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Behavioural & Allied Sciences 5
Unit - 1 Understanding Self

Notes
Structure
1.1 Importance of Self
1.2 Self Concept
1.3 Importance of Self awareness in Building Self Concept
1.4 Self Acceptance
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will understand:
1. Importance of self for humans
2. Meaning of self concept
3. Enhancing self acceptance
4. Understanding TEA model of human personality
Introduction
“There is only one corner of the universe you can be certain of improving and that is
your own self.”
The core of human development is self. The personal effectiveness starts from
within. Self is the power house which facilitates overall development of an individual.
It helps you to know your hidden potentialities which are the true sources of energy
and motivation. Self-confidence, self-motivation, positive attitude, taking initiative,
perseverance, meaningful relationships, impact making and belief system are crucial
ingredients for achieving success. This is only possible by believing in “your self”.
1.1 Importance of Self

Self
Self is the core of core competencies. Competency means knowledge, skills and
attitude. Being competent means you keep on updating your knowledge, skills and
attitude. This up-gradation and enhancement to the greatest extent is only possible if
you know your real self. Self integrates our Thoughts- T, Emotions- E and Actions-A,
which is also known as T-E-A system of a personality. To know our real self we have
to understand, analyse and evaluate our TEA system. This system emphasises that
people cannot change their ways of acting unless they first change their thinking and
feelings about the target behaviours.
The concept our ‘self’ underlines the way in which we communicate, through our
behaviour with other people. If, for example, we feel shy, lack confidence and see
ourselves as fragile and powerless, we are likely to communicate this to others in the
way we behave. Or conversely, we will try to cover up our feelings about ourselves and
‘put on a front’ of being macho and aggressive. If we are, by nature, highly introverted
we learn to compensate for this in order to cope with our shyness. Often one finds
people whose behaviour seems ‘over the top’, put are actually very shy people,
whereas they appear to be very gregarious and extrovert. The understanding of the self
enables awareness and deeper self-acceptance. Our sense of self is lost in all kinds of
different things. The solution is to still the mind, to get in touch with one’s self in order to
able to be a silent witness to one’s self through, attitude, emotions and behaviour.
There are two people within us as real me and role me. That is we all have a ‘real
self’ somewhere inside. With some people it is locked away and only their nearest and
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
6 Behavioural & Allied Sciences
Notes dearest know that ‘self’. Sometimes not even then other people reveal their ‘real self’
more readily to other’s. The ‘role me’ self is the person we communicate to the world
through our behaviour. We all have one, but with some people, it is a thicker crust than
others. At work, it is likely that people present their role me rather than real me, and
as managers it is important to remember that sometimes we receive communication
through behaviour from the people with whom we work which we find difficult to cope
with, but we need to think why the people are behaving in such a way and what is the
real meaning behind their behaviour?
1.2 Self Concept

The behaviour we display to others – our overt behaviour – be it verbal or non-
verbal conscious or unconscious, is like the tip of an iceberg. It communicates what
they cannot see of us-our covert self, that which is below the tip of the iceberg.
Remember that the largest part of the iceberg is below the surface and cannot be seen
in our thoughts, feelings attitudes, beliefs, values and so on. A successful career may
depend more on how you feel about yourself than your talents. The concept you
have of yourself will also influence your relationship with others. For example, you might
see yourself as a warm, friendly person, yet your staff might see you as a loud and
offensive boor!
To be effective in your personal and professional life, you need first to have a
realistic view of yourself.
Negative Self-Concept
If people see themselves as failures and have a negative, pessimistic image of
themselves, they will begin to act the part. Negative feelings feed on themselves and
become a downward spiral, gradually encompassing all the person’s thought, actions
and relationships. People with negative self-concepts tend to complain constantly and
find it difficult to accept criticism.
Positive Self – Concept

People who believe in themselves and are confident about their ability to deal
with problems, make decisions and feel equal to others have respect for themselves
and expect it from others. These are people who are realistic in their assessment of
themselves and can admit to a wide range of feelings, behaviours and needs.
Of course, few people have entirely negative or positive self-concepts, but how we
see ourselves does have a bearing on our different roles. So, if the behaviour we use is
based on the concept we have of ourselves. Then how we form our self concept? It is
formed through self-awareness and self-acceptance.
Activity
Try thinking about the following questions:
What do you think about life?
Is the world friendly, unfriendly, threatening, exciting or what is it? The way you
answer this question will depend on whether you have a positive or negative concept of
yourself.
What would you want other people to think about you?
Do you see yourself as a ‘born manager’ or a ‘successful person’ and wish to see
that image confirmed by others? You will try to live up to that ‘label’.

What do you think about others? Notes

We tend to view others in comparison with our values and ‘labels’. For example, if
we are generally punctual, we will probably expect others also be so.
How do you interpret messages?

Do you accept messages which confirm your self-image but reject those that don’t –
by misinterpreting, distorting or ignoring them? Remember, we are likely to see people
around us in terms of how they respond to our image of ourselves.
*Note: A positive answers to these questions leads to the development of a positive

personality
1.3 Importance of Self Awareness in Building the Self Concept

Self-Awareness
“You will seek me and find me,
When you search for me with all your heart”
Jeremiah
Self-awareness is the first and primary step in self-development, a precursor to self-

development. The more you are aware of yourselves, the more is the scope for self-
development. Developing accurate self-awareness of self and reality through honest,
integrated thinking is the prime responsibility for all human beings. Such awareness is
necessary in both our personal and working lives and is available only to those who
exert constant, rational thinking efforts toward understanding self and reality- and the
relationship between the two. No one can deliver that understanding to another. But by
reflecting personal values, one can enhance person’s self-awareness. To know one-self
better, we should ask the following questions.
• Who am I?
Aspects of one’s life which seem very simple yet are very powerful, like knowledge,
skills, health, family and social commitments, responsibilities, opportunities,
interests, hobbies, likes and dislikes.
• Where have I come from?
A through knowledge of one’s background helps us to understand our past. These

factors could be - family, geographical location, and ancestry.
Knowing the formative influences and identifying the accompanying attitudes and
beliefs may help us to discover the real us. Formative influences can have an
empowering or a crippling effect on lour future life.
• Where am I going?
This relates to one’s dreams and ambitions, choice of career and vocation.
• What is stopping me?
This involves knowing the barriers to one’s progress/development. One needs to

be aware of these blocks so that one can choose a way to deal with them. Some
of these blocks/barriers are: poor problem - solving skills, lack of motivation, fear,
Notes tendency to be a perfectionist, lack of confidence, resources, opportunities, clarity

to goals and a negative self-concept. If one is aware of such barriers, one can try to
overcome these with perseverance and diligence.
• How will I get there?
This question relates to planning in order to reach/ achieve one’s goals. One might
take a decision which may change one’s life, but if one does do not plan it properly
it may never materialize. Planning for success involves aspects like- discipline,
clear cut goals, time management, realising and working towards development of
effective work values and ethics, and getting proper career guidance.
• What help do I need?
This involves resources to be made available to achieve success in one’s

endeavours- like finances, time, support system, access to the required material
resources and authorities.
• What will it be like when I get there?
One must be able to visualise one’s ambitions i.e., what will it be like when one gets
what one wanted. Repeating such images will strengthen one’s capacity to resolve
problems and initiate one’s commitment towards the goal.
Developing an accurate understating of self and reality is crucial self-responsibility

for personal power. Having a high level of self-awareness is about shedding
personal delusions and/ or limiting beliefs; requiring anticipation based on
experience. It is about overcoming fears and having a powerful sense of purpose.
The key to self-awareness is getting to grips with a more realistic view of ourselves.
Any individual or an institute/organisation which have survived through the years

and have grown to the world status are the ones that had a clear ethical sense
of who and what they were and where they wanted to be. And this can be only
achieved through better self awareness.
Success is not determined by how we are doing compared with others, but how
we are doing compared with what we are capable of doing. Self aware individuals
complete with themselves, they better their own records and keep moving
constantly for personal and professional growth.
Self-awareness also means that there is little chance of the individual joining a
team where he/she could not be his/her own self. It is possible to be considerate
of others and, at the same time, not influenced by peer group pressure. The most
attractive teams are those that encourage an individual to be his/her own self
and a part of the team (Scott Arbuthonot, 1998).
1.4 Self-Acceptance
Having become aware of who you really are, rather than the person you would wish
to be, the next step on the self-concept journey is to accept yourself. This does not
mean being smug, complacent, and uncritical. But it does mean building on the qualities
you are satisfied with and working to change or improve the ones you are not happy
with. It is not easy, particularly when you are constantly being evaluated by others-
parents, children, partners, colleagues at work and so on. You have to accept and be
responsible for your ‘TEA’ system, i.e., thoughts, emotions and actions.

Once you become aware of yourself and start introspecting and have courage to Notes
accept your ‘self’ the way you are, that is the high point which gives you the insight of
self actualisation. The term ‘Self-actualisation’ was used by Maslow in his motivation
theory. We can also use the term ‘Self-realisation’ which helps you to realise your inner
potentialities. This step on the self-concept route involves growth and development
motivated from within you. It is a willingness to pursue your ‘ideal self’ on your own, to
grow and to change, because you think it is important.
This is where you take steps to make things happen for you. You know you
potential and you actively pursue it. You know what you want to do, what is right for
you and consequently you set and maintain personal standards and are open to new
experiences.
Having become aware of who you really are (as you are now, and as you see your
‘ideal self’) having accepted that person as a perfectly good and capable human being,
and having decided on how you are going to work towards “actualising: or developing
your “ideal self”, you are now a confident individual. The final stage towards a mature
self-concept is how you are going to reveal your ‘self’ and this is where the importance
of self-awareness comes again. You need to know yourself well before you can disclose
or reveal anything to others about your ‘real self’. Before revealing your strength,
weakness advantages and disadvantages of your personality, it is essential to be aware
of yourself so that you can plan and achieve a realistic goal as per your own strengths
and weaknesses.
Most of us are not aware of our hidden talents. Albert Einstein once said that only
one-tenth of this brain was utilised. If a world famous scientist like Einstein used only
10 percent of his talents, then we need to question as to how much of our talents are
hidden and need to be explored. The tragedy is that we are not even aware that major
portion of our talents are hidden. Therefore to create this awareness, we need to first
and foremost understand our SELF and this understanding will build healthy foundation
to be successful and happy personality.
Check your progress

1. Core of core competency is:
a. Self b. Self acceptance
c. Self concept d. Personality
2. __________ is the most importance ingredient in the formation of self concept
a. Self b. Self awareness
c. Negative self concept d. Positive self concept
3. In TEA model, which of the following are not involved:
a. Thoughts b. Emotions
c. Actions d. Acceptance
4. Building self awareness would include questions like:
a. Who am I?

Notes b. What are my strengths and weaknesses?
c. What are my goals? d. All of the above
5. Self-concept is the power house which facilitates development of:
a. Attitude b. Personality
c. Self Esteem d. All of the above
Questions and Exercises

1. What do you understand by ‘Self’?
2. Differentiate between negative and positive self concept.
3. Explain the role of self awareness in the formation of self concept.
4. Elucidate TEA model.
5. “Self” is an Organisation, like “Self Incorporation” of personality wherein

TEA Model is a system which helps in effective functioning for personal and
professional life. Comment and explain with personal and professional
examples.
Further Reading
1 Understanding the self- By Richard Stevens.
2 Understanding Will Self- By M. Hunter Hayes

Unit - 2 Self Esteem
Notes
Structure
2.1 Self Efficacy and Self Respect
2.2 The dual Pillars of Self Esteem
2.3 Components of Self Esteem
2.4 Building a Positive Self Esteem
2.4 Activity
2.5 Check your Progress
2.6 Questions and Exercises
2.7 Further Readings
Objectives
1. Understanding Self-esteem
2. Differentiating self-efficacy from self-respect
3. Facilitating positive self-esteem
Introduction
“The essence of Self-esteem is compassion for your self”. — Mathew Mc Kay
All over the world, today, there is an awakening about the importance of self-esteem.
We recognise that just as a human being cannot hope to realize his or her potential
without self esteem, neither can a society whose members do not value themselves
flourish and grow.
Self-esteem is a way of thinking, feeling, and acting that implies that you accept,
respect, trust, believe and love yourself.
 When you accept yourself, you can live comfortably with both your personal
strengths and weaknesses, without undue self-criticism.
 When you respect yourself, you acknowledge your own dignity and value as a
unique human being. You treat yourself well in much the same way you would treat
someone else you respect.
 Self-trust means that your behaviours and feelings are consistent enough to give
you an inner sense of continuity and coherence despite changes and challenges in
your external circumstances.
 To believe in yourself means that you feel you deserve to have the good things
in life. It also means that you have confidence that you can fulfill your deepest
personal needs, aspirations, and goals.
 To love yourself means you feel good about yourself and this feel-good factor is
essential for self esteem and mental health. All mental health issues start when
there is lack of love for oneself and from others. As a Psychologist, I would state
that most of the mental health problems are ingrained in human emotions. It is
rightly said “Love is the only Solution”.

Notes To get a sense about your own level of self-esteem, think of someone (or imagine
what it would be like to know someone) whom you fully accept, respect, trust, and
believe in. Now ask yourself to what extent you hold these attitudes towards yourself.
Where would you place yourself on the following scale:
Very Low Very-High

Self-Esteem Self-Esteem
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A fundamental truth about self-esteem is that it needs to come from within. When
self-esteem is low, the deficiency creates a feeling of emptiness which you may try to
fill by latching on-often compulsively-to something external that provides a temporary
sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. When the quest to fill you inner emptiness by
appropriating something from outside becomes desperate, repetitive, or automatic,
you have, what is called, an addiction. Broadly defined, addiction is an attachment
to something or someone outside yourself that you feel you need to provide a sense
of inner satisfaction or relief. Frequently this attachment substitutes preoccupation
with a substances or activity for healthy human relationships. It may also substitute a
temporary feeling of control or power for a more lasting sense of inner confidence and
strength.
A healthy alternative to addiction is to work on building you self–esteem. Growing in

self-esteem means developing confidence and strength from within. While still enjoying
life fully, you no longer need to appropriate or identify with something someone outside
yourself to feel O.K. The basis for your self-worth is internal. As such, it is much more
lasting and stable.
While one sometimes speaks of self-esteem as a conviction about oneself, it is more

accurate to speak of disposition to experience oneself a particular way.
To Recapitulate
1. As fundamentally competent to cope with the challenges of life; thus, trust in one’s
mind and its processes; self-efficacy.
2. A worthy of success and happiness; thus, the perception of oneself as someone to

whose achievement, success, respect, friendship and love, are appropriate; self-
respect.
3. Self esteem means accepting, respecting, loving and trusting one-self.
Self-esteem means truly loving valuing yourself. This is quite different from being an
obnoxious, overblown egomaniac. Self-esteem means you have accepted yourself
as you are but continue to work on improving yourself. While that process is taking
place, you have a healthy appreciation for yourself-your best qualities and your
finest achievements.
To determine whether your self-esteem is healthy and in good working order, consider the
following:
1. Do you accept yourself for what you are?
This includes your looks and feelings, your strengths and weaknesses.
2. Do you accept credit for what you do?

When people ask, “What do you do?” Do you sound apologetic or unworthy? Notes
3. Do you take time out to recognise your hard work?
Or do you still feel you don’t quite measure up? If you live only to meet others’
expectations, you’ll never meet your own.
4. Can you turn setbacks into victories?
Successful people see problems as opportunities. Look at what you learnt ssfrom
your latest setback. Perhaps you now know how to better manage yourself coworkers;
perhaps you understand a technical function of your job you never knew before.
2.1 Self-Efficacy and Self-Respect

Self-esteem has two interrelated aspects:
1. A sense of personal efficacy (self-efficacy)
2. A sense of personal worth (self-respect).
As a fully realised psychological experience, it is the integrated sum of these two

aspects.
Self-efficacy means confidence in the functioning of our mind, in our ability to

think, in the processes by which you judge, choose, decide; confidence in you ability
to understand the facts of reality that fall within the sphere of your interests and needs;
cognitive self-trust; cognitive self-reliance.
Self-respect means assurance of your value; an affirmative attitude toward your

right to live and to be happy; comfort in appropriately asserting your thoughts, wants,
and needs; the feeling that job is your natural birthright.
Consider that if an individual felt inadequate to face the challenges of life he or

she lacked fundamental self-trust, confidence in his or her mind, we would recognize
the presence of a self-esteemed deficiency, no matter what other assets he or she
possessed. Or if an individual lacked a basic sense of self-respect of others, un-entitled
to happiness, fearful of asserting thoughts, wants, or needs-again we would recognise a
self-esteem deficiency, no matter what other positive attributes he or she exhibited.
2.2 The Dual Pillars of Self-Esteem

Self-efficiency and Self-respect are the dual pillars of a healthy self-esteem. They
are the defining characteristics of self-esteem, because of their fundamentality. They
represent not the derivative or secondary meanings of self-esteem, but its essence.
The experience of self-efficacy generates the sense of control over one’s life that we
associate with psychological well-being, the sense of being at the vital centre of one’s
existence, as contrasted with being a passive spectator and victim of events.
The experience of self-respect facilitates a benevolent, non-neurotic sense of

community with other individuals, the fellowship of independence and mutual regard,
as contracted with either alienated estrangement from the human race, on one hand, or
mindless submergence into the tribe, on the other.

Notes With a given person, there will be inevitable fluctuations in self-esteem levels, much
as there are fluctuations in all psychological states. We need to think in terms of a
person’s average level of self-esteem.
2.3 Building Positive Self-Esteem

(a) Value Yourself
Learn to make the most of your immediate situation by learning to value yourself as
you are at this moment. Avoid perfectionism. Instead, strive to improve. As part of this
process, become aware of your nonverbal communication, for example, the way you
stand or the level of energy you project.
Excessive concerns about aspects of your personal and professional lives that
result in perfectionism-being intolerant of one’s own and other’s mistakes can mean
your self-image is dependent on other’s opinions of you, rather than being grounded
within.
(b) When Your Worst Enemy Is You

If you think your self-image could use some improvement, realise that you’re not
alone. We’re constantly bombarded by messages from the media, as well as from real
life. Telling us it’s easy to be richer, thinner, younger, more successful, more socially
accepted, etc. As a result, some of us are convinced that others will find us fascinating if
we use expensive moisturizers, drive certain cars, wear the right clothes or perfume, or
workout at celebrity- packed health clubs.
When our criticism turns inward for whatever reason, we pronounce harsh
judgments on ourselves and engage in self-defeating, often self-fulfilling behaviours. If
we’re lucky, our friends may offer us some perspective with the following advice:
 “You know, you’re your own worst enemy”.
 “You’re harder on yourself than are you are on others.”
 “You expect too much from yourself. Learn to take one day at a time.”
If everyone is telling you to give yourself a break, do it! For two or three days,
ignore that inner voice that says you’re a bad housekeeper, an indifferent parent, and
uncaring spouse. Don’t be surprised if you feel guilty, scared, or sad. Changing your
behaviour can feel threatening, especially at first.
(c) Why Goal Setting Builds Self-Esteem

Perhaps the trickiest part of getting what we want out of life is deciding what it is
we want. One major misconception goal setting is that you must know exactly what you
want before you set goals. Actually, one of the best ways to clarify what you want is to
set goals. While achieving them, you can constantly re-evaluate whether or not your
chosen path is the one you want to pursue.
When it works properly, goal setting raises your self-esteem, because it:
 Challenges you to overcome patterns of failure or limitation.
 Allows you to be more tolerant of failure in other areas of your daily life.
 Gives you the confidence to set increasingly challenging goals, to explore areas
you’ve neglected.

