economies

Article
Put–Call Ratio Volume vs. Open Interest in Predicting
Market Return: A Frequency Domain Rolling
Causality Analysis
Sangram Keshari Jena 1, *, Aviral Kumar Tiwari 2 and Amarnath Mitra 3
1 Department of Finance, IBS Hyderabad, IFHE University, Hyderabad 501203, India
2 Department of Finance, Control and Law, Montepellier Business School, 34000 Montepelllier, France;
[email protected]
3 Department of Operations and Quantitative Methods, International Management Institute, New Delhi
110016, India; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +91-8826568572




Received: 22 September 2018; Accepted: 12 March 2019; Published: 25 March 2019


Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of the Put–Call Ratio (PCR), a widely used information
ratio measured in terms of volume and open interest, in predicting market return at different time
scale. Volume PCR was found to be an efficient predictor of the market return in a short period of
2.5 days and open interest PCR in a long period of 12 days. Thus, traders and portfolio managers
should use the appropriate PCR depending upon the time horizon of their trade and investment. The
results are robust even after controlling for the information generated from the futures market.

Keywords: Put–Call Ratio; volume; open interest; frequency-domain roiling causality

1. Introduction
Options are a conduit of carrying information into the market, which subsequently leads to stock
price changes Grossman (1988). Because informed traders prefer to trade in options market for leverage
and low transaction cost Black (1975) and Easley et al. (1998)1 , trading activities of options market
measured in terms of volume and open interest are informative to predict the future price of their
respective underlying assets. Both options volume and open interest have been used in addition to
other factors in modeling early warning system for market crisis Li et al. (2015). Further, as per Jena
and Dash (2014), trading volume and open interest represent the strength and potential of price change
of the underlying asset, respectively. In addition, traders and technical analysts use open interest data
to study the behavior of the underlying asset and design appropriate options strategies. Fodor et
al. (2011) found individual call and put open interest have the power to predict future stock return.
Most often PCR remains in the news as one of the important and parsimonious information variables
used by traders to predict the market return2 . This ratio is a contrarian indicator of the market by
looking at build up options. That means, if there is excessive fall or rise in the market, PCR will move

1 Informational role of derivative markets was discussed by Back (1993), Biais and Hillion (1994), Brennan and Cao (1996) and
John et al. (2000) and others who further enriched the linkage among trade, price and private information in derivative
market. In addition, few empirical studies support the informational role of derivative markets (e.g., Du et al. (2018), Ryu
(2015), Cao and Ye (2016) and Chordia et al. (2018)).
2 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/rising-nifty-put-call-ratio-bringssolace-for-bulls-
no-big-fall-likely/articleshow/60456238.cmshttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/
spike-in-put-call-ratio-shows-niftymay-correct-1-or-more-in-a-single-session/articleshow/59484386.cmshttps:
//economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/rising-put-call-ratio-falling-volatilitysupporting-the-bulls/
articleshow/60727912.cms

Economies 2019, 7, 24; doi:10.3390/economies7010024 www.mdpi.com/journal/economies

