multiples and Submultiples............................102
Thermometric Scales....................................................103
Conversion Table..........................................................104
MILK
Composition of Danish Cow’s Milk 2002:
Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 4.3%

Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 3.4%
Lactose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 4.8%
Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 0.7%
Citric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 0.2%
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 86.6%
Density of Milk
The density of milk is equivalent to the weight in kilos of 1
litre of milk at a temperature of 15°C.
The easiest way to determine the density is to use a spe-
cial type of hydrometer called a lactometer. The upper
part of the lactometer is provided with a scale showing
the lactometer degree, which, when added as the
second and third decimal to 1.000 kg, indicates the
density of milk, ie, a lactometer degree of 30
corresponds to a density of
1.030 kg/litre.
The lactometer is lowered into the milk and when it has
come to rest, the lactometer degree can be read on the
scale at the surface level of the milk.
As milk contains fat and as the density depends on the
physical state of the fat, the milk should be healed to
40°C and then cooled to 15°C before the density is
determined. If the, determination of the density is not
carried out at exactly 15°C, the reading must be
converted by means of a correction table.
The density of milk depends upon its composition, and
can be calculated as follows:
100
% fat + % protein + % lactose+acid + % ash + %
water 0.93 1.45 1.53 2.80
1.0
Density:
1 litre whole milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 1.032 kg
- skimmilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1.035 kg
- buttermilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1.033 kg
- skimmed whey 6.5% TS . . . . . - 1.025 kg
- cream with 20% fat . . . . . . . . . - 1.013 kg
- cream with 30% fat . . . . . . . . . - 1.002 kg
- cream with 40% fat . . . . . . . . . - 0.993 kg
3
Yields from Whole milk etc.
100 kg standardised whole milk yields:
with 4.0 % fat approx. 4.75 kg butter
- 4.0 % - - 13.0 - whole milk powder
- 3.0 % - - 9.5 - 45% cheese *)
- 2.5 % - - 9.1 - 40% - *)
- 1.6 % - - 8.3 - 30% - *)
- 1.0 % - - 8.0 - 20% - *)
- 0.45% - - 7.4 - 10% - *)
100 kg skimmilk with 9.5% solids yields:

approx. 9.8 kg skimmilk powder
- 6.9 - skimmilk cheese *)
- 7.5 - raw casein
- 3.5 - dried casein
100 kg buttermilk with 9.0% solids yields:

approx. 9.3 kg buttermilk powder
100 kg unskimmed whey with approx. 7.0% solids yields:

approx. 0.4 kg whey butter
- 7.2 - whey cheese
100 kg skimmed whey with approx. 6.5% solids yields:

approx. 6.7 kg whey powder
- 3,5 - raw lactose
- 3.0 - refined lactose
- 8.0 - lactic acid
- 2.2 - WPC 35
- 1.2 - WPC 60
- 0.9 - WPC 80
*) ripened cheese
Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation is a heat treatment applied to milk in order
to avoid public health hazards arising from pathogenic
microorganisms associated with milk. The process also
increases the sheIf life of the product.
Pasteurisation is intended to create only minimal chemi-
cal, physical and organoleptic changes in products to be
kept in cold storage.
Pasteurisation temperature and time

The temperature/time combinations stated below are
similar in effect and all have the minimum bactericidal ef-
fect required for pasteurisation.
4
Pasteurised milk and skimmilk 63°C/30 min.
72°C/15 sec.
Pasteurised cream (10% fat): 75°C/15 sec.

- - (35% fat): 80°C/15 sec.
Pasteurised, concentrated milk,

ice cream mix, sweetened products, etc. 80°C/25 sec.
In each case the product is subsequently cooled to 10°C

or less - preferably to 4°C.
In some countries, local legislation specifies minimum
temperature/time combinations.
In many countries, the phosphatase test is used to deter-

mine whether the pasteurisation process has been
carried out correctly. A negative phosphatase test is
considered to be equivalent to less than 2.2
microgrammes of phenol liberated by 1 ml of sample or
less than 10 microgrammes para-nitrophenol liberated by
1 ml of sample.
In order to minimise the risk of failure in the
pasteurisation process, the system should have an
automatic control system for:
(1) Pasteurisation temperature. Temperature recorder and
flow diversion valve at the outlet of the temperature
holder for diverting the flow back to the balance tank in
case of pasteurisation temperatures below the legal
requirement.
(2) Holding time at pasteurisation temperature. Capacity
control system which activates the flow diversion valve in
case the capacity exceeds the maximum for which the
holding tube is designed.
(3) Pressure differential control. The system will activate
the flow diversion valve if the pressure on the raw-milk
side of the regenerator exceeds a set minimum below the
pressure on the pasteurised side, thus preventing possi-
ble leakage of raw milk into the pasteurised milk.
Calculation of residence time in holding tube

The mean residence time (t) in the holding tube can be
calculated as follows:
length of tube x volume per metre

t
capacity per second
=
5
Values for volume per metre can be found in the table
Vol- ume in Stainless Steel Pipes.
6
The individual particles spend different times in the hold-
ing tube and this results in residence time variations. To
avoid bacteriological problems, it is necessary to heat
even the fastest particles long enough.
The holding tube must have an efficiency of at least 0.8
(tmin/tmean) and this can best be achieved by avoiding a
laminar flow, ie, ensuring a turbulent flow at a Reynolds
Number >12,000 and choosing a ratio of length (m)/dia-
meter >200 for the holding tube.
UHT/ESL
Being the originator of the 4 main systems, Invensys APV
has the largest product range within UHT:
Indirect: Plate UHT Plant

Tubular UHT Plant (Figure
1) Direct: Injection UHT Plant
Infusion UHT Plant
In addition to the 4 main systems, Invensys APV has de-

veloped the following variations:
ESL - Extended Shelf Life

Pure LacTM
Combi UHT (2-4 systems in one)
High Heat Infusion
Instant Infusion
3 3
PRODUCT FILLING
95ºC 140ºC
8
7
9
5ºC 2
1 1 4 56
25ºC
75ºC
COOLING WATER
STEAM
10
Tubular regenerative4. Tubular final heater7. Sterile tank preheaters5. Tubular regenerative8. CIP unit
Homogenisercooler9. Sterilising loop
Holding tubes6. Final cooler10. Water Heater
Fig. 1: Flow diagram for Tubular Steriliser
7
ESL - Extended shelf life
In many parts of the world the production of fresh milk
presents a problem in regard to keeping quality. This is due
to inadequate cold chains, poor raw material and/or insuffi-
cient process and filling technology. Until recently, the only
solution has been to produce UHT milk with a shelf life of 3
- 6 months at ambient temperature. In order to try to im-
prove the shelf life of ordinary pasteurised milk, various at-
tempts have been made to increase the pasteurisation tem-
perature and this led to the extended shelf life concept.
The term extended shelf life or ESL is being applied more

and more frequently. There is no single general definition
of ESL. Basically, what it means is the capability to
extend the shelf life of a product beyond its traditional
well-known and generally accepted shelf life without
causing any significant degradation in product quality. A
typical temperature/time combination for high-
temperature pasteurisation of ESL milk is 125 - 130°C
for 2 - 4 seconds. This is also known in the USA as
ultrapasteurisation.
Invensys APV has during the last years developed a pa-

tented process where the temperature may be raised to
as high as 140°C, but only for fractions of a second. This
is the basis for the Pure-LacTM process.
The Invensys APV infusion ESL is based on the theory

that a high temperature/ultra short holding time will provide
an efficient kill rate as well as a very low chemical
degradation.
75ºC
STEAM
FILLING
2 9 COOLING WATER
PRODUCT COOLING WATER
4 7
VACUUM
3 5
5ºC 143ºC 75ºC 25ºC <25ºC

STEAM
1 6 6
8 COOLING WATER
COOLING WATER
Plate preheaters4. Flash vessel Aseptic tank

Steam infusion chamber5. Aseptic homogeniser Non aseptic cooler
Holding tube6. Plate coolers Condenser
8
Fig. 2: Flow Diagram for Steam Infusion Steriliser
9
This means that a very high temperature for a very short
time will result in a high-quality ESL product, with long
shelf life and a taste like low pasteurised milk.
Temperature
135ºC
Pure-LacTM
120ºC
High pasteurisation
72ºC
Low pasteurisation
Time
Fig. 3: Temperature profile for pasteurisation processes.
The Pure LacTM process

In co-operation with Elopak, Invensys APV has
developed the Pure LacTM concept which in a systematic
way attacks the challenge of improving milk quality for the
consumer.
Based on investigations of consumer requirements and

the present market conditions in a larger number of coun-
tries, the objective of Pure LacTM was defined as follows:
• A sensory quality equal to or better than pasteurised

products
• A “real life” distribution temperature of neither 5°C, nor
7°C but 10°C
• A prolonged shelf life corresponding to 14 to 45 days
at 10°C depending on filling methods and raw milk
quality
• A method to accommodate changes in purchasing pat-
terns of the consumer
• An improved method for distribution of niche products
• To cover the complete milk product range, i.e. milk,
creams, desserts, ice cream mix, etc.
• To provide tailored packaging concepts designed to
give maximum protection using minimum but adequate
packaging solutions.
1
After reviewing the range of “cold technologies” available,
it became obvious that most of them were only suited for
white milk. Furthermore, the actual microbiological reduc-
tion rate for some of the processes was inadequate to
provide sufficient safety for shelf life of more than 14
days at 10°C.
Process Technology/Shelf Life

Log. reduction Extended shelf Expected shelf
Process aerobic, psycro- life max. 4°C life max. 10°C
tropic spores storage storage
Pasteurisation 0 10 days 1 - 2 days
Centrifugation 1 14 days 4 - 5 days
Microfiltration 02-mar 30 days 6 - 7 days
Pure LacTM Up to 45 days

8 Over 45 days
ESL pasteurisation (**)
UHT process 8 (*) 180 days180 180 days at
High Heat Process 40 days 25°C
* Thermophilic spores
** Depending on filling solution
UHT - Ultra High Temperature

All UHT processes are designed to achieve commercial
sterility. This calls for application of heat to the product
and a chemical sterilant or other treatment that render the
equipment, final packaging containers and product free of
viable micro-organisms able to reproduce in food under
normal conditions of storage and distribution. In addition
it is necessary to inactivate toxins and enzymes present
and to limit chemical and physical changes in the
product. In very general terms it is useful to have in mind
that an increase in temperature of 10ºC increases the
sterilising effect 10-fold whereas the chemical effect
only increases approximately 3-fold. In this section we
will define some of the more commonly used terms and
how they can be used for process evaluation.
1
ºC
150 High Heat Infusion
Direct Infusion Indirect UHT
100
50
0
Time
Fig. 4: Temperature profiles for direct infusion, high heat

infusion and indirect UHT processes
The logarithmic reduction of spores and sterilising

efficiency
When micro-organisms and/or spores are exposed to
heat treatment not all of them are killed at once.
However, in a given period of time a certain number is
killed while the remainder survives. If the surviving micro-
organisms are once more exposed to the temperature
treatment for the same period of time an equal proportion
of them will be killed. On this basis the lethal effect of
sterilisation can be expressed mathematically as a
logarithmic function:
K · t = log N/Nt
where N = number of micro-organisms/spores originally
present
Nt = number of micro-organisms/spores present
after a given time of treatment (t)
K = constant
t = time of treatment
A logarithmic function can never reach zero, which

means that sterility defined as the absence of living
bacterial spores in an unlimited volume of product is
impossible to achieve. Therefore the more workable
concept of “sterilising effect” or “sterilising efficiency” is
commonly used.
1
The sterilising effect is expressed as the number of deci-
mal reductions achieved in a process. A sterilising effect
1
of 9 indicates that out of 109 bacterial spores fed into the
process only 1 (10°) will survive.
Spores of Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus stearothermophilus

are normally used as test organisms to determine the effi-
ciency of UHT systems because they form fairly heat re-
sistant spores.
Terms and expressions to characterise heat

treatment processes
Q10 value. The sterilising effect of heat sterilisation in-
creases rapidly with the increase in temperature as de-
scribed above. This also applies to chemical reactions
which take place as a consequence of an increase in
temperature. The Q10 value has been introduced as an
expression of this increase in speed of reactions and
specifies how many times the speed of a reaction
increases when the temperature is raised by 10ºC. Q10 for
flavour changes is in the order of 2 to 3 which means that
a temperature increase of 10ºC doubles or triples the
speed of the chemical reactions.
A Q10value calculated for killing bacterial spores would
range from 8 to 30, depending on the sensitivity of a par-
ticular strain to the heat treatment.
D-Value. This is also called the decimal reduction time

and is defined as the time required to reduce the number
of micro-organisms to one-tenth of the original value, i.e.
corresponding to a reduction of 90%.
Z-Value. This is defined as the temperature change,

which gives a 10-fold change in the D-value.
F0 value. This is defined as the total integrated lethal effect

and is expressed in terms of minutes at a selected
reference temperature of 121.1ºC. F0 can be calculated as
follows:
F0 = 10(T - 121.1) /z
x t / 60, where
T = processing temperature (ºC)
z = Z-value (ºC)
t = processing time (seconds)
1
F0 = 1 after the product has been heated to 121.1 ºC for
1
4000
3000
region of
sterilisation
2000
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
Heating time or equivalent heating time in seconds
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
9
8
7 UHT-
region
6
5
1
100 110 120 130 140 150 160ºC
2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3

1
T ·10 in K
3 -1
Fig. 5: Bacteriological and chemical changes of heated

milk
one minute. To obtain commercially sterile milk from good

quality raw milk, for example, an F0 value of minimum 5
to 6 is required.
B* and C* Values. In the case of milk treatment, some

countries are using the following terms:
1
• Bacteriological effect:
B* (known as B star)
• Chemical effect
C* (known as C star)
B* is based on the assumption that commercial sterility is

achieved at 135ºC for 10.1 seconds with a corresponding
Z-value of 10.5ºC; this reference process is giving a B*
value of 1.0, representing a reduction of thermophilic
spore count of 109 per unit (log 9 reduction). The B* value
for a process is calculated similarly to the F0 value:
B* = 10 ( T - 135 ) / 10.5
x t / 10.1, where
T = processing temperature (ºC)
t = processing time (seconds)
The C* value is based on the conditions for a 3 percent

destruction of thiamine (vitamin B 1); this is equivalent to
135ºC for 30.5 seconds with a Z-value of 31.4ºC. Conse-
quently the C* value can be calculated as follows:
C* = 10 ( T - 135 ) /31.4 x t / 30.5
Fig. 5 shows that a UHT process is deemed to be

satisfactory with regard to keeping quality and
organoleptic quality of the product when B* is > 1 and
C* is < 1.
The B* and C* calculations may be used for designing

UHT plants for milk and other heat sensitive products.
The B* and C* values also include the bacteriological and
chemical effects of the heating up and cooling down
times and are therefore important in designing a plant
with minimum chemical change and maximum sterilising
effect. The more severe the heat treatment is, the higher
the C* value will be. For different UHT plants the C* value
corresponding to a sterilising effect of B* = 1 will vary
greatly. A C* value of below 1 is generally accepted for an
average design UHT plant. Improved designs will have
C* values significantly lower than 1.
The Invensys APV Steam Infusion Steriliser has a C*

value of 0.15.
1
Residence time
Particular attention must be paid to the residence time in a
holding cell or tube and the actual dimensioning will depend
on several factors such as turbulent versus laminar flow,
foaming, air content and steam bubbles. Since there is a
ten- dency to ope-rate at reduced residence time in order to
minimise the chemical degradation (C* value < 1) it
becomes in- creasingly important to know the exact
residence time.
In Invensys APV the infusion system has been designed

with a special pump mounted directly below the infusion
chamber which ensures a sufficient over-pressure in the
holding tube in order to have a single phase flow free
from air and steam bubbles. This principle enables
Invensys APV to define and monitor the holding time and
temperature precisely and makes it the only direct
steam heating system, which allows true validation of
flow and temperature at the point of heat transfer.
Commercial sterility
The expression of commercial sterility has been men-
tioned previously and it has been pointed out that com-
plete sterility in its strictest sense is not possible. In wor-
king with UHT products commercial sterility is used as a
more practical term, and a commercially sterile product is
defined as one which is free from micro-organisms which
grow under the prevailing conditions.
Chemical and bacteriological changes at

high temperatures
The heating of milk and other food products to high tem-
peratures results in a range of complex chemical
reactions causing changes in colour (browning),
development of off- flavours and formation of sediments.
These unwanted reactions are largely avoided through
heat treatment at a higher temperature for a very short
time. It is important to seek the optimum
time/temperature combination, which provides sufficient
kill effect on spores but, at the same time, limits the heat
damage, in order to comply with market requirements
for the final product.
Raw material quality

It is important that all raw materials are of very high quality,
as the quality of the final product will be directly affected.
1
Raw materials must be free from dirt and have a very low
bacteria spore count, and any powders must be easy to
dissolve.
1
All powder products must be dissolved prior to UHT treat-
ment because bacteria spores can survive in dry powder
particles even at UHT temperatures. Undissolved powder
particles will also damage homogenising valves causing
sterility problems.
Heat stability. The question of heat stability is an

important parameter in UHT processing.
Different products have different heat stability and although
the UHT plant will be chosen on this basis, it is desirable to
be able to measure the heat stability of the products to be
UHT treated. For most products this is possible by applying
the alcohol test. When samples of milk are mixed with
equal volumes of an ethyl alcohol solution, the proteins
become unstable and the milk flocculates. The higher the
concentration of ethyl alcohol is without flocculation, the
better the heat stability of the milk. Production and shelf life
problems are usually avoided provided the milk remains
stable at an alcohol concentration of 75%.
High heat stability is important because of the need to
produce stable homogeneous products, but also to pre-
vent operational problems as e.g. fouling in the UHT
plant. This will decrease running hours between CIP
cleanings and thereby increase product waste, water,
chemical and energy consumption. Generally it will also
disrupt smooth operation and increase the risk of
insterility.
Shelf life. The shelf life of a product is generally defined

as the time for which the product can be stored without
the quality falling below a certain minimum acceptable
level. This is not a very sharp and exact definition and it
depends to a large extent on the perception of
“minimum acceptable quality”. Having defined this, it will
be raw material quality, processing and packaging
conditions and conditions during distribution and storage
which will determine the shelf life of the product.
Milk is a good example of how wide a span the concept

of shelf life covers:
Product Shelf life Storage

Pasteurised milk 5 - 10 days refrigerated
ESL/Pure-LacTM 20 - 45 days refrigerated
UHT milk 3 - 6 months ambient temperature
2
The usual organoleptic factors limiting shelf life are dete-
2
riorated taste, smell and colour, while the physical and
chemical limiting factors are incipient gelling, increase in
viscosity, sedimentation and cream lining.
High Heat Infusion Steriliser