 Makes you see life as part of a process. That is, achieving a goal won’t make Notes
your life perfect, but it will improve it.
 Allows you to get on with your personal development. Achieving a goal can
bring new awareness of what you ultimately want.
(d) Giving up the past

Remember how great it felt last spring when you finally got around to cleaning out
your closet? You were amazed at the clothes you hauled out of the dark recesses.
Some you had outgrown, some were hopelessly out of style, some you had been
hanging on to for sentimental reasons. They you had the garage sale and nearly all the
stuff sold. The rest you trucked down to the nearest goodwill store.
(e) Clearing Old Beliefs
Goal-setting is a form of starting over, but it requires a kind of spring cleaning

before you begin, it’s called clearing. For the clearing process to work on a certain
belief, you must learn to do two rather dissimilar things simultaneously:
1. Accept yourself compassionately for having this belief.
2. See clearly that you’re ready to let go of it, because it’s limiting, self destructive,
and untrue.
For instance, an individual might have been raised by an alcoholic parent. As a

child, he learnt that displaying his true emotions invited an unpleasant, even violent,
response. Now that he is an adult, it’s still difficult for him to open up to others-
particularly to partners. In all probability, he may be storing a lot of anger, grief, and
resentment against the parent whose love he so badly needed, but never received.
(f) Letting go of Past Criticisms

Take a deep breath and see if the area around your heart seems constricted. The
heart represents the centre of love and security for many. Therefore, when love and
security and denied in some way, the loss is stored around the heart.
Or perhaps, you stored your fear of criticism in your stomach. If so, you might have
chronic digestive problems, such as colitis, ulcers and abdominal cramps.
Repeat these affirmations, or revise them to fit your needs:
 “I love and approve myself. I create my own way.”
 “I choose to be a winner in life.”
 “I trust the process of life. I am safe.”
(g) Offering Forgiveness

Nothing keeps us so totally wrapped up in past problems as unexpressed feelings
of anger, resentment, and desire for revenge. Forgiveness allows us to get on with our
lives.
Forgiveness should be forgotten, along with the wrong that is forgiven. Forgiveness
that is remembered and dwelt upon re-infects. Thus, forgiveness that is partial, or half-
hearted, works no better than a partially completed surgical operation instead, it ought
to be like a canceled cheque, torn in two and burned up so that it never can be held
again and again.
Notes (h) Achieving Freedom From the Four Killers of Self-Esteem

All our experiences, from early childhood till date, which have caused us to feel
guilt, fear, resentful and being critical towards ourselves destroy our self-esteem. We
need to free our SELF, from these dangerous enemies of self-esteem because it often
promotes less self-worth.
Ten Attitudes for building Self-Esteem

There are many steps we can take to build our self-esteem. The 10 Attitude basics
that can help are as follows:
1. Be your own best friend: Encourage and love yourself. Don’t except yourself to be
perfect. Give yourself a break!
2. Take time to enjoy your life: Choose something that you enjoy and schedule it
into your life, just as you would schedule an important appointment with the doctor.
Make it a priority.
3. Let go of the past: Let go of the hurt, the anger, the disillusionments, and the guilt.
It they creep back into your life, let go of them again and again.
4. Set goals for your life: On a regular basis, review your short and long-term goals.
Don’t’ be afraid to reach high.
5. Talk positively to yourself: Use affirmations to give your subconscious a powerful

positive message. Harness the energy that lies within you to move you toward your
chosen goal.
6. Visualise your successful behaviour: In every aspect of your life, visualise

yourself achieving your goal. Experience the emotions and enjoyment of
accomplishing what you have set out to do. Become what you think.
7. Make choices for your life: You are free to change, free to grow, free to choose
how you will live the rest of your life.
8. Network with others: Learn to rely on others for information, support, and role
behaviours. You don’t have to do it alone.
9. Write your own family script: Decide the role that you will to play in your family
movie. Follow the script that you have written, rather than the script that has been
written for you by the expectations and decisions of others.
10. Accept yourself as you are: Love yourself-physically, mentally, and emotionally-
as you would love a dear friend. Gently encourage this friend to grow, not by
criticising, but loving acceptance.
So what have you got to lose? Make that investment in yourself. It’s one investment
you’ll never regret because it will help you lead a healthy, happy and successful Life.
Check your progress

1. Self esteem implies that you accept, respect, trust, and_____________ in yourself.
a. Believe b. Sympathise
c. Empathise d. Relate
2. The dual pillars of self-esteem are: Notes

a. Self efficacy and self-love b. Self efficacy and trust
c. Self efficacy and self-respect d. Self-respect and honesty
3. A sense of personal worth is:
a. Self efficacy b. Self-respect
c. Self-trust d. Self-esteem
4. Individual degree of liking or disliking themselves is termed as:
a. Self Concept b. Self Esteem
c. Self Actualization d. None of the above
Questions & Exercises

1. What is self esteem? Is self-esteem important at the work place? If yes, how?
2. How important do you think is your self-esteem?
3. Explain the role of self-efficacy and self-respect?
4. Is it possible to build positive self esteem? If yes how?
5. “Self-esteem is essential for a healthy, happy and successful life.” Comment
Further Readings
1. Self-Esteem By Jillian Powell
2. Self-Esteem by Matthew McKay & Patrick Fanning
3. Self-Esteem By Jack Kuhatschek

Unit - 3 Attitude
Notes
Structure
3.1 Defining Attitude
3.2 Characteristics of Attitude
3.3 Components of Attitude
3.4 Features of Attitude
3.5 Attitude Formation
3.6 Application of Attitudes
3.7 Where do Attitudes come from
3.8 Types of Attitude
3.11 Further Reading
Objects
1. What is attitude and how they are important in our life
2. How attitudes are formed and how to change your attitude
3. Applying attitude for better understanding and adjustment
Introduction
“To gain control of your life, you must learn to gain control over your attitude.”
3.1 What is Attitude?

Attitudes constitute an important psychological attribute of individuals which shape
their behaviour. Schemerhorn, et. al., have defined attitude as a “predisposition to
respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment.”
An attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about something, a person,
a place, a commodity, a situation or an idea. It expresses an individual’s positive or
negative feelings about some object. It describes an individual’s feelings, thoughts and
predisposition to act towards some object in the environment.
• An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some object in a

favourable or an unfavourable manner.
• The most pervasive phenomenon is “attitude” people at the work place have
attitudes about lots of topics that are related to them. These attitudes are firmly
embedded in a complex psychological structure of beliefs and other attitudes and
values.
• Attitudes are different from values. Values are the ideals- abstract ideals, positive or
negative, not tied to any specific object or situation that represents our beliefs about
ideal conduct. On the other hand, attitudes are narrower, they are our feelings,
thoughts and behavioural tendencies toward a specific subject or situation.

• Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts. Notes

• Attitudes are evaluative statements- either favourable or unfavourable, concerning
the objects, peoples or events.
• Attitudes may be regarded as varying in several ways:
• Direction - For or against something
• Degree - Favourableness. To be neutral in attitude is to be indifferent to

the object.
• Intensity - Degree of confidence.
Attitude may also vary in the degree in which an attitude is common to a number of
people or unique to a particular individual.
An attitude may be unconsciously held. Most of our attitudes may be those about
which we are not clearly aware. Prejudice furnishes a good example. A person can
simultaneously hold inconsistent attitudes towards the same object or at least towards
aspects which are not clearly discriminated form one another.
3.2 Characteristics of Attitudes

Attitudes can be distinguished in terms of (characterised by) their valence,
multiplexity, relation to needs, and centrality.
Valence
It refers to the magnitude or degree of favourableness or unfavourableness toward
the object/event. While measuring the attitudes, we are basically concerned with the
valence. If a person is relatively indifferent toward an object, this attitude has low
valence. On the other hand, if a person is extremely favourable or unfavourable toward
an attitude or object, his attitude will have high valence.
Multiplexity
It refers to the number of elements constituting the attitude. For example, one
student may show interest in studies, but another shows interest in extra curricular
activities and works hard, sincerely, and seriously. Similarly, an employee may feel
merely loyal to an organisation, but another may feel loyal, respectful, fearful and
dependent.
Relation to needs
Attitudes can also vary in relation to the needs they serve. For instance, attitudes
of an individual towards a film may serve only entertainment needs. On the other
hand, attitudes of an individual toward the task may serve strong needs for security,
achievement, recognition, and satisfaction.
Centrality
One salient characteristic of the attitude refers to the importance of the object to the
individual. The centrality indicates the importance of the object.
The attitudes which have high centrality for an individual will be less susceptible to
change.

Notes 3.3 Components of an Attitude

The structure of a person’s attitude comprises of three vital components-affective,
cognitive and overt.
Affection Feelings
Stimulus Attitudes Cognition Thoughts
Behaviour Actions
Affective Component: Thus component refers to the emotions associated with an

attitude object. It basically consists of the “feeling” a person has toward an attitude object.
According to McGinnies, “it is an emotional component that develops as a conditioned
response by association with stimuli that have either punishing or rewarding effects.”
This component is concerned with the evaluation and emotion and is often expressed as
likes or dislikes, good or bad, pleasing or displeasing, favourable or unfavourable. The
expression of warmth, love, hate and other emotional expressions are also belonging to
the affective component. It is this affective feature that is most commonly associated with
the idea of attitude.
Cognitive Component: Thus represents the beliefs of a person about an attitude

object. The beliefs may be based on a variety of learning experiences, rumours,
misunderstandings, or any other information. You may believe that the manager is
intelligent or stupid, ethical or unethical, good or bad, or an autocrat or a democrat.
Therefore, cognitive component is very important and consists of the individual,
perceptions, beliefs, and ideas about an object. According to Krech, Chrutchield and
Ballachery, the most critical cognitions incorporated into the system of attitudes are the
“evaluating beliefs” that take account of good/bad, desirable/undesirable, favourable/
unfavourable qualities refered to as “option”.
It is important to note that there may be incongruence between the affective and
cognitive components. The affective component (feeling) may be positive and the
cognitive component (beliefs) may be negative. For instance, you may have a positive
feeling toward a person but still believe that has negative characteristics.
The Overt Component: It is also known as “behavioural” component or “cognitive”

component. This overt component is concerned with the way one intends to behave
towards a particular attitude object. Both the affective and cognitive components
(feelings and beliefs) influence the way a person intends to behave toward an attitude
object. For instance, if a person has a negative feeling or belief toward an object, he
likely behave negatively towards that object. In other words, the behavioural component
of attitude consists of the tendency to act or react toward an attitude object in certain
specified ways.
Attitudes and Behaviour

The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is highly controversial. On the
one side, cognitive theorists believe that changes in attitudes affect the behaviour of
individuals. That is to say, to change the behaviour of an individual, the attitudes he
possess must be subject to change initially. In other words, change in behaviour calls
for a change in attitudes of individuals.
Attitudes and Beliefs

Belief reveals what one supposes to be true. It may be about anything. A
subordinate may believe his superior to be honest. But, in fact, the superior may or may
not be honest. The positive attitude, and the consequent liking, may rather make the
subordinate ignore all the bad qualities in the superior and consider him honest.

Attitudes and Values Notes

The values of a person reveal his ideas about what is good or bad, what is right or
wrong, or what is desirable or undesirable. They reflect a moral tone. Workers should
be honest to their work is a statement of value. The honest workers are good is an
evaluative statement and reveals the attitude of the person towards the honest workers.
A person holds the honest workers to be good because of his values that workers
should be honest towards their work.
3.4 Features of Attitudes

The important characteristics of attitudes are as follows:
(a) Attitudes Affect Behaviour: People have the natural tendency to maintain
consistency between two attitudes and behaviours. Attitudes can lead to
intended behaviour if there is no external intervention.
(b) Attitudes are Invisible: Attitudes constitute a psychological phenomenon

which cannot be directly observed. However, we may observe an attitude
indirectly by observing its consequences. For example, if a person is highly
productive, we may infer that he has a positive attitude towards his work.
(c) Attitudes are Acquired: Attitudes are gradually learnt over a period of time.
The process of learning attitudes starts right from childhood and continues
throughout the life of a person. However, in the beginning, the family members
have a greater impact on the attitude of a child. For example, if the family
members have a positive attitude towards business and negative attitudes
towards other objects, the person may retain these traits.
(d) Attitudes are Pervasive: Attitudes are formed in the processes of socialisation
and may relate to anything in the world. For example, a person may have
positive negative or attitude towards religion, politics, politicians, countries, etc.
At our place of work, we have attitudes towards work, and so on. Thus, there is
an endless list of attitudes objects.
3.5 Attitudes Formation

The question often arises “where do attitudes come from?” Attitudes are basically
learnt. People are not born with specific attitudes; rather they acquire them through the
“Process of learning”. Attitudes reflect a person’s previous reinforcement history. The
determinants of person’s attitudes are personal.
How to Understand Your Attitude

These have been with you since you were born, and they promise to be with you
wherever you go- at work, at home at school, and even on the street. Some days,
you’re glad to have them around, but on other days, you may wish that they had stayed
in bed! We all have them. Some are good, and some are not so good. In fact, you have
been around them so much, you can probably easily detect them in others.
A Good Attitude Leads to Success

In a recent study, Telemetrics International surveyed 16,000 people. This study
linked common characteristics and actions to successful people. One of the most
significant points of difference between high and low achievers was their attitude.
Those defined as high achievers tended to:
• Care about people, as well as the bottom line.

Notes • Respect the value of other people’s abilities.
• Seek advice from others.
• Be good listeners.
• Have a positive attitude about life in general.
You Can Control Your Attitude

There are so many things in life you have little or no control over, such as the
weather, the job marketer, or the economy. But there’s one aspect of your life that
you do have the power to control, and that’s your attitude. Each and every moment of
every day, you decide what your attitude will be about yourself, yourself, your job, your
customers, your family and friends, change, responsibility, and so on.
Certainly, there are other factors that influence your attitude, such as your past
experience and the experience of those around you. But no one can make your feel
anything without your permission. You hold the remote control to the channels of energy
that create both your attitude and your results in life.
So, to gain control of your life, you must learn to gain control over your attitude.
Having a positive attitude can bring about positive results at home and at work- results
that will bring you happiness and success.
Attitudes Fuels Thoughts, Feeling and Actions

An attitude is the energy that fuels your thoughts, feelings, and actions based
on the difference between your expectations and your perception (our definition of
reality) of that situation. To better understand your attitude, let’s break apart the major
components that make up an attitude.
• Expectations
In any given situation, you have consciously or unconsciously formulated a

set of expectations, or desired results, for yourself, for other people, and for
situations. Sometimes refereed to as your standards, these expectations
determine your level of satisfaction. The higher your expectations, the more
challenging it will be to feel satisfied with any given situation.
• Perception
Your five senses and past experiences create your perception, or interpretation,
of a current situation. Based on what you see, hear, smell, touch, and taste, you
develop your definition of what happened. Your perception may or may not be
an acute account of what actually happened. However, perception is what you
use to formulate your thoughts and feelings about the situation.
• Thoughts
Your thoughts define your state of mind. Happy people are most probably
thinking happy thoughts. Conversely, sad or angry people are likely to have
negative thoughts.
Thoughts spark the formation of an attitude. Once the mind is stimulated,

you consciously or unconsciously think about the situation. While they’re in
progress, thoughts sound like, “I think…” Thoughts- like feelings and attitudes-
may be expressed out loud or silently to yourself.
• Feelings Notes
Your feelings keep your thoughts alive. It’s virtually impossible to have an
attitude without thoughts or feelings. Feelings encourage more thoughts and
keep the mind active. While they’re in progress feelings sound like, “I feel…”
• Energy
The amount of energy you exert in a relationship or a situation depends upon

how important the issue is to you. The greater the importance, the more
energy you’ll use to display your attitude through words, tone of voice, facial
expressions body language, and behaviour. Like attitudes themselves, this
energy can be positive, negative, or neutral in nature.
• Action
An action is your physical response to a situation. Once again, you have choice
of taking a positive, negative, or neutral approach to each situation. Your action
will be a reflection of your attitude. A positive action in progress sounds like, “I
can …”or “I will…”. On the other hand, a negative action in progress sounds
like, “I can’t …..” or “I won’t…” A neutral action in progress sounds like, “I don’t
want to ……”, or I don’t care…”
3.6 Attitude Application

The following situation uses the major components to further define how an attitude
is created and demonstrated.
Mr. and Mrs. Davis are celebrating their 15th wedding anniversary at their
favourite restaurant. After taking the first bite of his meal, Mr. Davis is very
disappointed. He calls the waiter to their table, pushes his plate of food aside,
and states in a firm and deliberate tone. “This food is cold and looks like it’s been
sitting out all day. I refuse to touch it!”
Based on past experiences from eating at their favourite restaurant, Mr. Davis had
high-expectations that the food would look appealing and taste good. However, after
tasting this particular meal, his perception of the food was just the opposite. He thought
that the food tasted cold and looked stale. He said that the quality of the meal was
important to the celebration of the occasion. So he exerted energy by requesting that
the celebration of the occasion, so he exerted energy by requesting that the waiter
come to their table (action), and he communicated his attitudes.
1. Pushing aside his plate of food.
2. Talking in a firm and deliberate tone of voice.
3. Complaining about the food.
3.7 Where do Attitudes Come From?

