Module 1 - in Chem 114 - Chemistry For Engineers: WEEK 1, 2, 3 & 4
Module 1 - in Chem 114 - Chemistry For Engineers: WEEK 1, 2, 3 & 4
Module 1 - in Chem 114 - Chemistry For Engineers: WEEK 1, 2, 3 & 4
in
Atoms
Molecules
Ions
Periodic Table of Elements
Chemical Equations
Types of Chemical Reactions
Balancing Simple Reactions
The Mole
Empirical and Molecular Formula
Stoichiometry
I. Overview
Chemistry for Engineers is a 4-unit course (3 units lec and 1 unit lab) which is equivalent to
six (6) hours a week. Module 1 familiarizes the students with the structure of an atom and
identifies the physical as well as the chemical properties of the elements in the periodic
table. Through thorough discussions and presentations, students will be able to identify the
position of the elements in the periodic table using the atomic number. They will also be
able to calculate the amount of products, reactants and theoretical yield from balanced
chemical reactions. Students, then, will be given activities as form of assessment and
evaluation of the knowledge learned.
1. Describe the model of an atom and identify the numbers of protons, electrons and
neutrons in a particular isotope from its chemical symbol.
2. Explain the difference between molecular formula and empirical formula.
3. Determine the number of atoms in a molecule from its chemical formula.
4. Describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table and explain the usefulness
of the table
5. Write balanced chemical equations for simple reactions, given either an unbalanced
chemical equation or a verbal description.
6. Explain the concept of a mole in own words
7. Interpret chemical equations in terms of both moles and molecules
8. Interconvert between mass, number of molecules and number of moles.
9. Determine a chemical formula from elemental analysis (i.e. from % composition)
10. Write balanced chemical equations for the combustion of fuels.
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11. Calculate the amount of product expected from a chemical reaction, given the amount of
reactants used.
12. Calculate the amount of reactants needed in a chemical reaction to produce a specified
amount of product.
13. Identify the limiting reactant an calculate the amount of product formed from a non-
stoichiometric mixture of reactants.
14. Calculate the percentage yield of a chemical reaction.
III. Content/Discussion
The atom consists of three smaller subatomic particles: electrons, protons and neutrons
(Figure 1-1). The electron (e-) is the negatively charged (-1) particle. The proton (p+) is
the positively charged (+1) particle. The neutron (n0) is the neutral (uncharged) particle.
The protons and neutrons combine to form the nucleus at the center of the atom while
the electrons move around the nucleus.
The atomic number is the number of protons. The number of protons is always equal to
the number of electrons. Since the positive charge is always equal to the negative
charge, the charge of the atom is neutral.
However, when forming compounds, atoms sometimes gain or lose electrons to form a
charged particle called ion.
The Mass number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons. It is the weight of
the atom in atomic mass unit or Amu.
A general notation is used to represent the mass number and the atomic number of a
given atom: 𝐴𝑍𝐸 where E = the symbol of the element, A = the mass number (amu), and Z =
the atomic number.
no. of p+ = 8
no. of e- = 8
no. of n0 = 8
Atoms of the same element may vary in mass. Atoms that have the same atomic number
but different mass numbers are called ISOTOPES. For example, the common isotopes of
uranium include 235
92𝑈 and 92𝑈. The isotope 92𝑈 is used in nuclear reactions.
238 235
You may also access the links below for additional information:
https://byjus.com/jee/atomic-structure/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSJeMJaCkVU
Electrons move about the nucleus along the shells or energy levels. Each main energy
level is composed of sublevels: sharp (s), principal (p), diffuse (d), and fundamental (f).
The electrons fill out orbitals of energy levels according to the following principles:
Pauli’s Exclusion principle states that no more than two electrons can occupy a single
orbital.
Aufbau’s principle suggests the order of occupancy of sublevels. The mnemonic device
(1-3) serves as a guide of Aufbau’s principle in filling up orbitals.
Hund’s rule suggests that electrons are placed in individual orbitals per sublevel before
pairing. This is because it apparently takes less energy for an electron to occupy a free
orbital than an orbital already having an.