The growing incidents of heat resistant spores (HRS) is
challenging traditional UHT technologies and setting new
targets. The HRS are extremely heat resistant and
require a minimum of 145 - 150ºC for 3 - 10 seconds to
achieve commercial sterility. If the temperature is
increased to this level in a traditional indirect UHT plant it
would have an adverse effect on the product quality and
the overall running time of the plant. Furthermore, it
would result in higher product losses during start and
stop and more fre- quent CIP cycles would have to be
applied. Using the traditional direct steam infusion
system would result in higher energy consumption and
increased capital cost. On this basis, Invensys APV
developed the new High Heat Infu- sion system.
The flow diagram in fig. 6 illustrates the principle design

including the most important processing parameters while
fig. 7 shows the temperature/time profile in comparison to
conventional infusion and indirect systems.
Note that the vacuum chamber has been installed prior to
the infusion chamber. This design facilitates improvement
in energy recovery and it is possible to achieve 75% re-
generation compared to 40% with conventional infusion
systems and 80 - 85% with indirect tubular systems. The
killing rate is F0 = 40.
VACUUM STEAM FILLING
PRODUCT
90ºC 125ºC
2 3 5 COOLING WATER 9
5ºC 60ºC 150ºC 75ºC 25ºC
1 4 1 2 7 6 7
10 COOLING WATER 8 8
STEAM
STEAM
Tubular preheaters4. Non aseptic flavour dosing (option) 7. Tubular coolers

Holding tube5. Steam infusion chamber8. Tubular Heaters
Flash vessel (non aseptic)6. Homogeniser (aseptic)9. Aseptic tank
10. Non aseptic cooler
Fig. 6: Flow diagram for High Heat Infusion Steriliser
2
UHT of products with HRS (comparative temperature profiles with Fo= 40)
ºC
150
100
50
0 Time
Direct UHT 150ºC
High Heat Infusion 150ºC Indirect UHT 147ºC Reference Indirect UHT 140ºC
Fig. 7: Time/temperature profiles illustrating High Heat In-

fusion processing parameters
Determination of Fat Content in Milk and Cream

Röse-Gottlieb (RG)
The fat globule membranes are destroyed by ammonia
and heat, and the phospholipids are dissolved with etha-
nol. After heat treatment, the fat is extracted with a
mixture of diethyl ether and light petroleum. Then the
solvents are removed by evaporation and the fat content
is determined by weighing the mass left after
evaporation.
Schmid-Bondzynski-Ratzloff (SBR)
This method uses hydrochloric acid instead of ammonia
to destroy the fat globule membranes and is used for
cheese samples.
The principal difference between RG and SBR is that the
free fatty acids are not extracted by the RG method since
the analysis is made in alkaline media. The free fatty
acids are extracted by the SBR method since the
analysis is made in an acidic medium.
2
Gerber’s method
Whole milk is analysed as follows:
Measure into the butyrometer 10 ml sulphuric acid, 11 ml
milk (in some countries only 10.8 ml) and 1 ml amyl alco-
hol, in that order.
Before measuring out the milk, heat to 40°C and mix
care- fully. Insert the stopper and shake the mixture while
holding the stopper upwards. Then turn the butyrometer
up- side down two or three times until the acid remaining
in the narrow end of the butyrometer is mixed completely
with the other constituents.
During the mixing process, the temperature rises to such
a degree that centrifugation can take place without further
heating. The butyrometer is centrifuged for 5 minutes at
1,200 rpm and the sample is placed in a water bath at
65- 70°C before reading. The reading is made at the
lowest point of the fat meniscus.
Skimmilk and buttermilk are analysed as follows:

The acid, milk and amyl alcohol are measured out as de-
scribed above. Immediately after shaking, the sample is
cooled to 10-20°C before the sulphuric acid remaining in
the narrow end of the butyrometer is mixed in by turning
the butyrometer up and down. Before centrifugation, the
sample is heated to 65-70°C. The butyrometer is centri-
fuged for 10-15 minutes at 1,200 rpm and the value read
at 65-70°C.
When skimmilk samples are read, the fat will be seen as
two small triangles. If these two triangles are just
touching each other, the milk contains approx. 0.05 % fat.
For buttermilk samples, the reading is taken at the
lowest point of the fat meniscus and the figure of 0.05 is
then added to give the fat content.
Cream is analysed as follows:

Measure into the butyrometer 10 ml sulphuric acid, 5 ml
cream, 5 ml water, and 1 ml alcohol. The water is used
for removing the remainder of the cream from the cream
pipette into the butyrometer and must have a
temperature of 40°C. Insert the stopper and continue as
described for whole milk. Before a reading is taken, the
bottom of the fat column must be set at zero on the
butyrometer by turning the rubber stopper to move it up
or down.
Milkoscan
2
The Danish company N. Foss Electric has developed an
2
instrument, the Milkoscan, for rapid and simultaneous,
determination of fat, protein, lactose and water.
In this instrument, the sample is diluted and
homogenised. Then the mixture passes through a flow
cuvette where the different components are measured by
their infrared ab- sorption.
Fat at 5.73 µm
Protein at 6.40 µm
Lactose at 9.55 µm
The value for water is calculated on the basis of the sum

of the values for fat, protein, and lactose plus a constant
value for mineral content.
The instrument requires exact calibration and must be
thermostatically controlled.
Determination of Protein Content in Milk and

Cream
Kjeldahl’s method
Kjeldahl’s method provides for accurate determination of
the milk protein content. This method involves the com-
bustion of the protein contained in a specific quantity of
milk in sulphuric acid with an admixture of potassium sul-
phate and copper sulphate. This converts nitrogen from
organic compounds into ammonium ions. The addition of
sodium hydroxide liberates ammonia, which distils over
into a boric acid solution. The amount of ammonia is de-
termined by hydrochloric acid titration. The protein con-
tent is found by multiplying the measured nitrogen quan-
tity by 6.38.
The amido black method (Pro-milk)

When milk is mixed with an amido black solution at pH
2.45, the positively charged protein molecules are linked
to the negatively-charged amido black molecules in a
specific ratio, and the protein is precipitated. When the
pre- cipitate of coloured protein pigment has been
removed, the concentration of non-precipitated pigment,
which is measured by means of the photometer, is
inversely pro- portional to the milk protein content.
This method has been automated in an instrument, the
Pro- milk, from N. Foss Electric. The instrument filters out
the protein pigment by means of special synthetic filters
and a photometer displays the protein percentage
directly.
2
Detection of Preservatives and Antibiotics in Milk
The growth of lactic acid bacteria may be inhibited by the
presence in the milk of ordinary antiseptics (such as boric
acid, borax, benzoic acid, salicylic acid, salicylates, for-
malin, hydrogen peroxide) or antibiotics (penicillin, aureo-
mycin, etc). In order to find out which of the above men-
tioned substances is present, it is necessary to test for
each of them - which is both costly and time-consuming.
However, tests for rapid determination ¯f antibiotics,
especially penicillin, in milk have been developed. One
of these is the Dutch Delvotest P.
A special substrate containing Bacillus colidolactis, which is
highly sensitive to penicillin and to some extent also to
other antibiotics, is inoculated with the suspected milk. Af-
ter 2 1/2 hours, the quantity of acid produced will be suffi-
cient to change the colour in the dissolved pH indicator
from red to yellow. This method gives a definite determina-
tion of the penicillin concentration down to 0.06 I.U./ml.
Rapid detention of slow-ripening milk can be achieved by
a comparison of the acidification process in the
suspected sample with that in a sample of mixed milk.
Both samples are heat-treated at 90-95°C for approx. 15
minutes, cooled to approx. 25°C, and mixed with 2%
starter.
After 6-8 hours there will be a distinct difference in the
ti- tres (or pH) of the two samples if one of them
contains antibiotics or other growth-inhibiting
substances.
Acidity of Milk
Normally, fresh milk has a slightly acid reaction. The acid-
ity is determined by measuring either the titrated acidity,
i.e., the total content of free and bound acids, or by
measuring the pH value, which indicates the true acidity
(the hydrogen ion concentration).
The titrated acidity of fresh milk is 16-18, and pH is 6.6-6.8.
Titration
Normally, the titrated acidity of milk is indicated by the
number of ml of a 0.1 n sodium hydroxide solution re-
quired to neutralise 100 ml of milk, using phenolphthalein
as an indicator.
By means of a pipette, 25 ml of milk is measured into an
Erlenmeyer flask. To this 13 drops of a 5% alcoholic phe-
nolphthalein solution is added, and from a burette 0.1 n
sodium hydroxide solution is added, drop by drop, into
2
the flask until the colour of the liquid changes from white
to a
2
uniform pale red. Since for practical reasons only 25 ml of
milk is used in the analysis, the figure obtained must be
multiplied by four.
Consequently, supposing that the quantity of sodium hy-
droxide solution used was 5 ml, the titratable acidity
would be:
5  4 = 20
The normal titratable acidity of fresh milk is 16-18. If the

titratable acidity increases to 30 or more, the casein con-
tent will be precipitated when the milk is heated.
When cultured milk or buttermilk is titrated, part of the
milk will stick to the inside of the pipette. This residue is
washed into the Erlenmeyer flask by milk taken from the
flask after neutralisation takes place and the red colour
starts to appear. Titration then proceeds as explained
above.
The acidity of cream is determined by the same proce-
dure.
When the final result is calculated, the fat content of the
cream must be taken into account. Supposing that the
latter is 30% and that the quantity of sodium hydroxide
solution used was 2.8 ml, the titratable acidity of the
cream would be:
2.8  4  100 = 16
100-30
The acidity of milk is expressed in various ways in

various countries.
Soxhlet Henkel degrees (S.H.) give the number of ml of a
0.25 n NaOH solution necessary to neutralise 100 ml of
milk, using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Thörner degrees of acidity indicate the number of ml of a
0.1 n NAOH solution required to neutralise 100 ml of milk
to which two parts of water have been added. Phenol-
phthalein is used as an indicator.
Dornic degrees of acidity give the number of ml of a 119
n NAOH solution necessary to neutralise 100 ml of milk,
using phenolphthalein as an indicator Divided by 100,
the figure gives the percentage of lactic acid.
In the various methods of analysis, the milk is diluted to
different degrees, and it is therefore only possible to
make approximate comparisons of the various degrees of
acidity. However, working only from the amount of
2
NaOH used
3
and the normal acidity figure, the various degrees of acid-
ity can be compared as shown below:
Degrees Soxhlet- Approx. %

Thömer Dornic
of acidity Henkel lactic acid
2.5 1 2.5 2.25 0.0225
5.0 2 5.0 4.5 0.0450
7.5 3 7.5 6.75 0.0675
10.0 4 10.0 9.0 0.0900
12.5 5 12.5 11.25 0.1125
15.0 6 15.0 13.5 0.1350
17.5 7 17.5 15.75 0.1575
20.0 8 20.0 18.0 0.1800
22.5 9 22.5 20.25 0.2025
25.0 10 25.0 22.5 0.2250
27.5 11 27.5 24.75 0.2475
30.0 12 30.0 27.0 0.2700
Measurement of pH
The true acidity of a liquid is determined by its content of
hydrogen ions.
Acidity is measured in pH value, pH being the symbol used
to express the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration. For example, a solution with a hydrogen ion
concentration of 1:1,000 or 10-3 has a pH of 3. The
neutral point is pH
7.0. Values below 7.0 indicate acid reactions, and values
above 7.0 indicate alkaline reactions. A difference in pH
value of 1 represents a tenfold difference in acidity, ie, pH
5.5 shows a degree of acidity ten times higher than pH 6.5.
In milk, it is the pH value and not the titratable acidity that
controls the processes of coagulation, enzyme activity,
bacteria growth, reactions of colour indicators, taste, etc.
The pH value is measured by a pH-meter with a
combined glass electrode, and the system must always
be cali- brated properly before use.
The Phosphatase Test

The phosphatase test is used to control the effect of HTST
pasteurisation and batch pasteurisation of milk. Milk pas-
teurised by one of these methods must be healed in such a
way that, when the phosphatase test is applied, a maxi-
mum of 0.010 mg free phenol is liberated per ml milk.
However, the heat treatment must not be so effective that
the reaction of the milk to Storch’s test (peroxidase test)
is negative.
3
The phosphatase test is performed as follows:
Measure 1 ml milk into two test tubes, marked A and B.
Transfer test tube B to a 80"C water bath for 5 minutes
and then cool. To the milk in test tube A, add 5 ml distilled
water saturated with chloroform and 5 ml substrate solu-
tion (prepared by dissolving one small “Ewos” phos-
phatase tablet l in 25 ml of a solution consisting of 9.2 g
pure an- hydrous sodium carbonate and 13.6 g sodium
bi- carbonate in 1 litre distilled water saturated with
chloroform).
To test tube B, add 5 ml diluted phenol solution (0.010 mg
phenol in 5 ml) and 5 ml substrate solution. Shake both
test tubes and leave them in a water bath at 38-40°C for
one hour. Then, to both tubes, add exactly six drops of
phenol reagent (three “Ewos” phosphatase tablets II in 10
ml 93% alcohol), and shake the tubes vigorously. Leave
the two test tubes at room temperature for 15 minutes
and compare them. Only if the contents of test tube A
appear paler in colour than the contents of test tube B
can the milk be considered sufficiently heated.
If the milk fails this test, a sample for control testing
should be sent to an authorised research institute, which
will carry out the phosphatase test in such a way that
colour is extracted after incubation. The colour
extinction is a measure of the content of phenol and can
be measured in a Pullfricphotometer.
Standardisation of Whole Milk and Cream

In many countries, milk and cream sold for consumption
must contain a legally fixed fat percentage, although
slight variations are usually allowed.
In Denmark, for example, the fat content of heat-treated
whole milk must be 3.5% and 1.5% in low-fat milk. The
various types of cream must have a fat content of 9, 13,
18, or 36%, respectively.
In order to comply with these regulations, it is necessary
to standardise the fat content. This can be done in
various ways depending on the stage at which
standardisation is carried out.
Standardisation before or during heat treatment is to be
preferred as the danger of subsequent contamination is
thereby reduced. Standardisation will normally take place
automatically during the separating and pasteurising
process. It may, however, be done manually as a batch
process, in which case the table below may be used.
3
Table for standardisation of Whole Milk
% fat in % fat in standardised milk
whole
milk 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.00
4.5 12.7 15.6 18.7 21.9 25.4 30.00 32.8 36.9 41.3 45.9 50.8
4.4 10.1 13.0 16.0 19.2 22.5 26.00 29.9 33.8 38.1 42.6 47.5
4.3 7.6 10.4 13.3 16.4 19.7 23.2 26.9 30.8 34.9 39.3 44.1
4.2 5.1 7.8 10.7 13.7 16.9 20.3 23.9 27.7 31.7 36.1 40.7
4.1 2.5 5.2 8.0 11.00 14.0 17.4 20.9 24.6 28.6 32.8 37.3
4.0 2.6 5.3 8.2 11.3 14.5 17.9 21.5 25.4 29.5 33.9
3.9 0.38 2.7 5.5 8.5 11.6 14.9 18.5 22.2 26.2 30.5
3.8 0.77 0.38 2.7 5.6 8.70 11.9 15.4 19.0 23.0 27.1
3.7 1.15 0.77 0.38 2.8 5.80 9.0 12.3 15.9 19.7 23.7
3.6 1.54 1.15 0.76 0.38 2.90 6.0 9.2 12.7 16.4 20.3
3.5 1.92 1.53 1.15 0.76 0.38 3.0 6.1 9.5 13.1 16.90
3.4 2.31 1.92 1.53 1.14 0.76 0.38 3.1 6.3 9.8 13.60
3.3 2.69 2.30 1.91 1.52 1.14 0.75 0.38 3.1 6.6 10.2
3.2 3.08 2.68 2.29 1.90 1.52 1.13 0.75 0.37 3.3 6.8
3.1 3.46 3.07 2.67 2.28 1.89 1.51 1.13 0.75 0.37 3.4
3.0 3.85 3.45 3.05 2.66 2.27 1.89 1.50 1.12 0.75 0.37
The figures above the shaded lines indicate the amount

in kg of skimmilk to be added per 100 kg whole milk when
the fat content is too high.
The figures below the shaded lines indicate the amount in
kg of cream with 30% fat to be added per 100 kg whole
milk when the fat content is too low.
Batch Standardisation
For batch standardisation the following equations may be
used.
Fat content to be reduced:

To reduce the fat content in y kg whole milk, add x kg
skimmilk.
y (% fat in whole milk - % fat required)

x kg skimmilk = % fat required - % fat in skimmilk
To obtain z kg standardised milk, mix y kg whole milk with

x kg skimmilk.
z (% fat required - % fat in skimmilk)

y kg whole milk = % fat in whole milk - % fat in skimmilk
x kg skimmilk = z - y
Fat content to be increased:

To increase the fat content in y kg low-fat milk, add x kg
cream (or high-fat milk).
3
y (% fat required - % fat in low-fat milk)
x kg cream = % fat in cream - % fat required
To obtain z kg standardised milk, mix y kg low-fat milk with

x kg cream (or high-fat milk).
z (% fat in cream - % fat required

y kg low-fat milk = % fat in cream - % fat in low-fat milk
x kg cream = z - y
ln-line Standardisation
For in-line standardisation the following equations may be
used.
Fat content to be reduced:

To obtain z kg standardised milk, use y kg whole milk. Sur-
plus cream x kg.
y kg
z (% fat in surplus cream - % fat required)
whole =
% fat in surplus cream - % fat in whole milk
milk
x kg surplus cream = y - z
To obtain x kg surplus cream, use y kg whole milk. Stand-

ardised milk z kg.
y kg
z (% fat in cream - % fat in standardised milk)
whole =
% fat in whole milk - % fat in standardised milk
milk
z kg standardised milk = y - x
y kg whole milk used will result in z kg standardised milk

and x kg surplus cream.
z kg
y (% fat in surplus cream - % fat in shole milk)
stand. =
% fat in surplus cream - % fat in stand. milk
milk
x kg surplus cream = y - z
Fat content to be increased:

Standard in-line systems cannot be used for this purpose.
The fat content of skimmilk is normally estimated at
0.05%.
3
Standard Deviation
The accuracy of an automatic butter fat standardising unit
will commonly be expressed in the term Standard Devia-
tion (SD).
By stating a SD figure, it is guarantied that a certain per-

centage of the fat standardised milk will be kept within the
upper and lower limits, which are derived from the stand-
ard deviation figure (cf. the below table).
Guaranteed Percent within the Defects per Defects per