Child-behaviour specialists generally agree that we develop our attitudes in our
formative from birth to age seven. The good news is that we all start out with a good
attitude; the bad news is that we later learn how to sour our attitudes.
Consider a baby-full of happiness, curiosity, and acceptance. Babies very seldom

reject people based on age, race, sex, colour, or ethnic background. They’re like
Notes sponges - eager to learn, grow and experience the many facets of life. Unconsciously,
babies recognise that they need the support other people, in order to survive.
So, what happens? We become influenced by our environment. Significant people

around us- our parents, guardians family members, teachers, and friends- pass on
their attitudes thought their words and actions. Studies show that by the time we are
two years old, we observe more that 8,000 hours of life- the good, the bad, and ugly-
plus whatever is on TV.
The past is History

Even though the attitudes we learnt at an early age are the most difficult ones to
change, they aren’t etched in stone. We can unlearn them and relearn new ones. Since
we live in a world of constant change, we must learn to embrace change and recognise
that what worked yesterday may not work tomorrow. And that goes for our attitudes too!
Remember, you can control your attitude and your life!
3.8 Types of Attitudes

There are as many types of attitudes as there are people in our world. However, for
our understanding, we will simplify things a bit and focus on three broad categories of
people and their attitudes.
• Spectators
Some people go through life watching it happen around them. Thye’re called
the spectators of life. Their life experiences are limited because they “play it
safe” and avoid risk. They would much rather observe or support others than
risk failure or make a mistake. Spectators usually have a neutral attitude about
life.
• Critics
Another group of people stays on the sidelines of life. We call them the
critics. They perceive themselves as experts in the game of life and pride
themselves on finding fault in others. They want their complaints to be heard
and understood. They often associate with fellow “critics” because they feel
comfortable in numbers. Critics usually have a negative attitude about life.
• Players
The third types of people are the players in the game of life. They eagerly
await opportunities to learn something new and to grow, both personally and
professionally. They take risks and are not afraid to make mistakes. Players
usually have a positive attitude about life. People and their attitudes can be
temperamental. Just as no one is completely positive or negative all the time,
our attitudes can be situation-specific, lasting only temporarily. For instance, a
positive person is capable of demonstrating a negative attitude towards a person
or situation. Likewise, a negative person can demonstrate a positive attitude from
time to time.
A Typical Situation
You’re likely to find all three types of people on every “team”, whether it’s on the
job, at home, or in the community. Let’s say, you’ve just been put on a project team
at work to plan this year’s company picnic. The “spectators” on the team will attend
every meeting but won’t take an active part in the discussion or volunteer to accept any
responsibility. They may even attend the meetings to get out of work.
“Critics” will spend most of their time complaining about last year’s picnic and Notes
criticising the parameters of this year’s event. In addition, they’ll probably be the first to
shoot down other people’s ideas for improving the picnic. And finally, the “players” will
engage themselves in the planning and execution of the project. They’ll follow through
them make sure good ideas get implemented and tasks get completed. In other words,
the players will, “take the ball and run with it”!
Activity
Check Your Attitude
How would you describe your actions lately at home with your family? At work with
co-workers and customers? In your personal life? What kind of person have you been?
How might the people around you describe your attitude? Place a check mark under the
personality type that best describes your attitude in the following environments.
Spectator Critic Player
At Home
At Work
In Life
Are our pleased with the result you’ve been getting at home, at work, and in your
personal life? You may need to make some adjustments to become a better “player” at
home, at work or in life.
What can you expect from your attitudes?

As previously described, your thoughts and feelings create your attitude. And your
attitude determines your actions, which leads to the results you get in life. Here are
several examples of what the three types of attitudes may lead to in your life.
Benefits of a Positive Attitude

Although it’s not a guarantee, a positive attitude can help:
• Get a better job or a promotion.
• Successfully complete a project.
• Achieve a personal or professional goal.
• Satisfy and retain a customer.
• Maintain the relationship of a friend, employee, or spouse
Consequence of a Negative Attitude

It would be interesting to know how may times a negative attitude caused someone
to:
• Be passed over for a promotion
• Lose his or her job
• Fail to achieve a personal or professional goal

Notes • Lose a customer
• Ruin a relationship
Consequences of a Neutral Attitude.

The apathy expressed by someone with a neutral attitude many cause the person to:
• Miss out on an opportunity.
• Fail to learn new skills, gain the needed knowledge.
• Become stagnant at a job or career.
• Fail to develop new relationships.
• Be excluded from an activity.
Types of Attitudes
The “Players” with Positive Attitude

The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a “Player” with a
positive attitude.
Thoughts Feelings
• There is something in every situation. Happy
• A problem is an opportunity to do something Confident

different.
• Change is a sign of growth Satisfied
• A mistake is a valuable step toward success. Optimistic
• I have control over my life. Loving
The “Critics” with Negative Attitudes

The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a “Critic with a
negative attitude:
Thoughts Feelings
• There is always something wrong Anger
• Other people cause problems Doubt
• Change is a thorn in my side Frustration
• A mistake is a failure Pessimism
• I have little or no control over my life. Hate
The “Spectators” with Neutral Attitudes

The following list describes some of the thoughts and feelings of a “Spectator” with a
neutral attitude:

Thoughts Feelings Notes

• The situation or the other person is Unemotional
Unimportant
• Someone else will solve the problem. Tired
• Change is unnecessary. Content
• The future will come and go with or without me. Indifferent
• I won’t even try to control my life. Detached
Conclusion
In the end, we would like to conclude there are three types of attitudes:
• Positive attitude (Player)
• Negative attitude (Critic)
• Neutral attitude (Spectator)
And we choose our attitude through our thoughts, feelings and actions. These
thoughts, feelings and actions lead to the results that we get in our life.
Check your progress

1. Which is NOT a type of attitude component within the multicomponent model of
attitude?
a. Affective b. Behavioural
c. Cognitive d. Motivational
2. When emotions are aroused in the individual after exposure to the attitude object,
the ______________ component of attitude is put into action.
a. Affective b. Behavioural
c. Cognitive d. Motivational
3. Job satisfaction is best described as __________. Select the correct option:
a. A result b. A value
c. An attitude d. A discipline
4. Which of the following answer choices is the best definition of attitude? Select
correct option:
a. Attitudes are the yardsticks by which one measures one’s actions
b. Attitudes are the emotional part of an evaluation of some person, object or event
c. Attitudes are evaluative statements of what one believes about something or someone
d. Attitudes are a measure of hows the worth of an object, person or event is evaluated
Notes Questions and Exercises

1. Define attitude and what is the importance of attitude in our everyday life?
2. Explain the various components of attitude.
3. What are the various types of attitude?
4. Is it possible to change one’s attitude, if yes, how?
5. “Positive attitude creates a positive work environment for enhancement of the

Organisational Growth”. Comment
Further Readings
• Attitude: your most priceless possession By Elwood N. Chapman, Wil McKnight
• Attitude By Samuel Blankson
• Attitudes and attitude change By Gerd Bohner, Michaela Wänke

Unit 4 - Emotional Intelligence
Notes
Structure
4.1 What is Emotion
4.2 Defining Emotional Intelligence
4.3 Application of Emotional Intelligence
4.4 Transforming Emotions
4.5 Self knowledge and family patterns
4.6 Check your progress
Objectives
After going through this chapter, you will understand:
1. Human emotions
2. Importance of emotional intelligence
3. using emotions effectively
Introduction
“Emotional awareness is the crucial step in developing effectiveness generally as a
person.”
4.1 What is Emotion?

The Oxford English Dictionary defines emotions as “any agitation or disturbance
of mind, feeling, passion; any vehement or excited mental state.” The three terms-
emotions, feelings and perception are closely linked with each other.
Emotions: Strong feelings of any kind - love, joy, hate, fear and jealousy are all
emotions.
Feelings: Aware of experience, sensation, impression- “a feeling of hunger, well

being, and discontent.”
Perception: Ability to see, hear or understand, quality of understanding and way of

seeing things.
With perception and feelings there are hundreds of emotions, alongwith their blends,
variations, mutations, and nuances. Researchers continue to argue over precisely
which emotions can be considered primary- the blue, red, and yellow of feeling from
which all blends come- or even if there are primary emotions at all.
The main Categories are:

• Anger: Fury, outrage, resentment, wrath, animosity, annoyance, irritability and
hostility.
• Sadness: grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, self-pity, loneliness,

dejection, and despair.
• Fear: Anxiety, apprehension, nervousness, concern, consternation, misgiving,

wariness, qualm, edginess, dread, fright, terror, phobia and panic.
Notes • Enjoyment: Happiness, joy, relief, contentment, bliss, delight, amusement, pride,
pleasure, thrill rapture, satisfaction, euphoria, whimsy, and ecstasy.
• Love: Acceptance, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinity, devotion, adoration, and

infatuation.
• Surprise: shock, astonishment, amazement, and wonder.
• Disgust: contempt, disdain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste, and revulsion.
• Shame: guilt, embarrassment, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, and regret.
All emotions are, in essence, impulse to act the instant plans for handling life that
evolution has instilled in us. They very root of the word emotion is motere, the Latin
verb “To Move”, Plus the prefix “e” to connote “move away”, suggesting that a tendency
to act is implicit in every emotion. That emotions lead to actions is most obvious in
watching animals or children; it is only in lead to actions is most obvious in watching
animals or children; it is only in “civilized” adults we so often find the great anomaly in
the animal kingdom, emotions - root impulses to act- divorced form obvious reaction.
• With anger, blood flows to the hands, making it easier to grasp a weapon or
strike at a foe; heart rate increases, and a rush of hormones such as adrenaline
generates a pulse of energy strong enough for vigorous action.
• With fear, blood goes to the large skeletal muscles, such as in the legs, making
it easier to flee- and making the face blanch as blood is shunted away from it
(creating the felling that the blood “runs cold”). At the same time, the body freezes,
if only for a moment, perhaps allowing time to gauge centres trigger a flood of
hormones that put the body on general alert, making it edgy and ready for action,
and attention fixates on the threat at hand, the better to evaluate what response to
make.
• Among the main biological changes in happiness is the increased activity in a brain
centre that inhibits negative feelings and fosters an increase in available energy.
And a quieting of those that generates worrisome thought. But there is no particular
shift in physiology save a quiescence, which makes the body recover more quickly
from the biological arousal of upsetting emotions. This configuration offers the
body a general rest, as well as readiness and enthusiasm for whatever task is
at hand and for striving toward a great variety of goals so on. There are different
physiological states for different emotions.
What do happiness, fear, anger, affection, shame, disgust, surprise, lust, sadness,
elation and love have in common? These are emotions which directly affect your day
to day life. For long, it has been believed that success at the workplace depends on
your level of intelligence or intelligence quotient (IQ) as reflected in your academic
achievements, exams passed, marks obtained, etc. In other words, your intellectual
credentials: doing well in school, holding an engineering degree or even an advanced
computer degree obtaining high scores on an IQ test. All these are instance of
intelligence of the academic variety. But how bright are you outside the classroom,
faced with life’s difficult moments? Here, you need a different kind of resourcefulness,
termed as emotional intelligence (EI), which is a different way of being smart.
You may have wondered many a time how seemingly ordinary people build their way
to success. Or how a college drop-out like Bill Gates (of Microsoft fame) managed to
build such a vast empire for which he is envied by the entire world. There are many
others like him who have made the difference, and this could be attributed to their EQ.
For instance, Mother Teresa who devoted her life as a nun to social service with no Notes
resources of her own could successfully arouse world conscience to help the needy
and the poor. Similarly, people like T.N. Seshan and Kiran Bedi tried to be different from
their bureaucratic colleagues and succeeded. M.S. Oberoi rose from the position of a
clerk to build a vast empire of luxury hotels all over the world. Have you ever paused to
think how a low scoring classmate of yours managed to move higher than you on the
corporate ladder? Are you aware that there are many people who could not complete
their education and dropped out, but went on to be extremely successful in business
and in life?
Emotional Intelligence is what gives a person a competitive edge. Even in certain

renowned business establishments, where everyone is trained to be smart, the
most valued and productive managers are those who have strong traits of emotional
intelligence and are not necessarily those with the highest IQ. Being endowed with
great intellectual abilities, you may become a brilliant fiscal analyst or a legal scholar,
but a highly developed emotional intelligence is what will make you a candidate for a
CEO or a brilliant trial lawyer. Emotional traits are factors that are most likely to ensure
success in your marriage or your love affair, or ensure that you attain dizzy heights in
your business. The lack of emotional intelligence explains why people who, despite
having a high IQ, have been such utter failures and disastrous in their personal and
professional lives. An analysis of the traits of persons of high IQ but low on EQ yields
the stereotype of a person who is critical, condescending, inhibited and uncomfortable
with others. In contrast, person high on emotional intelligence are poised, outgoing,
committed to other people and worthy causes, sympathetic and caring, with a rich and
fulfilling emotional life; they are comfortable with themselves, others and the social
universe they inhabit. It is often said that a high IQ may assure you a top position, but it
may not make you a top person.
4.2 What is Emotional Intelligence?

In 1981, James Dozier discovered the power of emotional intelligence. It saved
his life. Dozier was a US Army brigadier general who was kidnapped by the Red
Brigades, an Italian terrorist group. He was held for two months before he was
rescued. During the first few days of his captivity, his captors were crazed with the
excitement surrounding the event. As Dosier saw them brandishing their guns and
becoming increasingly agitated and irrational, he realized his life was in danger. Then
he remembered something he had learned about emotion in an executive development
programme at the Centre for Creative Leadership in Greensboro, North Carolina.
Emotions are contagious, and a single person can influence the emotional tone of a
group by modeling.
Dozier’s first task was to get his own emotions under control - no easy feat under the
circumstances. But with effort he managed to calm himself. Then he tried to express his
calmness in a clear and convincing way through his actions. Soon he noticed that his
captors seemed to be “catching” his calmness. They began to calm down themselves
and become more rational. When Dozier later looked back on this episode, he was
convinced that his ability to manage his own emotional reactions and those of his
captors literally saved his life (Campbell, 1990)]
The term emotional intelligence (EI) had not been coined in 1981, but James Dozier
provided a vivid example of what it is: “The ability to perceive and express emotion,
assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate
emotion in the self and others” (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000, p, 396; for an extended
discussion on the varied definitions of emotional intelligence, see Chapter 2). Dozier’s
experience illustrates emotional intelligence in action. He perceived accurately the
emotional reactions of his captors, and he understood the danger that those reactions
Notes posed for him. He then was able to regulate his own emotions, and by expressing those
emotions effectively, he was able to regulate the emotions of his captors.
Not only does Dozier’s experience illustrate what the contributors to this book mean
by emotional intelligence, it also demonstrates how emotional intelligence can help
people to be more effective at work. However, Dozier’s predicament was an extreme
and unusual work situation. To what extent is emotional intelligence important for the
more typical jobs and work situations that people encounter? What is the connection
between emotional intelligence and organisational effectiveness? And finally, can
emotional intelligence be taught? And if so, how?
Emotional Intelligence is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to

monitor one’s own and other emotions to discriminate among them and to use the
information to guide one’s thinking and actions. (Mayor & Salovey).
‘Emotional Quotient’ (or EQ) is used interchangeably with ‘Emotional Intelligence’.

In simple terms, this can be defined as knowing what feels good, what feels bad, and
how to get from bad to good. A more formal academic definition refers to emotional
awareness and emotional management skills which provide the ability to balance
emotion and reason so as to maximise long-term happiness. Emotional Intelligence is
divided into intrapersonal and interpersonal categories.
Interpersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates

them how they work, how to work cooperatively with them. Successful salespeople,
politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders are all likely to be individuals with
a high degree of interpersonal intelligence.
Intra-personal Intelligence is a correlative ability, turned inward. It is a capacity to

form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and be able to use that model to operate
effectively in life.
Components of Intrapersonal Categories
A. Knowing one’s Emotions

This is the ability to recognise feelings when they happen and not put off feelings if
they are inconvenient. It is important to be able to say ‘I’m feeling envious’ even though
if may be uncomfortable to admit it. It may not fit my view of myself to be envious. And
even when we cannot put a practice label immediately on an emotion, we need to know
that we are in an emotional state and can make allowances for our decisions and may
act with a degree of extra caution. For example, if a person is angry, it is important
that she can learn to say to herself “I’m angry”, rather than suppressing it and taking a
painkiller for a headache that has mysteriously appeared.
Emotional Awareness
This is the recognition of how our emotions affect our performance, and the ability to
use our values to guide decision making. It includes:
• Know which emotions they are feeling, and why.
• Realise the links between their feelings and what they think, do and say.
• Recognise how their feelings affect their performance.
• Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals.

Accurate Self Assessment Notes

This entails candid recognition of our personal strengths and limits, a clear vision of
where we need to improve, and the ability to learn from experience. We need to be:
• Aware of out strengths and weaknesses.
• Reflective, learning from experience.
• Open to a candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning and self

development.
• Able to show a sense of humour and perspective about themselves.
Self Confidence
The courage that comes from certainty about our capabilities, values and goals.
• Present themselves with self assurance; have a positive “presence”
• Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is right
• Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and

pressures.
B. Motivating Oneself
The word emotional and the word motivation come from the same Latin root
movere, to move. It’s no surprise, therefore, to find these two concepts linked. Emotions
motivate us but they can also dis-empower us if they are too strong and we allow them
to overwhelm us. If you want to get what you decided you want out of life, you will have
to develop some emotional self-control. It may require your delaying gratification or
stifling your impulsiveness. You can develop ways of monitoring yourself which means
that you can put your immediate emotional needs to one side for a time, confident in the
knowledge that you will deal with them later,. If you can do this, you may be able to get
into the ‘flow’ state or zone which enables outstanding performance.
Achievement Drive
Persons striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence:
• Are result oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and standards.
• Set challenging goals and take calculated risks.
• Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to perform better.
• Learn how to improve their performance.
Commitment
Persons embracing the organisation’s of group’s vision and goals:
• Readily make sacrifices to meet a larger organizational goal.
• Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission.
• Use the group’s core values in making decisions and clarifying choices.
• Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group’s mission.