The electronic configuration shows the distribution of the electrons of an atom. The
elements sodium, iron, and chlorine can be represented by electronic configuration as
follows:
An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons (in general, up to a maximum of
three) is called an ion and thus has a charge.
ASSIGNMENT: Complete the table below following the mneumonic device in figure 1-3.
82Pb
36Kr
33As
20Ca
18Ar
17Cl
17Cl
10Ne
11Na
8O
Element
16
36
35
83
39
75
207
40
20
23
At. No.
At. Wt.
p+
n0
e-
K
Electron distribution
L
M
N
OType
Physical/Chemical
ication
Classif
Characteristics:
Valence
e-
Oxid.
No.
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The periodic table is a device used to classify elements according to their atomic
number. The elements are arranged in rows and columns. The periods are the seven
horizontal rows in the periodic table. The groups are the eighteen vertical columns in
the periodic table. Major classifications of elements are:
Noble Gases are the elements that belong to group 8A. They are also called inert gases
because they have a very little tendency to react with anything else. Their electronic
configuration ends in ns2 np6, except for helium.
Transition metals are the elements that belong to group 1B to 8B. Their electronic
configuration ends in s2d1 to s2d10 in the d block. They also exhibit several oxidation
states.
Inner transition metals are located at the bottom of the periodic table and are placed
between groups 3B and 4B. They are divided into two main groups: Lanthanide series in
period 6 and Actinide series in period 7. The elements here belong to the f block.
Chemical equations are the way chemists represent chemical reactions in terms of
formulas and symbols. The reactants are written on the left side of the equation and the
products are written on the right side of the equation separated by means of an arrow
the direction in which the reaction is taking place.
The reactants are CH4 and O2, which react to yield the products CO2 and H2O.
When a chemical change occurs, the composition of substances is altered to form a new
substance. Evidences of these chemical reactions include:
1. Evolution of gas
Certain rules are to be followed in balancing chemical equations. These rules serve as
guide to achieve the correct balanced equation.
Step 2: Write the unbalanced (skeleton) equation. It is important to take note that
once the correct formula is written, it must not be changed during the subsequent
balancing operation.
HgO Hg + O2
2 HgO 2 Hg + O2
EXAMPLE: PROBLEM 1
Aqueous calcium hydroxide reacts with aqueous phosphoric acid to form a solid calcium
phosphate and liquid water.
To check we could all add all the Ca, O, H and P atoms on each side of the equation
Ca = 3 x 1 = 3 Ca = 1 x 3 = 3
O = (3 x 2) + (2 x 4) = 14 O = (4 x 2) + (6 x 1) = 14
H = (3 x 2) + (2 x 3) = 12 H = 6 x 2 = 12
P=2x1=2 P=2x1=2
A. COMBINATION
Combination is a type of chemical reaction, which is formed by the union of two or more
substances to form a single compound. The type equation is:
A + B AB
A and B may be both an element, both compounds or an element and a compound. There
are several kinds of combination reactions to be considered:
2 Na + Cl2 2 NaCl
4 Al + 3 O2 2 Al2O3
S + O2 SO2
4. Metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide (metal oxides are sometimes referred as
basic oxide or basic anhydride)
5. Nonmetal oxide + water → oxyacid (nonmetal oxides are often referred acid
oxides or acid anhydrides)
B. DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition reaction occurs when one compound decomposes to form two or more
new substances. Heat is required frequently for the reaction to take place.
AB A + B
1. Hydrates when heated decompose to yield water and anhydrous salt. Hydrates
are salt that contain one or more molecules of water for each formula unit of salt.
2 KClO3 2 KCl + 3 O2
4. Bicarbonates when heated decompose to form metal oxides, carbon dioxide and
water.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaO + 2 CO2 + H2O
5. Water can be decomposed into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas through direct
electric current.
A+ + B+X- B + AX
Y- + A+X- X + AY
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Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
In the activity series or electromotive series of elements, the metals and non-metals are
arranged in the order of decreasing activity. For example, Zn displaces Hydrogen in the
above equation since zinc is higher on the activity series.