Sigma specification 1000 million
1o 68% 317.4 -
2o 95% 45.6 -
3o 99.73% 2.7 2,700
4o 99.99366% 0.063 63.4
5o 99.9999426% - 0.574
6o 99.9999998026% - 0.001974
It is assumed that the data are distributed normally!
99 ,9 9366%
99 ,7 3%
95 %
68 %
If for instance the SD figures for a fat value range from 1%

to 5% are:
SD of the automatic butter fat standardising unit: 0.015%

*) SD of the controlling lab instrument: 0.01%
Then the two SD figures shall be added as follows:
3
(SD of the automatic standardising system)2 + (SD on the mea
+2
0.01520.01 = 0.018%
The summarised SD will thus be = 0.018%
Conferring the above table, the accuracy to be obtained

will be as follows:
1o level: 68% of the production time the fat value will

lie within ± 0.018%
2o level: 95% of the production time the fat value will
3o level: 99.7% of the production time the fat value will
4o level: 99.99366% of the production time the fat value
will lie within ± 0.072%
The above accuracy figures can now be used to calculate

the fat value set point of the automatic standardising unit.
If a dairy for instance must guarantee minimum 3.4% fat

in 99.7% (3o) of the milk delivered, then the fat value set
point of the automatic standardising unit must be 3.4% +
0.054% = 3.454%
*) There is a degree of accuracy connected with the

measuring equipment. The supplier of the measuring
instrument expresses this by stating the standard
deviation of the measurements to be xxx%.
Calculating the Extent of Random Sampling

How many samples need to be taken in order to prove
that the standardising unit will comply with the granted
guarantees?
Various methods are available for calculating the extent

of a random sampling – this is a simple method.
From the below chart the relation between the Number of
Degree of Freedom Required (the number of samples
taken) to estimate the standard deviation within P% of Its
True Value with Confidence Coefficient μ can be read.
3
A Confidence Coefficient μ = 95 would normally apply for
the dairy and food industry.
Example (above example continued):

Verification of the SD guarantee of 0.018%:
- Number of samples 30 and
- Confidence Coefficient (μ = 95)
Referring to the below chart, 25% (P%) deviation from Its

True Value (0.0018%) must be allowed for.
Due to the analysis uncertainty, the calculated SD of the

30 random samples must thus be better than 0.018% +
25% = 0.023%.
Logically, if the number of samples is increased the

deviation (P%) from Its True Value to be allowed for will
narrow in. The magnitude hereof is illustrated in the
below exam- ples:
Number of Required SD
P%
samples in sample set
30 25% 0.023%
80 15% 0.021%
200 10% 0.020%
N (Total) 0% 0.018%
3
Chart T *): Number of Degrees of Freedom Required to
Estimate the Standard Deviation within P% of Its True
Value with Confidence Coefficient μ
1,000
800
600
500
400
300
200
Degrees of freedom μ
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
6 5 6810 20 304050
5
P%
*) Adapted with permission from Greenwood, J. A. and

Sandomire, M. M. (1950). “Statistics Manual, Sample
Size Required for Estimating the Standard Deviation as a
Per- cent of Its True Value”. Journal of the American
Statistical Association, vol. 45, p. 258. The manner of
graphing is adapted with permission from Crow, E. L.
Davis, F. A. and Maxfield, M. W. (1955). NAVORD Report
3369. NOTS 948,
U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, CA. (Re-
printed by Dover Publications, New York, 1960).
3
BUTTER
Composition of Butter
Butter must comply with certain regulations:
Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Min. 80% (82%)
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Max. 16%
Milk solids non-fat (MSNF) . . Max. 2%
Salt (NaCl):
Mildly salted . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 1%
Strongly salted . . . . . . . . . - 2%
Acidity:
Sweet cream butter..............pH 6.7
Cultured butter......................pH 4.6
Mildly cultured butter............pH 5.3
Buttermilk normally contains:

Sweet buttermilk . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-0.7% fat
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 8.5% MSNF
Cultured buttermilk . . . . . . . . 0.4-0.6% fat
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 8.3% MSNF
Yields
1 kg butter can be made from:
approx. 20 kg milk with 4.2% fat
- 2.2 kg cream with 38% fat
- 2.0 kg cream with 42% fat
Buttermaking
Buttermaking may be carried out either as a batch pro-
cess in a butter churn or as a continuous process in a
continuous buttermaking machine.
In addition to cream treatment, buttermaking comprises
the following stages:
(1) churning of cream into butter grains and buttermilk;

(2) separation of butter grains and buttermilk;
(3) working of the butter grains into a cohesive mass;
(4) addition and distribution of salt;
(5) adjustment and distribution of moisture;
(6) final working, under vacuum, to minimise the air con-
tent.
A continuous buttermaking machine has existed for many

years. It was invented by a German professor, Dr. Fritz.
However, this machine was deficient in a number of re-
spects. It could be used only for the treatment of sweet
3
cream, and there were problems with the production of
salted butter.
Invensys APV manufactures continuous buttermaking ma-

chines with capacities ranging from 500 kg to 12,000 kg
butter/hour.
The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking machine can
produce all types of butter: cultured and sweet, salted
and unsalted. Furthermore, the machine can produce
butter according to the “NIZO” as well as to the “IBC”
method. Blended products (e.g. Bregott) in which some of
the butter fat has been replaced by vegetable fats can
also be produced.
The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking machine
also guarantees that products are of the highest possible
quality, and that the operating economy is the best
obtainable. The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking
machine is designed according to the following
principles:
(1)The churning section is, in principle, designed in accord-

ance with the system of Dr. Fritz. The section consists of a
horizontal cylinder and a rotating beater. The beater
velocity is infinitely variable between 0 and 1,400 rpm.
Since the churning process lasts only 1-2 seconds, it is
important to adjust the beater velocity to obtain optimum
butter grain size. The moisture content of the butter and
the fat content of the buttermilk also depend on the beater
velocity.
(2) The separating section consists of a horizontal
rotating cylinder. The velocity is infinitely variable.
The first part of the cylinder is equipped with baffle plates
for further treatment of the mixture of butter grains and
buttermilk which is fed in from the churning section.
The second part of the cylinder is designed as a sieve for
buttermilk drainage. It is equipped with a very finely
meshed wire screen, which retains even small butter
grains. The buttermilk drainage from the butter grains is
very efficient and the rotation of the strainer drum
prevents butter clogging.
(3) The working section consists of two inclined sections
(I and II) with augers for transport of the butler, and
working elements in the form of perforated plates and
mixing vanes. The velocity of each of the two sections is
infinitely variable.
In the production of salted butter, a salt slurry (40-
4
60%) is pumped into working section I where it is
worked into the butter.
4
Butter Water
Buttermilk 1
4
3
(1) Churning section

(2) Separating section
(3) Working section
(4) Vacuum chamber
(5) Butter pump
The above is a diagram of Invensys APV’s continuous

buttermaking machine.
Any adjustment of the moisture content also takes place in

working section I. Water dosing is carried out automatically.
In order to reduce the air content in the butter from 5-6%
or more to below 0.5%, a vacuum chamber has been in-
serted between working sections I and II. When the butter
from working section l enters this chamber, it passes
through a double perforated plate from which it emerges
in very thin layers. This provides the best conditions for
escape of air. The butter leaves the machine through a
nozzle fitted at the end of working section II. Mounted on
the nozzle is a butter pump, which conveys the butter to
the butter silo.
Buttermaking according to the IBC method

(Indirect Biological Culturing)
This is a method for production of cultured butter from
sweet cream. After sweet cream churning and buttermilk
drainage, a so-called D starter, which has a high diacetyl
(aroma) content, is worked into the butter. Also, lactic
acid has been added to this starter, producing a pH
reduction in addition to the aroma, Furthermore, an
ordinary B starter is worked into the butter to obtain the
correct moisture content. When salted butter is
produced, the salt is mixed into the D starter.
4
A similar production method is the well known “NIZO”
method.
The above methods provide for more flexible cream treat-
ment since the incubation temperatures for the starters
do not have to be taken into account. Besides, the
production of cultured buttermilk is avoided (sweet
buttermilk is much more usable in other products than
cultured buttermilk). Finally, butter produced according
to this method has a longer shelf life.
Calculating Butter Yield

The yield of butter from whole milk can be calculated us-
ing the following equations. (Loss and overweight are not
considered.).
kg milk x (% fat in milk - % fat in skimmilk)

kg cream = % fat in cream - % fat in skimmilk
kg cream x (% fat in cream - % fat in buttermilk)

kg butter = % fat in butter - % fat in buttermilk
If the fat percentage in skimmilk, buttermilk and butter is

not known, the following estimated values rnay be used:
Skimmilk = 0.05% fat

Buttermilk = 0.4% fat
Butter = 82.5% fat
Churning Recovery
The churning recovery value (CRV) is equal to the
amount of fat remaining in the buttermilk expressed as a
percentage of the total fat content of the cream before
churning. It can be worked out from the following
equation:
(100-7/6 x % fat in cream) x % fat in buttermilk

CRV = % fat in cream
In other words, the only data required are the cream and
buttermilk fat percentages.
4
Churning Recovery Table
% fat
% fat in buttermilk
in
cream 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
30.5 0.21 0.42 0.63 0.85 1.06 1.27 1.48 1.69 1.90
31.0 0.21 0.41 0.62 0.82 1.03 1.24 1.44 1.65 1.85
31.5 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.21 1.41 1.61 1.81
32.0 0.20 0.39 0.59 0.78 0.98 1.18 1.37 1.57 1.76
32.5 0.19 0.38 0.57 0.76 0.96 1.15 1.34 1.53 1.72
33.3 0.19 0.37 0.56 0.75 0.93 1.12 1.31 1.49 1.68
33.5 0.18 0.36 0.55 0.73 0.91 1.09 1.27 1.46 1.64
34.0 0.18 0.35 0.53 0.71 0.89 1.07 1.24 1.42 1.60
34.5 0.17 0.35 0.52 0.69 0.87 1.04 1.21 1.39 1.56
35.0 0.17 0.34 0.51 0.68 0.85 1.01 1.18 1.35 1.52
35.5 0.16 0.33 0.50 0.66 0.83 0.99 1.16 1.32 1.49
36.0 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.81 0.97 1.13 1.29 1.45
36.5 0.16 0.31 0.47 0.63 0.79 0.94 1.10 1.26 1.42
37.0 0.15 0.31 0.46 0.61 0.77 0.92 1.08 1.23 1.38
37.5 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35
38.0 0.14 0.29 0.44 0.59 0.73 0.88 1.03 1.17 1.32
38.5 0.14 0.29 0.43 0.57 0.72 0.86 1.00 1.14 1.29
39.0 0.14 0.28 0.42 0.56 0.70 0.84 0.98 1.12 1.26
39.5 0.14 0.27 0.41 0.55 0.68 0.82 0.96 1.09 1.23
40.0 0.13 0.27 0.40 0.53 0.67 0.80 0.93 1.07 1.20
40.5 0.13 0.26 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.78 0.91 1.04 1.17
41.0 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.51 0.64 0.76 0.89 1.02 1.15
41.5 0.12 0.25 0.37 0.50 0.62 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.12
42.0 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.49 0.61 0.73 0.85 0.97 1.09
42.5 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.47 0.59 0.71 0.83 0.95 1.07
43.0 0.12 0.23 0.35 0.46 0.58 0.70 0.81 0.93 1.04
43.5 0.11 0.23 0.34 0.45 0.56 0.68 0.79 0.91 1.02
44.0 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 1.00
44.5 0.11 0.22 0.32 0.43 0.54 0.65 0.76 0.86 0.97
45.0 0.11 0.21 0.32 0.42 0.53 0.63 0.74 0.84 0.95
The result can also be taken from a table that has been
worked out on the basis of Report No. 38 from the Danish
Government Dairy Research Institute. See below.
4
Table for adjustment of Moisture Content in Butter
Addition of water in kg per 100 kg butter when the
% water
desired % moisture is as follows:
present 16.0 15.9 15.8 15.7 15.6 15.5
15.9 0.12
15.8 0.24 0.12
15.7 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.6 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.5 0.59 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.4 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.3 0.83 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.35 0.24
15.2 0.94 0.83 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.35
15.1 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71 0.59 0.47
15.0 1.18 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71 0.59
14.9 1.29 1.18 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71
14.8 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.06 0.94 0.82
14.7 1.52 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.06 0.94
14.6 1.64 1.52 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.05
14.5 1.75 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.29 1.17
14.4 1.87 1.75 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.29
14.3 1.98 1.87 1.75 1.63 1.52 1.40
14.2 2.10 1.98 1.87 1.75 1.63 1.52
14.1 2.21 2.10 1.98 1.86 1.75 1.63
14.0 2.33 2.21 2.09 1.98 1.86 1.74
13.9 2.44 2.32 2.21 2.09 1.97 1.86
13.8 2.55 2.44 2.32 2.20 2.09 1.97
13.7 2.67 2.55 2.43 2.32 2.20 2.09
13.6 2.78 2.66 2.55 2.43 2.32 2.20
13.5 2.89 2.78 2.66 2.54 2.43 2.31
13.4 3.00 2.89 2.77 2.66 2.54 2.43
13.3 3.11 3.00 2.88 2.77 2.65 2.54
13.2 3.22 3.11 3.00 2.88 2.77 2.65
13.1 3.34 3.22 3.11 2.99 2.88 2.76
13.0 3.45 3.33 3.22 3.10 2.99 2.87
12.9 3.56 3.44 3.33 3.22 3.10 2.99
12.8 3.67 3.56 3.44 3.33 3.21 3.10
12.7 3.78 3.67 3.55 3.44 3.32 3.21
12.6 3.89 3.78 3.66 3.55 3.43 3.32
12.5 4.00 4.89 3.77 3.66 3.54 3.43
12.4 4.11 4.00 3.88 3.77 3.65 3.54
12.3 4.22 4.11 3.99 3.88 3.76 3.65
12.2 4.33 4.21 4.10 3.99 3.87 3.76
12.1 4.44 4.32 4.21 4.10 3.98 3.87
12.0 4.55 4.43 4.32 4.21 4.09 3.98
4
Adjusting Moisture Content in Butter
Conventional Churns
The churning of the cream should be carried out in such
a way that the moisture content of the butter is slightly
below the maximum permitted amount. A test of the
moisture content should be made as soon as the butter
has been worked sufficiently.
When the amount of butler is known, the table above can
be used.
If desired, the following equation may also be used:
kg butter x (% MD - % MP)
kg water to be added = 100 - % MP
where: MD = Moisture desired

MP = Moisture present
Continuous Buttermaking Machines

The churning of the cream should be carried out in
such a way that the moisture content of the butter -
without any addition of water - is below the maximum
permitted amount.
The moisture content of the butter and the regulation of
the water dosing pump will normally be automatically
controlled.
When salted butter is manufactured, a salt slurry is con-
tinuously dosed into the butter. This, however, will in-
crease the moisture content of the butter, reducing the
amount of water to be added.
Determination of Salt Content in Butter

There are several ways of determining the salt content of
butter. The analysis can most conveniently be carried out
with a 10-gramme sample that has already been used for
determination of the moisture content of the butter.
The butter is melted and poured into a 150 ml beaker.
The butter residue is washed into the beaker by means of
50- 100 ml of water at 70°C. After addition of 10 drops of
saturated potassium chromate solution, titration takes
place with the use of a 0.17 n silver nitrate solution
(AgNO3), added gradually until the colour changes from
yellow to brownish. The salt content is then determined in
accord- ance with the following equation:
ml of silver nitrate solution used x 0.1 = percentage of salt.
4
lodine Value and Refractive Index
The iodine value is defined as the number of grammes of
iodine that can be absorbed in 100 g butterfat. The refrac-
tive index stales the angle of refraction measured in a so-
called refractometer, when a ray of light passes from the air
through melted butterfat. Both the iodine value and the re-
fractive index are an indication of the content of unsatu-
rated fatty acids (the most important being oleic acid),
which have a lower melting point than saturated fatty acids.
The relation between the iodine value and the refractive
index is given in the table below.
Iodine value Refractive Index

26 40.6
27 40.9
28 41.2
Hard fat 29 41.4
30 41.7
31 42.0
32 42.2
33 42.5
34 42.7
35 43.0
36 43.3
37 43.5
38 43.8
Soft fat 39 44.1
40 44.3
41 44.6
42 44.8
Fluctuations in lodine Value and Temperature

Treatment of Cream
Milk fat contains, on average, 35% oleic acid (iodine
value approx. 35), but this percentage is subject to large
sea- sonal fluctuations: the iodine value is high in the
summer and low in the winter.
The iodine value depends primarily on the fat content of
the feed and on the composition and melting point of this
fat. It is therefore possible to influence the iodine value
and thereby the firmness of the butter through feeding. It
is usually difficult to regulate the various ingredients that
make up coarse feed. Roots, for example, give hard and
brittle butter, while grass and hay give butter of a good
consistency. On the other hand, concentrated feed should
4
be chosen only after taking into account the fat content
and particularly the composition of the fat (iodine value).
For example, feeding with soya beans, linseed and rape
seed cakes, etc, gives butterfat with a high iodine value,
whereas the iodine value is lower when feeding with
coco- nut and palm cakes.
Other conditions being equal, Jersey cows yield butterfat
with a lower iodine value than, for example, Holsteins, but
this difference can be adjusted by choosing the right
feed. By means of temperature treatment of the cream, it
is possible to change the structure of the butter in order
to im- prove its consistency. The temperatures used
should be determined partly on the basis of the iodine
value of the butterfat and partly on the basis of the
temperature at which the butter will be consumed. It is
therefore necessary for the creamery to know the iodine
value of the butterfat used, and this value should be
determined once a month.
In periods with iodine values above 35, the 19-16-8
method or a modification, for example, 23-12-8, should
be used.
In periods with iodine values below 32, the 8-19-16
method or a modification, for example, 8-20-12, should
be used.
In transitional periods (iodine values between 32 and 35),
a 12-19-12 treatment can be used in the autumn,
whereas in the spring, the normal high iodine treatment
should be started straightaway.
4
CHEESE
Cheese Varieties
It would be an almost impossible task to list all cheese
types. Below are possible classifications of cheese types:
Yellow cheese: Cheese produced from cow’s milk.
White cheese: Cheese produced from ewe’s and

goat’s milk, in which the fat does not
contain carotene.
Mould cheese: Blue veined cheese: Stilton, Roque-

fort, Danablu.
White surface ripened cheese:
Camembert, Brie.
Fresh cheese: Unripened cheese: Queso Fresco,