Economies 2019, 7, 24 2 of 10

towards an extreme value based on which the traders can take a contrarian call. Thus, the direction of
the market can be determined from the options market by using this most popular indicator, i.e., PCR,
which is estimated as follows on a given day for both the measures of trading activity such trading
volume and open interest.
PCR (OI) = open interest of put options on a given day/open interest of call options on the same
given day
PCR (VOL) = volume of put options on a given day/volume of call options on the same given day
The objective of our study was to discern the efficacy of PCR (OI) and PCR VOL) in predicting
the market return. However, is the predictability power of PCR stable across different time scales?
Therefore, to answer this question, we investigated the strength and direction of causality at different
frequencies using the novel frequency domain causality methodology of Breitung and Candelon (2006)
in a rolling framework.
However, few academic studies are found in the literature related to this ratio. Billingsley and
Chance (1988) found volume PCR as an effective forecasting tool in predicting the direction of the
market. Blau and Brough (2015) in the US market found that current daily PCR of stock options is
negatively related to next day’s return, thus, as a contrarian trading strategy, PCR has the power of
return predictability. Pan and Poteshman (2006) stated that the PCR constructed from buyer initiated
volume (signed volume) contains information about future stock prices. Economically, stocks with
low PCR are outperforming their higher counterpart stocks by 40 basis points and 1% on the next day
and one week, respectively. However, this relative predictability of the PCR is short-lived Pan and
Poteshman (2006). Therefore, in our study, we investigated whether the predictability of this ratio is
consistent at a different frequencies over a period of time. Unlike Pan and Poteshman (2006), Blau et al.
(2014) used unsigned trading volume in their study and investigated the relative information content
of PCR and Option to Stock (O/S) ratio. They found that the nature of the information content of PCRs
is fleeting at different frequencies. In our study, we tested this fleeting property of PCR at different
frequencies in a time-varying framework.
Although information content of option ratios was studied by Roll et al. (2010) and Johnson and
So (2012), they both used Option to Stock (O/S) volume ratio3 . Further, in the literature, only PCR
based on volume is studied, ignoring open interest, which is an important trading activity variable.
Thus, in our study, in addition to volume PCR, we studied the efficacy of PCR open interest ratio
in predicting the future market return. Thus far, existing literature provides one-shot statistic in the
time domain in predicting the market return, thereby ignoring the causality dynamics at different
frequencies. Thus, we applied Breitung and Candelon’s (2006) frequency domain causality for this
comparative study of predictability of PCR in both the short and long run. Since in sample frequency
domain causality is not robust to structural changes4 Batten et al. (2017) and Bouri et al. (2017), we
estimated out of sample rolling frequency domain causality using a fixed window size of 250 days
of observations.
Our contribution to the literature of the derivative market in general and options market, in
particular, is threefold.
First, horizon heterogeneity requires information regarding the market at different time periods
for trading and investment at different time horizon. We investigated the predictability of option ratios
at different frequencies, thereby providing a robust measure for trading and investment at different
time horizon for the investors. Second, in addition to volume PCR, we took PCR based on open
interest, it being one of the important measures of investors’ activity in the derivative market that is
currently missing in the literature. Finally, we studied the robustness of our results at the different
time periods as well as in the presence of the futures market.

3 Other studies on markets include those by Roll et al. (2009) and Chang et al. (2009).
4 We estimated the Bai and Perron (2003) test and the results show five breakpoints in both the cases, i.e., volume PCR and
market return, and open interest PCR and market return. The results are available on request.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 3 of 10

We found that open interest PCR is an efficient predictor of market return in the long period of
12 days and volume PCR in the short period of 2.5 days. The results are robust after controlling for the
information generated in the futures market.
The rest this paper is outlined as follows. Section 2 describes the data and methodology used
in the study. The empirical results are presented and discussed in Section 3. Section 4 concludes
the paper.

2. Data and Methodology

Daily volume and open interest data were collected for the Nifty Index5 call and put option from
the official website of National Stock Exchange of India (NSE)6 from 1 June 2001 to 16 May 2013. The
daily volume and open interest were aggregated across expiry and moneyness for both call and put
options and taken for further calculation of daily PCR, the information variable for our study, by
following Blau et al. (2014) and Bandopadhyaya and Jones (2008). Put–Call volume (open interest)
ratio is the total volume (open interest) of put divided by total volume of call for the day. Log (Pt /Pt −1)
was taken as market return, where Pt and Pt −1 are closing price of the Nifty index at t and t − 1,
respectively. To control for the information originating from futures trading, we took the trading
volume of the NIFTY index futures as a control variable. The descriptive statistics of the variables are
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of volume put–call ratio (PCRTO), open interest put–call ratio (PCROI),
market return (RET) and log Nifty index futures volume (LFTO).

PCROI PCRTO RET LFTO

Mean 1.124 0.904 0.001 12.790
Median 1.140 0.911 0.001 13.473
Maximum 3.049 2.773 0.162 14.944
Minimum 0.210 0.136 −0.163 6.862
Std. Dev. 0.414 0.264 0.019 1.703
Skewness 0.155 0.370 −0.136 −1.420
Kurtosis 3.177 4.969 12.447 3.840
Jarque–Bera 11.491 399.741 8065.200 791.801
Probability 0.003 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
Observations 2168 2168 2167 2168
Augmented Dickey–Fuller test −7.892 −7.682 −46.776 −3.314
statistic (p-values) (0.000 ***) (0.000 ***) (0.000 ***) (0.014 **)
*** and ** represent significance at 1% and 5% levels, respectively.