HX + BOH BX + H2O
Precipitation reaction occurs when an two aqueous solutions react to form an insoluble
substance referred as precipitate.
1.7 STOICHIOMETRY
Atomic Weight – weighted average of all the isotopes found in any naturally occurring
sample of the element.
Isotopes – atoms the exhibit the same chemical properties but differ in mass.
Molecular weight – sum of the atomic weights in the formula of the substance.
1. H2O
H = 2x1 = 2
O = 1 x 16 = 16
18 g/mole
2. Mg(NO3)2
Mg = 1 x 24 = 24
N = 2 x 14 = 28
O = 6 x 16 = 96
148 g/mole
EXAMPLE
Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 = 44.0 𝑔
The empirical formula of the compound shows the smallest whole number of atoms of
each element present in one molecule of the compound. It is also known as the simplest
chemical formula. For example, the simplest formula of hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2, which
is used as bleaching agent for hair and textiles, is HO.
The molecular formula of the compound shows the actual number of atoms of each
element present in one molecule of the compound. It consists of the symbols of the
elements and the subscripts. In BaCl2, the subscript numeral indicates the number of
atoms of an element present. There is no subscript for Ba because there is only one atom
of barium in a molecule of barium chloride and the number “one” is no longer written.
Procedures in determining Empirical Formula
EXAMPLE
A compound of nitrogen and oxygen has the composition 1.52g of N and 3.47g O. The
molar mass of this compound is known to be between 90g and 95g. Determine the
molecular formula and the molar mass of the compound.
1.52 0.108
𝑁= = 0.108 =1
14 0.108
3.47 0.217
𝑂= = 0.217 =2
16 0.108
𝑁𝑂2 = 14 + 2(16) = 14 + 32 = 46
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 95
= =2
𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 46
c) Volume is given, convert to grams by first multiplying the volume by density, and then
divide by the molar mass to change it to mole.
3. From mole of reactant, change this to mole of product by using the coefficients in the
balanced chemical equation.
5. To solve for the theoretical yield (the amount of possible products that can be
produced from given amounts of reactants), the limiting reagent (the substance that
gives the least number of moles in the product) is considered.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% Y𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
EXAMPLE 1.
If 20 grams of zinc reacts with silver nitrate to form zinc nitrate and silver. Determine:
a) weight in grams of silver that is produced
b) the percent yield if 50 grams of silver is produced from reaction of 20g of zinc
with 120g of silver nitrate
Solution:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
Step 2: 20 𝑔 𝑍𝑛 × = 0.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
65.4 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔
Step 3: 0.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 × = 0.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
108 𝑔 𝐴𝑔
Step 4: 0.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔 × = 64.8 𝑔 𝐴𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔
b) To solve for the percent yield, identify first the limiting reagent by comparing results
using both reactants.
Step 5:
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔
Using Zinc: 20 𝑔 𝑍𝑛 × × = 0.60 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔
65.4 𝑔 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
Since 0.6 mol of Ag (from Zn) is less than 0.70 mol of Ag (from AgNO3), the limiting
reagent is zinc. The other reactant, AgNO3, is called excess reagent.
Step 6:
Percent yield = Actual yield/Theoretical yield x 100%
50 𝑔
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100% = 77.2%
64.8 𝑔
a. NaClO3
b. Fe2(CO3)3
c. Fe2(SO4)3
d. CuSO4.7H2O
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a. 4.8g of Al
b. 2.0 x 1024 atoms of Na
c. 0.050 kg of H2O
d. 3 lbs NH4Cl
a. 3.5 mole of H2
b. 0.025g He
c. 2.2 kg K
d. 0.5 lb NH3
V. PROGRESS CHECK
Symbol 54
26𝐹𝑒
2+
Protons 5 79 86
Electrons 5 18 79
Net
-3 0
charge
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4) Change the following word equations into chemical equations and balance by
inspection (indicate the state of all reactants and products):
6) Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned,
sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise
to the acid rain phenomenon. How many atoms are in 16.3g of S?