Quarg, Cottage Cheese etc.
Pasta Filata: Mozzarella, Pizza Cheese, Provolone,

Kashkaval, etc.
Hard cheese: Emmental, Parmesan, Cheddar, etc.
Semi-hard cheese: Gouda, Samsoe, Fontal, etc.
Semi-soft cheese: Tilsit, Danbo, Butterkäse, Limburger,

etc.
Soft cheese: Port Salut, Bel Paese, Feta, etc.
However, many cheeses are characterised solely by their

name. As an addition, the fat content of the cheese is of-
ten indicated, and very rarely the content of total solids
(TS) in the cheese is also stated.
The fat content of the cheese states the fat in the cheese
as a percentage of the TS content (50+, 45+, 30+, 20+).
Furthermore, the designations “Full-Fat”, “Reduced Fat”
and “Half Fat” are used, which means that the cheeses
contain 50-53% fat in TS, 36-39% fat in TS and 26-29%
fat in TS respectively.
The TS content of the cheese normally varies between
65% (Cheddar) and 40% (Feta), but it is constant for
each type of cheese.
4
Cheesemaking
The feature common to all cheesemaking is that rennet is
added to the milk, rennet being an enzyme that makes
the milk coagulate and the coagulum contract, which, in
turn, causes whey exudation, so-called syneresis.
Thus, the cheesemilk is separated into curd (cheese) and
whey.
CHEESE: 10-15% of the milk

Fat: 89-94% of the milk fat
Protein: 74-77% of the milk proteins
approx. 100% of the milk casein
WHEY: 85-90% of the milk
Fat: 6-11% of the milk
fat
Protein: 23-26% of the milk proteins, incl. NPN*
MSNF**: 6.5% of whey is MSNF
* non-protein nitrogen
** milk solids non-fat
Standardisation of Cheesemilk and Calculation of

Cheese Yield
The standardisation of cheesemilk has two separate ob-
jectives:
(1) To obtain cheese with a composition that complies
with the agreed standards.
(2) To obtain the most economic use of milk components
consistent with consumer demands.
The two main elements in the standardisation of the fat

percentage of cheese milk are:
(1) The protein percentage of the cheesemilk. The higher
the protein percentage, the higher the fat percentage.
(2) The fat content required in the desired cheese type.
The table below can be used as a guideline for fat stand-

ardisation.
5
Whole 45% fat 40% fat 30% fat 20% fat 10% fat
milk in TS in TS in TS in TS in TS
% whole milk
% whole milk
% whole milk
% whole milk
% whole milk
cheesemilk
cheesemilk
cheesemilk
cheesemilk
cheesemilk
% protein
% fat in
% fat in
% fat in
% fat in
% fat in
% fat
4.3 3.55 3.20 75 2.75 64 1.71 39 1.03 23 0.51 10.8

4.2 3.50 3.20 76 2.70 64 1.69 40 1.02 23 0.51 11.0
4.1 3.45 3.15 77 2.70 65 1.67 40 1.01 24 0.50 11.1
4.0 3.40 3.10 77 2.65 66 1.65 40 1.00 24 0.50 11.2
3.9 3.35 3.05 78 2.60 67 1.65 41 1.00 24 0.49 11.3
3.8 3.30 3.05 80 2.60 68 1.60 41 0.95 24 0.49 11.6
3.7 3.25 3.00 81 2.55 69 1.60 42 0.95 24 0.48 11.6
3.8 3.20 2.95 82 2.50 70 1.55 42 0.90 24 0.47 11.7
3.5 3.15 2.95 84 2.50 71 1.55 43 0.90 25 0.47 12.0
Example 1:
The cheesemilk contains: 3.3% protein
The cheese is to contain: 45% fat in TS
In the column “Whole milk” of the table, a value of 3.3%
protein is found. From the column “45% fat in TS” it ap-
pears that the milk must be standardised to a fat content
of 3.05%.
In case the protein content of the milk is not known, it is

possible to make an approximate calculation of the pro-
tein percentage of the milk by using the following equa-
tion:
0.5 x fat% + 1.4 = protein%
thus, for example,
0.5 x 3.8% + 1.4 = 1.9 + 1.4 = 3.3% protein.
The table is arranged in such a way that it can also be

used in case only the fat content of the non-standardised
milk is known.
Example 2:
The non-standardised milk contains: 4%fat
The cheese is to contain: 40% fat in TS
In the column “Whole milk” of the table, a value of 4.0%

fat is found. From the column “40% fat in TS” it appears
that the milk must be standardised to 2.65% fat.
Furthermore,
5
5
it can be seen that this is obtained by mixing 66% non-
standardised milk with a fat content of 4.0% with 34%
skimmilk.
Cheese samples should be analysed regularly to make

sure that the cheesemilk has contained the correct per-
centage of fat, and this should be adjusted on the basis
of the chemical composition of the milk, which varies with
the seasons.
It is important that care is taken when stirring the cheese-
milk and when carrying out the fat analysis, as a reading
error of 0.1% means an error of 1.5% fat in TS in a 45%
cheese, and more in cheeses of the low-fat type.
If samples are taken for analysis of fresh, unsalted
cheese, it must be taken into account that the salt
increases the TS in the cheese by approximately 2%,
reducing the fat in TS by approximately 1.5%.
The final determination of fat in TS can only be carried
out after 4-6 weeks when the salt has spread throughout
the cheese, but even then, variations of more than 1% fat
in TS can be found in cheeses from the same vat. It is
therefore advisable to operate with a safety margin of at
least 1% for ripened cheese and consequently 1.5%
more for the fresh cheese.
Instead of using the table for adjusting the fat content in
the cheesemilk, the actual fat percentage can be calcu-
lated. Several equations can be used for this calculation,
but the one used in the following gives a very high degree
of accuracy.
(1) Cheese to be produced:

Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5%
Fat in TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.0%
Salt (NaCl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5%
(2) Raw milk:

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0%
Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4%
(3) Retention figures:

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.0%
Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.5%
Protein in MSNF in cheese . . 87.6%
(4) Calculations:
5
(4.1) Cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0% = 1,000.0 g
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5% = 415.0 g
TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.5% = 585.0 g
Fat in TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.0% = 298.4 g
Solids non-fat . . . . . . . . . . . . = 286.6 g

Salt (NaCl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5% = 15.0 g
MSNF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 271.6 g
Protein in MSNF . . . . . . . . . . 87.6% = 237.9 g
(4.2) Kg milk/kg cheese:

Fat Protein
1,000 g cheese: 298.4 g = 91% 237.9 g = 76.5%

Whey: 29.5 g = 9% 73.1 g = 23.5%
Cheesemilk: 327.9 g =100% 311.0 g = 100.0%

3.4 x 100
Protein in fat-free milk = = 3.54%
(100 - 4)
Per 1,000 g cheese:
Fat-free 311.0 x 100

milk = 3.54 = 8,785.3 g
Fat................................= 327.9 g
Cheesemilk...................= 9,113.2 g
= 9.1132 kg milk/kg cheese
(4.3) Fat percentage in cheesemilk:
327.9 x 100
9.113 = 3.60%
(4.4) Cheese yield:

100
= 10.97%
9.113
5
Equations often used for the calculation of cheese yields are:
(0.9 F + 0.78 P - 0.1) x 1.09

Cheddar Y= 1-M
(0.88 F + 0.78 P - 0.02) x 1.12

Mozzarella: Y = 1-M
(0.77 F + 0.78 P - 0.2) x 1.10

Cheddar Y= 1-M
where: Y = Yield in per cent

F = Fat percentage in milk
P = Protein percentage in milk
M = Moisture per kg cheese, 38% = 0.38 kg
Cheese yield is influenced by the loss of fat and curd

fines in the whey. However, with modem production
equipment and correct processing technology, it is
possible to reduce the fat loss to less than 7.0% and the
loss of curd fines to approx. 100 mg/kg whey.
Utilisation Value of Skimmilk in Cheesemaking

For this calculation, the figures from the cheese yield cal-
culation are used as an example:
kg cheesemilk per kg cheese..................................9.1132

kg fat in cheesemilk.................................................0.3279
kg skimmilk..............................................................8.7853
kg fat in whey...........................................................0.0295
kg whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1132 -1.000 = 8.1132
0.0295 x 100 = 0.36%
fat in whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........
8.1132
The fat in whey may be reduced to 0.05% by means of

separation.
In the following example, the values used are:

Cheese = 22.75 krone/kg*
Whey = 0.05 krone/kg
Butter fat = 30.30 krone/kg
* 1 Danish krone = 100 øre
5
Income per kg cheese:
1 kg cheese.............................2,275.0 øre
8.11 kg whey at 5.0 øre/kg . 40.5 øre
fat from whey separation:

8.11 x (0.36 -0.05)
x 3.030 = 76.2 øre 2,391.7 øre
100
Costs per kg cheese:

butter value 0.3279 x 3,030 = 993.5 øre
operating costs..........................420.0 øre
whey separation 8.11 x 0.25 = 2.0 øre 1,415.5 øre
Value of skimmilk per kg cheese.....................976.2 øre

976.2
Utilisation value of skimmilk ........... = 111.1 øre
8.7853
Strength, Acidity and Temperature of Brine for Salt-

ing
The saturated brine which is normally used for salting
cheese occasionally produces too hard a rind, but this
can be counteracted by using a weaker solution. The
solution should, however, contain at least 20% salt,
corresponding to 10°BÈ. The strength of the brine should
be checked every day: otherwise there is a risk that the
solution may become too weak. If this happens, the
cheese protein ex- uded through the whey will quickly
decompose, and the increase in the growth of bacteria
will cause defects not only in the rind but also in the
interior of the cheese.
The strength of the brine should be measured with a hy-

drometer indicating degrees Baumè. When the brine has
been in use for a certain time, the hydrometer will show a
deviation of 1-2°BÈ because of the substances dissolved
in the brine. In practice, this means that, when measuring
the strength of a 2-3 months old brine solution, degrees
Baumè can be considered equal to the salt percentage.
The acidity of the brine should be about the same as that of
the cheese, i.e. approx. pH 5.2, but in a freshly made solu-
tion it will usually be somewhat higher depending upon the
acidity of the water supply. It will usually take a week for the
acidity to fail to the desired pH level, but to avoid any risk of
damaging the cheese rinds during this time, the pH value
should immediately be brought to the desired level by the
5
addition of hydrochloric acid to the solution. By means of a
5
simple analysis of the creamery’s water supply, any labora-
tory will be able to state the amount of hydrochloric acid
required.
The temperature of the brine, in particular, controls the
speed at which the salt is absorbed by the cheese, and
should be 10-12°C the whole year round. It is therefore
often necessary to cool the brine in the summer and heat
it in the winter.
Strictly speaking, brine can be used for an indefinite time
provided that the content of saltpetre (KNO3) or bacteria
and moulds does not become too high.
If the brine contains considerably more than 100,000 bac-
teria or moulds per ml, it should be sterilised by boiling or
by adding 1/2 litre sodium hypochlorite per 1,000 litres
brine. Sodium hypochlorite can also be added regularly
once a month, and this will ensure that the content of
harmful bacteria in the brine is kept low. When used for
the manufacture of rindless cheese, the brine should be
sterilised regularly.
5
MEMBRANE FILTRATION
Definitions
Membrane filtration processes are pressure-driven mo-
lecular separation processes to obtain either concentra-
tion, fractionation, clarification and/or even a sterilisation
of a liquid. The separation is determined by the
membrane characteristics (molecular weight cut-off value
– MWCO) and the molecular size of the individual
components present in the liquid.
Membrane filtration changes the volume and/or the com-

position of a liquid, as the feed is divided into two new liq-
uids of altered chemical/microbiological composition:
1) the retentate (what is rejected and concentrated by the
membrane, e.g. proteins) and
2) the permeate (i.e. filtrate, what is passing through the
membrane, e.g. water and minerals).
The volume of permeate produced by a certain

membrane surface area per hour is called flux (measured
in l/m2/h or simply “lmh”). The volumetric concentration
factor (VCF or CF) is the ratio between the incoming feed
volume and the outcoming retentate volume.
Rejection is 100%, when the component is fully concen-
trated by the membrane (cannot pass the membrane),
and the rejection is 0%, when the component passes
freely through the membrane, giving an identical
concentration on both sides of the membrane.
The driving pressure is the transmembrane pressure

(TMP), which is the pressure difference between the
mean pressure on the retentate side (high) and the mean
pressure on the permeate side (low or zero).
All membrane filtration processes are cross-flow filtration

(feed flow parallel to the membrane surface, also called
tangential flow), since a high velocity and shear rate
across the membrane surface is essential to prevent
build-up of retained materials, which reduces run times
and flux and may alter the separation characteristics.
High cross-flow velocities are especially important in UF
and MF systems.
Membrane Processes
Concentration: In true concentration all total solids are re-
5
tained since only water can pass through the membrane
(as in evaporation and drying processes). Example: Re-
verse Osmosis (RO).
Fractionation: Changing the chemical composition by

concentrating some components, while others remain un-
changed. Example: Nanofiltration (NF), Ultrafiltration
(UF), Microfiltration fractionation (MFF).
Clarification: Changing a turbid liquid into a clear solution

by removing all suspended and turbid particles. Example:
Ultrafiltration (UF) and Microfiltration (MF)
Sterilisation: Removing all microorganisms from a liquid.

Example: Microfiltration (MF).
Reverse Osmosis
In reverse osmosis practically all total solids components
are rejected by the membrane allowing only water to
pass through the membrane. Since also practically all
ions (apart from H+ and OH-) are rejected by the
membrane, the osmotic pressure in the retentate will
increase, why high- pressure pumps are needed to
overcome the osmotic pressure. The amount of permeate
produced is often re- ferred to as “recovery”. 90%
recovery means that 90% of the feed is recovered as
permeate (equal to 10x concentration).
Low molecular components like organic acids and NPN-

components are not fully rejected by the membrane, es-
pecially when they appear uncharged (non-ionic),
typically in acidic environments. This is the reason why
COD levels in the permeate are higher processing acid
products (e.g. lactic acid whey) compared to sweet
products (e.g. sweet whey).
Max. achievable solids by RO are in the range of 17-23%

TS for whey and UF permeates.
6
RO NF UF MFF MF
Pore size
0.1 - 1 0.5 - 2 5 - 100 50 - 200 800 - 1400
(nm)
MWCO < 100 100 - 500 5,000 - 20,000
Typical
pressure 30 - 40 20 - 30 3-8 0.1 - 0.8 0.1 - 0.8
(bar)
Typical temp.
10 - 30 10 - 30 10 or 50 50 50
(°C)
Protein Bacteria
Deminerali- Protein
fractionation removal
Applications Concentration sation/ concentration
Whey fat Cheese milk
concentration (WPC/MPC)
removal ESL milk
(WPI)
Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration is very similar to the RO process, but the
NF membranes are slightly more open than in
conventional reverse osmosis. Nanofiltration allows
passage of monovalent ions like Na +, K+ and Cl-,
whereas divalent ions like Mg++ and Ca++ are rejected by
the membrane. In this way the nanofiltration process
demineralises the feed by typical 30-40%. The degree
of demineralisation is the %removal of minerals (or ash)
from the feed to the permeate. Since some of the
monovalent ions are removed from the retentate, the
osmotic pressure will be lower than for conventional
RO. For this reason it is possible to obtain higher
%TS in the retentate compared to the RO process.
Max. achievable solids by NF are in the range of 21-25%

TS for whey and UF permeates.
Example of NF mass balance of UF permeate from chee-

se whey (indicative):
Nanofiltration UF permeate Retentate Permeate
True protein% 0.01 0.04 0.0
NPN% 0.2 0.4 0.1
Lactose% 4.6 16.0 0.2
Acids% 0.2 0.6 0.02
Total ash% 0.5 1.0 0.3
Total solids% 5.5 18.0 0.6
Capacity kg/h 10,000. 2,820 7,180
6
Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration has many applications, but basically it is a
process for concentration of protein (and milk fat).
In the dairy ingredients industry UF is used for

concentration of whey proteins from whey into WPC
products or for concentrating milk proteins from skim milk
into MPC products. The protein content may be
concentrated up to 23-27% protein, and in many cases
the retentate can be spray dried directly without an
evaporation step. Diafiltration is necessary for higher purity
products like WPC 80 (80% protein in the powder or in the
solids). In diafiltration, water is added to the retentate to
increase “washing out” of dissolved substances like lactose
and minerals to the permeate.
UF of whey for the production of WPC retentates (a fat

removal step is essential for producing WPI):
Composition Whey WPC 35 WPC 55 WPC 70 WPC 80 WPI 90
Protein% 0.8 3.3 8.3 17.9 23.3 23.3
Lactose% 4.6 4.9 4.7 4.0 1.7 1.3
Ash% 0.5 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.5
Fat% 0.06 0.3 0.8 1.7 2.3 0.2
TS% 6.0 9.0 14.5 24.7 28.1 25.4
VCF ratio 1x 5x 13x 29x 38x 38x

Diafiltration - - - - + +
Ultrafiltration of cheese milk

Protein standardisation: The protein content in the
cheese milk is increased (e.g. from 3.2% up to 4.0-4.5%).
When this method is used, traditional cheesemaking
equipment may be used after UF and the cheesemaking
technology involved is largely the same as that used in
the traditional cheesemaking. The advantages of this
method are sav- ings in cheese rennet, and higher and
more standardised cheese yields (throughput capacity) in
existing cheese equipment.
Total concentration: Total concentration is a process in

which the TS content in the retentate and in the fresh
cheese is the same, i.e. a cheese process without whey
drainage. This method is used for fresh cheeses like
Quarg, Cream Cheese, Queso Fresco and Cast Feta.
Ymer, Yoghurt and Pate Fraiche may also be produced by
total UF concentration.
6
Microfiltration
Basically, there are two microfiltration processes:
Bacteria removal/”cold sterilisation” (MF) and
fractionation (also called microfiltration fractionation –
MFF). In microfiltration applications it is important to
operate with low TMP (< 1 bar).
Bacteria removal (MF)