An average PCROI (PCRTO) greater than one (less than one) indicates a positive (negative)
market sentiment. This justifies the PCROI taken in this study in addition to PCRTO. All the series
were stationary. Moreover, since all the series were non-normal and fat-tailed, it further justified
our methodology.
For the purpose of estimation, we used the frequency domain Granger causality (GC) test by
following Bouri et al. (2017) as the widely utilized GC test (Granger 1969) is the one-shot measure of
GC, which is assumed to be constant over time and frequency. Hosoya (1991) suggested that the causal
influence may change across frequencies; nonetheless, they pointed out estimation difficulties owing to
nonlinearities of the data to measure GC, which was made possible by Breitung and Candelon (2006)7

5 The bellwether index of National Stock Exchange of India (NSE) represents 65% of the total market capitalization and 12
sectors of the economy.
6 www.nseindia.com.
7 Yamada and Yanfeng (2014) through theoretical evaluation tested the usefulness of the methodology even at a frequency
close to zero.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 4 of 10

by imposing linear restrictions on the autoregressive parameters in a VAR model and thus allowing
for the estimation of the frequency domain approach to causality at different frequency bands. Several
studies have used this approach (for example, Tiwari et al. 2014, 2015 and references therein), therefore
we provide a small introduction to the approach.
Let us present an equation of a stationary VAR framework of two series xt and yt as follows:

x t = a 1 x t −1 + . . . + a p x t − p + β 1 y t −1 + . . . + β p y t − p + ε t (1)

The null hypothesis that yt does not Granger-cause xt at frequency (ω) in Equation (1) is tested by,

H0 : R(ω ) β = 0 (2)

where β is the vector of the coefficients of yt i.e., β = [ β 1 , β 1 , . . . β p ] and

" #
cos(ω ) cos(2ω ) . . . cos( pω )
R(ω ) = (3)
sin(ω ) sin(2ω ) . . . sin( pω )

According to the Breitung and Candelon (2006), an ordinary F statistic for Equation (2) can be used
to test the hull hypothesis at any frequency interval (i.e., ω ∈ (0, π )) as it is approximately distributed
as F (2, T − 2p). Further, for the purpose of interpretations in time framework, the frequency parameter
ω (omega) can be used to obtain the time period of the causality in days (T) by using formula T =
2π/ω.

3. Empirical Analysis
First, we estimated the VAR granger causality8 (both unconditional and conditional on index
futures volume) for the purpose of comparisons with the results of causality estimated at the frequency
domain. The results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. VAR Granger causality.

Unconditional Conditional
Chi-sq. Test Statistic Chi-sq. Test Statistic
(p-Values) (p-Values)
PCR TO 6=> RET 3.548 (0.470) 5.887 (0.207)
NIFTY RET 6=> PCR TO 23.403 (0.000 ***) 26.213 (0.000 ***)
PCR OI 6=> RET 9.326 (0.009 ***) 15.999 (0.000 ***)
NIFTY RET 6=> PCR OI 27.469 (0.000 ***) 36.878 (0.000 ***)
*** indicates significance at 1% level. 6=> refers to “does not granger cause”.

No causality was observed from PCRTO to market return. PCROI Granger causes market return.
However, this one-shot measure of GC may not hold across frequencies owing to nonlinearities
of the data Hosoya (1991). This further justifies the application of Breitung and Candelon’s (2006)
methodology and the results are discussed in the following section.
Figure 1 presents the frequency domain causality from put–call ratio volume (PCRTO) and open
interest (PCROI) to market return9 . The blue solid line shows the Granger causality from PCRTO
to market return, which is insignificant throughout at both 5% and 10% levels. That means volume
PCR does not have predictive power of market return, which is against the popular belief of being a
sentiment indicator Open interest put–call ratio (PCROI) significantly (at 5% level) Granger causes