Notes Initiative and Optimism

Twin competencies that mobilise people to seize opportunities and allow them to
take setbacks and obstacles in their stride.
Initiative
Persons endowed with this quality:
• Are ready to seize opportunities
• Pursue goals beyond what is required or expected of them.
• Cut through red tape and blend the rules when necessary to get the job done.
• Mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts.
Optimism
Persons having the trait:
• Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks.
• Operate from hope of success, rather than fear of failure.
• See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance, rather than a personal flaw.
C. Managing Emotions
This relates to the ability to handle uncomfortable emotions once we’ve accepted
we’re feeling them. A lot of this work is about developing an ‘inner mothering’ mode and
learning to soothe ourselves when things seem difficult. A good manager knows when
to push her team on to greater heights and when to congratulate them on what they
have achieved. For example, when you are depressed, you manage it by not beating
yourself up about it but by switching to a caring mode. You might give yourself a hot
bath, a good book, a nice meal, or arrange a message or decide to give yourself the
pleasure of planning your next holiday. In short, do whatever it takes to make you feel
you care and value yourself.
Self Control
Persons who manage disruptive emotions and impulses effectively:
• Control their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well.
• Stay composed, positive and unflappable even in trying moments.
• Think clearly and stay focused under pressure.
Trustworthiness
Those who display honesty and integrity:
• Act ethically and are above reproach.
• Build trust through their reliability and authenticity
• Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others.
• Take a tough, principled stand even if they are unpopular.

Conscientiousness Notes
Persons who are dependable in fulfilling obligations:
• Meet commitments and keep promises.
• Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives.
• Are organised and careful in their work.
Adaptability
Those who show flexibility in handling change and challenges:
• Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities and rapid change.
• Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances.
• Are flexible in how they see events.
Innovation
Those who are open to novel ideas, approaches and new information:
• Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources.
• Entertain original solutions to problems.
• Generate new ideas.
• Take fresh perspective and risks in their thinking.
Components of Interpersonal Categories
A. Empathy - Recognising Emotions in Others

As you able to recognise emotions in yourself and realise your own emotional
weather system, so you will be able to sense them in others more accurately. This
means you can feel with someone rather than just feel about them. It’s different from
sympathy and when people know that someone is listening from heart is genuinely
empathizing with them, they don’t feel patronised.
Understanding Others
Those who have the talent for sensing other’s feelings and perspectives, and taking
an active interest in their concerns:
• Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well.
• Show sensitively and understand the other’s perspective.
• Help out based on understanding other people’s needs and feelings.
Service orientation
Persons who have the ability of anticipating, recognising and meeting customers’
needs:
• Understand customers’ needs and match these to services or products.

Notes • Seek ways to increase customers satisfaction and loyalty
• Gladly offer appropriate assistance.
• Grasp a customer’s perspective, acting as trusted advisor.
Developing others
Those who are adopt in sensing other’s development needs and bolstering their
abilities:
• Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths and accomplishments.
• Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for further growth.
• Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge and foster a
person’s skills.
Leveraging Diversity
Those who have the knock for cultivating opportunities through diverse people:
• Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds.
• Understand diverse world views and are sensitive to group differences.
• See diversity as on opportunity, creating an environment where diverse people

can thrive.
• Challenge bias and intolerance.
Political Awareness
Persons who are aware of the importance of reading the political and social currents
in an organisation:
• Accurately read key power relationships.
• Detect crucial social networks.
• Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients, customers or
competitors.
• Accurately read organisational and external realities.
B. Handing Relationships
Relationship which do not merely depend on power and predefined roles, require
emotional intelligence. Understanding other people’s emotions gives us the ability to
motivate them, be effective leaders and work in successful teams. We can give and
take and be spontaneous as the moment requires. Our old rigidities, which were born
of fear and anxiety, can dissolve into acceptance of ourselves and others. In family life,
emotional literacy is paramount for raising happy and cohesive families. One-to-one
relationships, whatever their format, can also be beneficial. Emotional intelligence gives
us the ability to have ‘grace under fire’ and to act with integrity and courage.
Influence
Persons who are adopt in wielding effective tactics of persuasion:

• Are skilled at winning people over. Notes

• Fine tune presentations to appeal to the listener.
• Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and support.
• Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point.
Communication
Those who believe in sending clear and convincing messages:
• Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their
message.
• Deal with difficult issues straight forwardly
• Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of information

fully.
• Foster open communication and stay open to bad news as well as good.
Conflict Management
Persons skilled in negotiating and resolving disagreements:
• Handle difficult people and tense situation with diplomacy and tact.
• Spot potential conflicts, bring disagreements into the open, and help descalate.
• Encourage debate and open discussion
• Orchestrate win-win solutions.
Leadership
Those who are inspiring and guiding:
• Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission.
• Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of their position in the hierachy.
• Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable.
• Lead by example.
Change Catalyst
Persons who are firm believes in initiating, promoting, or managing change:
• Recognise the need for change and remove barriers.
• Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change
• Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit.
• Model the change expected of others.

Notes 4.4 Transforming Emotions

Emotional competence is a learnt capability that leads to outstanding performance at
work. Your emotional intelligence is what determines your potential for learning practical
skills which are based on the above categories. For instance, providing good customer
service is an emotional competence based on empathy. Similarly, trustworthiness is
competence based of self-regulation, or handling impulses and emotions well. Both
customer service and trustworthiness are competencies which can lead to outstanding
performance at work. However, merely being high on emotional intelligence does
not necessarily guarantee that a person would have learnt the relevant emotional
competencies; it only means that he or she has excellent potential to learn these
competencies. For example, a person may be highly empathic, yet may not have
acquired the skills based on empathy that translate themselves into superior customer
service, or the ability to coach or mentor staff, or the ability too bring together a diverse
work team. There are many pragmatic reasons for learning to be emotionally literate but
perhaps one stands out more than the others. That is the personal and life-changing
transformation that understanding our emotions can bring us. Transforming depression
into useful anger, despair into attitudinal hope, or loneliness into connection with other
living beings, dramatically alter the quality of our lives. The effects are potentially far-
reaching; as well realise that everything in life is potentially transformative if we can find
the key.
4.5 Self Knowledge and Family Patterns

There are two further ingredients in emotional intelligence: self knowledge and an
awareness of family patterns. Self-knowledge includes an understanding of how you
function emotionally. Do you go through many emotions in the space of a few hours,
swinging from despair to hope and back again like a yoyo? Or do you hunker down into
depression or guilt and stay there for days? Do you tend to project your emotions on to
other people and try to fix their lives instead of your own? At times, we all do all these
things but most of us have a basic emotional pattern.
Just as we can have financial capital or intellectual capital, so we can have

emotional capital. It constitutes the emotional reserves resources we have to draw on.
We may lock it away in a long yield deposit account or we may spend our emotional
capacity to the limit and end up exhausted and overdrawn. What is important is that we
find the right mode of expression for ourselves. As we become emotionally literate, we
can learn to spend our emotional capital more wisely.
People tend to fall into three distinctive styles for attending to and dealing with their
emotions:
Self aware: Aware of their moods as they are having them, these people
understandably have some sophistication about their emotional lives. Their clarity
about emotions may under grid other personality traits: they are autonomous and sure
of their own boundaries, are in good psychological health, and tend to have a positive
outlook on life. When they get into a bad mood, they don’t ruminate and brood over it,
but are able to get out of it sooner. In short, their mindfulness helps them manage their
emotions.
Engulfed: These are people who often swamped by their emotions and helpless
to escape them, as thought their moods have taken charge. They are mercurial and
not very aware of their feelings, so that they are lost in them rather than having some
perspective. As a result, they do little to try to escape bad moods, felling that they have
no control over their emotions.

Accepting: While are people are often clear about what they are feeling, they also Notes
tend to be accepting of their moods, and so don’t try to change them. There seem to be
two types of the accepting type: those who are usually in good moods and so have little
motivation to change them and people who, despite their clarity about their moods, are
susceptible to bad ones, and accept them with a laissez-faire attitude, doing nothing,
change them despite their distress- a-pattern found among, say, depressed people who
are resigned to their despair.
So, to achieve high EI and emotionally literate state, you tend to fall in the category
of Self Aware.
“Emotionally mature people realise that others do not exist to meet their needs.”
Check your progress

1. Emotions has been closely linked to feelings and:
a. Anger b. Sadness
c. Perception d. Fear
2. Along with IQ, what is required to be successful?
3. Empathy is better than sympathy. Yes/No
4. People can attend to and deal with their emotions as:
a. Self aware b. Engulfed
c. Accepting d. All of the above

1. Define emotional intelligence. Explain its relevance at work place.
2. Is it possible to transform emotions? If yes, how?
3. How can people manage their emotions?
4. Explain ways to motivate self.
5. “Emotionally mature people realise that others do not exist to meet their needs”
Comment
Further Readings
1. Emotional intelligence: science and myth By Gerald Matthews, Moshe Zeidner &
Richard
2. Working with emotional intelligence By Daniel Goleman.

Unit-5 Effective Listening

Notes
Structure
5.1 What is Effective Listening
5.2 The Importance of Effective Listening
5.3 Difference between Listening and Hearing
5.4 Barriers to Effective Listening
5.5 The Listening Process
5.6 Types of Listening
5.7 Strategic Manoeuvres
5.8 Positive Connotations of Good Listening
5.9 Essentials for Good Listening
5.10 Deterrents to the Listening Process
Objectives
1. The importance of listening over hearing
2. How to develop the habit of effective listening
3. Overcoming deterrents to effective listening
Introduction
Effective Listening
“Listen and act according to the words because they are worthy and capable of
giving you strength and prosperity”
5.1 Effective Listening

Effective communication skills form the nucleus around which all successful human
relationships revolve. Human behaviour and social relationships are, in fact, an
outcome of the process of communication, which take place almost all the time. In fact,
whether we are sitting, walking, talking, listening or thinking, we are engaged in some
form of communication. This could be verbal or non-verbal.
“I told him we were meeting this Tuesday, not next Tuesday. Now we have to
reschedule the meeting. It’ll cost us a week’s time, and we may not make the deadline.”
“He said he was listening, but he’d obviously made up his mind before I started. He
didn’t give me a minute to talk before he started interrupting. That is the last time I’ll try
to present a better way to do any thing around here!”
“Something went wrong down the line. I warned those people to watch the
temperature carefully, but they did not listen. Now a whole batch is spoiled. What does
it take to get them to understand?”
Situations like these are disturbingly common in business. They show how frequent
listening failures are and how costly they can be. You may not be able to make others
listen better, but you can boost your own ability to listen carefully to the scores of Notes
important messages you are likely to hear every business day.
As you will learn in the following pages, listening effectively is hard work. It involves
far more than sitting passively and absorbing other’s words. It occurs far more
frequently than speaking, reading, or writing and is just as demanding and important.
5.2 The Importance of Listening

Business experts agree that listening is a vitally important skill. In his best selling
book, Stephen Covey identifies it as one of the “Seven habits of highly effective
people.” Tom Peters, business consultant and co-author of “In Search of Excellence
and A Passion for Excellence,” is sometimes called the “guru of excellence”. He
emphasises that one key to business success is careful Listening”. Betty Harragan,
a business consultant and job counselor, who has written two career strategy books,
states, “Good managers have always sought, or listened to the opinions of their staff
and key subordinates.” Business writer, Kevin Murphy, sums up the opinion of most
business professionals when he says, “the better you listen, the luckier you will get.”
Why is listening so important? This is most frequent-and, arguably, the most

important-type of on-the-job communication. Studies conducted over sixty years ago
indicated that adults spent an average of 29.5 percent of their waking hours listening.
This is almost a third more time than they spent talking and virtually twice as much time
as they spent reading. A more recent study focused on listening in business settings.
Personnel at all levels - including top middle-and lower level managers as well as
workers with no managerial responsibilities - were asked to note the time they spent
various types of communication during a typical week. The results were impressive.
Listening 32.7% Writing 22.6%
Speaking 25.8% Reading 18.8%
Top executives spend even more time listening that other employers. Researchers
have found that executives spend between 65 and 90 percent of the working day
listening to someone. Another piece of research revealed that effective managers
almost constantly ask questions of their subordinates. In a half-hour conversation, some
ask literally hundreds.
Listening on the job is not only frequent; it is important as well. When 282 members
of the Academy of Certified Administrative managers were asked to list the skills most
crucial for managerial ability, “active listening was rated number one and was placed in
the ‘supercritical’ category”. In another survey, 170 business people were asked which
most important and that they wished had been taught in college. In each category,
listening was mentioned as the number quality, since it can boost productivity, and save
money. Poor listening can have the opposite effect.
Most people make numerous listening mistakes every week. Because of listening
mistakes, letters have to be retyped, appointments rescheduled, shipments rerouted,
productivity affected and profits suffer.
Listening skills can play a major role in career success. Job hunters can often find
leads and succeed in employment interviews by keeping their ears open. Listening
is just as important once you are on the job. A study of employees in the insurance
industry revealed that better listeners occupied higher levels in their company and
were more upwardly mobile. The ability to listen well was highly related to the ability to
argue persuasively, which helps explain the success of good listeners. Supervisors who
Notes were rated as “open” communicators displayed a surprising number of behaviours that
indicate good listening. They were likely to ask for suggestions, listen to complaints,
and invite personal opinions of both their superiors and subordinates.
Listening skills are important in a variety of careers. Sales people who listen to their
customers can discover their needs and build rapport. As one consulting team says,
“showing a real interest in what prospective customers are saying is one of the simplest
ways of getting them to listen to you. “Health care providers are more effective at
gathering accurate information from patients and creating positive climates when using
“patient-centered” listening instead of “caregiver-centered” listening. From hotels to
high-tech computer services, form auto repair to financial institutions, service industries
are the fastest growing segment of the global economy. “Good service, in many
respects, is good listening”. According to Judi Brownell of Cornell University, “In order
to thrive in highly competitive, rapidly changing environments, service employees must
learn to listen well.”
5.3 Difference Between Listening and Hearing

Listening is much more than trying to hear and decipher the phonetic sounds being
produced by the sender. It is a matching of the mental faculties of the sender and the
receiver. Moving on the presumption that words or sounds can convey meanings is like
treading on thin ice. Words, in themselves, are not sufficient to connote meanings or
superimpose intentions or ideas. The total meaning of the message sent and received
is a cumulative whole of the words in particular contexts.
The vital ingredient of good communication, i.e., listening seems to have become
a part of the process of hearing. We are often confronted during the transmission
of any message with queries of the following nature: “Do you hear?” “Do you
understand?” The response to this is more in the nature of a nod or a reply in the nature
affirmative, and most of the time there is no endeavour on the part of the receiver to
catch the unspoken beneath the spoken words. Can we conclude that listening and
comprehension have really taken place?
To answer the above queries, let us study the vital difference between hearing and
listening. Hearing is perception of all that is being stated, in accordance with one’s
own frame of reference. The interactant in this case, though physically present on the
sense, is merely responding to the spoken words without really absorbing the message.
Listening, on the other hand is an accurate perception of all that is being stated.
This difference between listening and hearing is one of the main reasons why we
often fail to listen and then effectively communicate. While an average speaking rate
is 100 to 200 words per minute, an average listener’s ability to process message is
approximately 400 words per minute. This substantial difference between the spoken
and the assimilated words often leads to distraction with the mind swinging between
listening and assimilating, while also wandering towards distracting elements.
When the average individual mind is trying to concentrate on the spoken word,
there might be instances when the mind gets distracted and then finds it difficult to
get back to the position from where it left off. Instead of getting back to the original
locale in the middle of the semi-circle, it might just stray further down the arch. In such
instances, we have what is known as a “listening error”, in which, for some time the
listener is oblivious of what is being said or spoken as he is lost in his own reverie. After
some time, when he actually focuses, he realises that he has missed out on, if not a
substantial portion, quite a lot of the spoken matter which could have been most crucial
to further development of ideas and concepts.

For successful communication, it is imperative to exercise or utilise our listening Notes

capabilities. By being a passive listener, busy with our own thoughts, we often miss out
the important components of the message being communicated. This deficiency can,
in the corporate world, lead to a tremendous loss in the company output. Statistics
prove that in a million workers if there is a listening loss of ten minutes, it can make
the company incur a heavy loss. Therefore, in order to be successful both in life and
business, effective listening is absolutely imperative.
5.4 Barriers to Effective Lestening

Despite the importance of understanding others, the quality of listening is generally
poor in most organisations. Research suggests that misunderstandings are the rule,
rather than the exception. Conversational partners typically achieve no more than 25 to
50 percent accuracy in interpreting each other’s remarks. Listening expert, Ralph Nichols,
echoes this dismal assessment. He estimates that the average white collar worker listen
at about a 25 percent efficiency level. This dismal figure is supported by research showing
that immediately after a ten minute presentation, a normal listener can recall only 50
percent of the information presented. After 48 hours, the recall level drops to 25 percent.
Despite the widespread problem of poor listening, most business communicators do

not see themselves as lacking in this skill. (You can begin to evaluate your own listening
skill by completing the questionnaire in Table 1). In one study, subordinates were asked
to rate the listening ability of their bosses. More than half put their managers in the
“poor” category. When the same managers were asked to rate themselves, 94 percent
describes themselves as “good” or “very good” listeners! A number of studies have
revealed reasons why people listen poorly.
Activity
Listening-Skill Questionnaire
How well do you listen on the job? How do others rate you? You can compare
your answers to these questions to the way others view you, by first completing the
questionnaire yourself and them having others use the same questions to rate you.
Low answers (UF, AFF) can indicate problem areas, as can instances in which your
response differs significantly from others ratings.
KEY:
AAT - The statement is almost always true.
UT - The statement is usually true.
UF - The statement is usually false.
AAF - The statement is almost always False.
AAT UT UF AAF 1. I consider all evidence carefully before

coming to a conclusion.
AAT UT UF AAF 2. I am sensitive to the speaker’s

unstated feelings as well as to what he
or she says explicitly.
AAT UT UF AAF 3. I take notes when listening, in order

to remember information or better
understand a complex idea.
Notes AAT UT UF AAF 4. I concentrate on what the speaker

is saying, instead of dwelling on
unrelated thoughts.
AAT UT UF AAF 5. I listen openly when others disagree

with me. I may not accept what they
say, but I’m willing to consider their
opinions.
AAT UT UF AAF 6. I encourage others to express their

ideas instead of hogging the stage
myself
AAT UT UF AAF 7. I am able to extract key ideas, from

other’s comments, even when their
remarks are disorganised.
AAT UT UF AAF 8. I am curious about people and ideas.