In “Cold sterilisation” using ceramic membranes with 1.4
micron pore size, it is possible to achieve a 3.0-4.0 log re-
duction of total plate counts. Feed liquids which can be
processed are skim milk, whey and WPC. Whole milk
cannot be microfiltered due to the presence of milk fat
globules, which may block the MF pores. Since only
bacteria are removed, this means theoretically no
fractionation takes place. However, aggregated protein
particles/micelles and large fat globules may be partially
rejected by the membrane.
With MF it is possible to produce ESL milk with shelf life

up to 28 days at 5°C, or to combine MF with HHT/UHT
processes, where the UHT thermal load can be reduced
(since MF remove HRS spores) to make new types of
market milk products. For cheese milk, MF is used to
remove Clostridia spores so nitrate addition to the cheese
milk can be avoided. For raw milk cheese (of non-
pasteurised milk), MF operating at <40°C removes critical
patogenic bacteria like Listeria and Salmonella by app. 3-
3.5 log reduction.
Cheese brine can also be clarified and sanitised, but for

this application SW/organic membranes are often used
instead of ceramics. Cheese brines may often contain a
large number of yeast and mould, but by means of MF
the content can be reduced to < 10/ml without changing
the chemical composition of the brine (which happens
during pasteurisation).
Fractionation (MFF)
In the protein fractionation processes using ceramic mem-
branes with 0.1 micron pore size, large proteins (casein mi-
celles) are separated from the small soluble proteins (whey
proteins). In this way it is possible to concentrate the mi-
celles, which may have applications in production of
cheese, fermented products and modified MPC powder. It
may be possible to produce caseinate only using
6
membranes.
6
In the whey-defatting process a similar membrane is used
to remove all fat and aggregated whey proteins from whey
or WPC products so as to produce WPI products with less
than 1% fat in the powder. Since the pore size is very small
for fractionation processes, the permeate is theoretically
sterile. During the defatting process, a protein loss to the
retentate should be expected. The protein recovery may
be in the range of 70-85%. Invensys APV holds a patent
to increase the recovery (> 85%).
Invensys APV presently holds four patents in MF applica-

tions:
1) special handling of retentate to avoid heat treating
2) special MF module (UTP design) made solely of stain-
less steel
3) double microfiltration to increase food safety
4) whey defatting with high protein recovery
Pre-treatments
Membranes (especially SW elements) are sensitive to sus-
pended particles, and cleaning of the membranes may be
difficult if these particles are not removed before the mem-
brane filtration plant. Therefore a clarification step for whey
is necessary to remove cheese fines, and a separator is
necessary to remove whey fat. It is also recommended to
pasteurise the feed to prevent high bacteria counts in the
retentate. A bag filter or metal strainer may also be
installed to protect membranes from large particles in the
feed.
Calcium phosphate precipitation may occur when con-

centrating dairy liquids. This phenomenon can be pre-
vented by lowering the pH (pH adjustment to 5.9-6.0), re-
ducing temperature and avoiding high VCF.
Capacity, Run Time and Fouling

A membrane is always exposed to fouling, which will
lower the permeate flux and thus the plant capacity. In
RO/NF processes this fouling may be compensated by
gradually increasing the pressure (TMP) to ensure con-
stant plant capacity. This is more difficult for UF mem-
branes, since raising the feed pressure will increase the
flux for a short period only, after which it drops back again
to the level obtained before the feed pressure was raised.
A UF plant may start up at 20-50% higher capacity than
the designed, average capacity. Usually after 3-4 hours
6
the average capacity is reached and in the remaining pro-
6
duction time, the flux decrease will be less significant. To
obtain constant capacity, overflowing of initial surplus per-
meate into the feed tank or putting some loops on hold
are ways of compensating for the fouling and the reduced
plant capacity. Microfiltration plants are usually operated
at a constant capacity, since the TMP is minimised to
avoid fouling.
Run times are usually 8-10 hours for warm processes

(50°C) and 16-20 hours for cold processes (10°C).
Fouling, bacteria concentrations (or even growth) or/and
compaction of boundary layer (e.g. protein gel layer or
fat, which may alter separation characteristics) are
limiting to run times.
Membrane Elements
Membranes are either made of polymers (organic) or ce-
ramics (inorganic). The organic membranes are typically
made as a spiral-wound element, and ceramic mem-
branes are typically made as tubular elements.
Organic Membranes
Spiral-wound elements (SW) are most often used, since
they are cheapest per square metre, compact, easy to re-
place and follow standardised dimensions. However, they
are not suitable for liquids containing large number of
suspended particles, which may be trapped inside the
element construction (spacer net), or very viscous
products. The elements are 3.8" (4"), 6.3" (6") or 8.0" (8")
in diameter and the length is 38" or 40". An element
designated with the term “3840” means 3.8" diameter and
40" long. The elements can also be divided according to
the height of the spacer net, which is designated in “mil”
(1/1000 of an inch). If the viscosity of the liquid increases,
which is hap- pening during protein concentration, the
spacer height must be selected accordingly.
6
The following table summarises modules and their ap-
proximate membrane area:
Element type 4" (3840) 6" (6338) 8" (8040)
Membrane type RO/NF/UF/MF UF/MF RO/NF
32 mil (0.8 mm) 7.4 m2 20 m2 32 m2
48 mil (1.2 mm) 5.6 m2 16 m2 25 m2
64 mil (1.6 mm) 4.6 m 2
13 m 2
20 m2
80 mil (2.0 mm) 3.5 m2 10 m2 16 m2
100 mil (2.5 mm) - 8 m2 -
SW loop configurations
SW elements are operated with a pressure drop of 0.8-1.2
bar per element (for 8" elements max. 0.6 bar). To avoid tel-
escoping of the spiral, an ATD must be placed at the end
and between the elements. SW elements can be mounted in
se- ries inside a housing (also called pressure vessel or
module). Spacer height, flux curves, pump performances
and pressure drops determine the configuration of a SW
plant.
Plate & frame (P&F), module 37 (M37) is the only P&F

module still in use and only for high viscosity products
like cream cheese (Philadelphia type). This module can
go high in protein% (more than 29%), when operated with
a positive pump up to 12 bar. The crossflow rate should
be 25 l/plate/min.
When assembling new membranes, the module should be
compressed applying 240kN (or 24 tons) of pressure (or
until the module stops leaking!). The M37 module is in-
creasingly challenged by newer module types, like specially
designed SW elements and tubular ceramic membranes.
Inorganic Membranes (Ceramics)

Unlike the polymeric membranes (especially RO/NF), the
ceramic material is very resistant to heat and chemicals,
and ceramic membranes will last for typically 5-10 years
or more. However, they are much more expensive, and
generally require more pumping energy. Due to the ce-
ramic nature, they are sensitive to mechanical vibrations
(should always be installed vertically) and thermal shock.
Tubular membranes
Invensys APV’s experience is largely based on the French
“Exekia” membrane (formerly SCT). The membranes are
tubular, with the feed circulating inside tubular channels.
6
The diameter of these channels is 3, 4 and 6 mm, which is
selected according to the viscosity of the product. The
main application for ceramics is MF, since the ceramic
element can be operated with permeate back-pressure, so
as to achieve a low TMP, which is crucial for successful
results. Two products are available: The standard element,
where UTP operation is required (permeate recirculation to
create permeate back-pressure) and the newer GP
element, where the permeate back pressure/resistance is
integrated inside the membrane structure (GP = Gradient
Pressure).
Available MF pore sizes are: 0.1 – 0.2 – 0.5 – 0.8 – 1.4 –

2 – 3 – 5 microns, which are alumina membranes on
alumina structure. UF pore sizes available are: 20 – 50 –
100 nm, which are zirconia material on alumina structure.
For UF processes it is not necessary to control a low
TMP.
Exekia Membralox membranes and their membrane areas:

3 mm 4 mm 6 mm
Channel size Ø
(P37-30 GL) (P19-40 GL) (P19-60 GL)
1P housing (m2) 0.35 0.24 0.36
3P housing (m2) 1.05 0.72 1.08
7P housing (m2) 2.45 1.68 Not available
12P housing (m2) Not available Not available 4.32
19P housing (m2) 6.65 4.56 7.92 (22P)
CIP
Cleaning of membranes is nothing like cleaning of stand-
ard dairy equipment made of stainless steel. Membrane
elements are often organic polymeric membranes made
of materials, which only tolerate certain cleaning limits in
terms of pH and temperature (and desinfectants/
oxidisers). Therefore it is almost always necessary to use
formulated cleaning products including enzymatic prod-
ucts from approved suppliers like Henkel, Ecolab,
DiverseyLever, Novadan and others. In the table below
some limits are listed for different membrane materials.
6
Polyamide Polysulphone Polysulphone Ceramic
Membrane material
(RO/NF) (UF) (UF pHt) (MF/UF)
Support/backing Polyester Polyester Polypropylene Alumina
Max temp (°C) 50 50 70 85 (not critical)
Cooling rate Not critical Not critical Not critical Max 10°/min
PH range 1.5-11.5 1.5-11.5 1-13 1-14
Free chlorine No Max 200 ppm Max 200 ppm Not critical
Phosphoric acid Yes Yes Yes No
Surfactants Only anionic Only anionic Only anionic Not critical
Sanitation 0.2% bisulfite 0.2% bisulfite 0.2% bisulfite 0.5% nitric acid
Water flux: After installation and cleaning of new mem-

branes, the water flux should be registered to be used for
future reference. Organic membranes always stabilise
within the first few weeks. Cleaning of membranes should
always be followed by a water flux reading, which must be
recorded at the same pressure, temperature, time and
cleaning step, so the cleaning efficiency can be monitored.
CIP Water Quality Guidelines

For optimal cleaning and flushing of membranes, the wa-
ter used should be within the following specifications
RO/NF UF/MF UF/MF

Parameter Units organic organic ceramic
membrane membrane membrane
Iron (Fe) mg/l <0.05 <0.05 <0.1
Manganese (Mn) mg/l <0.02 <0.02 <0.05
Aluminium (Al) mg/l <0.05 <0.1 <0.1
Silica (SiO2) mg/l <15 <15 <15
Chlorine (Cl2/HOCl) mg/l <0.1 <5* <5*
German Hardness ˚ dH <15 <15 <15
Fouling Index SDI <3 <3 <3
Turbidity NTU <1 <1 <1
Total plate count 22˚ C per ml <1000 <1000 <1000
Total plate count 37˚ C per ml <10 <10 <10
Coliforms per 100 ml <1 <1 <1
*) The chlorine content should be max 5 mg/l in order to

avoid development of chlorous gas when cleaning with
acid.
The above-listed requirements are based upon the

various requirements stated by our membrane
manufacturers.
If the silica content is less than 5 mg/l, higher levels of
iron (max. 0.2 mg/l) and manganese (max. 0.05 mg/l)
may be accepted in some cases.
7
If water hardness is higher than 15°dH, it may still be ac-
7
cepted, but the CIP procedure will have to be modified
accordingly (higher dosage concentrations, extra addition
of EDTA/NTA, etc.)
Water source
Water classified as “Drinking Water” (potable) is generally
acceptable, on the condition that the above-listed specifi-
cations are fulfilled. Softened water is also acceptable,
but the conductivity should be min. 5 µS/cm, in order not
to prolong flushing time resulting in unacceptably high
water consumption.
RO permeate and evaporator condensate may contain
some organic acids (COD > 20 mg/l). It should be stored
at cold temperature and for as short time as possible
before use. For intermediate flushing this water is fine.
For final flushing there will be a risk of bacteria growth,
when the plant is left closed down. This risk is reduced if
the last cleaning step involves chlorine.
Some customers are adding antifoaming agents to their
evaporator condensate. Antifoaming agents may block
the membranes irreversibly and cannot be accepted in
the water.
Notes on parameters
mg/l: In practice equal to ppm (parts per million)
Silica: Total = colloidal + soluble silica. Silica is practically
insoluble in water at any temperature and is very hard to
remove from the membrane, especially once precipitated.
Colloidal silica should be absent, or as low as possible.
Chlorine: Must be analysed on site as the chlorine quickly
disappears from the sample
Hardness: Is determined from the content of calcium and
magnesium (see formula for German hardness °dH).
ppmCa2+ ppmMg2+
˚dH = 5.61 x ( 40.1 + 24.3 )
Total hardness = temporary + permanent hardness

Soft water < 8°dH medium water < 16°dH hard water.
1°dH equals 10 ppm CaO

or 7.14 ppm MgO
or 17.9 ppm CaCO3
or 24.3 ppm CaSO4
or 15.0 ppm MgCO3
7
Equivalent units are listed below:
German Danish English American French
Unit
°dH °dH °H °H °THF
1°dH German 1.00 1.00 1.25 17.85 1.79
1°dH Danish 1.00 1.00 1.25 17.85 1.79
1°H English 0.80 1.00 1.00 14.30 1.43
1°H American 0.056 0.056 0.07 1.00 0.10
1°THF French 0.56 0.56 0.70 10.00 1.00
Conductivity: If water is demineralised one should

expect less than 30 µS/cm. In comparison, drinking water
is in the range of 300-800 µS/cm.
Turbidity: Method: Particles scatter light (expressed in
NTU, equal to JTU or FTU). Turbidity may also be ex-
pressed in SiO2 (mg/l), where 10 mg/l equals 4 JTU.
Silt Density: Equal to Fouling Index, Colloid Index or
Colmatation Index. This index is related to “Suspended
Solids” and replaces this analysis.
Method: Pass the water through a 0.45 micron CA filter Ø
47 mm (ref. Milli-pore HAW PO 47000) at a constant
pressure of 2.1 bar (30 psi). The time to pass 500 ml
water is measured at test start (t0) and 15 minutes (t15).
SDI 0-3: Non-fouling, SDI 3-6: Some fouling, SDI 6-20:
High fouling
1-(t0/t15)
SDI = 100 x( )
15
CIP and hardness

The hardness of the water is an important factor, as it
gov- erns the dosage concentration of the cleaning
chemicals and the flushing time. Soft water is the most
gentle for the membranes, with a low risk of mineral
precipitation on the membrane surface. However, soft
water has a much reduced buffering effect when dosing
cleaning chemicals, which means that pH limits are
reached at lower concentrations. As a rule of thumb, if
2% may be tolerated in 20°dH before the pH limit is
reached, only 1% may be tolerated in 10°dH (when
applying Divos 124). However, these figures are not true
for all caustic products, but the principle is the same.
Lower concentrations reduce the cleaning efficiency even
at the same pH, as there are less cleaning agents
(surfactants, carriers, complexing agents) to bind or
“carry” the soil and to keep it in solution until flushing.
7
Severe foaming may also be a result of using soft
7
water. The flushing time is prolonged with higher water
consumption as a result (ever washed hands using soft
water?). Some enzymatic products need certain minerals
(e.g. calcium) in order to work. When using soft water,
these minerals will have to be added. When using hard
water extra complexing agents such as EDTA or NTA
must be added in order to prevent mineral precipitation.
The solubility of calcium salts is much reduced at higher
temperatures resulting in heavy fouling of the
membrane.
Pre-treatment methods
If some of the parameters do not meet the requirements,
the following pre-treatments may be applied:
Cartridge filter: Reduces SDI and remove particles by

raw water filtration (5-10 micron pore size)
Sand filter: Removes Fe and Mn.
Sand filter: Special filling material removes fouling parti-
cles (SDI/turbidity).
Active carbon: Removes organic matter and neutralises
chlorine.
Bisulfite: Neutralises chlorine.
Ion exchange: Removes SiO2, Al, Fe, Mn, softens hard
water
Chlorination: Kills bacteria (e.g. from surface water).
One hour chlorination followed by dechlorination is
recommended.
7
Milk and Whey Composition
Raw milk quality (Denmark, 2001):

Extra 1st class 2nd class 3rd class
Total counts/ml <30.000 30.000-100.000 100.000-300.000 >300.000

Somatic cells/ml <300.000 300.000-400.000 400.000-650.000 >650.000
Anaerobic spores/l <400 <400 400-1100 >1100
Freezing point °C -0.543 to -0.516
Antibiotics Negative
Composition of milk in Northern Europe (average values):

Raw milk Skim milk
(DK/NL 1999) (Germany 2002)
FAT 4.3% 0.06%
TOP (Total protein) 3.4% 3.63%
NPN (NPNx6.38) 0.19% 0.19%
TRP (True protein) 3.21% 3.44%
TWP (True whey proteins) 0.55% 0.60%
CAS (Casein) 2.66% 2.84%
ACD (citric acid) 0.18% 0.20%
LAC (lactose) 4.65% 4.84%
TOA (total ash) 0.73% 0.77%
TS (total solids) 13.3% 9.50%
CAS/TRP ratio 83-84% 82.6%

CAS/TOP ratio 77-79% 78.2%
TWP/TOP ratio 16.5-15.5
NPN/TOP ratio 5.0-6.5% 5.2%
7
Components in milk and whey and their approximate size:
Diameter size in
Large particles
micron (my)
Somatic cells (leukocytes) 10-20
Yeast cells 5-30
Bacteria cells 0.5-5
Bacteria spores (Bacillus/Clostridium) 0.8x1.5
Fat globules in raw milk 0.1-10 (2-6)
Fat globules in skim milk/homogenised milk <1
Diameter size in
Protein particles (colloidal)
nanometer (nm)
Lipoprotein particles
10
(protein + P-lipids)
Casein micelle (app. 500 subunits)
10-300
(casein micelle = 70% water + 30% casein)
Subunit of casein micelle
10-12
(10 casein molecules)
Molecular Weight
Individual proteins
(MW = Daltons)
Casein molecule 20-25.000
Para casein 12.200
Whey proteins (= serum proteins) 3-6 nm

Immunoglobulins (IgG) 150.000
Immunoglobulins (IgM) 900.000 (= 30 nm)
ß-lactoglobulin (ß-LG) 2 x 18.000
Alpha-lactalbumin 14.000
Bovin Serum Albumin (BSA) 66.000
Lactoferrin/Transferrin (LF) 77.000
Caseinomacropeptide (CMP/GMP) 6.800
Enzymes
Lactoperoxidase (LP) 77.500
Cheese rennet (chymosin/rennin) 31.000
Xanthin Oxidase (XO) (in fat globules) 283.000
Milk Lipase (mLPL) (in casein micelle) 50.000
Phosphatase (in fat globule membrane) 2 x 85.000
Milk Plasmin (in casein micelles) 89.000
7
Components in milk and whey and their approximate size
(continued):
Molecular Weight
Non-Protein Nitrogen (NPN)
(MW = daltons)
Cholin (vitamin) 121
Amino acids 75-200
Peptides 200-1500
Urea-N 60
Creatin/creatinin 131
Carbohydrates/Acids
Lactose 342
Glucose 180
Galactose 180
Lactulose 342
Lactic acid 90
Citric acid 192
Acetic acid 60
Minerals – positively charged

Sodium (Na+) 23
Magnesium (Mg++) 24
Potassium (K+) 39
Calcium (Ca++) soluble 40
Minerals – negatively charged

Chloride (Cl-) 35
Phosphate (PO4—) soluble 95
Sulphate (SO4—) 96
Carbonate (HCO3-) 61
7
EVAPORATION AND DRYING
Evaporation
Evaporators are used for concentration of milk or milk
based products before drying or transportation. If milk
products are transported over longer distances the
products are normally pre-concentrated to 30 – 38%
total solids in order to reduce the transportation cost.
For manu- facturing of powder the milk is concentrated
to 48 – 50% total solids before spray drying. The milk
is often heat treated up to 130°C for classification of
the powder in Low, Medium and High heat powder.
Other milk based products such as whey and whey
permeate are concentrated to 60 – 70% total solids
before crystallisation and drying.
Evaporation is one of the most energy intensive

processes in the dairy industry and it is essential that the
evaporation process is approached with view on low
energy consumption and process effectiveness. In the
dairy industry both MVR (mechanical vapour re-
compression) and TVR (thermal vapour re-compression)
evaporators are used for concentration. Either MVR or
TVR alone or as a combination with MVR evaporators
concentrating up to 40% solids followed by a TVR
evaporator for further concentration up to the required
solids for drying or further process.
MVR evaporators are single effect evaporators divided

into several stages, 5 - 8, using a high-pressure fan for
re- compression of the vapour. TVR evaporators are multi
effect evaporators with 2 - 7 effects, using a steam jet
com- pressor for re-compression of the vapour over 1 - 3
effects. Below table shows specific energy consumption
and cost for different types of evaporators as well as an
index for energy efficiency.
7
64
the particles.