8 We are thankful to the anonymous referees for this suggestion.

9 The descriptive statistics of the F-statics of the frequency domain causality results are presented in Appendix A Table A1.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 5 of 10

market return in long run at a frequency band 0.51 corresponding to 12 days and above. At the 10%
level of significance, it leads the market return between a frequency bands of 0.93–0.51 corresponding
to 6–12 days. It implies that open interest PCR is a better predictor of market return than its volume
counterpart in the long run. None of these ratios can predict in the short run.
Figures 2 and 3 present the rolling frequency domain causality from PCR volume and open interest
to market return. Notably, short term causalities were estimated at frequency of 2.5 corresponding
to 2–3 days, as presented in Figure 3, and long-term causality at frequency of 0.50 corresponding to
12–13 days is estimated, aas presented in Figure 2.
The long-term rolling causality in Figure 2 is consistent with the results reported in the in-sample
analysis. The predictability of open interest PCR dominates its volume counterparts, as indicated
by the dominant and significant peak of its frequency curve from June 2003 to June 2006 and from
December 2010 to February 2012. One thing that stands out is that, during the 2008 financial crisis and
after the 2012 European sovereign debt crisis, none of the indicators is significant in predicting the
market return. Thus, the traders should carefully use these ratios during market crisis.
However, over a short period of 2.5 days, the reported rolling causality in Figure 3 volume PCR
dominates its open interest counterpart, which is in stark contrast to the in-sample result. Another
interesting thing that stands out from the figures is that, in the short term, volume PCR is a good
predictor of market return. Moreover, it is a good predictor during the 2008 financial crisis, as evident
from the higher amplitude volume PCR frequency curve, which is significant at 5% level. However,
open interest PCR in the short run dominates for a brief period from April 2011 to November 201110 .
Our results supplement the findings of Pan and Poteshman (2006) and Blau et al. (2014) that the
volume PCR is short lived and fleeting, respectively.

10 We also estimated conditional frequency domain rolling causality analysis after controlling for the futures market activities.
The results are quite similar and available upon request.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 6 of 10
Economies 2019, 7, 24 6 of 11

Breitung Candelon Frequency Domain GC Test

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.01
0.079776
0.14955
0.21933
0.28911
0.35888
0.42866
0.49843
0.56821
0.63799
0.70776
0.77754
0.84732
0.91709
0.98687
1.0566
1.1264
1.1962
1.266
1.3358
1.4055
1.4753
1.5451
1.6149
1.6846
1.7544
1.8242
1.894
1.9637
2.0335
2.1033
2.1731
2.2428
2.3126
2.3824
2.4522
2.5219
2.5917
2.6615
2.7313
2.8011
2.8708
2.9406
3.0104
3.0802
FC1 TO crit.val. (5%) crit.val. (10%) FC1 OI

Figure
Figure 1. Full
1. Full sample
sample period
period frequency
frequency domain
domain causality
causality fromfrom volume
volume put–call
put–call ratioratio (PCRTO)
(PCRTO) to market
to market return
return is represented
is represented by blue
by blue solidsolid
line line
(FC1(FC1
TO)TO)
and and
the the
yellow
yellow solidsolid line (FC1
line (FC1 OI) shows
OI) shows from from
open open interest
interest put–call
put–call ratio (PCROI)
ratio (PCROI) to market
to market return.return. The frequencies
The frequencies (omega,(omega, ω)x-axis,
ω) are on are onand
x-axis, and F-statistics
F-statistics testing
testing the null the
null hypothesis
hypothesis of no Granger
of no Granger causalitycausality are onThe
are on y-axis. y-axis. The horizontal
horizontal red solidred
linesolid line and
and grey solidgrey
linesolid line the
indicate indicate
5% andthe10%
5% and 10%values,
critical criticalrespectively.
values, respectively.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 7 of 10
Economies 2019, 7, 24 7 of 11

Rolling Breitung Candelon Frequency Domain GC Test (Freq=0.50)