Nobody could accuse me of valuing
only my own ideas.
AAT UT UF AAF 9. I let others speak, instead of

interrupting them or changing the topic
of conversation to suit my agenda.
AAT UT UF AAF 10. I make other speakers feel

comfortable and at ease when they
are talking.
AAT UT UF AAF 11. I remember important ideas other have

told me, even when I’m busy.
AAT UT UF AAF 12. I let others know when I’m

confused about what they are saying,
instead of pretending that I understand
when I really don’t.
AAT UT UF AAF 13. I recognise that people change over

time, and I accept new information,
instead of judging others only by their
past beliefs and actions.
AAT UT UF AAF 14. I help others find solutions to their

problems by being a good listener.
AAT UT UF AAF 15. I can cut thorough overly emotional

appeals and judge the soundness of a
speaker’s thoughts.
AAT UT UF AAF 16. I am good at knowing when to speak

and when to listen.
Sperry executive Del Kennedy, commenting on his company’s well-know listening
training programme, says “Most people don’t know how exhausting listening can be.”
Assuming that talking has more advantages than listening: at first glance, it seems
that speakers control things, while listeners are the followers. We correlate listening
with weakness, passivity, and lack of authority or power. The people who do the Notes
talking are the ones who capture everyone’s attention. So it is easy to understand
how talking can be viewed as the pathway to success. Despite the value of talking,
savvy business people understand that listening is equally important, especially
in a fast-moving, high-tech age. Communication expert Susan Peterson explains:
Back to basics. Actually, the best of all; the ability to listen is a vital communication
tool that’s endangered, in my humble opinion, by, all this technology. Too many
times, whether it’s with e-mail, voice mail or Internet, we are concentrating on the
art of telling, not listening. Yet, good listening, in our opinion, is 80 to 90 percent of
being a good manager and an effective leader. One CEO who has 54000 employees
says he concentrates on what he calls organisational listening. Listening is one of
the best ways to keep high touch in your organisation. In our day-to-day meeting
with customers, clients, or employees, if you listen - really with full eye contact and
attention - you can own the keys to the communication kingdom.
Writer and management professor David J. Schwartz, makes the point more
succinctly:
“To sell John Brown what John Brown buys, you have got to see things through
John Brown’s eyes. And the way to get John Brown’s vision is to listen to what John
Brown has to say.
Schwartz goes on to stress the value of listening:
“In hundreds of interviews with people at all levels, we have found that the bigger
the person, the more apt he is to encourage you to talk; the smaller the person, the
more apt he is to preach to you.
As it is a known fact, some of the most intelligent individual who found difficult to
influence their surroundings, their companies, and to gain influence in proportion to
their abilities reason was they could not listen.
They were articulate. They were eloquent. They were brilliant. They were
knowledgeable, but they talked and talked. And they never listened. As a result, they
found it difficult to get across to the management.”
5.5 The Listening Process

There are three phases within the listening process:
1. Levelling
2. Sharpening
3. Assimilation
Successful progression and completion of these three stages determine the

accuracy of the listening process.
To elaborate, let us take the example of a gardener. The first stage in gardening
is that of leveling the ground and shifting the soil. This is followed by marking of the
spots where the saplings are to be planted. The final stage is the planting of the
saplings, watering them and then waiting for them to catch root. This process is
somewhat similar to the one observed in listening. At the time of listening the mind
is left open for any inflow of information. The brain then automatically shifts and
separates the “sensical” from the ‘nonsensical” according to its priorities.
Notes As a result, the desired material is retained, while the rest is dumped to be discarded
at a later stage. This involuntary strategy is dependent on the mental filter of the
individual and the element of physical and psychological noise which is present. Only
those spoken words which are considered important by the listener are absorbed or
assimilated. In other words, sharpening of verbal inputs by the mental filter comprises
the second phase of the listening process. However, in the minds of the sender and the
receiver, there could be a discrepancy in the degree of importance assigned to various
issues or topics which might give rise to errors in listening. In order to minimise the
same, it is imperative that the receiver checks and rechecks with the same speaker the
intention of the utterances.
This brings us to very important aspect of listening- types of listening - that are to
a great extent, dependent upon the mental make up of the receiver. This can lead to
effective communication or gross miscommunication, both of which are the resultant
factors of different attitudes.
5.6 Types of Listening

Do we really comprehend the nature of the spoken words? The solution to this
question comes to light on observing the aftermath of a typical presentation. If the
attendees got together and compared notes, they would realise that most of them
have received a different message. The basic causes for this is the fact that there are
different types of listening- passive, marginal, projective, sensitive and active - to which
an individual indulges according to his own particular needs.
Types of Listening
1. Passive Hearing and not listening takes place.
2. Marginal Superficial listening takes place
3. Projective Message sent is received within the receiver’s

own frame of reference
4. Sensitive/Empathetic An attempt is made to match the perception of

the receiver with that of the sender.
5. Active Leveling and assimilation take place

Passive Listening
The physical presence, but mental absence, of the listener can be defined
as passive listening or hearing. All that is being said is being heard but not really
absorbed. Absorption of the spoken words comes only when there is “sharpening”
and “assimilation”. In the absence of these two processes, real or meaningful listening
cannot take place. Utterances sink in the mind of the individual in the form of a
heap of “verbal garbage” without any actual processing being done to it. In passive
listening, there is no invasion on the thought process or an onslaught of ideas which
could probably change the trend of thinking or strengthen the pre-conceived ideas of
the receiver. This kind of listening is commonly found in classroom situations when
the teacher is seen to reprimand the students for their physical presence, but mental
absence, in the class.
In passive listening, the sender should be held primarily responsible for the lapse in
listening on the part of the receiver. It is only when the speaker and the presentation are
boring and monotonous that the listeners switch off their mental faculties and dabble in
their personal skills of hearing in a manner which indicates that, yes, they are actually
listening.
Marginal Listening Notes

Provision of too much information can lead to an information load. As a result,
listening again tends to get hampered. One listens to the entire presentation, merely
because one is expected to do so. We have instances when the individual listens only
at the superficial level and does not try to go beyond a brief understanding of the topics
discussed.
The most common factor which can be attributed to this kind of listening is fatigue or
boredom. The respondent erects a barrier through which he allows information to seep
only in bits and pieces. As a result, partial or marginal information can be retrieved if the
situation demands or the need arises.
Marginal listening is, to a great extent, a better form of listening than passive
listening. While in the former, small chunks are listened to and assimilated, in the
latter, little or nothing registers in the mind of the receiver and the entire process of
communication is a waste of time and energy.
Projective Listening
In projective listening, the responses of the receivers are in a state of ‘restful
alertness”. Each individual has within him a frame of reference in which he tries to
adopt the perspective of the co-interactant. While listening, the receiver tries to view
and and absorb the contents of the presentation within his own frame of reference. The
image of a camera can be used to understand the concept. The receiver’s frame of
reference is like the pin-hole in the camera through which he views the outside world/
perspective of the speaker and tries to bring about an amalgamation of the two.
Projective listening is an attempt by the receiver at viewing the world or the view
point of the interactant from a limited personal perspective. Projective Listening is a
combination of the micro and the macro. The receiver, in this case, tries to bring about
a union between the experiences of the sender and his own, in such a manner as if
it were just a combination of the micro and the macro. Micro, in this case, would be
the narrow perspective of the receiver, while the macro is the broader perspective
presented by the sender.
Sensitive Listening
This can also be referred to as empathetic listening as the receiver is able to
understand the viewpoint of the speaker in exactly similar terms as were intended by him.
Part of the emphasis in sensitive listening lies on the ability of the receiver to match
his perceptions with those of the sender. It is a myth to presume that words always
mean the same to everyone. Even if two people have learnt to speak a common
language, it is not necessary that all utterances will be understood by the receiver in
total, or as were intended. Contrary to this, meanings assigned to this, meanings
assigned to spoken words lie in our perceptions, and not in words - perception of
words and their associations with our personal experiences. For instance, if an analogy
was used in a presentation it would definitely arouse different sentiments in different
people. An interactant who agreed with the analogy would find it appropriate; one who
disagreed would find it inappropriate and one who was neutral toward it would be quite
indifferent. Hence, it is not the utterance of words but the meaning associated with the
intention by the listener which contributes to the total communicative impact.
In sensitive or empathetic listening, an attempt is made to decipher the meaning

of the statement in relation to the perceptions and experiences of the sender. It is not
an easy task, especially if the sender is a new person about whom little or nothing is
known. To understand the message in a more meaningful manner, it is necessary for

the receiver to raise queries. This helps in understanding the viewpoint of the sender
Notes and, therefore, presents a correct perspective of the message sent.
Sensitive listening, in itself is not a very useful tool of communication. If taken in

isolation, it results in observance of a one-sided sympathetic stand. Sensitive listening
plus active listening taken in combination with active listening where sensitivities match,
proves to be an excellent form of listening. However, if there is to be a dichotomy
between the utterances and the understood intention of the same, we are confronted
with a typical case of miscommunication. Much is lost in the course of the interaction
due to misplaced empathy, or interpretation of the message.
Active Listening
This is the most important type of listening. The receiver absorbs all that is being
said and also makes an attempt to verify all that he has been listening to. When
combined with sensitive listening, it can result in the best kind of listening with the
receiver moving in accordance with the intent of the speaker. Despite the fact that
listening can never take place totally in accordance with the communicative intent of
the speaker, we can move on the assumption that listening which takes place in such
circumstances is of the ideal kind.
In listening, as long as there is some kind of activity in the form of participative

contribution from the receiver, there can rarely be any kind of miscommunication. This
state can be achieved when questions are asked in response to the statements made
by the sender.
Merely relying upon the hearing faculties for a comprehension of the lecture/
presentation is not sufficient. As stated earlier, since words have different meanings for
different people, clarification and checks regarding words, ideas and issues should be
sought at every stage.
Active listening is not solely a product of the capabilities of the listener. Part of the
onus for making the receiver respond actively to the proceedings lies on the shoulders
of the speaker. How well he manages to motivate the receiver into responding and
participating in the interaction depends on his communicative ability and motivation.
A boring speaker with a monotonous voice would not be able to secure the attention
of the audience for a long time, no matter how enlightening his discussion might
be. This brings us to the point that, together with the content, an impressive style of
communication also needs to be adopted.
5.7 Strategic Manoeuvres

Verbal or non-verbal communication can be used to strategically manoeuvre
the receiver or co-interactant into making a move that is in accordance with the
communicative intent of the speaker. The idea undergoes three stages prior to being
encoded in the form of a message. The first is the cognitive stage, which is a stage of
thoughts and beliefs. The sender or the receiver before commencing communication, has
a set of pre-conceived ideas or notions on the basis of which he begins the interaction.
The second of this is the affective stage or one of emotions. Will the framed
message be acceptable to the recipient? Will it fit in with his frame of reference? How
will he respond to the intent of the message? It is only after queries of a similar nature
are answered that an idea should start getting encoded.
Third or the last of these is the conative stage - a stage of intention or motivation.
Subsequent to interaction what would be the receiver’s intentions and how would
he be motivated to act or speak? Would his feedback be in accordance with the
communicative intent of the sender?
Strategic Manoeuvres
S.N. Stages Speaker-oriented Receiver-oriented
Notes
1. Cognitive- stage of Getting ready with a set Creating an awareness
thoughts and beliefs of preconceived ideas with the self for the
and notions prior to acceptance of the
communication communication
2. Affective - state of Planning communication in Getting involved/making
emotions accordance with the ideas evaluations and bringing
of the recipient about a change in attitude
and feelings
3. Conative - state Gauging the intentions Moving form the domain
of intention and of the receiver, so as to of the subjective to the
motivation motivate him to act and objective/getting involved
speak into taking action
Corresponding to the above three stages, there are, within a receiver, three similar
stages. In the first stage, the listener has certain pre-conceived ideas and notions. The
speaker creates an awareness within the encoder by clearly differentiating between
beliefs and interests. The strategy thereby adopted is provision of details by which
the attention of the listener is secured. As the speaker proceeds to the second stage
of emotions, the receiver gets involved - makes correct evaluations and attempts a
change in his own attitude and feelings. In this second stage, the receiver switches his
strategy and moves from the objective domain of language to the subjective. He verifies
his position by creating beliefs, improving on the existing image of the situation and
thereafter succeeds in stirring emotions.
Now the move is to the third stage. By this time language has become more
subjective. It now lies within the domain of the sender to stimulate his co-participant,
direct his move and finally make the receiver adopt his point of view. If there is some
difference of opinion in the objective appraisal of the communicative intent, appropriate
strategies are applied.
5.8 Positive Connotations of Good Listening

The art of good listening, if acquired, can have positive connotations. The individual
who has successfully mastered this art, will posses a wider perspective and be able
to view the world in a more comprehensive manner. Listening accurately, or as was
intended by the speaker, will develop within the listener an increased sense of
competence. He will now rise from the level of apprenticeship and gain mastery over
the subject or the discipline to which he was passive recipient. This would normally lead
to a sense of accomplishment within the individual, even if his level does not match that
of the sender.
Attitudes will undergo a change and there will be an increased sense of self
confidence within the individual. His point of view can be better presented as he is
better armed with intellectual capabilities. In cases such as these, where confidence
emanates from the individual, an assertive stream is in evidence, which reveals him in a
positive light.
Positive Connotations of Good Listening

Good Listening Positive Connotations
1.
Wider perspective Comprehensive approach
2. Increased sense of competence Sense of accomplishment

Notes 3. Increased sense of mastery Sense of self-confidence
4. Greater objective and open mindedness Objective viewing of facts
5. Decreased defensiveness Opening up to new ideas

and newer avenues.
An individual well-endowed with knowledge has at his disposal greater objectively

and is more open-minded during interactions. He would not be rigid in his approach,
when presented with opposing points of view. He would be able to view them
objectively and take a decision. Neither the issues close to the sender, nor the ones
close to the receiver would be hampered.
The level of knowledge is inversely proportional to defensive behaviour. Whenever

there is an increase in knowledge, defences are automatically lowered. An individual
is normally on the offensive when he is not sure of himself and is afraid that the co-
participant might force him into accepting a point of view which would prove contrary
to his own interests/likes and dislikes. This definitely is an immature stand which needs
further probing. As stated earlier, to reach the state where defences are automatically
lowered, one needs to be a good listener. Then only can he be receptive to new ideas
and fresh avenues.
5.9 Essentials for Good Listening

For listening to be effective and good certain behavioural patterns need to be
observed. Foremost in the list is developing a positive attitude towards the other
individual or the situation. Starting on a negative basis or a bias can be counter-
productive to the listening processes. It closes the mind of the individual to the ongoing
proceedings and he practices only marginal or passive listening. This, in almost all the
cases, proves to be detrimental to the issues under consideration.
Essentials for Good Listening

Essentials Resultant Features
1. Positive attitude Acceptance of the speaker
2. Concentration Careful listening and subsequent

examination of the speaker’s
viewpoint.
3. Interaction Greater participation and hence more

effective listening
4. Question-answer sessions Clarification of ideas and thoughts
Concentration at the hard core level is the only solution to this problem. Even trying
to anticipate the utterances of the speaker can keep our attention glued to the topic at
hand. In the initial phases, if the speaker is boring or monotonous, it gets difficult for
the listener to remain alert and concentrate. Concentration can only be achieved by a
conscious desire on the part of the listener not to miss out on any of the vital issues
under discussion or consideration.
A strategy to countermand the loss in concentration is one of increased interaction

through question-answer techniques. With an increase in interaction, the listening
routine also undergoes a sudden change. In the process, there is greater exchange of
ideas, in which some are renewed, some activated, while others continue to rest in the
dormant state. Raising queries, not merely for the sake of gaining attention, is again a Notes
very good strategy of breaking the monotony of an interaction.
As has been revealed by studies the listener is able to concentrate only 7% of the
time on what the speaker is saying. For the rest of the time, his concentration wanders
between giving attention to the body language and the voice inflections of the speaker.
Induction of question-answer sequence in the course of presentation can break the
monotony of listening and increase the level of concentration.
5.10 Deterrents to The Listening Process

Despite the fact that an individual is physically present, there could still be instances
when he is unable to grasp a great deal of what is being said. There are a number of
causative factors for the same.
Deterrents to the Listening Process

Deterrents Behavioral Patterns
1. Lack of interest Unable to concentrate
2. The ego - basic communication Unable to accept the Speaker or tends

to block his viewpoint
3. Involved with the self Unable to listen
4. Imperfect past/present tense/ Wallow in self-sympathy uncertain

future

5.
Fear Unable to concentrate
6. Preconceived ideas and notions Closed mind
7. The familiarity trap Assured to self
8. Stress - negative impact Hypertense
1. Lack of Interest
If an individual is not interested in the topic being discussed, no matter how hard he
tries, he would not be able to concentrate on the issue. Lack of interest thus hampers
the listening process.
2. The Ego-Basic Communication Block

Superiority complex within an individual will also prevent him from listening to what
the other individual is saying. Ego - the basic communication block becomes more or
less a case of ego hang-ups. It is, in fact, the biggest communication block which the
individual erects as he is not willing to accept the viewpoint of the other person. The
reason for it could be simple. The sender could be a subordinate or in a position which
does not satisfy or match the ego of the receiver.
3. Self Involvement
If the listener is too busy with his own thoughts or is involved with himself, there are
bound to be discrepancies in the understanding of the intention of the spoken word. In
this two-tier process, either the receiver is listening to his own self, or trying to decipher
the intention of the sender. In this swing between listening and hearing, it is always
the latter which gains ground and the recipient, in almost all the cases, misses the
importance of the message being sent.
Notes 4. Lack of Self Confidence

A behavioural aspect hampering the listening processes is the lack of self
confidence that may be due to some uncontrolled factors in the present environment
of the listener or, because of some past event. A lot of time is wasted on thinking about
the past, which may have been problematic or imperfect. The present too becomes
rather uncertain for the individual as he makes futile attempts to break loose of the
past. Little does he realise that he is tampering with the present and as a result of this,
the future too is in doldrums. In this cycle, a wrong step at an inappropriate moment
can create tension and lead to problems which would be difficult to rectify at a later
stage. However, it does have a strong bearing on the individual as it creates a defect in
the listening process, primarily because of lack of concentration and indulging in time-
rectifying strategies.
5. Fear
Developing fear or being scared of an individual/situation can also cloud to whatever
is forthcoming. The interactant is so deeply involved in his thoughts, that he is unable
to listen accurately to what is going on. The element of fear blocks the mind of the
participant to the ongoing activities. He is unable to comprehend the true importance of
the proceedings or the intentions of the other participants. The first step is to do away
with this fear psychosis, if one wants to listen to what is being said in an accurate manner.
6. Preconceived Ideas
To enter into any kind of interaction with preconceived ideas, notions and thoughts
can again have a negative impact on the listening processes. If an individual starts
an interaction thoroughly convinced with the idea that whatever he is trying to say
or listen to is what he had in mind or with which he is very much familiar, his mind
will automatically shut down the interaction. He will try to superimpose his existing
knowledge which will definitely have a negative impact on the speaker’s intentions and
will lead to mis-communication.
7. Familiarity Trap
Quite often, our previous knowledge of a particular topic can close our mind to the
ongoing communication. This is what is normally referred to as the familiarity trap.
Despite the fact that the topic is one with which the interactant is thoroughly familiar,
yet the style and the manner in which it is presented is always different and one does
stand to gain substantially much from concentrating or listening to the spoken words.
Even if it is a repeat by the same communicator, it will be seen that there is a variance
or discrepancy between the spoken word and the understood intention.
8. Stress
Working under stress can again lead to barriers in the listening process. As
mentioned in the above instances, in this case also, the mind is absolutely blocked to
the proceedings and it becomes difficult to listen.
So, these deterrents of the listening processes leads to specific behavioural patterns
which hamper listening, if considered prior and taken care of would lead to effective
listening. In communication, effective listening is road to excellence in personal and
professional life.
Check your progress