more heat or longer time to remove the moisture within
until a dry particle surface is obtained. It takes relatively
a hot drying air stream. The rate of evaporation is rapid
liquid state into a dried form by spraying the product into
Spray drying is the transformation of a product from the
Drying
Specific Energy Energy
Price per Total energy
Plant type energy consumption consumption Index
energy unit cost per year
consumption per hour per year
kg steam/kg
kg steam kg steam EUR EUR
water evap.
3 effect TVR 0.24 4,800 24,000,000 0.017 408,000 100
4 effect TVR 0.18 3,600 18,000,000 0.017 306,000 75
5 effect TVR 0.14 2,800 14,000,000 0.017 238,000 58
6 effect TVR 0.12 2,400 12,000,000 0.017 204,000 50
7 effect TVR 0.10 2,000 10,000,000 0.017 170,000 42
kW/kg kW kWh EUR EUR
water evap.
MVR (fan) 0.012 240 1,200,000 0.075 90.000 22
Water evaporation kg/h 20,000

Steam price EUR / kg 0.017
Electric power EUR / kWh 0.075
Production hours per day 20
Production days per year 250
When heat sensitive milk products are dried, gentle ther-
mal treatment is very important in spray drying. This is
en- sured by rapid evaporation which means that the
solids in the product will not reach the temperature of the
drying air. After the particles have been formed the most
gentle heat treatment is achieved by fluid bed drying.
Fluid bed drying takes place at low temperatures so that
a long residence time will not harm the product.
This has led to the development of the three-stage drying

system in which spray and fluid bed drying are combined.
The first drying stage is the spray dryer, the second stage
is a fluid bed dryer built into the bottom of the spray
drying chamber, and the third stage is an external fluid
bed for final drying and/or cooling.
The powder resulting from spray drying consists of single

particles or agglomerates. Apart from the physical and
chemical properties of the raw material the design and
operation of the drying equipment are important param-
eters influencing the final powder structure. Two- and
three-stage dryers are designed to produce
agglomerated powder, and the operation can be adjusted
to suit any product requirements.
Agglomerated powder is non-dusty and easy to handle. It

dissolves quickly and easily and is used for re-
constitution of milk and for many industrial purposes.
Energy Consumption:
Type of Energy per kg evaporated water
dryer kcal kJ
1 1,200 5,000
2 980 4,100
3 900 3,750
Drying air temperature:

Inlet max. 250oC
Outlet max. 100oC
Fluid bed max. 120oC
6
CLEANING AND DISINFECTING
The design of modern dairy equipment allows cleaning
and disinfecting to take place without the equipment hav-
ing to be taken apart, i.e, cleaning-in-place (CIP). This
means that the processing equipment must be made of
materials (eg, stainless steel) that are resistant to the cor-
roding effects of the cleaning agents. The processing
equipment must also be designed in such way that all
surfaces in contact with the product can be cleaned.
CIP Cleaning in General

Milk components are excellent substrates for microorgan-
isms and a careful cleaning is thus very important. This
does not alone apply to the parts in contact with the prod-
uct, but also to the external parts and rooms etc.
The effectiveness of the cleaning is determined by the

following four factors:
1. A chemical factor
2. A mechanical factor
3. A thermal factor
4. A time factor
1. The chemical factor is determined by the cleaning

agent and the concentration in which it is used.
The cleaning agent is chosen according to the type of

pollution to be removed, in this way:
Pollution Basic Acid

Fat + -
Protein + +
Ash (milk residues) - +
Water residues - +
In the central CIP plant the majority of the cleaning so-

lutions is led back to the CIP tanks and reused. There-
fore, the concentration may be fixed at a suitable high
level without too much waste.
6
The functions of the cleaning agents are:
- To loosen the pollution
- To keep the impurities dissolved in the cleaning solu-

tions to prevent them from precipitation on the
cleaned surfaces
- To prevent sedimentation of lactic salts.
Guiding concentrations: Acid (HNO3) 0.8-1.2%, and

lye (NaOH) 0.8-1.5%.
2. The mechanical factor is determined by the speed of

the liquid over the surfaces. The faster the liquid moves,
the more efficient the cleaning will be. It is important that
the movement of the liquid is turbulent, i.e. that the
liquid parts continuously change place mutually.
Consequently, the pump speeds are considerably

higher during CIP than during production.
The cleaning turbines in the tanks make up an

effective mechanical factory, but partial blockings of
the turbines may appear. In consequence, the
turbines should be inspected regularly.
3. The thermal factor (the temperature) is very important.

Within chemistry it is said that the reaction speed is
doubled if the temperature is increased by 10oC. How-
ever, a too high temperature also presents disadvan-
tages, as residues of proteins and lactic salts are pre-
cipitated at too high temperatures, and the solubility of
the salts in the water is reduced.
Guiding temperatures: Lye solution 70 - 75oC and acid

solution 60 - 65oC.
4. The time factor is important to the softening and solu-

tion part of the pollution.
In the program survey, approximate periods for the single

steps in the programs are indicated. The indicated periods
should only be regarded as a broad guidance, as there
may be considerable differences between the single routes,
both as regards equipment to be cleaned and the fouling
6
degree.
6
Disinfection
The purpose of a disinfection is to kill the largest possible
number of bacteria to avoid an infection of the products.
Heat in the form of steam or especially hot water is the
most used form of disinfection. The central CIP plant in-
cludes programs for sterilisation with hot water, and the
return temperature is set to 85 - 90oC.
Cleaning of dairy equipment is carried out as follows:
A. Pre-rinse
The processing equipment is rinsed with cold or warm
water. The object is to remove any possible product resi-
due before cleaning. The rinsing water containing the
product residue should be led to suitable reception facili-
ties in order to minimise pollution.
B. Cleaning with sodium hydroxide

The process equipment is cleaned by means of
circulation of a hot sodium hydroxide cleaning solution.
Today, special cleaning agents are commonly used
instead of sodium hydroxide.
After cleaning, the cleaning solution is collected and re-
used. Re-use should not take place before the concentra-
tion of the returning solution (%) has been checked and
adjusted accordingly.
C. Intermediate rinse
Any remaining cleaning solution is flushed out with either
collected rinse water or fresh water.
D. Cleaning with nitric acid

The process equipment is cleaned by means of
circulation of a hot nitric acid cleaning solution. Today,
special cleaning agents are commonly used instead of
nitric acid.
After cleaning, the cleaning solution is collected and re-
used. Re-use should not take place before the concentra-
tion of the returning solution (%) has been checked and
adjusted accordingly.
E. Final rinse
Any remaining cleaning solution is flushed out with either
cold or hot water. Chemical free water is collected and
used for pre-rinse.
6
F. Disinfection
This is carried out immediately before the product plant is
put into operation. Disinfection can be carried out ther-
mally or chemically. The CIP plant is normally designed
to allow for disinfection by circulation of either hot water
at 90-95°C or a solution of e.g. hydrogen peroxide. Today
special agents for disinfection is widely used in place of
hydrogen peroxide.
Disinfection must always be followed by a rinse with
clean and drinkable water.
Cleaning Methods
Cleaning agents:
The following cleaning agents can be used for CIP-cleaning.
Lye, NaOH, Sodium hydroxide:

- 30% concentrated solution.
Acid, HNO3,Nitric acid:

Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), and/or chlorine-containing clea-

ning agents, (Cl ), must never be used.
Normally used cleaning solutions:
Lye: NaOH - Solution for cleaning of

tanks and pipes 0.8-1.2%
Above corresponds to a titter of 20.0-30.0
Lye: NaOH - Solution for cleaning of

pasteuriser 1.2-1.5%
Acid: HNO3 - Solution for cleaning of

tanks and pipes. 0.8-1.0%
Acid: HNO3 - Solution for cleaning of

pasteuriser 0.8-1.2%
Note: Titter corresponds to ml 0.1 N (NaOH or

HCL), per 10 ml against phenolphthalein (8.4).
7
Reagents: 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide, (NaOH), solution.
0.1 N Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), solution.
5% Alcoholic phenolphthalein solution.
General maintenance of CIP plant:

Daily check: Control of lye and acid cleaning concen-
trations.
Weekly check: Control of stone deposits in lye tank/

tanks and water tank/tanks.
Drawing off of bottom sludge from lye
and acid tanks.
Monthly check: Control of various gaskets and replace-

ment of these, if necessary.
Quarterly check: Change of cleaning solution in the lye

and acid tanks.
CIP Cleaning Programs for Pipes and Tanks
Pipes Cleaning Time
Picking up of residual products * minutes
Pre-rinse, cold water/recyclable water 1-3 minutes
Lye cleaning 1% solution at 70°C 6-10 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)
Intermediate rinse, cold water/recyclable

water - Special software solution 1-3 minutes
Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 60°C 4-6 minutes

Final rinse, cold water 1-3 minutes

(The time stated is only started when return
concentration indicates clean water)
Total cleaning time ** minutes
7
Hot water sterilisation at 85°C 3-5 minutes
turn temperature is identical with the
above)
Cold water disinfection with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, so-

lution 200 ppm.
*)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pipes/pipelines to be cleaned.
**)
around various pipes/pipelines to be cleaned as well as
the software to control cleaning of pipes/pipelines.
Above times are stated as efficient cleaning times and

should be seen as recommendable values. These values
may change dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pipes/pipelines as well as the complexity
of various products with regard to the physical/chemical
conditions, as well as the complexity of various physical/
chemical as well as microbiological deposits.
Tanks Cleaning Time
Lye cleaning 1% solution at 70°C 10-15 minutes


water - special software solution 1-3 minutes
Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 50-60°C 4-6 minutes

7
Final rinse, cold water 0.5-1 minute
turn concentration indicates clean water)

above)

lution 200 ppm
*)
around various tanks to be cleaned (tank dimension).
**)
around various tanks to be cleaned (tank dimension), as
well as the software to control cleaning of tank/tanks.

around various tanks (tank dimensions) as well as the
complexity of various products with regard to the physi-
cal/chemical conditions, as well as the complexity of vari-
ous physical/chemical as well as microbiological depos-
its.
CIP Cleaning Programs for Plate Pasteurisers
Pasteurisers Cleaning Time
Lye cleaning 1.5% solution at 70°C 45-60 minutes

7
water - special software solution 5-10 minutes
Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 50-60°C 20-30 minutes

Final rinse, cold water 2-5 minutes

turn concentration indicates clean water)

above)

lution 200 ppm.
*)
around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants to be
cleaned.
**)
around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants to be
cleaned as well as the software to control cleaning of
pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants.

around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants as well as
the complexity of various products with regard to the
physical/chemical conditions, as well as the complexity of
various physical/chemical as well as microbiological de-
posits.
Pasteurisers CIP*
Continuous buttermaking machines CIP** special
7
Ultrafiltration plants (UF) CIP*** special
Evaporators CIP
*) As a consequence of both a higher detergent concen-

tration and a longer cleaning period compared with
the cleaning of pipes and tanks, it may be appropriate
to clean the pasteurisation plant independently of the
CIP plant for pipes and milk tanks.
At the end of the production run, the pasteurisers, in-
cluding pumps, valves and pipes, are flushed out with
cold water until the water is clear and free of milk at
the outlet.
A closed circulating flow is then established by lead-
ing the water from the outlet back to the balance tank
and slowly adding approx. 3.5-4.0 l 30% sodium hy-
droxide (NaOH) per 100 kg water in the system. If the
sodium hydroxide is in dry form, it should be
dissolved in approx. 10 l cold water per kg NaOH
before it is added to the balance tank.
Warning: NaOH should always be mixed slowly into
cold water - never water into NaOH as it will boil up
with explosive force. Always use facial protection
when working with concentrated detergents. If the
volume of the plant is unknown, the concentration
must be checked as described below.
If the water is very hard, 300-500 g trisodium phos-
phate should also be added.
The temperature is raised to 70-75°C and circulation
is continued for at least 45-60 minutes.
The NaOH solution is flushed out with water and the
circulating flow is re-established. Then, approx. 2.5 l
nitric acid (30%) is added slowly and circulated for
20- 30 minutes at 60-65°C after which the acid is
flushed out with water.
Before start-up of the next production run, the pas-
teurisation system is disinfected by circulation of hot
water at 90°C for 15-20 minutes. Cooling and
pasteurising temperatures are adjusted to normal
production before the water is forced out with milk.
**) CIP of buttermaking machines is always carried out
without the use of the ordinary CIP plant, because
relatively large amounts of fat residue must be re-
moved by the detergent and because the cleaning of
buttermaking equipment must give the machine sur-
faces a protective coating, which serves to prevent
7
the butter from adhering to the surfaces. For
cleaning, an internal circulating flow is established.
***) CIP of a UF plant is always carried out by means of
an internal circulating flow as special detergents are
used in order to prevent any damage to the
membranes, which would reduce the permeate flow.
General Comments to Defects/Faults in CIP

Cleaning
In case of unsatisfactory cleaning, the following defects/
faults may be the cause:
1. CIP flow speed too low

2. Cleaning time too short
3. Cleaning concentration (lye or/and acid) too low
4. Cleaning temperature too high/low
5. Time of production without cleaning too long
6. Etc.
Manual Cleaning
CIP is automatic cleaning, but firstly the external surfaces
are not cleaned by CIP, secondly there will always be a
few machine parts that have to be cleaned every day.
Futhermore, requirements for disassembling of large ma-
chine parts, a.o. plate heat exchangers and pipe connec-
tions, will arise at intervals.
Dirty surfaces, e.g. due to leakage, must be cleaned

every day with hot soapy water and rinsed with clean
water.
Cleaning also includes the rooms, and plans for regular

manual cleaning of both rooms and equipment should be
worked out.
A visual control of the effectiveness of the cleaning may

be difficult. Although a surface seems clean, there may
be a large number of bacteria per cm2.
Check of the Cleaning Effect

Hygienic control
Apart from the daily visual control with the hygienic condi-
tion of the production equipment and the production
rooms, microbiological examinations should be made for
determination of the state of cleaning effect, for instance
by means of the swabbing method.
7
Equipment:
1. Swabs made of cotton wool coiled around the end of a
small stick.
2. Test tubes with 10 ml Ringer’s liquid.
3. Ordinary equipment for bacteriological examinations.
Procedure:
1. The swab is sterilised in the test tube with Ringer’s li-
quid.
2. Approx. 100 cm2 (10 x 10 cm) of the surface to be

examined are rubbed with the swab.
3. The swab is transferred to the test tube (1) again, and

the upper part of the stick, which has been touched, is
broken off.
4. Dependent on the degree of pollution, 1 ml or 0.1 ml,

maybe 0.01 ml is transferred to a sterile Petri dish,
and substrate is poured on according to the type of
bacteria to be examined.
After incubation, the state of the cleaning effect is judged

after the following scale:
Number of total bacteria
State of cleaning effect
per 100 cm2 surface
0-10 Very good
10-100 Good
over 100 Bad
Control of the cleaning liquids and temperature

Naturally, it is important to keep the right strength in the
cleaning agents and the right temperature.
The mentioned guiding figures may be summarised here:

Concentration Temperature
Hot water 85 - 90oC
Concentrated acid 30 or 60 - 62% Room temperature
Concentrated lye 30-33% Room temperature
Acid cleaning solution 0.8 - 1.2% 60 – 65oC
Lye cleaning solution 0.8 - 1.5% 70 – 75oC
7
Control of the strength of the cleaning agents should be
made twice a day.
Emptying of the tanks will be necessary at intervals de-

pending on fouling and may take place by opening the
bottom valves manually.
Control of Cleaning Solutions

Determination of the strength of lye by titration
In order to obtain a satisfactory cleaning effect it is impor-
tant that during the whole course of cleaning the lye solu-
tion keeps the right strength according to the directions
for use.
Equipment:
1. Titration burette (25 ml)
2. 10 ml pipette or measuring glass
3. Drop bottle
4. Phenolphthalein solution (2%)
5. Titration flask 100 ml
6. 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
Method:
1. Hot cleaning solution is removed from the lye tank
with a ladle, and the solution is cooled to
approximately 20oC.
2. 10 ml lye solution is measured with a measuring glass

or a pipette, and this solution is transferred to a flask.
3. Five drops of phenolphtalein solution are added, by

which the lye solution is coloured red.
4. Under careful shaking this is titrated with 0.1 ml

normal hydrochloric acid until the colour changes. The
colour changes from red to colourless.
5. Number of ml consumed of 0.1 normal acid is read on

the burette and corresponds to the titer of the lye solu-
tion.
7
The titer of the lye solution corresponds to the concentra-
tion of the cleaning solution.
The concentration in the cleaning solution can be calcu-

lated as follows:
axbxc
Concentration in %: = xx.x %
100
Where:
a = ml titration fluid until colour change/10 ml solution
b = normality of titration fluid (0.1)
c = molecular weight (NaOH = 40.0)
Example:
25.0 x 0.1 x 40.0
Concentration in % = 1.00 %
100
Determination of the strength of the acid by titration