9) All Alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the corresponding
alkali metal hydroxide. A typical reaction is that between lithium and water:
a. How many moles of H2 will be formed by the complete reaction of 6.23 moles
of Li with water?
a. In one process, 637.2g of NH3 are treated with 1142g of CO2. Which of the
two reactants is the limiting reagent?
c. How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction?
11) Disulfide dichloride (S2Cl2) is used in the vulcanization of rubber, a process that
prevents the slippage of rubber molecules past one another when stretched. It is
prepared by heating sulfur in an atmosphere of chlorine:
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What is the theoretical yield of S2Cl2 in grams when 4.06g of S8 are heated with
6.24g of Cl2? If the actual yield of S2Cl2 is 6.55g, what is the percent yield?
12) The equation for the preparation of phosphorus in an electric furnace is
a. the number of grams of phosphorus formed for each mole of Ca3(PO4)2 used.
c. the number of moles of each SiO2 and C required for each mole of Ca3(PO4)2
used.
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VI. REFERENCES
in
I. Overview
Module 2, Thermochemistry, will be dealing with the Heat Capacity and Calorimetry.
Calculations of Enthalpy for temperature and phase change, solve heat transfer problems,
Hess Law and Heats of Reaction will also be involved as well as identify and apply the use
of coffee cup/bomb calorimeter. Students will be given activities as form of assessment
and evaluation of the knowledge learned.
III. Content/Discussion
MODULE 1 - THERMOCHEMISTRY
A. DEFINITION
Enthalpy is the heat content of a system or the potential of a system to create heat.
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Calorimetry is the science of measuring heat. The measurement is based on the change in
temperature when a body absorbs or discharges energy as heat. Substances respond
differently to being heated. Some substances require a great deal of heat energy to raise
its temperature by one degree. Other substances may require little or less heat energy.
This property is indicated by the heat capacity (cp) of a substance. The heat capacity is
the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram or one mole of a substance by
one degree Celsius.
The Molar heat capacity in is the energy required to raise the temperature of a mole of a
substance by one degree Celsius. The Specific heat capacity is the energy required to
raise the temperature of a gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
𝐽
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦:
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ℃
𝐽
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦:
𝑔℃
𝐽 𝑐𝑎𝑙
Specific heat capacity of liquid water H2O(l): 4.184 𝑜𝑟 1
𝑔℃ 𝑔℃
𝑐𝑎𝑙
Specific heat capacity of ice H2O(s): 0.5 𝑔℃
𝑐𝑎𝑙
Specific heat capacity of water vapor H2O(v): 0.5 𝑔℃
When heat is transferred to or from an object, the temperature of the object changes.
The amount of heat needed when there is a change in temperature is given by the
formula:
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡
PROBLEM 1
Heating a 24 g aluminum can raise its temperature by 15OC. Find the value of q for
the can. Cp can = 0.900 J/gOC.
Given: m = 24 g
𝐶𝑝 = 0.900 J/gOC
t = 15𝑜 𝐶
Reqd: q
q = mCpΔt
= (24g) (0.900 J/gOC) (15OC)
q = 324 J
PROBLEM 2:
𝐽
The molar heat capacity of liquid water is 75.3 . If 37.5 g of water is cooled
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
from 42OC to 7OC, what is q for the water?
Given: m = 37.5 g
𝑡1 = 42𝑜 𝐶
𝑡2 = 7𝑜 𝐶
𝐽 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐽
𝐶𝑝= 75.3 x = 4.18 𝑔−𝐾
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 18 𝑔
Reqd: q
Solution: 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑡
q = 5.49 kJ
PROBLEM 3:
A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78OC. A piece of gold at 2.3OC is placed in
the water. The final temperature reached by the system is 76.9OC . What was the
𝐽 𝐽
mass of gold? Cp water = 4.184 𝑔℃ Cp gold = 0.129 𝑔℃
qlost = qgained
mCpΔtH2O = mCpΔtgold
𝑚𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 119.56 𝑔
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Heat flow into a substance does not always correspond to an increase in temperature. In
some cases, heat flow alters the physical state of a substance instead of raising the
temperature. For example, if heat flows into an ice cube at 0OC, the ice will melt to form
liquid water at 0OC. If heat flows into liquid water at 100OC, the water will vaporize at
100OC.