14

12

10

0
11-07-2002
1-15-2003
04-04-2003
6-16-2003
09-01-2003
11-11-2003
1-15-2004
04-05-2004
06-11-2004
8-19-2004
11-05-2004
1-14-2005
3-21-2005
06-07-2005
08-12-2005
11-02-2005
1-13-2006
04-03-2006
6-14-2006
8-22-2006
11-08-2006
1-15-2007
04-02-2007
6-13-2007
8-21-2007
11-07-2007
1-15-2008
04-03-2008
6-16-2008
09-01-2008
11-14-2008
02-02-2009
4-16-2009
07-02-2009
09-09-2009
12-02-2009
02-09-2010
4-22-2010
07-07-2010
9-15-2010
12-02-2010
02-09-2011
4-21-2011
07-07-2011
9-15-2011
12-07-2011
2-13-2012
4-16-2012
06-04-2012
7-23-2012
09-11-2012
11-02-2012
12-26-2012
2-13-2013
04-05-2013
FC1 TO crit.val.(5%) crit.val.(10%) FC1 OI

Figure 2.
Figure Long-run (ω
2. Long-run (ω==0.50
0.50or
or12
12days)
days)rolling
rollingwindow
windowfrequency
frequencydomain
domaincausality.
causality. The
Thex-axis
x-axisrepresents
represents the
the date
date and
and y-axis
y-axis shows
shows the
the F-statistics
F-statistics testing
testing the
the null
null
hypothesis of no Granger causality from volume Put–call ratio (FC1 TO) and open interest Put–call ratio (FC1 OI) to market return. The horizontal
hypothesis of no Granger causality from volume Put–call ratio (FC1 TO) and open interest Put–call ratio (FC1 OI) to market return. The horizontal red solid line red solid line and
grey solid line indicate the 5% and 10% critical values, respectively. The blue solid line (FC1 TO) and yellow solid line (FC1 OI) show long run causality
and grey solid line indicate the 5% and 10% critical values, respectively. The blue solid line (FC1 TO) and yellow solid line (FC1 OI) show long run causality from from volume
PCR andPCR
volume open andinterest
open put ratio,
interest respectively,
put to market
ratio, respectively, toreturn.
market return.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 8 of 10
Economies 2019, 7, 24 8 of 11

Rolling Breitung Candelon Frequency Domain GC Test (Freq=2.5)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
11-07-2002
1-13-2003
3-21-2003
06-06-2003
08-12-2003
10-16-2003
12-19-2003
03-04-2004
05-12-2004
7-15-2004
9-20-2004
12-06-2004
02-09-2005
4-13-2005
6-16-2005
8-22-2005
11-09-2005
1-16-2006
3-21-2006
06-09-2006
8-14-2006
10-19-2006
01-02-2007
03-07-2007
5-15-2007
7-19-2007
10-03-2007
12-10-2007
2-14-2008
05-02-2008
07-08-2008
09-12-2008
12-01-2008
02-06-2009
4-20-2009
07-02-2009
09-07-2009
11-18-2009
02-01-2010
04-09-2010
6-14-2010
8-18-2010
11-02-2010
01-10-2011
3-14-2011
5-20-2011
08-03-2011
10-12-2011
12-20-2011
03-02-2012
4-23-2012
06-07-2012
7-24-2012
09-10-2012
10-30-2012
12-18-2012
02-04-2013
3-21-2013
5-14-2013
FC1 TO crit.val.(5%) crit.val.(10%) FC1 OI

Figure3.3.Short-run
Figure Short-run(ω (ω == 2.5
2.5 or
or 2.5
2.5 days)
days) rolling
rolling window
window frequency
frequency domain
domain causality.
causality.The
Thex-axis
x-axisrepresents
representsthe
thedate
dateand
andy-axis
y-axisshows
showsthe
theF-statistics
F-statisticstesting
testingthe
thenull
null
hypothesis
hypothesis of no Granger causality from volume Put–call ratio (FC1 TO) and open interest Put–call ratio (FC1 OI) to market return. The horizontal red solidand
of no Granger causality from volume Put–call ratio (FC1 TO) and open interest Put–call ratio (FC1 OI) to market return. The horizontal red solid line line
grey solid line indicate the 5% and 10% critical values, respectively. The blue solid line (FC1 TO) and yellow solid line (FC1 OI) show short run causality
and grey solid line indicate the 5% and 10% critical values, respectively. The blue solid line (FC1 TO) and yellow solid line (FC1 OI) show short run causality from from volume
PCR and PCR
volume openandinterest
openput ratio,put
interest respectively, to marketto
ratio, respectively, return.
market return.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 9 of 10