Acid cleaning solutions containing nitric acid (technically
clean, approximately 62%) are used at the dairies with
mechanical cleaning of pipes and tanks of completely
stainless material. Acid solutions dissolve calcium oxide
coatings, and lye solutions dissolve protein coatings. This
is why combined cleaning is used, e.g. lye solution at
first, then acid solution, or in reverse order, depending on
which cleaning technique gives the best result on the
spot.
Equipment:
1. Titration equipment (see under lye solution).
2. 0.1 N sodium hydroxide.
Method:
1. The acid solution is removed from the acid container,
and this solution is cooled to approximately 20oC.
2. 10 ml acid solution is measured with a measuring

glass or a pipette, and this solution is transferred to a
titration flask.
3. Five drops of phenolphtalein solution are added.
7
4. Under careful shaking this is titrated with 0.1 normal
sodium hydroxide until the colour changes. The colour
changes from colourless to red.
5. Number of ml consumed of 0.1 normal lye is read on

the burette and corresponds to the titer of the acid so-
lution.
The titer of the acid solution corresponds to the concen-

tration of the cleaning solution.
The concentration in the cleaning solution can be calcu-

lated as follows:
axbxc
Concentration in %: = xx.x %
100
Where:
a = ml titration fluid until colour change/10 ml solution
b = normality of titration fluid (0.1)
c = molecular weight (HNO3 = 63.02)
Example:
15.9 x 0.1 x 63.02
Concentration in % = 1.00 %
100
In order to make the calculation easier it is possible to

work out tables for the lye or acid strength and titer, e.g.
from 0.1%-2% so that it is possible to read the lye or acid
strength directly.
(see Table: Concentration of Cleaning Solution)
To compare the strength of the cleaning solution and the

conductivity measured in milli-siemens mS please look in
the manual of Henkel P3-LMIT 08.
8
Concentration of Cleaning Solution
Lye Acid
Concen-
NaOH HNO3
Sodium Hydroxide tration Nitric acid
Titration Titration
0.1 n 30% 30% 62% 0.1
% nNaOH
HCL NaOH HNO3 HNO3
ml/10 ml l/100 l l/100 l l/100 l ml/10 ml
2.5 0.25 0.1 0.30 0.10 1.60
5.0 0.50 0.2 0.55 0.25 3.20
7.5 0.75 0.3 0.85 0.35 4.80
10.0 1.00 0.4 1.15 0.45 6.30
12.5 1.25 0.5 1.40 0.60 7.90
15.0 1.50 0.6 1.70 0.70 9.50
17.5 1.75 0.7 2.00 0.80 11.10
20.0 2.00 0.8 2.25 0.95 12.70
22.5 2.25 0.9 2.55 1.05 14.30
25.0 2.50 1.0 2.80 1.15 15.90
27.5 2.75 1.1 3.10 1.30 17.50
30.0 3.00 1.2 3.40 1.40 19.00
32.5 3.25 1.3 3.65 1.50 20.60
35.0 3.50 1.4 3.95 1.65 22.20
37.5 3.75 1.5 4.25 1.75 23.80
40.0 4.00 1.6 4.50 1.85 25.40
42.5 4.25 1.7 4.80 2.00 27.00
45.0 4.50 1.8 5.10 2.10 28.60
47.5 4.75 1.9 5.35 2.20 30.10
50.0 5.00 2.0 5.65 2.35 31.70
Dairy Effluent
Increasing discharge costs make it important to have
knowledge of both the quantity of effluent and the content
of pollutants. The pollutants in dairy effluent are primarily
the organic substances fat, protein, and lactose, but ni-
trate and phosphate are also important substances.
Two methods are used to determine the content of
organic material in effluent: BOD and COD. The result is
expressed in mg oxygen per litre.
BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is determined by the de-
mand of dissolved oxygen for oxydising the organic mate-
rial in an aqueous sample of the effluent in 5 days at 20°C.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is determined by treat-
ing a sample with a potassium dichromate solution and
neutralising excess dichromate by titration with ferrous
ammonium sulphate.
8
It is not possible to convert BOD directly to COD as the
values for the two methods are dependent on the varying
composition of the organic matter. For dairy effluent the
following conversion can be used as a guideline:
1 mg BOD = 1.3-1.5 mg COD
1 mg COD = 0.75-0.67 mg BOD
The table below lists COD values and thus the “pollution
degree” of whole milk, skimmilk, and whey:
Whole milk Skimmilk Whey
Sub-
stance Content mg Content mg Content mg
mg/l COD/kg mg/l COD/kg mg/l COD/kg
Fat 40,000 120,000 400 1,200 400 1,200
Protein 34,000 46,000 34,000 46,240 10,000 13,600
Lactose 46,000 52,000 47,000 53,110 47,000 53,110
Total,
approx. 220,000 100,000 70,000
A term often used to describe the “pollution degree” is

“person equivalent” (p.e.). One p.e. corresponds to 250 l
of water polluted to a COD value of 600. In other words, 1
p.e. corresponds to 250 x 600 = 150,000 mg COD.
Example:
A dairy receives a daily quantity of 300,000 litres of milk.
The loss is estimated to be 1%, ie, 3,000 l/day.
3,000 x 218
COD: = 4,360 p.e.
150,000
Or, in other words, effluent pollution equal to the pollution

from 4,360 people.
8
NOTES
8
TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Stainless Steel Pipes
Capacity, friction loss and velocity of flow
1" 1¼" 1½" 2" 2½" 3" 4"5"

O.D. Tube size 6"
5 6 7 8
100 4
3.5
3
2.5
Velocity 2 m/sec.
1.5
Friction loss. Metres H20 per 100 metres pipe
10
1
0.5
1.0
0.1
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Capacity l/h
83
Example:
10,000 l/h in a 2" stainless steel pipe.
Velocity: 1.5 m/sec.
Friction loss: 5.5 m H2O per 100 m pipe.
When pipe dimensions are determined, the water velocity

must not exceed 3 m/sec in small pipeline dimensions up
to about 3". However, in bigger pipeline dimensions. a ve-
locity of up to 3.5 m/sec. might be accepted.
In milk lines, especially for unpasteurised milk, with pipe

dimensions below 3", the velocity should not exceed 1.5
m/sec. in the suction line and 2 m/sec. in the pressure
lines. As concerns pipe dimensions of 3" and 4", a
velocity of up to 2 and 2.5 m/sec. is acceptable, and for
pipe dimensions 5" and 6" or bigger even higher
velocities can be accepted
In pipelines for cream (40% fat) and other viscous dairy

products, the velocity should be kept at a lower level. For
special products like fermented milk products, the velocity
should be kept at only 25-40% of the levels for milk.
Friction Loss Equivalent in m Straight Stainless

Steel Pipe for One Fitting
Nominal
diam. 25 38 51 63.5 76 101.6
mm mm mm mm mm mm
Fitting
Valve (two-way) 6 8 8 9 10 10
Valve (three-way) 7 9 9 10 12 12
Elbow 0.8 1 1 1 1.5 1.5
Tee 2 3 3 4 5 5
The figures for pressure loss taken from the diagram are
fairly good approximations for liquids having viscosities
below 5 cPs, such as water, whole milk and skimmilk.
Velocity in Stainless Steel Pipes

The velocity in stainless steel pipes should not exceed
the values (in m/sec.) stated below:
Suction lines Pressure lines
Product
25 mm ø 101.6 mm ø 25 mm ø 101.6 mm ø
Milk 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5
Cream 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
Water 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5
8
For CIP cleaning, the velocity should not be less than 1.5
m/sec.
Volume in Stainless Steel Pipes

Outside diameter Inside diameter Litre/metre
25.0 mm 22.6 mm 0.4011
38.0 mm 35.6 mm 0.9954
51.0 mm 48.6 mm 1.8551
63.5 mm 60.3 mm 2.8558
76.0 mm 72.9 mm 4.1739
101.6 mm 97.6 mm 7.4815
129.0 mm 125.0 mm 12.2718
154.0 mm 150.0 mm 17.6715
85
8
86
Friction loss: pipe length in metres x
B: Friction loss in Tee or non-return valve indicated in me-
A: Friction loss in 90°C elbow or sluice valve indicated in

Large figures: Loss of head in m H2O per 100 m pipe.
Small figures: Velocity in metres per second.
(Non-stainless steel)
with Different Pipe Dimensions and Capacities
Friction Loss in m H2O per 100 m Straight Pipe
Quantity of water Nominal diameter in inches and inside diameter in mm
tres of straight pipe. (For foot, valves, multiply by 2).
metres of straight pipe.

½” ¾” 1" 1¼” 1½” 2" 2½” 3" 3½” 4" 5" 6"
m³/h l/min. l/sec. 15.75 21.25 27.0 35.75 41.25 52.50 68.00 80.25 92.50 105.0 130.0 155.5
0.855 0.470 0.292
0.6 10 0.16 9.910 2.407 0.784
1.282 0.705 0.438 0.249
0.9 15 0.25 20.11 4.862 1.570 0.416
1.710 0.940 0.584 0.331 0.249
1.2 20 0.33 33.53 8.035 2.588 0.677 0.346
2.138 1.174 0.730 0.415 0.312
1.5 25 0.42 49.93 11.91 3.834 1.004 0.510
2.565 1.409 0.876 0.498 0.347 0.231
1.8 30 0.50 69.34 16.50 5.277 1.379 0.700 0.223
2.993 1.644 1.022 0.581 0.436 0.269
2.1 35 0.58
100
91.54 21.75 6.949 1.811 0.914 0.291
1.879 1.168 0.664 0.449 0.308
2.4 40 0.67 27.66 8.820 2.290 1.160 0.368
2.349 1.460 0.830 0.623 0.385 0.229
3.0 50 0.83 41.40 13.14 3.403 1.719 0.544 0.159
2.819 1.751 0.996 0.748 0.462 0.275
3.6 60 1.00 57.74 18.28 4.718 2.375 0.751 0.218
3.288 2.043 1.162 0.873 0.539 0.321 0.231
4.2 70 1.12 76.49 24.18 6.231 3.132 0.988 0.287 0.131
2.335 1.328 0.997 0.616 0.367 0.263
4.8 80 1.33 30.87 7.940 3.988 1.254 0.363 0.164
2.627 1.494 1.122 0.693 0.413 0.296
5.4 90 1.50 38.30 9.828 4.927 1.551 0.449 0.203
(metre head)
figures from table
2.919 1.660 1.247 0.770 0.459 0.329 0.248
6.0 100 1.67 46.49 11.90 5.972 1.875 0.542 0.244 0.124
3.649 2.075 1.558 0.962 0.574 0.412 0.310 0.241
7.5 125 2.08 70.41 17.93 8.967 2.802 0.809 0.365 0.185 0.101
2.490 1.870 1.154 0.688 0.494 0.372 0.289
9.0 150 2.50 25.11 12.53 3.903 1.124 0.506 0.256 0.140
2.904 2.182 1.347 0.803 0.576 0.434 0.337
10.5 175 2.92 33.32 16.66 5.179 1.488 0.670 0.338 0.184
3.319 2.493 1.539 0.918 0.659 0.496 0.385 0.251
12 200 3.33 42.75 21.36 6.624 1.901 0.855 0.431 0.234 0.084
4.149 3.117 1.924 1.147 0.823 0.620 0.481 0.314
15 250 4.17 64.86 32.32 10.03 2.860 1.282 0.646 0.350 0.126
3.740 2.309 1.377 0.968 0.744 0.577 0.377 0.263
18 300 5.00 45.52 14.04 4.009 1.792 0.903 0.488 0.175 0.074
4.987 3.078 1.836 1.317 0.992 0.770 0.502 0.351
24 400 6.67 78.17 24.04 6.828 3.053 1.530 0.829 0.294 0.124
3.848 2.295 1.647 1.240 0.962 0.628 0.439
30 500 8.83 36.71 10.40 4.622 2.315 1.254 0.445 0.187
4.618 2.753 1.976 1.488 1.155 0.753 0.526
36 600 10.0 51.84 14.62 6.505 3.261 1.757 0.623 0.260
3.212 2.306 1.736 1.347 0.879 0.614
42 700 11.7 19.52 8.693 4.356 2.345 0.831 0.347
3.671 2.635 1.984 1.540 1.005 0.702
48 800 13.3 25.20 11.18 5.582 3.009 1.066 0.445
4.130 2.965 2.232 1.732 1.130 0.790
54 900 15.0 31.51 13.97 6.983 3.762 1.328 0.555
4.589 3.294 2.480 1.925 1.256 0.877
60 1000 16.7 38.43 17.06 8.521 4.595 1.616 0.674
4.117 3.100 2.406 1.570 1.097
75 1250 20.8 26.10 13.00 7.010 2.458 1.027
4.941 3.720 2.887 1.883 1.316
90 1500 25.0 36.97 18.42 9.892 3.468 1.444
4.340 3.368 2.197 1.535
105 1750 29.2 24.76 13.30 4.665 1.934
4.960 3.850 2.511 1.754
120 2000 33.3 31.94 17.16 6.995 2.496
4.812 3.139 2.193
150 2500 41.7 26.26 9.216 3.807
3.767 2.632
180 3000 50.0 13.05 5.417
5.023 3.509
240 4000 66.7 22.72 8.926
4.386
300 5000 83.3 14.42
A 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.5
B 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
87
UNITS OF MEASURE
The MKSA System
The unit of weight is one kilogramme (kg).
The unit of force is one kilogramme-force (kgf).

In certain countries the designation kilopond (kp) is used.
1 kp = 1 kgf.
The unit of length is one metre (m).
The unit of time is one second (s).
The unit of temperature is one degree Celsius (IC).
The terminal unit is one kilocalorie (kcal).

One kilocalorie (kcal) is equal to the amount of heat re-
quired to heat or cool 1 kg water one degree Celsius.
The specific gravity (density) is equal to the weight in

grammes (g) of one cubic centimetre (cm3) of a substance.
The unit of work, one kilogramme-force metre (kgfm) is

equal to the energy required to raise one kilogramme to a
height of one metre.
The unit of effect, one horse power (hp), is equal to a

work performance of 75 kilogramme-force metres per
second (kgfm/s).
One horse power hour (hph) is equal to the work that can
be carried out by one horse power (hp) in one hour.
Specific heat is equal to the number of kilocalories re-

quired to heat 1 kg of a substance 1°C.
Example: water 1
iron 0.114
copper 0.09
air 0.24
The latent heat of fusion is equal to the number of

kilocalories required to change I kg of solid substance to
liquid when it has previously been heated to melting
point.
Example: ice 80
8
The thermal conductivity coefficient is equal to the
number of kilocalories that are transmitted in one hour
through a 1 m² cross section of a 1 m thick plate when
the temperature difference is 1°C.
The latent heat of evaporation is equal to the number of

kilocalories necessary to change 1 kg of liquid to vapour
of the same temperature.
Example: water at 0°C: 607

water at 100°C: 536
The degree of humidity, relative humidity, is equal to the

relation between the actual water vapour content of the
air, and the amount of water vapour the air can hold at
the temperature in question.
The absolute humidity is equal to the weight in grammes

of the water vapour contained in 1 cubic metre of air.
The dew point is equal to the temperature reached when

air is cooled to saturation point.
A technical atmosphere, 1 at, is equal to a pressure of:

(1) 1 kgf per cm²
(2) a 10 m column of water (H2O) at 0°C, or
(3) 73.6 em mercury (Hg).
1 ata is absolute pressure,
1 ato is the pressure above atmospheric pressure (i.e. 1
ato = 2 bar).
A normal atmosphere, 1 atm, is equal to a pressure of:

(1) 1.033 kgf/cm²
(2) 1013 millibars of 76.0 cm mercury (Hg).
The unit current intensity, one ampere (A), is equal to a

current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate
of silver, is capable of depositing silver at the rate of
1.118 milligrammes per second.
The unit of resistance, one ohm (), is equal to the resist-

ance in a column of mercury, 106.3 cm long and with a
cross section of 1 mm², at a temperature of 0°C.
The unit of potential, one volt (V), is equal to the difference

in electrical potential between two separate points on a
8
conductor with a resistance of 1 ohm, and where the
electric current is one ampere.
The unit of power, one watt (W), is equal to the energy

produced when the strength of the electric current is I
ampere and the potential difference 1 volt.
The unit of electric energy, one kilowatt hour (kWh) is

equal to the energy that is (produced or used) by 1
kilowatt (kW) working for 1 hour (h).
Conversion Table
Power, heat flow rate
hp kgfm/s IW kcal/h
hp*) 1 75 736 632
kgfm/s 1.33x10-2 1 9.81 8.43
W 1.36x10-3 0.102 1 0.860
kcal/h 1.58x10-3 0.119 1.16 1
Energy, work, quantity of heat

hph kgfm kWh kcal
hph 1 2.70x10-5 0.736 632
kgfm 3.75x10-6 1 2.75x10-6 2.34x10-3
kWh 1.36 0.367x10-6 1 860
kcal 1.58x10-3 427 1.16x10-3 1
* metric
The SI Unit System

SI (Système International d’Unités) is a metric system of
international units which lends itself to simplification and
systemisation. The SI system is gaining popularity
throughout the world and forms the basis of the first truly
international system of measurement. Such units as me-
tre, kilogramme, litre, etc, will eventually be used world-
wide. There is a definite advantage in applying the same
units for all sizes, irrespective of the area measured. For
example, the unit of power (Watt) can be used for electric
motors and combustion engines. Horsepower will gradu-
ally disappear from the language. Thanks to uniformity
and systemisation, no conversion factors will be required
under the SI unit system.
SI includes a range of basic units, derivatives, multiples
and sub-multiples. There are also supplementary units,
primarily associated with subdivision of the 24-hour day.
9
Basic SI units:
Length...........................................................(m) metre
Mass..............................................................(k) kilogram
Time..............................................................(s) second
Electric current..............................................(A) ampere
Thermodynamic temperature.......................(K) kelvin
Luminous intensity........................................(cd) candela
Amount of substance....................................(mol) mole
Supplementary units:
Plane angle...................................................(rad) radian
Solid angle....................................................(sr) steradian
The table below can be used to convert MKSA units used

in this booklet and other common units to SI units.
Force newton N kg x m/s²
Work
Energy joule J kg x m²/s²= N x m = W x
s Quantity of heat
Power watt W kg x m²/s³ = J/s
Pressure pascal Pa N/m²

bar bar 105 Pa
9
92
6.9 x 10-2 x 1450 ~ 100 bar

Find factor for bar, line p.s.i. = 1
1450 p.s.i. converted to bar?
Example showing use of pressure/stress table:
Units and other Common Unit Systems.
Tables showing conversion Factors between SI
Length
Other units
SI unit
m in ft yd
mile
(inch) (foot) (yard)
1 39.4 3.28 1.09 0.621 x 10-3
2.54 x 10-2 1 8.33 x 10-2 2.77 x 10-2 15.8 x 10-6
0.305 12 1 0.333 0.189 x 10-3
0.914 36 3 1 0.568 x 10-3
1.161 x 10 3
63.4 x 10 3
5.28 x 10 3
1.76 x 10 3
1
Area
Other units
SI unit
in2 ft2 yd2
m2 (square inch) (square foot) (square yard)
1 1.55 x 103 10.8 1.20
0.645 x 10-3 1 6.94 x 10-3 0.772 x 10-3
9.29 x 10-2 144 1 0.111
0.836 1.30 x 103 9 1
Volume
Other units
SI unit
in3 ft3 yd3 gallon gallon
m3 (cubic inch) (cubic foot) (cubic yard) (UK) (US)
1 61.0 x 103 35.3 1.31 220 264
16.4 x 10-6 1 0.579 x 10-3 0.214 x 10-6 3.60 x 10-3 4.33 x 10-3
2.83 x 10-2 1.73 x 103 1 3.70 x 10-2 6.23 7.48
0.765 46.7 x 10 3
27 1 168 202
4.55 x 10-3 277 0.161 5.95 x 10-3 1 1.20
3.79 x 10-3 231 0.134 4.95 x 10-3 0.833 1
Velocity
SI unit Other units
m/s km/h ft/s mile/h
1 3.6 3.28 2.24
0.278 1 0.911 0.621
0.305 1.10 1 0.682
0.447 1.61 1.47 1
93
Density (mass/volume)
94
Mass
Other units
SI unit Other units
kg/m3 g/cm3,
lb/in3 lb/ft3 SI unit metric
g/ml lb
kg tech.
1 36.1 x 10-6 6.24 x 10-2 (pound)
10-3 unit of mass
103 1 3.61 x 10-2 62.4
1 0.102 2.21
27.7 x 10 3
27.7 1 1.73 x 103 9.81 1 21.7
16.0 1.60 x 10-2 5.79 x 10-3 1 0.454 4.63 x 10-2 1
Force, weight Moment of force