Heat of Fusion is the energy required to change a gram of a substance from the solid
state to liquid state without changing its temperature.
For water (ice to liquid water):
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐻𝑓
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐽
Heat of fusion of water is 80 or 335 𝑔
𝑔
Heat of Vaporization is the energy required to change a gram of a liquid substance into
the gaseous state at the boiling point.
𝑞 = 𝑚𝐻𝑣
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐽
Heat of vaporization of water is 540 𝑔 or 2259 𝑔.
PROBLEM 1:
Calculate the enthalpy change when 240 g of ice melts in kcal and kJ
q = Hfm
𝑐𝑎𝑙 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
in kcal: 240 g (79.72 )x = 19.133 kcal
𝑔 1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐽 1𝑘𝐽
in kJ: 240g (333.55 𝑔) x = 80.052 kJ
1000 𝐽
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PROBLEM 2:
q = Hvm
q = (540cal/g)(5mol)(18g/mol)(1kcal/1000g)
= 48.6kcal
Problem 3
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3 𝑄4
𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑣)
Qt = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= 5,000cal + 79,200cal + 100,000cal + 540,000cal
= 724,200cal or 724.2kcal
Calorimetry problems include two categories. The first category has substances with
different temperatures but no chemical reactions occur. Two substances, each at different
temperatures are combined and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium. The energy
released by the warm object is absorbed by the cool object.
𝑞𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚 = −𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙
The second category includes substances in chemical reaction or a state change leading to
a temperature change. When solutions of chemical reactants are combined in a
calorimeter, the reaction can cause the solvent to either increase or decrease in
temperature.
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
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The calorimeter is a device that measures the quantity of heat transferred to or from an
object. Two of the most common types of calorimeters include the coffee cup
calorimeter and the bomb calorimeter.
The coffee cup calorimeter uses a Styrofoam cup with a lid. The cup is partially filled
with a known volume of water. Then, a thermometer is inserted through the lid making
sure that the bulb is below the water surface. If a chemical reaction happens, the heat of
the reaction is absorbed by the water. Heat flow is calculated by:
qreaction = -qsolution
PROBLEM 1:
A coffee cup calorimeter initially contains 125 g of water at 24.2 OC. Potassium
bromide (10.5g), also at 24.2 °C, is added to the water. After dissolution of KBr, the
final temperature is 21.1OC. Calculate the enthalpy change for dissolving the salt in
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝐽
and in 𝑚𝑜𝑙. Assume that the specific heat capacity of the solution is 4.18 and
𝑘𝑔 𝑔𝑜 𝐶
that no heat is transferred the surroundings or to the calorimeter.
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qrxn = - qsolution
qsolution = mCpΔt
= -1756J
= 167.2kJ/kg
= 19.95kJ/mol
The bomb calorimeter is used to measure the heat exchanges associated with chemical reactions,
often, combustion reactions.
𝐽
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝐶 × ∆𝑡 where C is the calorimeter constant in 𝑜
𝐶
PROBLEM 1
qbomb = CΔt
= (837 J/0C)(33.2 – 25)0C
= 6,863.4J
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/5-2-calorimetry/
C. STANDARD ENTHALPY
Enthalpy (H) is the heat content of a substance. The enthalpy change, ΔH, refers to the
change in heat content due to a chemical reaction at constant pressure. The reaction is
exothermic when the enthalpy of the reactants is greater than that of the products. The
reaction is endothermic when the enthalpy of the products is greater than that of the
reactants.
Exothermic reactions
Consider the exothermic reaction between carbon and oxygen to yield carbon dioxide.
The reaction shows that 394 kJ of heat energy is evolved when carbon and oxygen
combine to form carbon dioxide.