1. These are the stages of listening process except:
a. Levelling b. Self acceptance
c. Sharpening d. Assimilation
2. __________ is the most importance ingredient in the process of communication
Notes
a. Listening b. Hearing
c. Body language d. Talking
3. Out of the following, which one is not a type of listening
a. Active b. Projective
c. Passive d. Reliable
4. When contents of presentation are absorbed within your own frame of reference-
a. it is passive Listening b. it is marginal Listening
c. it is sensitive Listening d. it is projective Listening

1. Describe various stages of strategic manoeuvre in effective listening?
2. Explain various barriers to effective listening and suggest ways to overcome them.
3. What is the difference between hearing and listening? Which of them is more
effective?
4. What are the essentials for good listening?
5. Are you a good listener? What strengths you possess as a good listener?
Further Readings
1. Interpersonal Communication Listening and Responding- By Sandra D. Collins,
James O’Rourke.
2. The Zen of Listening: Mindful Communication in the Age of Distraction- By Rebecca

Z. Shafir &
3. Listening and Human Communication in the 21st Century- By Andrew D. Wolvin.

Unit- 6 Behavioural Adjustments

Notes
Structure
6.1 Adjustments
6.2 Symptoms of Maladjustment
6.3 Types of Behaviour
6.4 Assertiveness Right
6.5 Handling Conflicts
6.8 Further Reading
Objectives
1. Importance of adjustment for humans
2. Meaning of adjustment
3. Concept of maladjustment
4. Improving adjustment
Introduction
Positive and Healthy Adjustment builds Positive and Healthy Personality”
6.1 Adjustment
The concept of adjustment is as old as the human race. Systematic emergence of
this concept starts from Darwin. In those days, the concept was purely biological and he
used the term adaptation. The adaptability to environmental hazards goes on increasing
as we proceed on the phylogenetic scale from the lower extreme to the higher extreme
of life. Insects and germs, in comparison to human beings, cannot withstand the
hazards of changing conditions in the environments and as the season changes, they
die. Hundreds of species of insects and germs perish as soon as the winter beings.
Man, among the living beings, has the highest capacities to adapt to new situations.
Man, as a social animal, not only adapts to physical demands, but also adjusts to social
pressures in the society.
Biologists used the term adaptation strictly for physical demands of the environment,
but psychologists use the term adjustment for varying conditions of social or inter-
personal relations in the society. Thus, we see that adjustment means reaction to
the demands and pressures of social environment imposed upon the individual. The
demand may be external or internal to whom the individual has to react. Observe
the life of a child. He is asked to do this and not to do others things. He has to follow
certain beliefs and set of values which the family follows. His personality develops in the
continuous process of interaction with his family environment.
Psychologists have interpreted adjustment from two important points of views.

One, adjustment as an achievement and another adjustment as a process. The first
point of view emphasises the quality or efficiency of adjustment and the second lays
emphasis on the process by which an individual adjusts in his external environment.
The various activities of an individual’s life involves adjustment to vocational, social and

economical problems. If an individual is unable to adjust to his/her internal and external Notes
environment, he/she shows symptoms of maladjustment.
6.2 Symptoms of Maladjustment

a) Physical symptoms
These include stuttering, stammering, scratching the head, facial twitching, biting
nails, rocking feet, restlessness, drumming with fingers and vomiting.
b) Behaviour deviations
These could result is aggression, lying, bullying, poor achievement, hyperactivity,
negativism.
c) Emotional symptoms
These could lead to excessive worry, fear, inferiority, hatred, extreme timidity,
temper-tantrum, persistent anxiety, conflicts and tension.
Adjustment means how efficiently an individual can perform his duties in different
circumstances. When the sun is shining, everyone is contented and all relationships are
working smoothly needs advice and how to deal with people? But how do you react
when people:
• Criticize you,
• Shout at you,
• Blame you for something you have not done,
• Keep you waiting,
• Interrupt you,
• Exploit you?
Frequently, people react by either going on the defensive and by attacking back.
These two reactions are process of adjustment which culminates into four types of
unhealthy behaviors, which is also known as four killers of an organization.
6.3 Types of Behaviour
Four Killers of Organisations
‘Unhealthy Behaviour’:
1. Submissive Behaviour: involves yielding to someone else’s preferences,
while discounting your own rights and needs. You do not express your feelings
to others, or know what you want. The result is that remain ignorant of your
feelings or wants (and thus cannot be blamed for not responding to them).
Submissive behaviour includes feeling guilty- or as if you are imposing- when
you do attempt to express what you want. If you give others the message
that you’re not sure you have the ways to express your needs, they will tend
to discount them. Phobic and anxiety prone behaviour after often submissive
because, as previously mentioned, they are overly invested in being “nice” or
“pleasing” to everybody. Or, they may be afraid that the open expression of their
needs will alienate a spouse or partner on whom they feel dependant.

Notes 2. Aggressive Behaviour: on the other hand, may involve communicating in a

demanding, abrasive, or even hostile way with others. Aggressive people,
typically, are insensitive to others’ rights and feelings and will attempt to obtain
what they want through coercion or intimidation. Aggressiveness succeeds by
sheer force, creating enemies and conflict along the way. It often puts others
on the defensive, leading them to withdraw or fight back, rather than cooperate.
For example, an aggressive way of telling someone you want a particular
assignment at work, would be to say: “That assignment has my name written
on it. If you so much as look at the boss when she brings it up during the staff
meeting, you’re going to regret it.”.
3. Passive - Aggressive: as an alternative to being openly aggressive, many

people are passive- aggressive. If this is your style, instead of openly
confronting an issue, you express anger, aggressive feelings in a covert fashion
through passive resistance. You’re angry at your boss, so you’re perpetually
late to work. You don’t want to comply with your spouse’s request, so you
procrastinate or “forget” about the request altogether. Instead of asking for
or doing something about what you really want, you perpetually complain or
moan about what is lacking. Passive-aggressive people seldom get what they
want because they never get it across. Their behaviour tends to leave other
people angry, confused, and resentful. A passive-aggressive way of asking
for a particular assignment at work might be to point out how inappropriate
someone else is for the job, or to say to a co-worker, “If I got more interesting
assignments, I might be able to get somewhere in this organisation”.
4. Manipulative Behaviour: Manipulative people attempt to get what they

want by making others feel sorry for or guilty towards them. Instead of taking
responsibility for meeting their own needs, they play the role of a victim or
martyr in an effort to get others to take care of them. When this doesn’t work,
they may become openly angry or feign indifference. Manipulation only works
as long as those at whom it is targeted fail to recognise what is happening.
The person being manipulated may feel confused or “crazy” up to this point.
Afterwards, they become angry and resentful toward the manipulator.
A manipulative way of asking for a particular assignment at work would be to tell

your boss, “Gee, if I get that assignment, I think my boyfriend will finally have some
respect for me”: or to tell a co-worker, “Don’t breathe a word about this- but if I don’t get
that assignment, I’m going to finally use those sleeping pills I’ve been saving up.”
Healthy Behaviour
Assertive Behaviour is when we:
Stand up for our own rights in a way that does not violate another person’s rights. It
leads to an honest open and direct expression of our point of view which, at the same
time, shows that we understand the other person’s position.
Assertiveness is an attitude and a way of acting in any situation when you need to:
 Express your feelings
 Ask for what you want, or
 Say no to something you don’t want
Becoming assertive involves self-awareness and knowing what you want. Behind
the knowledge is the belief that you have the right to ask for what you want. When
you are assertive, you are conscious of your basic rights as a human being. You give Notes
yourself and your particular needs the same respect and dignity you’d give anyone
else’s. Acting assertively is a way of developing self-respect and self-worth.
If you are phobic or anxiety-prone, you may act assertively in some situations,
but have difficulty making requests or saying no to family members or close
friends. Having perhaps grown up in a family where you felt the need to be perfect
and please your parents, you’ve remained a “people pleaser” as an adult. With
your spouse or parents you often end up doing many things you don’t really want
to do. This creates resentment, which, in turn, produces tension and sometimes
open conflict in your relationships helps. By learning to be assertive, you can begin
to express your true feelings and needs more easily. You may be surprised when
you begin to get more of what you want as a result of your assertiveness. You may
also be surprised to learn that assertive behavior brings you increased respect from
others.
Assertive behaviour, in contrast with the above-described styles, involves asking for
what you want (or saying no) in a simple, direct fashion that does not negate, attack,
or manipulate anyone else. You communicate your feelings and needs honestly
and directly while maintaining respect and consideration for others. You stand up for
yourself and your rights without apologising or feeling guilty In essence, assertiveness
involves taking responsibility for getting your own needs met in a way that preserves
the dignity of other people. Others feel comfortable when you’e assertive, because they
know where you stand. They respect you for your honesty and forthrightness. Instead
of demanding or commanding an assertive statement, makes a simple, direct request,
such as, “I would really like that assignment”, or “I hope the boss decides to give
that particular assignment to me”. Which of the above five descriptions fits you most
closely? Perhaps more than one behaviour style applies, depending on the situation.
6.4 Assertiveness Rights

You have probably heard of the slogan “Stand up for yourself” or “Stand up for your
rights”. You may have viewed these statement in a negative way, saying. “Don’t be
pushy” or “Don’t take advantage of others”. This way of thinking may have kept you
from becoming aware of your rights and standing up for them.
The central theme of assertive behaviour is that you know your rights and feel good
about expressing them by using the techniques in this book. The list below suggests
rights for you to consider in developing your assertive behaviour.
I HAVE THE RIGHT TO…….
1. Be treated with respect.
2. Be appreciated
3. Express my feelings (in an honest, direct, and appropriate manner, not as a

device for attack).
4. Disagree and to express my opinions (in a way that will lead to resolution of
conflict).
5. Set my own priorities.
6. Say ‘no’, without feeling guilty.

Notes 7. Express my needs and wants.
8. Make mistakes (and be responsible for them).
9. Choose not assert myself in any situation. (In some cases, it may be better to
choose to be non-assertive).
10. Make my own decisions.
Non-verbal aspects of submissive, assertive and aggressive behaviour:
Submissive Aggressive Assertive
a. Voice Sometimes wobbly, Very firm, Steady and firm,

Tone may be sing
Song or whining Tone is sarcastic, Tone is middle
Over-soft or over-warm Sometimes cold, range, rich and warm

Often dull in monotone, Hard and Sharp, Sincere and clear,
Strident, often Not too loud or quiet,
Quiet, often drops away Shouting, often Not too loud or quiet,
at end. shouting, rises at end.
b. Speech Pattern Hesitant and filled with Fluent, awkward Fluent, few awkward
pauses, hesitance hesitance’s.
Sometimes jerks from Often abrupt, clipped Emphasises key words

fast to slow,
Frequent throat cleaning. Emphasises blaming Steady, even, pace

words.
Often fast,
c. Facial Expression Unreal smile when Smile may become Smiles, when pleased
expressing anger, or ‘wry
being criticised.
Eyebrows raised in Scowls, when angry. Frowns, when angry.

anticipation (e.g., of
rebuke)
Quick-changing features. Eyebrows raised in Otherwise ‘open’

amazement/disbelief
Jaw set firm Features
Chin thrust forward. Steady, not wobbling,

Jaw relaxed, but not
‘loose’.
d. Eye Contacts Evasive Tries to stare down Firm but not a ‘stare-
and dominate. down’.
Looking down

e. Body Movements Hand-wringing. Finger thumping. Open hand movements Notes

(inviting to speak)
Hunching shoulders, First thumping,

Stepping back, Sits upright or leans ‘Measured pace’
forward hand movements’
Covering mouth with Stands upright head Sits upright or relaxed

hand ‘in air’ (not slouching or cowering),
Nervous movements Strides around Stands with head held

which detract (shrugs (impatiently) straight.
and shuffles)
Arms crossed for Arms crossed

protection. (unapproachable)
The following exercise will assist you in identifying your preferred behaviour
mode when you want something. Think about each of the following situations one
at a time. How would you typically handle it? Would your approach be non-assertive
(in other words, you wouldn’t do anything about it), aggressive, passive- aggressive,
manipulative- or would you respond assertively? Note the style you’d use after each
situation. If you have fewer than 25 out of 30 “assertive” responses, it would be useful
for you to work on your assertiveness:
1. You’re being kept on the phone by a salesperson who is trying to sell you
something you don’t want.
2. You would like to break off a relationship that is no longer working for you.
3. You’re sitting in a movie and the people behind you are talking.
4. Your doctor keeps you waiting more than 20 minutes.
5. Some family member has the stereo on too loud.
6. Your next door neighbour has the stereo on too loud.
7. You would like to return something to the store and get a refund.
8. You’re standing in a line and someone moves in front of you.
9. Your friend has not returned the money he took from you a long time back.
10. You receive a bill that seems unusually high for the service you received.
11. Your home repair person is demanding payment, but has done unsatisfactory
work.
12. You find that the food at a restaurant is over- or undercooked.
13. You would like to ask a major favour of your partner or spouse.
14. You would like to ask a major favour of your friend.
15. Your friend asks you a favour which you don’t feel like doing.
Notes 16. Your son/ daughter/ spouse/ roommate is not doing his or her fair share of the
work around the house.
17. You would like to ask a question, but are concerned that someone else might
think it’s silly.
18. You’re in a group and would like to speak up, but you don’t know how your
opinion will be received.
19. You would like to strike up a conversation at a gathering, but you don’t know
anyone.
20. You’re sitting/ standing next to someone smoking and the smoke is beginning to
bother you.
21. You find your partner/ spouse’s behaviour unacceptable.
22. You find your friend’s behaviour unacceptable.
23. Your friend drops by unexpectedly just before you were about to leave for some
urgent work.
24. You’re talking to someone about something important, but he or she does not
seem to be listening.
25. Your friend calls you for lunch when you one extremely busy.
26. You return an item you don’t want from the department store and request a
refund. The clerk diverts your request and offers to exchange the item for
another.
27. You’re speaking and someone interrupts you.
28. Your phone rings but you don’t feel like taking the call.
29. Your partner or spouse “talks down” to you as if you were a child.
30. You are unfairly criticised by someone.
Obstacles to Assertiveness
Obstacle # 1: Low Self-Esteem
Self-concept (your mental image of yourself) builds self-esteem (self-respect),

which determines your behaviour. Negative thinking and actions may limit your
opportunities.
Obstacle # 2: Inability to Handle Conflict
People who fear conflict avoid asserting themselves in stressful situations.
Do not mistake aggressive behaviour for assertive behaviour-aggressive behaviour

causes conflict.
Obstacle # 3: Poor Communication Skills

Your inability to respond in various situations leads to negative emotions, thoughts, Notes
and anxiety.
By understanding these “traps” to being assertive, you can avoid them, thus setting
an environment, which is conducive to assertiveness.
6.5 Handling Conflicts

Different Behaviour Styles for Handling Conflict
If you are not using assertive behaviour in situations where you have to deal with
confrontation or disagreement, you may be choosing another behaviour aggressive or
nonassertive. How do these behaviors address conflict?
Assertive Behaviour
The person with this type of behaviour:
• Brings Conflict into the open where the communication process can continue.
• Is interested in a “win-win” situation: understands that it’s ok to get angry, but in

a factful manner.
• Tries to negotiable to solve problems in an environment of mutual respect.
• Recognises personal rights while respecting the rights of others.
• Uses statements such as, “This is how I see it,” “This is how I feel,” or “This is
what I think,”
Aggressive Behaviour
One who displays such a behaviour:
• Becomes defensive.
• Discounts feelings of others; assumes an “I’ am right” position.
• Is interested in a “win” situation at the expense of the relationship.
• Uses anger to control.
• Tries to manipulate.
• Uses statements such as, “The meeting is at 2 p.m.; I don’t care what you have
on your schedule; just be here”.
Submissive Behavior
One exhibiting such a behaviour:
• Gives in to others’ expectations and viewpoints to avoid conflict.
• Assumes a, “You’re right” position’. Does not see personal feelings as

important.
• Will end up a “lose” situation.
• Is easily manipulated by an aggressive person.