Other units
SI unit
N lbf
kp
(pound force)
1 0.102 0.225
9.81 1 2.21
4.45 0.454 1
Other units
SI unit
Nm kpm lbf x ft
1 0.102 0.738
9.81 1 7.23
1.36 0.138 1
Energy, work, quantity of heat
Other units
SI unit
Btu ft x lbf
J, Nm, Ws kWh kpm kcal
(Brit. thermal unit) (foot pound-force)
1 0.278 x 10-6
0.102 0.239 x 10 -3
0.948 x 10-3 0.738
3.6 x 106 1 0.367 x 106 860 3.41 x 103 2.66 x 106
9.81 2.72 x 10-6 1 2.34 x 10-3 929 x 10-3 7.23
4.19 x 103 1.16 x 10-3 427 1 3.97 3.09 x 103
1.06 x 103 0.293 x 10-3 108 0.252 1 779
1.36 0.377 x 10-6 0.138 0.324 x 10-3 1.29 x 10-3 1
95
96
Power, heat flow rate

Other units
SI unit
hp hK
W, Nm/s, J/s kpm/s kcal/h Btu/h
(Brit. horsepower) (metr. horsepower)
1 0.102 0.860 3.41 1.34 x 10-3 1.36 x 10-3
9.81 1 8.43 33.5 1.32 x 10-2 1.33 x 10-2
1.16 0.119 1 3.97 1.56 x 10-3 1.58 x 10-3
0.293 2.99 x 10 -2
0.252 1 0.393 x 10 -3
0.399 x 10-3
746 76.0 641 2.55 x 10 3
1 1.01
7.36 75 632 2.51 x 103 0.986 1
Input and Output of Electric Motors
Alternating current
1 phase 3 phases
Current input (kW) = U x I x cos 3 x U x I x cos

1000 1000
Mechanical output (hp) U x I x cos 3 x U x I x cos

736 736
U = Voltage; for thre-phase networks,

U represents tension between two phases
I = Amperage
cos : See table below
n: See table below
3 =1.73
kW, hp and Full-load Current for 3x380 Volt, 50 Cycle

Electric Motors, and Approximate Values of cos j and n
(at 1500 rpm)
Full-load
kW hp current cos  n
amp.
0.37 0.5 1.0 0.73 70.5
0.55 0.75 1.45 0.75 71.0
0.75 1.0 1.85 0.78 72.0
1.1 1.5 2.6 0.82 77.0
1.5 2.0 3.4 0.83 78.0
2.2 3.0 4.9 0.83 78.0
3.0 4.0 6.3 0.84 79.0
3.7 5.0 7.8 0.84 80.0
4.0 5.5 9.0 0.84 82.0
5.5 7.5 11.5 0.84 84.0
7.5 10.0 15.0 0.85 86.0
11.0 15.0 22.0 0.86 87.0
15.0 20.0 29.0 0.86 88.0
18.5 25.0 36.0 0.87 89.0
22.0 30.0 42.0 0.88 90.0
30.0 40.0 56.0 0.90 91.0
37.0 50.0 69.0 0.86 92.0
45.0 60.0 83.0 0.87 92.0
55.0 75.0 104.0 0.87 92.0
75.0 100.0 136.0 0.87 92.0
9
Fuel Table
Price per 1000 effective
Price per kg steam Øre

kg steam per kg fuel
Thermal efficiency
Calorific value
Effective kcal.
Fuel
Price per ton
(7 atm. abs.)
in boiler %
kcal. Øre
kcal. kg
Light fuel oil 9850 DKK 3380 75 7390 14.89 11.20 9.82
Heavy fuel oil
9775 2635 72 7040 9.59 10.66 6.33
(1500 sec.)*
Heavy fuel oil

9750 2513 70 6825 9.52 10.34 6.29
(3500 sec.)
Steam coal 7000 1675 62 4340 12.10 6.25 7.99
Singles, Stoker 6800 1475 69 4690 10.34 7.11 6.82
Screened coal 6500 1140 55 3575 10.77 5.42 7.10
*) The viscosity measured in Redwood seconds at 100°F.
1 kg steam at a pressure of 7 atm. abs. = 659.4 ~ 660
kcal.
In the part of the table dealing with oil-firing, the expenses

of atomising the oil have not been considered.
9
Saturated Steam Table
(according to Mollier)
Absolute Tempe- Enthal- Absolute Tempe- Enthal-
pressure rature py pressure rature py
Atmos. °C kg° Atmos. °C kg°
0.1 45.45 617.0 2.5 126.79 648.3
0.2 59.67 623.1 3.0 132.88 650.3
0.3 68.68 626.8 3.5 138.19 651.9
0.4 75.42 629.5 4.0 142.92 653.4
0.5 80.86 631.6 4.5 147.20 654.7
0.6 85.45 633.4 5.0 151.11 655.8
0.7 89.45 634.9 5.5 154.72 656.5
0.8 92.99 636.2 6.0 158.08 657.8
0.9 96.18 637.4 6.5 161.21 658.7
1.0 99.09 638.5 7.0 164.17 659.4
1.1 101.76 639.4 7.5 166.97 660.1
1.2 104.25 640.3 8.0 169.61 660.8
1.3 106.56 641.2 8.5 172.13 661.4
1.4 108.74 642.0 9.0 174.53 662.0
1.5 110.79 642.8 9.5 176.83 662.5
1.6 112.73 643.5 10.0 179.04 663.0
1.7 114.57 644.1 12.5 188.92 665.1
1.8 116.33 644.7 15.0 197.36 666.6
1.9 118.01 645.3 17.5 204.76 667.7
2.0 119.62 645.8 20.0 211.38 668.5
9
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boling Points of the Elements
Sym- Atomic Atomic Foot- Melting point Boiling point
Name
bol number weight notes (°C) (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 227.028 L 1050 3200±300
Aluminium Al 13 26.9815 660.37 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 994±4 2607
Antimony (Stibium) Sb 51 121.75 630.74 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 g, r - 189.2 - 185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9216 817 (28 alm) 613 (sub)
Astatine At 85 (210) 302 337
Barium Ba 56 137.33 g 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.01218 1278±5 2970 (5 mm)
Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 271.3 1560±5
Boron B 5 10.81 m, r 2079 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.904 - 7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 g 320.9 765
Caesium (Cesium) Cs 55 132.905 2840±0.01 669.3
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 g 839±2 1484
Califomium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.011 r, t 3652 (sub) 1
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 g 798 3443
Cesium (Caesium) Cs 55 132.9054 2840±0.01 669.3
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 - 100.98 - 34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 1857±20 2572
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 1495 2870
Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29 63.546 r 1083.4±0.2 2567
Curium Cm 96 (247) 1340±40
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 1412 2567
Einstenium Es 99 (252)
Erbium Er 68 167.26 1529 2868
Europium Eu 63 151.96 g 822 1527
Fermium Fm 100 (257)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 - 219.62 - 188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223) (27) (677)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 g 1313 3273
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 937.4 2830
Gold (Aurum) Au 79 196.967 1064.434 2808±2
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 2227±20 4602
Helium He 2 4.00260 g - 272.226 atm - 268.934
Holmium Ho 67 164.930 1474 2700
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 g, m, r - 259.34 - 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 g 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.905 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 2410 4130
Iron (Ferrum) Fe 26 55.847 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 8380 g, m - 156.6 -
152.30±0.10
Lanthanum La 57 136.906 g 918 3464
Lawrencium Lr 103 (260)
Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82 207.2 g, r 327.502 1740
Lithium Li 3 6.941 g, m, r 180.54 1342
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 1663 3402
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 g 648.8±0.5 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.9380 1244±3 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg 80 200.59 - 38.87 356.58
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.54 g 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 g 1021 3074
Neon Ne 10 20.1179 g, m - 248.67 - 246.048
Neptunium Np 93 237.048 L 640±1 3902
Nickel Ni 28 58.69 1453 2732
Niobium (Columbium) Nb 41 92.9064 2468±10 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 - 209.86 - 195.8
Nobelium No 102 (259)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 g 3045±30 5027±100
1
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boling Points of the Elements
(continued)
Sym- Atomic Atomic Foot- Melting point Boiling point
Name
bol number weight notes (°C) (°C)
Oxygen O 8 15..9994 g, r - 218.4 - 182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 g 1554 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 44.1 (white) 280 (white)
Platinum Pt 78 195.08 1772 3827±100
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 641 3232
Polonium Po 84 (209) 254 962
Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39.0983 63.25 759.9
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.908 931 3520
Promethium Pm 61 (145) 1042 3000 (est.)
Protoactinium Pa 91 231.0359 L 1600
Radium Ra 88 226.025 g, L 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) - 71 - 61.8
Rhenium Re 75 186.207 3180 5627 (est.)
Rhodium Rh 45 102.906 1965±3 3727±100
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678 g 38.89 686
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 g 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.36 g 1074 1794
Scandium Sc 21 44.9559 1541 2836
Selenium Se 34 78.96 217 684.9±1.0
Silicon Si 14 28.0855 1410 2355
Silver (Argentum) Ag 47 107.868 g 961.93 2212
Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 22.9898 97.81±0.03 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 g 769 1384
Sulfur S 16 32.06 r 112.8 444.674
Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 2996 5425±100
Technetium Tc 43 (98) 2172 4877
Tellurium Te 52 127.60 g 449.5 ± 0.3 989.8±3.8
Terbium Tb 65 158.925 1356 3230
Thallium Tl 81 204.383 303.5 1457±10
Thorium Th 90 232.038 g, L 1750 3800 (approx.)
Thulium Tm 69 168.934 1545 1950
Tin (Stannum) Sn 50 118.71 231.9681 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.88 1660 ± 10 3287
Tungsten (Wolfram) W 74 183.85 3410 ± 20 5660
Unnihexium (Unh) 106 (263)
Unnilpentium (Unp) 105 (262)
Unnilquadium (Unq) 104 (261)
Unnilseptium (Uns) 107 (262)
Uranium U 92 238.029 g, m 1132 ± 0.8 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.9415 1890 ± 10 3380
Wolfram (see Tungsten)
Xenon Xe 54 131.29 g, m - 111.9 - 107.1 ± 3
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 819 1196
Yttrium Y 39 88,9059 1552 5338
Zinc Za 30 65.39 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.224 g 1852 ± 2 4377
g geological exceptional specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic com-
position outside the limits for normal material. The difference between the atomic weight
of the element in such specimens and that given in the Table may exceed the implied
uncertainty considerably.
m modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because

if has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic separation. Substantial
deviations in atomic weight of the element from that given in the Table may occur.
r range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise

atomic weight being given; the tabulated Ar (E) value should be applicable to any
normal material.
t triple point; (graphite-liquid-gas), 3627 ± 50°C at a pressure of 10.1 Mpa and (graphite-
diamond-liquid), 3830 to 3930°C at a pressure of 12 to 13 Gpa.
L Longest half-life isotop mass is chosen for the tabulated Ar (E) value.
The atomic weights presented in the above Table are the 1981 atomic weights as presented
in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 55, No. 7, pp. 1101-1136, 1983.
1
Prefixes with Symbols used in Forming Decimal
Multiples and Submultiples
Factor by which the
Name Symbol
unit is multiplied
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18
The symbol representing the prefix is fixed to the unit sym-

bol and raises the latter to the stated power:
Example: 12000 N = 12 x 103 N = 12 kN

0.00394 m = 3.94 x 10-3 m = 3.94 mm
140000 N/m = 140 x 10 N/m
2 3 2
= 140 kN/m2
or 1.4 x 10 N/m = 1.4 bar
5 2
0.0003 s = 0.3 x 10-3 s = 0.3 ms
1
Thermometric Scales
Celsius and Fahrenheit Degrees *)
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32°) °F = (°C x 9/5 + 32°
°C °F °C °F °C °F °C °F
- 17.8 0.0 35 95.0 74 165.2 113 235.4
- 15 5.0 36 96.9 75 167.0 114 237.2
- 10. 14.0 37 98.6 76 168.8 115 239.0
-5 23.0 38 100.4 77 170.6 116 240.8
0. 32.0 39 102.2 78 172.4 117 242.6
1 33.8 40 104.0 79 174.2 118 244.4
2 35.6 41 105.8 80 176.0 119 246.2
3 37.4 42 107.6 81 177.8 120 248.0
4 39.2 43 109.4 82 179.6 121 249.8
5 41.0 44 111.2 83 181.4 122 251.6
6 42.8 45 113.0 84 183.2 123 253.4
7 44.6 46 114.8 85 185.0 124 255.2
8 46.4 47 116.6 86 186.8 125 257.0
9 48.2 48 118.4 87 188.6 126 258.8
10. 50.0 49 120.2 88 190.4 127 260.6
11 51.8 50 122.0 89 192.2 128 262.4
12 53.6 51 123.8 90 194.0 129 264.2
13 55.4 52 125.6 91 195.8 130 266.0
14 57.2 53 127.4 92 197.6 131 267.8
15 59.0 54 129.2 93 199.4 132 269.6
16 60.8 55 131.0 94 201.2 133 271.4
17 62.6 56 132.8 95 203.0 134 273.2
18 64.4 57 134.6 96 204.8 135 275.0
19 66.2 58 136.4 97 206.6 136 276.8
20. 68.0 59 138.2 98 208.4 137 278.6
21 69.8 60 140.0 99 210.2 138 280.4
22 71.6 61 141.8 100 212.0 139 282.2
23 73.4 62 143.6 101 213.8 140 284.0
24 75.2 63 145.4 102 215.6 141 285.8
25 77.0 64 147.2 103 217.4 142 287.6
26 78.8 65 149.0 104 219.2 143 289.4
27 80.6 66 150.8 105 221.0 144 291.2
28 82.4 67 152.6 106 222.8 145 293.0
29 84.2 68 154.4 107 224.6 146 294.8
30. 86.0 69 156.2 108 226.4 147 296.6
31 87.8 70 158.0 109 228.2 148 298.4
32 89.6 71 159.8 110 230.0 149 300.2
33 91.4 72 161.6 111 231.8 150 302.0
34 93.2 73 163.4 112 233.6
*) All temperatures in this booklet are in °C
1
Conversion Table
1 inch x 2.54 = cm
1 foot x 0.3048 =m
1 yard x 0.9144 =m
1 mile x 1609 =m
1 square inch x 6.452 = cm2
1 square foot x 0.0929 = cm2
1 square yard x 0.83 = cm2
1 acre x 4086.8 = cm2
1 cubic inch x 16.39 = cm2
1 cubic foot x 28.32 = litre
1 pint (liquid UK) x 0.568 = litre
1 pint (liquid US) x 0.473 = litre
1 UK quart x 1.136 = litre
1 US quart x 0.946 = litre
1 US gallon x 3.785 = litre
1 UK gallon x 4.55 = litre
1 ounce x 28.35 =g
1 lb x 0.454 = kg
1 short ton x 907.18 = kg
1 long ton x 1016.06 = kg
1 pound per sq. inch x 0.07 = kg/cm2
1 cm x 0.394 = inch
1m x 3.281 = foot
1m x 1.0936 = yard
1 km x 0.6213 = mile
1 cm2 x 0.155 = square inch
1 m2 x 10.764 = square foot
1 m2 x 1.197 = square yard
1 hectare x 2.4711 = acre
1 cm3 x 0.061 = cubic inch
1 m3 x 35.32 = cubic foot
1 litre x 1.76 = pint (liquid UK)
1 litre x 2.11 = pint (liquid US)
1 litre x 0.264 = US gallon
1 litre x 0.22 = UK gallon
1g x 15.432 = grains
1 kg x 2.2046 = lb
1 tonne x 1.1023 = short ton
1 tonne x 0.9842 = long ton
1 kg/cm2 x 14.22 = pound per sq. inch
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32°) °F = 9/5 (°C + 32°)
1
NOTES
1
1
1
1

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Invensys APV Dairy Technology

Fax +45 70 278 330

EVAPORATION AND DRYING

CLEANING AND DISINFECTING

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 4.3%

100 kg skimmilk with 9.5% solids yields:

100 kg buttermilk with 9.0% solids yields:

100 kg unskimmed whey with approx. 7.0% solids yields:

100 kg skimmed whey with approx. 6.5% solids yields:

Pasteurisation temperature and time

Pasteurised cream (10% fat): 75°C/15 sec.

Pasteurised, concentrated milk,

In each case the product is subsequently cooled to 10°C

In many countries, the phosphatase test is used to deter-

Calculation of residence time in holding tube

length of tube x volume per metre

Indirect: Plate UHT Plant

In addition to the 4 main systems, Invensys APV has de-

ESL - Extended Shelf Life

Fig. 1: Flow diagram for Tubular Steriliser

The term extended shelf life or ESL is being applied more

Invensys APV has during the last years developed a pa-

The Invensys APV infusion ESL is based on the theory

PRODUCT COOLING WATER

5ºC 143ºC 75ºC 25ºC <25ºC

Plate preheaters4. Flash vessel Aseptic tank

Fig. 3: Temperature profile for pasteurisation processes.

The Pure LacTM process

Based on investigations of consumer requirements and

• A sensory quality equal to or better than pasteurised

Process Technology/Shelf Life

Pasteurisation 0 10 days 1 - 2 days

Centrifugation 1 14 days 4 - 5 days

Microfiltration 02-mar 30 days 6 - 7 days

Pure LacTM Up to 45 days

UHT - Ultra High Temperature

Fig. 4: Temperature profiles for direct infusion, high heat

The logarithmic reduction of spores and sterilising

A logarithmic function can never reach zero, which

Spores of Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus stearothermophilus

Terms and expressions to characterise heat

D-Value. This is also called the decimal reduction time

Z-Value. This is defined as the temperature change,

F0 value. This is defined as the total integrated lethal effect

T = processing temperature (ºC)

t = processing time (seconds)

2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3

Fig. 5: Bacteriological and chemical changes of heated

one minute. To obtain commercially sterile milk from good

B* and C* Values. In the case of milk treatment, some

B* is based on the assumption that commercial sterility is

T = processing temperature (ºC)

t = processing time (seconds)

The C* value is based on the conditions for a 3 percent

C* = 10 ( T - 135 ) /31.4 x t / 30.5

Fig. 5 shows that a UHT process is deemed to be

The B* and C* calculations may be used for designing

The Invensys APV Steam Infusion Steriliser has a C*

In Invensys APV the infusion system has been designed