Endothermic reactions
The reaction shows that 178 kJ of heat are absorbed when 1 mole of CaCO3 reacts to
produce 1 mole of calcium oxide and 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
For any chemical reaction, the change in enthalpy, ΔH, may be expressed as:
∆𝐻 = ∑𝑛𝐻𝑓𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − ∑𝑛𝐻𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
The standard enthalpy of formation (∆HfO) is the change in enthalpy that accompanies
the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements under standard conditions, and
with everything at its standard states. The enthalpy of formation of an element in its
standard state is assigned a value of zero.
The equation shows that 286 kJ of heat is evolved when 1 mole of liquid water is
formed from its elements at standard conditions.
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga
College of Engineering and Architecture
Exercises:
PROBLEM 1
Calculate ΔH for the combustion of methane, CH4(g), to produce CO2(g) and H2O(l). Tell
whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
= - 890.3kJ
PROBLEM 2
Calculate ΔH for the combustion of ethane, C2H6(g), to produce CO2(g) and H2O(l).
PROBLEM 3:
Calculate ΔHfO of butane, C4H10(g), from the ΔH value of -5754.6 kJ for two moles for
its combustion.
Consider the reaction between nitrogen gas and oxygen to produce nitric oxide.
a.) An engine generates 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas during a laboratory test. How
much heat was absorbed in producing this NO?
2mol NO = 180.5kJ
180.5𝑘𝐽
ΔH = 3.5 molNO x 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑂
ΔH = 315.9kJ
1molNO = - (180.5kJ)
−180.5𝑘𝐽
ΔH = 2
ΔH = -90.25kJ
F. HESS’S LAW
Hess’s law states that the change in enthalpy is always the same, whether the reaction is
performed directly or whether it takes place indirectly and in different steps. The total
change in enthalpy is the sum of all changes in a multistage reaction.
The enthalpy change for the reaction cannot be measured in the laboratory because the
reaction proceeds very slowly. However, applying Hess’s Law, the reaction can be
arranged using known equations in such a way that the resulting equation has C(s) + 2H2(g)
as the reactants and CH4(g) as the product. Consider the following three equations:
1
H2(g) + 2 O2(g) H2O(l) ∆H = -285.8 kJ
1. The first equation has the C(s) that is needed as a reactant, so write it down as is.
2. To get 2H2(g) as another reactant, multiply the second equation by 2.
3. To get CH4(g) as a product, reverse the third reaction. Consequently, the enthalpy for
the equation is also reversed.
4. Cancel the substances appearing both as reactant and product.
5. Finally, add the three equations to get the total enthalpy.
Hence, the ΔH for the formation of 1 mole of methane from carbon and hydrogen is -
74.8 kJ.
EXERCISES:
1
H2 + O2 H2O ΔH = -285.8kJ
2
1 3
P4 + Cl2 PCl3 ΔH = -306.4kJ
4 2
1 10
PCl5 P4 + Cl2 ΔH = 398.9kJ
4 4
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Text
book_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermo
dynamics/Thermodynamic_Cycles/Hess's_Law
The First law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
However, energy can be converted from one form to another. Another way of stating the
first law is that “the energy of the universe is constant.”
The SECOND law of thermodynamics is also known as the Law of Entropy. Entropy is the
disorder or randomness of the system. It is a measure of how matter and energy are
dispersed over time. The entropy of the universe always increases. If there is a change in
phase, from solid to liquid to gas, or if there is a change in size, from large molecules to
small molecules to atoms, there is an increase in entropy because matter is moving farther
apart.
The concept of entropy is better understood using examples. Liquid water at 0OC has
higher entropy than ice at the same temperature. A quantity of gas contained in a 1 liter
flask has higher entropy than the same quantity of gas confined in a 10 ml flask.
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga
College of Engineering and Architecture
The change in entropy (ΔS) is the sum of the absolute entropies of the products minus
the sum of the absolute entropies of the reactants at standard conditions.
∆𝑆 = ∑𝑛𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − ∑𝑛𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/chemical-processes/thermodynamics-
mcat/a/thermodynamics-article
Gibbs free energy is the maximum amount of useful work that can be done by any
process at constant temperature and pressure. At constant temperature and pressure, the
changes in enthalpy, free energy and entropy for any process is given by the formula:
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆
On the other hand, if ΔG is positive, the reaction is non spontaneous. A non spontaneous
reaction cannot proceed unless there is an input of energy.