Notes • Does not openly show anger.
• Uses statements such as, “How can I possibly know the answer to that?
For most people, the three behaviour types are seen in the following terms.
1. Assertive Behaviour
A person with such a behaviour is direct, firm, honest, tactful’, makes things
happen, maintains self-respect and gains respect from others’. Is confident, positive.
2. Aggressive Behaviour
One who projects such a behavour is domineering, forceful, bold; makes things
happen regardless of how others feel or think; mean, uncaring, forward, pushy, and
belligerent.
3. Submissive Behaviour
A person with this type of behaviour is soft-hearted, modest, hesitant, insecure,
withdrawn; withdrawn; waits to make things happen; loses self-respect, because things
never quite happen according to plan.
Advantages of Assertive Behaviour

These includes:
• Close working relationships
Assertion tends to breed assertion, so people work more happily with us than against
us. We are then, with their help, more likely to achieve our objectives in a conflict
situation.
• Greater confidence in oneself
We develop a strong regard for ourselves and a high level of self-esteem,

reducing the chance of boastfulness (aggression) and hopelessness
(submission).
• Greater confidence in others
We have a healthy recognition of the capabilities and limitations of others as

opposed to seeing them as inferior (aggression) or superior (submission).
• Increased self responsibility
We take responsibility for ourselves, or wants, opinions, needs, etc. rather than
blaming others (aggression) or excusing ourselves (submission).
• Increased Self Control
We can channel our thoughts and feelings to produce the behaviour we want,
rather than being controlled by outside events or people, on inner emotions.
• Savings in time and energy
We can take decisions more swiftly based on their individual merit and save
time when handling disputes. A lot of time and energy is wasted on worrying and
scheming. If we are not worried about upsetting people (submission) or scheming
how not to miss out (aggression), we can save ourselves a lot of stress.
• An increased chance of everyone winning Notes

Assertiveness increases the likelihood that all parties will see their needs met
their ideas and opinions heard and considered and their abilities put to good
use.
Assertive Behaviour is only healthy behaviour to make adjustments in our

personal, social and professional lives. It helps an individual to achieve
personal and professional effectiveness.
“When you are assertive you respect yourself and others”

1. What do you understand by ‘Behavioural Adjustment’? Is it important at the work
place? Explain.
2. Differentiate between adjustment and maladjustment. Give symptoms of

maladjustment.
3. Explain the role of self awareness in the improvement of adjustment.
4. What are the different behavioural styles to handle conflicts?.
5. “Assertive Behaviour builds positive and healthy Interpersonal relationship”

Comment
Further Readings
1 Behavioural Science by Barbara Fadem
2 Behavioural Science: Concepts and Management Application by Harold M. Rush

Unit-7 Stress Management

Notes
Stucture
7.1 Defining Stress
7.2 Types of Stress
7.3 The Stress Process
7.4 Common Symptoms of Stress
7.5 Occupational Stress
7.6 Causes of Stress
7.7 Indicative Behaviour
Objects
1. What is meant by Stress
2. The process of Stress
3. Understanding the various symptoms of stress
Introduction
“Manage your stress, if not, stress will manage you”
Stress symptoms include mental, social, and physical manifestations. These

include exhaustion, loss of/increased appetite, headaches, crying, sleeplessness, and
oversleeping. Escape through alcohol, drugs, or other compulsive behavior are often
indications. Feelings of alarm, frustration, or apathy may accompany stress.
7.1 Definition of Stress

“Stress is not a reaction. Rather it is the price we pay for the “civilised” life we live
which by the way is not civilised at all” ~ Yovko Bonev
The word “stress” is derived from the Latin word stringer, which means “to draw
tight” (Cox 1978). It is such an overused and elusive term that many agree it should
be completely abandoned. Many definitions exist: some believe stress can and
should be subjectively defined. Others feel one needs an objective definition. Some
researchers believe a global definition is appropriate; others emphasise that stress is
multidimensional.
In the nineteenth century, the pursuit and maintenance of a constant internal state was
seen as the essence of “free and independent life”. Research sought to identify those
adaptive changes responsible for steady state maintenance. This motivation towards
equilibrium was called “homeostasis”, from the Greek words homoios meaning similar,
and stasis meaning state. Stress was considered to be a threat to homeostasis (“a
rocking of the boat”), but this usage of the term was subject to change and imprecision.
The vacillation between trying to understand stress as a stimulus and/or as

response laid the foundations for subsequent models of stress, which are broadly
conceived as environmental, medical and personal. Cox (1978) identified three
distinctive models namely, response-based, stimulus-based, and interactive. Response- Notes

based models conceived of stress as a dependent variable, i.e., a response or reaction
to a stressor such as danger or over work. Stimulus-based models considered stress
as an environmental variable (such as excessive noise, cold, or tasks to be completed
in a short period of time), whereas, interactive models attempted to incorporate both
response and stimulus elements, as well as possible intervening factors such as
personality differences.
Among the first to promote the interactionist perspective was Lazarus (1966).
Central to his stress model was the concept of threat, which was regarded as an
imagined or anticipated future deprivation of something one value. Furthermore, threat
usually relates to “self”, and the maintenance and enhancement of the self is believed
to be a fundamental human motive. He refers to cognitive processes as “appraisal”
processes and they include attention, perception, evaluation, and so on. Primary
appraisal, which consists of processes involved in threat perception, is distinguished
from secondary appraisal, which is related to coping with and reducing threat.
Factors in both the environment and the person interact to determine both primary
and secondary appraisal. Physical elements, such as objective danger imminence
and ambiguity of cues, increase the potential for primary threat perception, as do
motivational characteristics and belief systems within the individual. Secondary
appraisal is governed by the interaction between situational constraints and coping
dispositions, and general beliefs about the environment and one’s resources. Lazarus’
(1996) theoretical formulation, with its emphasis on individual difference in threat
appraisal, has proved to be highly durable. It is, quite clearly, a psychological model of
stress.
A variation of the interactive model was suggested by Cox & Mackay (1976). The
central element concerned the dynamic relationship between four aspects of the
individual and the environment. The environment imposes demands and a constraint,
on the one hand and provides supports, on the other.
The individual possesses values, needs (demands), as well as coping resources.

Cognitive appraisal of demands and resources in continuous, and a perceived
imbalance between the two leads to the subjective experience of stress, as well as to
coping attempts may manifest through a variety of different outlets, such as cognitive
reappraisal, physiological responsively and/or behavioural activity. What is not made
clear, however, is the point at which responsibility should be termed as “stressful”, a
criticism that may be directed at interactive models generally.
Another variation of the interactive model was proposed by Cooper & Marshall
(1976) to describe workplace stress. Six potential sources of work stress were
identified, including factors intrinsic to the job, role-related factors, and interpersonal
relationships at work. These impinged upon each individual to some extent and could
hypothetically lead to any of a variety of symptoms of occupational ill health (e.g., Job
dissatisfaction, depressive moods or cardiovascular disease).
Some features are common to each interactive model. Whether explicit or implicitly,
the context in which each model is presented concerns adaptiveness and homeostasis.
Further more, each model fundamentally suggests that environmental stimuli (external,
stressors), individual differences (particularly with respect to cognitive appraisal
thereof), and various outcome measures (stress reactions) must all be considered
simultaneously. As such, these models attempt to isolate the parameters associated
with stress research. However, what they gain in breadth, they tend to lose in depth.
In other words, the focus on “what” variables need to be included takes place at the
expense of “how” (i.e., the mechanisms) stress actually occurs.
The figure at para 7.3 presents an interactive model which suggests that stress arises
Notes only when certain individual factors (age and stage, personality, even mood) lead the
person to perceived certain circumstances (workload, change in boss) to be threatening.
Thus, neurotics, who are prone to anxiety, nearly always report having more qualitative
and quantitative stress than stable individuals. Once threatened, every person has coping
mechanisms, some adaptive and successful, others less so. The application of a healthy
coping mechanism to the perception and reality of stress leads to its reduction, but having
unsuccessful coping mechanisms can actually exacerbate the problem—turning an acute
problem into a chronic one.
7.2 Types of Stress

Every individual experiences different types of stress at one time or another. It
could be some personal stress arising in the work place, strained family relationships,
emotional stress caused by financial problems, post traumatic disorders, etc.
Eustress : This type of stress makes us feel good and are called as “good stress”
or “positive stress”. They exert a healthy effect on an individual. It gives an individual a
feeling of fulfillment or contentment and also makes one excited about life. But, it is a
type of stress that only occurs for a short period of time.
Eustress is also often called the curative stress, because it gives a person the ability
to generate the best performance, or maximum output.
Distress
Distress is a “negative stress”. It is a stress disorder that is caused by adverse events
and it often influences a person’s ability to cope. Some events leading to distress are:
• Death of a loved one
• Financial problems
• Heavy work responsibilities and workload
• Strained relationship
• Chronic illnesses
Distress can be classified further as acute stress or chronic stress. Acute stress is
short-lived, while chronic stress is usually prolonged in nature.
7.3 The Stress Process

The Stress Process
Environmental factors Individual factors
Judgment of Threat
Home/work/ personal life
Characteristics Physical Personality Attitudes,
State of Stress Demographic factors
conditions, Time deadlines
Coping
Successful Unsuccessful
Approach Style Avoidance Style

This notion of a mismatch between demands and resources is central to the majority
of stress conceptualisations. McGrath’s (1976-1332) much quoted definition, like that of Notes
Lazarus (1996), focuses on perceptual factors in the individual.
A potential for stress exists when an environmental situation is perceived as

presenting a demand which threatens to exceed the person’s capabilities and resources
for meeting it, under conditions where she/he expects a substantial differential in the
rewards and costs for meeting the demand, versus not meeting it.
In many ways, this definition incorporates what most theorists see as the main
ingredients in stress, namely, subjective appraisal of a demanding environment, a
realisation that demands may outstrip resources, and that the consequences of not
coping are important. In the absence of a universally agreed definition of stress, the
widely accepted protocol of describing environmental factors as “stressors”, individual
responses as “strains”, and the vast gamut of mediating activity in the from of cognitive
processing and personality dispositions as “intervening variables” can be usefully
adopted.
7.4 Common Symptoms of Stress
Physiological Symptoms
These are generally reflected as:
• A noticeable decline in physical appearance.
• Chronic fatigue and tiredness.
• Frequent infections, especially respiratory infections.
• Health complaints, such as headaches backaches, stomach and skin problems.
• Sings of depression, change in weight in weight or eating habits.
Emotional Symptoms
A person suffering from these may exhibit:
• Boredom or apathy: lack of affect and hopelessness.
• Cynicism and resentfulness.
• Depressed appearance, sad expressions, slumped posture.
• Expressions of anxiety, frustration, tearfulness
Behavioural Symptoms
Some of the Symptoms are:
• Absenteeism, accidents.
• Increase in alcohol or caffeine consumption; increased smoking
• Obsessive exercising
• Irrational: quick to fly off the handle.
• Reduced productivity; inability to concentrate or complete a task.

Notes 7.5 Occupational Stress

The job of managers becomes ever more complicated as the nature of work and
society in general becomes more complicated and sophisticated. Many people look at
the salaries and benefits of middle, and particularly senior, managers with envy. But the
rewards are high often because the costs are high.
There are inevitably “downsides” difficulties or drawbacks of business leadership

and management, specifically chronic (over long periods of time) or acute (extreme
amounts) occupational stress.
In most management jobs, leaders are both supported and challenged. They are
supported by peers, subordinates and superiors, who also challenge them to work harder
and “smarter”. Thus, it is possible to think of the average manager in terms of support and
challenge thus:
• Much support and little challenge

Managers in this role are in the fortunate position of good technical and social
support, but the fact they are under-challenged probably means that they underperform.
They may be stressed by boredom and monotony.
• Much support, much challenge

This combination tends to get the most out of managers as they are challenged by
superiors, subordinates, shareholders and customers to “work smarter”, but are given
the appropriate support to succeed.
• Little support, much challenge

This unfortunate, but very common, situation is a major cause of stress for any
manager because he or she challenged to work consistently hard but only offered
minimal emotional, intentional (feedback) and physical (equipment) support.
• Little support, little challenge

Managers in some bureaucracies lead a quiet and unstressed life, because they
are neither challenged nor supported, which usually means neither they nor their
organisation benefits. They belong to the “psychologically quiet, but physically safe”
employee.
Most research has concentrated specifically on the stressed manager whose work
and home life provide an excess of challenge over support. But, as we see, stress is
multidimensional, having different, clearly definable and unique factors.
7.6 The Causes of Stress

We have noted that there are both internal (to the person) external (in the
environment) causes of stress. These will be considered separately. Three points need
to be made about these causes. The stresses are not usually rank-ordered, because
the importance of each stressor differs frorm job to job and time to time. However, for
most individuals these stressors are not always equal; in fact, it may be that they do
not exist at all for some managers. Secondly, many of these stressors are related, so
that although they are listed independently of one another it is likely that they are fairly
closely interrelated. Thirdly, it is likely that stresses are not fully comprehensive in that
there are probably due to factors unique to certain jobs. Nevertheless, they provide a
beginning to understanding the problems. Lack of self awareness is one of the most
important cause of stress at personal and professional levels.

Work Related Causes of Stress Notes

a. Occupational demands intrinsic to the job
Some jobs are quite simply more stressful than others. Various studies have
shown that certain features associated with particular jobs are stressful. For example,
the greater the extent to which the job requires (a) making decisions, (b) constant
monitoring of machines of materials, (c) repeated exchange of information with others;
(d) unpleasant physical conditions, and (e) performing unstructured tasks, the more
stressful the job tends to be.
Cooper, et al. (1988) have mentioned other stressful features intrinsic to a job.
b. Role Conflict: Stress resulting from conflicting demands

For many executive, it is important they engage in role juggling-rapidly switching
from one role and one type of activity to another (from boss to friend, teacher to
partner, law enforcer to father confessor). The adverse effect of role conflicts are less
pronounced in work settings characterised by friendliness and social support them in
work settings where such conditions are lacking.
c. Role ambiguity: stress resulting from uncertainty

This can occur when managers are uncertain about several matters relating to
their jobs. These matters include: such as the scope of their responsibilities, what
is expected of them, how to divide their time between various duties. Sometimes,
ambiguity results from not having clear job descriptions, goals or specified
responsibilities, but often it is attributable to changes occurring in the organisation or the
market place at large. It is thus fairly common.
d. Over and under-load stress from having too little or too much to do
Work overload can be both quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative work stress
is the situation where managers are asked to do more work, in a limited period, than
they are able to do. Quantitative overload occurs when managers believe they lack
the required skills, ability or resources to perform a given job. Equally, one can find the
stress of both of these types of under-load. Quantitative under-load leads to boredom
that occurs when employees have too little actual work to do, whereas quantitatively
under-load stress occurs when boring, routine, repetitive jobs are associated with
chronic lack of mental stimulation.
Characteristics of the Potentially Stressful Job
The Job
Working Changes Excessive Penalty of work overload/

Conditions at work travel mistakes under-load
Unpleasant conditions Quantitative/Qualitative

Excessive and inconvenient hours
Time pressures and deadlines Embarrassment
Repetitive tasks Job dissatisfaction
Physically demanding tasks Threat
Smoking/Drinking
Poor physical health Nervous reaction
Poor mental health Lower self-esteem
Job tension
Higher Cholesterol
Courtesy: Cooper, et al. (1988) Psychosomatic Diseases
Notes e. Responsibility for others: stress resulting from a heavy burden

Most managers are (or should be) responsible for their subordinates: they have
to motivate them, reward and punish them, communicate and listen to them, and so
on. There is often considerable stress for managers in confronting the human costs
of organisational policies and decisions: listening to endless complaints, mediating on
disputes, promoting cooperation and exercising leadership.
f. Lack of social support stress from being socially isolated or ignored

Having friends and supports in times of difficulty help managers see stressful
events as less threatening and more controllable than if they had little or no support
at different times. Friends and supporters can also often suggest useful strategies for
dealing with the sources of stress. In addition, also they can help reduce the negative
feelings that often accompany exposure to stressful events. Social support is, of course,
also quantitative. Usually it is better or sacrifice quantity for quality, although ideally, one
would have both in liberal amounts to prevent stress.
g. Lack of participation in decisions: stress from helplessness and alienation:

Many middle mangers are, or feel, the victims of decisions made at a higher level,
over which they have no control. The major cause is that managers are neither allowed
to witness not to contribute to important business decisions that affect their actual jobs.
The above three points all concern relationships at work, which may include
problems with superiors, colleagues and subordinates, as well as customers and
shareholders.
h. Poor performance appraisal: stress from little, none or obviously biased

feedback.
At least two types of stress result from problems with performance appraisals. The
first is not getting any appraisal and hence not knowing how one is (or should be) doing
(above, below, or average). Secondly, being given negative feedback without being told
how to improve one’s performance is often highly stressful. Unless an organisation has a
good, well thought out performance appraisal system, employees can suffer great stress.
i. Working conditions: stress from poor working conditions

Some jobs have, inevitably, to be done in difficult and unpleasant working conditions
such as extremes of temperature (heat or cold), loud noise, crowding, poor lighting,
or with old and inefficient machinery. These unpleasant features, such as noise,
are at the most stressful when they are unpredictable, uncontrollable and excessive.
The best example is road construction engineers with drills digging up the road. It
is very stressful for them, it is equally unpleasant for those in near proximity who
cannot control, reduce or predict when the noise occurs. Managers in manufacturing,
engineering or building trades often suffer from these sources of stress.
j. Organisational change: stress that comes from adaptation

As the speed, type and amount of organisational change occurs, so does the stress,
particularly on middle managers. Shifts in company policy, reorganisations, mergers
and acquisitions, and delaying- all lead to uncertainty and with it, stress. In addition,
the structure and climate of a changed organisation, or an organisation that requires
change, may itself be a major cause of stress.
k. Career development: stress from being stuck at the same level, or beneath
the “glass ceiling”
Most organisations at least hold out the carrot of career development based on a
mixture of performance and seniority. As a result, managers build up expectations about
their career development. Having these realistic (or unrealistic) expectations thwarted is
indeed a source of stress and frustration.
l. Home/work interface: stress that results from having two jobs Notes
Although probably more common among females than males, stress often arises
from the conflict over time and loyalties between the many demands of the home
and the job. Since managers experience several conflicts between home and work
demands, with neither being tolerant of the other or supportive, the obvious result is
stress.
Hence, all these above mentioned factors are causes of occupational job stress.
Indicative Behaviour
Indicative Behaviour of Stressful Relationships at work
Superiors Colleagues Subordinates
Lack of consideration Isolation Requirements for participation
Job Pressure Rivalry Mismatch of formal/actual powers
Political pressure Conflict of participation

Lack of support in versus higher production.
difficult situations Resentment of loss of status. Refusal
of subordinates to cooperate.
Source Courtesy Cooper et al (1988)

This model indicates types of behaviour due to stressful relationship at the work
place
“Stress is not what happens to us. It’s our response to what happens. And
RESPONSE is something we can choose” ~ Maureen Killoran
Check your Progress

1. The word ‘stress’ is derived from a:
a. Latin word b. Greek word
c. Roman word d. English word
2. __________ is the most importance ingredient in the formation of Self concept
a. Self b. Self awareness
c. Negative self concept d. Positive self concept
3. Which of the following is a characteristic of occupational stress:
a. Role overload b. Responsibility for others
c. Role under-load d. All of the above
4. What would you do to combat stress-
a. Change the Life Style b. Relaxation & Meditation
c. Behaviour Therapy d. All of above

Notes Questions and Exercises

1. What do you understand by ‘stress’? Is stress healthy? Comment
2. Give the various models of stress.
3. What are the common symptoms of stress?
4. Elucidate the process of stress.
5. What are the work related causes of stress?
6. Do you think “stress” is the cause of illness? Discuss
Further Reading
1. Stress and Coping: the Indian experience by D. M. Pestonjee
2. Managing Stress by David Fontana
3. Stress: Myth, Theory, and Research by Fiona Jones, Jim Bright, and Angela Clow.
4. Stress Management by Susan R. Gregson

Unit-8 Coping Styles or Strategies
Notes
Structure
8.1 Coping Strategies: The Concept
8.2 Dimensions of Coping Strategies
8.3 Types of Coping Strategies
8.6 Further Reading
Objectives
1. How to deal with stress effectively
2. What are various coping strategies
3. Stress management
4. Various therapies to deal with stress
Introduction
“Healthy Coping, Happy Life leads to a Healthy Society”
8.1 Coping Strategic: Concept