4. Conclusions
Extending the prior research relating to informational role of derivative market in general and
option market in particular, this study examined the informational efficiency of volume and open
interest PCR in predicting the market return and its implication for traders and portfolio managers.
First, we studied the efficiency of the PCR at different frequencies and the results were tested in an
out of sample forecasting exercises in a rolling frequency domain causality framework. The Granger
causality from PCR to market return varies across the frequencies. Long-run causality was observed
from open interest PCR to market return corresponding to time period of 12 days. In the short run,
corresponding to 2.5 days, volume PCR Granger causes market return. Thus, traders and portfolio
managers should use the appropriate PCR at the different time period in predicting a market return
for trading and investment. In addition, unlike in the long run, the short-run volume PCR holds
the predictability of market return during crisis period. Further, our findings are robust even after
controlling for the information generated from futures market. In the future, this study could be
extended to effectiveness of PCR ratios across maturity and moneyness of the index options as well as
stock options.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to this work.

Acknowledgments: This is an original research work. We are thankful to the anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments which have contributed to the improvement in the quality of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Descriptive statistics of the F-statics of the frequency domain causality.

In Sample Out of Sample (Freq. 0.5) Out of Sample (Freq. 2.5)

FC1 TO FC1 OI FC1 TO FC1 OI FC1 TO FC1 OI
Mean 2.195 2.785 1.953 2.955 1.942 1.323
Median 1.332 1.026 1.359 2.571 1.350 0.565
Standard Deviation 1.441 2.772 1.888 2.112 2.157 1.849
Kurtosis −1.783 −0.620 3.032 0.621 4.114 5.483
Skewness 0.140 0.929 1.719 0.948 2.050 2.380
Minimum 0.308 0.232 0.002 0.009 0.000 0.001
Maximum 4.046 8.662 11.784 11.674 10.391 9.919
No of Obs. 314 314 1917 1917 1917 1917

References
Back, Kerry. 1993. Asymmetric information and options. The Review of Financial Studies 6: 435–72. [CrossRef]
Bai, Jushan, and Pierre Perron. 2003. Computation and analysis of multiple structural change models. Journal of
Applied Econometrics 18: 1–22. [CrossRef]
Bandopadhyaya, Arindam, and Anne Leah Jones. 2008. Measures of investor sentiment: A comparative analysis
put-call ratio vs. volatility index. Journal of Business & Economics Research 6: 27–34.
Batten, Jonathan A., Cetin Ciner, and Brian M. Lucey. 2017. The dynamic linkages between crude oil and natural
gas markets. Energy Economics 62: 155–70. [CrossRef]
Biais, Bruno, and Pierre Hillion. 1994. Insider and liquidity trading in stock and options markets. The Review of
Financial Studies 7: 743–80. [CrossRef]
Billingsley, Randall S., and Don M. Chance. 1988. Put-call ratios and market timing effectiveness. Journal of
Portfolio Management 15: 25. [CrossRef]
Black, Fischer. 1975. Fact and Fantasy in the Use of Options. Financial Analysts Journal 31: 36–41. [CrossRef]
Blau, Benjamin M., and Tyler J. Brough. 2015. Are put-call ratios a substitute for short sales? Review of Derivatives
Research 18: 51–73. [CrossRef]
Blau, Benjamin M., Nga Nguyen, and Ryan J. Whitby. 2014. The information content of option ratios. Journal of
Banking & Finance 43: 179–87.
Economies 2019, 7, 24 10 of 10