PROBLEM 1
a. At 25OC
ΔH = ΣHfproducts – ΣHfreactants
ΔH = 2mol(-46kJ/mol) – (0)
ΔH = - 92kJ
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga
College of Engineering and Architecture
ΔS = ΣΔSproducts – ΣΔSreactants
= nΔSNH3 – (nΔSN2 + nΔSH2)
= 2mol(0.192kJ/molK) –((1mol)(0.189kJ/molK) + (3mol)(0.130kJ/molK))
= 0.384kJ/K – (0.189kJ/K) – (0.390kJ/mol)
ΔS = - 0.195kJ/K
Δ G = ΔH – (T ΔS)
= -92kJ – (250C+273)K(-0.195kJ/K)
Δ G = - 33.89kJ
Therefore, the reaction is spontaneous
b. At 500OC
ΔH = -92kJ
ΔS = -0.195kJ/K
ΔG = ΔH – (TΔS)
ΔG = -92kJ – (5000C + 273)K(-0.195kJ/K)
ΔG = 58.7kJ
Therefore, the reaction is non spontaneous
PROBLEM 2:
ΔH = ΣHfproducts – ΣHfreactants
= (2mol)(-396kJ/mol) – (2mol)(-297kJ/mol)
= -792kJ + 594kJ
ΔH= -198kJ
ΔS = ΣΔSproducts – ΣΔSreactants
= nΔSSO3 – (nΔSSO2 + nΔSO2)
= 2mol(0.257kJ/molK) – ((2mol)(0.247kJ/molK) + (1mol)(0.205kJ/molK))
= 0.514kJ/K – (0.494kJ/mol) – (0.205kJ/mol)
ΔS = -0.185kJ/K
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga
College of Engineering and Architecture
ΔG = ΔH – (T ΔS)
= -198kJ – (250C + 273)K(-0.185kJ/K)
ΔG = -143kJ
Therefore, the reaction is spontaneous
IV. EXERCISES:
𝐽
1. A 5.0 g sample of aluminum pellets (𝐶𝑝 = 0.89 ⁄𝑔𝑜 𝐶 ) and 10 g of iron pellets
𝐽
(𝐶𝑝 = 0.45 ⁄𝑔𝑜 𝐶 ) are heated to 100𝑜 𝐶. The mixture of hot iron and
aluminum is then dropped into 97.3 g of water at 22𝑜 𝐶. Calculate the final
temperature of the metal and water mixture.
2. Calculate the enthalpy change for the dissolution of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 in 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 if 15.0g
of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 is dissolved in 250 ml of water in a coffee cup calorimeter and the
temperature of the solution increases from 22.2𝑜 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 32.7𝑜 𝐶.
5. Calculate ∆ 𝐻𝑓𝑜 of butane, 𝐶8 𝐻18(𝑔) , from the H value of -5470.75kJ for its
combustion.
6. Calculate ∆ 𝐻𝑓𝑜 of propane, 𝐶3 𝐻8(𝑔) , from the H value of -2221kJ for its
combustion.
Atomic weights: C-12, H-1, O-16, Cu-63.5, K-39, Br-80, Na-40, Cl-35.5
1. A piece of copper metal of mass 6.5 kg is heated from 20.50C to 324.30C. Calculate
the heat absorbed in kilocalories by the metal. Specific heat capacity of Cu is
0.385J/g-0C
3. In a coffee cup calorimeter, the initial temperature of potassium bromide (KBr) and
water is 25.20C. When 21g of KBr is dissolved in water, the temperature reading is
22.10C. Determine the mass of water used in the reaction. The enthalpy change for
dissolving the salt in water is 20kJ/mol. Assume that the specific heat capacity of the
solution is 4.18 J/g0C and that no heat is transferred to the calorimeter.
Determine:
b. �S
c. �G at 250C
5. Find the resulting temperature when 100 g of ice at 0oC is mixed with 1 liter of H2O
at 35oC.
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DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga
College of Engineering and Architecture
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V. References