Individual and organisations cannot remain in a continuous state of tension. Even
if a deliberate and conscious strategy is not adopted to deal with stress, we still do
something to protect ourselves from stress, for example leave the conflict and stressful
situations. This is also a strategy, although the individual or the organisation may not
be aware of this. This is called avoidance or coping, strategy.
The word coping has two connotations in literature. The term has been used to
denote the way of dealing with stress, or the effort to ‘master’ conditions of harm, threat,
or challenge, when a routine or automatic response is not readily available (Lazarus,
1974).
Two different approaches to the study of coping have been pursued by various
investigators. On the one hand, some researchers (e.g., Byrne, 1964; Goldstein, 1973)
have emphasised general coping traits, style or dispositions, while on the other some
investigators (eg. Cohen and Lazarus, 1973; Karz, Weiner, Gallagher and Hellman,
1970; Wolf and Goodell, 1968) have preferred to study the active ongoing strategies in a
particular stress situation.
Coping traits refer to a disposition to respond in a specific way in situations that are
stressful. Coping traits are thus stable characteristics of persons that transcend classes
of the situation. Coping style implies a broader, more encompassing disposition. Trait
and style are fundamentally similar ideas. Trait and style refer to a characteristic way
of handling situations, they are stable tendencies on the basis of which inferences are
drawn about how an individual will cope in some or all types of stressful situations. A
person’s coping style or disposition is typically assessed by personality tests, not by
actual observation of what the person says or does in a particular stress situation.
The emphasis on process distinguishes this approach from others which are trait-
oriented. Psychologists have identified two major ways in which people cope with
Notes stress. In the first approach, a person may decide to suffer or deny the experience of
stress. This is the passive approach. Or a person may decide to face the realities of
experiencing stress and clarity the problem through negotiations with other members.
This is the active approach.
Coping can have an effect on three kinds of outcome- psychological, social and
physiological. From a psychological perspective, coping can affect the psychological
morale (that is the way one feels about oneself and one’s life), emotional reaction, e.g.,
level of depression or anxiety, or the balance between positive trend and negative toned
feeling (Bradburn, 1969) , the incidence of psychiatric disorders and even performance.
From a social perspective, one can measure its impact on functioning effectiveness,
such as employability, community involvement, and sociability (Renne, 1974) the
effectiveness of interpersonal relationships, or the degree to which useful social roles
are filled (and acting out anti-social behaviour, etc., are avoided). From a physiological
perspective, outcome includes short-term consequences, such as the development and
progression of a particular disease.
Coping Measurement: Coping refers to efforts to master conditions that tax or

exceed adaptive resources (Monat and Lazarus, 1977). As mentioned earlier, the term
coping has been used to denote the way of dealing with stress, or the effort to master
conditions of harm, threat or challenge when routine or automatic response is not
readily available. Lazarus (1974b) has emphasised the key role of cognitive process in
coping activity and the importance of coping in determining the quality and intensity of
emotional reactons to stress.
Although there are many ways to classify coping responses (Moos and Billings,
1982), most approaches distinguish between strategies that are active in nature and
oriented toward confronting the problem, and strategies that entail an effort to reduce
tension by avoiding to deal with the problem.
Pareek (1983) has proposed two types of coping strategies which people generally
use in order to handle stress, i.e., dysfunctional and functional coping styles. Lazarus
(1975) has suggested a classification of coping process which emphasis two major
categories, namely, direct actions and palliative modes. Direct action includes
behaviours or actions, which when performed by the organism in the face of a stressful
situation, are expected to bring about a change in the stress-causing environment.
The Palliative mode of coping refers to those thoughts or actions whose purpose is to
relieve the organism of any emotional impact of stress. There is no clear consensus as
to which coping strategies or modes of coping are most effective. Coping may either
take the form of avoiding the situation (reactive strategy), i.e., dysfunctional style, or
confronting and approaching the problem (proactive strategy), i.e., functional style.
Combining the two aspects of each of the three dimensions yields eight possible
strategies to cope with stress. The dysfunctional styles are Impunitive (M), Intrapunitive
(I), Extrapunitive (E) and Defensiveness (D). The styles are Impersistive (M),
Intropersistive (I), Extrapersistive (E) and Interpersistive (N). Thus broadly speaking;
there are two coping strategies-avoidance and facing the problem head-on.
8.2 Dimensions of Coping Strategies

The three dimensions are as follows:
1. Externality: The feeling that external factors are responsible for role stress,
resulting in aggression and blame on the external factor.
2. Internality: The feeling that the respondent himself is responsible for stress
and, therefore, may express aggression towards himself.
3. Mode of coping: Coping may take the form of either avoiding the situation Notes
(reactive strategy) or confronting and approaching the problem (proactive
strategy).
In short eight possible strateges for coping with stress are as under:
1. Impunitive: Statements indicating either the simple admission of stress or that

stress is unavoidable and nothing can be done about it.
2. Intrapunitive: Statements indicating self-blame or aggression towards one’s

self for causing stress.
3. Extrapunitive: Statements expression aggression towards or putting blame on

others for a particular stress situation.
4. Defensiveness: Statements expressing either denial or stress or rationlisation

of stress by giving reasons situation for it.
5. Impersistive: Statements indicating that the respondent is optimistic and

hopes that time would solve the problem and things would work out well in the
future.
6. Intropersistive: Statements indicating that the role occupant himself should

take action to deal with the stress.
7. Extrapersistive: Statements indicating that the person expects some-one else

would contribute to the solution of the problem or deal with stress.
8. Interpersistive: Statements indicating that a solution of the problem can

be obtained by joint efforts in which the role occupant and others would be
involved.
Of these eight dimensions, the first four imply avoidance oriented behaviour. They
are perceived as dysfunctional styles of coping with stress situations. The remaining
four dimensions are approach-oriented and are regarded as functional.
8.3 Type of Coping Strategies

Whether people suffer from stress or not is largely to describe and categorise
dependent on their coping strategies. Hence, psychologists have made considerable
efforts to describe different strategies, some of which are thought to be “successful” and
adaptive, and others not. These strategies are stress- specific concepts; hence, they
tend to be better predictors of occupational stress.
One distinction made by Folkman & Lazarus (1980) has been between problem-
focused coping (aimed at problem-solving or doing something to alter the sources of
stress) and emotion-focused coping (aimed at reducing or managing the emotional
distress that is associated with, or cued by, a particular situation). Others have pointed
out that this discussion is too simple. Thus, Carver et al. (1989) have distinguished
between both types of coping: some emotion-focused responses involve denial, other
involves positive reinterpretation of events, and still others involve the seeking out
of social support. Similarly, problem-focused coping can potentially involve several
distinct activities, such as planning, taking direct action, seeking assistance, screening
out particular activities, such as planning, taking direct action, seeking assistance,
screening out particular activities, and sometimes stopping action or spreading the
action over an extended period. This list details both adaptive and non-adaptive coping
Notes strategies mentioned by Carver, et al. Hence, researchers have concentrated on

multidimensional instruments to measure coping (Endler & Parker, 1990).
Many studies have shown how coping styles and behaviours mediate between various
variables.
The 15 strategies outlined by Carver, et al (1989) are:

1. Positive reinterpretation and growth
2. Active Coping
3. Planning
4. Seeking social support for emotional problems
5. Seeking social support for instrumental problems
6. Suppression of competing activities.
7. Religion
8. Acceptance
9. Mental disengagement,
10. Focus on venting emotion
11. Behavioural Disengagement
12. Denial
13. Restraint coping
14. Alcohol coping
15. Humour
It is argued that, for various reasons, individuals tend to adopt and habitually use a
few of these coping patterns, which may or not be successful. However, it does seem
that people can be taught or trained to relinquish less successful coping strategies and
adopt others.
Optimism: A Buffer against Stress

One personal factor that seems to play an important role in determining resistance
to stress is the familiar dimension of optimism /pessimism. Optimists are hopeful in their
outlook on life, interpret a wide range of situations in a positive light, and tend to expect
favourable outcomes and results. Pessimists, by contrast, interpret many situations
negatively, and expect unfavourable outcomes and results. Recent studies indicate that
optimists are much more stress resistant than pessimists. For example, optimists are
much less likely than pessimists to report physical illness and symptoms during highly
stressful periods such as final exams (Seligman & Schulman, 1988) see Ch.5)
Optimists and pessimists seem to adopt sharply contrasting tactics for coping with
stress. Optimists concentrate on problem-focused coping-making and enacting specific
plans for dealing with sources of stress. In addition, they seek social support- the

advice and help of friends and others-and refrain from engaging in other activities until Notes
current problems are solved and stress is reduced. Pessimists tend to adopt rather
different strategies, such as giving up in their efforts to reach goals with which stress is
interfering and denying that the stressful events have even occurred. Further, they have
different attritional styles the optimist attributes success internally and failure externally,
and vice-versa. Indeed, that is how optimism and pessimism are both measured and
maintained.
Hardiness-Viewing Stress as Challenges

Another individual difference factor that seems to distinguish stress resistant people
form those who are more susceptible to its harmful effects is known as hardiness
(Kobasa, 1989). This term refers to a cluster of characteristics rather than just one.
Hardy people seem to differ from others in three respects.
They show higher levels of commitment-deeper involvement in their jobs and other
life activities; control- the belief that they can, in fact, influence important events in their
lives and the outcomes they experience; and challenge- they perceive change as a
challenge and an opportunity grow rather than a threat to their security.
Together these characteristics tend to equip persons with high resistance to stress.
People classified as high in hardiness report better health than those low in hardiness,
even when they encounter major stressful life changes. Hardiness is a useful concept
for understanding the impact of stress. However, recent evidence suggests that
commitment and a sense of control are the most important components of hardiness.
Thus, further research concerned with this personal dimension and its role in resistance
to stress should focus primarily on these aspects.
There may well be other individual differences which are highly predictive of stress,
but the ones mentioned above have attracted most research attention (Greenberg &
Baron, 1994). Further, these different dimensions are, no doubt, inter-correlated,
The Consequences of Stress

The consequences of work stress are felt by individuals, their families, the
organisations they work for, and the economy as a whole. Indeed, it is even possible
though absenteeism and performance-related measures to calculate the effects of
stress. It runs into many hundreds of billions of dollars, points and marks.
For the individual, the effects of work stress classically occur in three areas,
although there may be strong individual differences.
Attempts to “manage” (Control and reduce) stress essentially happen at two levels.
Firstly, some organisations focus on individual employees, trying to help them learn
better techniques to prevent or reduce their personal stress levels. Secondly, others
focus on the job or the organisation as a whole in attempting to reduce stress.
Two approaches commonly used to cope with stress are personal and
organisational approaches.
A. Personal Approaches
The most commonly used techniques include the following:
Life-style (diet and exercise) change

A healthy mind (psyche) is supposedly found in a healthy body. Hence,
organisations attempt to help people through better living. This includes a better diet
(less salt, fat, sugar) and the reduction or elimination of alcohol.

Notes Relaxation and meditation

A rather more Eastern or mental approach to stress is to teach potentially stressed
workers how to meditate and relax. The former involves clearing one’s head of external
thoughts and concentrating on inner stillness. Relaxation techniques can be physical,
involving such things as stretching, deep breathing, and even laughing. People tend to
select techniques they feel most suitable to them, although indeed they may not be.
Cognitive self-therapy
Sports psychologists as well as clinicians have shown how effective certain
cognitive or thinking strategies are. Most emphasise the way we perceive stressors
can be very maladaptive but can be changed. Thus, people are often asked to describe
stressors and think about them in different terms. Thus, stressful becomes challenging,
impossible becomes possible. Often, emphasis is placed on making people feel that
stressors are temporary and controllable, not stable and eternal. People who have
tendencies to perfectionism often need this type of therapy.
Behaviour Therapy
This approach attempts to overcome stress by focusing on behaviours that reduce
it. Just as people who are socially phobic or have panic attacks can be taught ways to
overcome that very specific type of stress, so all people can be taught “little tricks” that
would help them overcome the stress. Certainly, one focus is on out-of-work activities,
such as leisure and vacations. The impact of the personal life on the working life should
not be underestimated.
B. Organisational Approaches
The most commonly used strategies are as follows:
Changes in Organisation structure/function

The way the organisation is structured may be a cause of stress, and indeed,
changing it can cause stress. Right-sizing, re-engineering, and reprocessing has
changed many organisations for the better, because they are flatter and more
decentralised. Leaning new procedures and indeed worrying about security, may
increase stress, but the hope for many managers is that productivity, may increase
stress, but the hope for many managers is that productivity will increase and stress will
decrease as a function of the changes.
Job Redesign
Jobs can be enlarged, enriched, divided, shared and redefined. Some, too large for
one person, others, too small. As processes and technology has changed, some jobs
have not, and current holders are often under various stresses. Some organizations
carefully consider the issue of job redesigns as a major stress reducer.
Reviews of the stress management, or alleviation, literature appear to indicate the

following:
• Stress management at work is usually narrowly defined to focus on the

individual worker as the target for change. Interventions aimed at modifying
stress aspects of the work environments, especially organisational structure
and job redesign are rare.
• Programmes are mostly preventive and they seek to improve worker

awareness and recognition of stress. The label ‘stress management’ is, thus,
misleading, because neither workers nor organisations with apparent stress
problems are singled out.

• Programmes are usually offered to workers in white-collar occupations, Notes

although this situation may be changing. Training, typically, includes education
and some type of relaxation exercise, and may additionally include meditation,
biofeedback, or a cognition-focused technique.
• Programmes have been generic in nature, not targeting specific work stressors
or stress symptoms.
• A few studies have compared the relative effectiveness of different training

techniques. Thus, although doing something appears to be better than doing
nothing, the specific techniques used may not matter much.
• Evaluations have been based on individual-oriented measures (e.g, anxiety)

that have been assessed over short post-training periods. In other words, the
effects may not be very general and may not last long.
• Stress management has been associated with significant reductions in anxiety,

depression, somatic complaints, sleep disturbances, muscle tension levels,
blood pressure and urinary balance.
• The changes observed immediately after training has not always been
maintained in follow-up evolutions.
Essentially, the “cost” of stress for the individual is usually in terms of health,
whereas for the organisations, it is usually in terms of performance. Hence, one
finds the phenomenon of job burnout, which is characterised by a state of emotional
exhaustion, a depersonalisation of others in the workplace, and feelings (with evidence
for) low personal accomplishment.)
Coping with the stress also occurs at the level of the individual and the organisation.
Individuals may elect to use behaviour modification, career counseling, relaxation,
training or attending fitness or “wellness” programmes to believe their stress. Also,
organisations sometimes attempt to diagnose and then cure some of the major
structural or process causes of stress, by improving the physical work environment, job
redesign, structural reorganisation, introducing management by objectives and ensuring
greater levels of employee participation, particularly in planning changes that affect
them most.
Do organisational stress-reducing techniques work? Cooper & Sadri (1991)

compared a group receiving stress counseling and a matched group which did not.
While they found no change in job satisfaction or organisational commitment, they did
find the counseled group showed a decline in absenteeism, anxiety and depression,
and an increase in self-esteem.
Organisations often believe the cost of stress to them is such that it is worth
investing in both preventive and interventionist policies. They may provide sport
facilities, employ dieticians to advice over canteen meals, organise support groups, and
provide counseling services, courses and training in behavioural science.
Check your Progress

1. Coping with stress could be:
a. Problem focused b. Emotion focused
c. Both d. None of these

Notes 2. Coping can have effect on all, but:
a. Psychological b. Social
c. Physiological d. Environment
3. Which of the following is an unhealthy way of coping:
a. Cognitive therapy b. Exercise
c. Smoking d. Meditation
4. Little support and more challenge:
a. Enhance Skill b. Can cause stress
c. Enhance creativity d. Lead to absenteeism

1. Differentiate between functional and dysfunctional coping styles.
2. What are the major consequences of coping strategies?
3. Describe the organisational approach to coping.
4. Explain the concept of Coping Strategies. What are the types of Coping Strategies?
5. How do you deal with your stress? Are you successful in managing your stress?
6. Do you think TEA Model (Chapter I) can help us in managing our stress at all three
levels (TEA) for a healthy and happy life. Discuss
Further Reading
1 Stress and coping: the Indian experience by D. M. Pestonjee
2 Managing stress by David Fontana
3 Stress Management by Susan R. Gregson

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Behavioural & Allied Sciences 5

Unit - 1 Understanding Self

1.1 Importance of Self

1.2 Self Concept

Positive Self – Concept

What do you think about life?

What would you want other people to think about you?

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What do you think about others? Notes

How do you interpret messages?

*Note: A positive answers to these questions leads to the development of a positive

1.3 Importance of Self Awareness in Building the Self Concept

When you search for me with all your heart”

Self-awareness is the first and primary step in self-development, a precursor to self-

• Where have I come from?

A through knowledge of one’s background helps us to understand our past. These

• What is stopping me?

This involves knowing the barriers to one’s progress/development. One needs to

Notes tendency to be a perfectionist, lack of confidence, resources, opportunities, clarity

• How will I get there?

• What help do I need?

This involves resources to be made available to achieve success in one’s

• What will it be like when I get there?

Developing an accurate understating of self and reality is crucial self-responsibility

Any individual or an institute/organisation which have survived through the years

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Check your progress

a. Self b. Self acceptance

c. Self concept d. Personality

2. __________ is the most importance ingredient in the formation of self concept

a. Self b. Self awareness

c. Negative self concept d. Positive self concept

3. In TEA model, which of the following are not involved:

4. Building self awareness would include questions like:

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Notes b. What are my strengths and weaknesses?

c. What are my goals? d. All of the above

5. Self-concept is the power house which facilitates development of:

c. Self Esteem d. All of the above

Questions and Exercises

2. Differentiate between negative and positive self concept.

3. Explain the role of self awareness in the formation of self concept.

4. Elucidate TEA model.

5. “Self” is an Organisation, like “Self Incorporation” of personality wherein

2 Understanding Will Self- By M. Hunter Hayes

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Very Low Very-High

A healthy alternative to addiction is to work on building you self–esteem. Growing in

While one sometimes speaks of self-esteem as a conviction about oneself, it is more

2. A worthy of success and happiness; thus, the perception of oneself as someone to

3. Self esteem means accepting, respecting, loving and trusting one-self.

1. Do you accept yourself for what you are?

2. Do you accept credit for what you do?

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4. Can you turn setbacks into victories?

2.1 Self-Efficacy and Self-Respect

1. A sense of personal efficacy (self-efficacy)

2. A sense of personal worth (self-respect).