Bouri, Elie, David Roubaud, Rania Jammazi, and Ata Assaf. 2017. Uncovering frequency domain causality
between gold and the stock markets of China and India: Evidence from implied volatility indices. Finance
Research Letters 23: 23–30. [CrossRef]
Breitung, Jörg, and Bertrand Candelon. 2006. Testing for short-and long-run causality: A frequency-domain
approach. Journal of Econometrics 132: 363–78. [CrossRef]
Brennan, Michael J., and H. Henry Cao. 1996. Information, trade, and derivative securities. The Review of Financial
Studies 9: 163–208. [CrossRef]
Cao, H. Henry, and Dongyan Ye. 2016. Transaction Risk, Derivative Assets, and Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of
Finance 6: 1650001. [CrossRef]
Chang, Chuang-Chang, Pei-Fang Hsieh, and Hung-Neng Lai. 2009. Do informed option investors predict stock
returns? Evidence from the Taiwan stock exchange. Journal of Banking & Finance 33: 757–64.
Chordia, Tarun, Alexander Kurov, Dmitriy Muravyev, and Avanidhar Subrahmanyam. 2018. Index Option
Trading Activity and Market Returns. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2798390 (accessed
on 17 May 2018).
Du, Brian, Scott Fung, and Robert Loveland. 2018. The Informational Role of Options Markets: Evidence from
FOMC Announcements. Journal of Banking & Finance 92: 237–56.
Easley, David, Maureen O’hara, and Pulle Subrahmanya Srinivas. 1998. Option volume and stock prices: Evidence
on where informed traders trade. The Journal of Finance 53: 431–65. [CrossRef]
Fodor, Andy, Kevin Krieger, and James S. Doran. 2011. Do option open-interest changes foreshadow future equity
returns? Financial Markets and Portfolio Management 25: 265–80. [CrossRef]
Granger, Clive W. J. 1969. Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods.
Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society 37: 424–38. [CrossRef]
Grossman, Sanford J. 1988. An analysis of the implications for stock and futures price volatility of program trading
and dynamic hedging strategies. Journal of Business 61: 275–98. [CrossRef]
Hosoya, Yuzo. 1991. The decomposition and measurement of the interdependency between second-order
stationary processes. Probability Theory and Related Fields 88: 429–44. [CrossRef]
Jena, Sangram Keshari, and Ashutosh Dash. 2014. Trading activity and Nifty index futures volatility: An empirical
analysis. Applied Financial Economics 24: 1167–76. [CrossRef]
John, Kose, Apoorva Koticha, Ranga Narayanan, and Marti Subrahmanyam. 2000. Margin Rules, Informed Trading
and Price Dynamics. Working Paper. New York: Stern School of Business, New York University.
Johnson, Travis L., and Eric C. So. 2012. The option to stock volume ratio and future returns. Journal of Financial
Economics 106: 262–86. [CrossRef]
Li, Wei-Xuan, Clara Chia-Sheng Chen, and Joseph J. French. 2015. Toward an early warning system of financial crises:
What can index futures and options tell us? The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 55: 87–99. [CrossRef]
Pan, Jun, and Allen M. Poteshman. 2006. The information in option volume for future stock prices. The Review of
Financial Studies 19: 871–908. [CrossRef]
Roll, Richard, Eduardo Schwartz, and Avanidhar Subrahmanyam. 2009. Options trading activity and firm
valuation. Journal of Financial Economics 94: 345–60. [CrossRef]
Roll, Richard, Eduardo Schwartz, and Avanidhar Subrahmanyam. 2010. O/S: The relative trading activity in
options and stock. Journal of Financial Economics 96: 1–17. [CrossRef]
Ryu, Doojin. 2015. The information content of trades: An analysis of KOSPI 200 index derivatives. Journal of
Futures Markets 35: 201–21. [CrossRef]
Tiwari, Aviral Kumar, Mohamed Arouri, and Frederic Teulon. 2014. Oil prices and trade balance: A frequency
domain analysis for India. Economics Bulletin 34: 663–80.
Tiwari, Aviral Kumar, Mihai Ioan Mutascu, Claudiu Tiberiu Albulescu, and Phouphet Kyophilavong. 2015.
Frequency domain causality analysis of stock market and economic activity in India. International Review of
Economics & Finance 39: 224–38.
Yamada, Hiroshi, and Wei Yanfeng. 2014. Some theoretical and simulation results on the frequency domain
causality test. Econometric Reviews 33: 936–47. [CrossRef]

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 © 2019. This work is licensed under
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”).
Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this
content in accordance with the terms of the License.