Chapter 2

One Dimensional, Steady-

State Heat Conduction

1
 Chapter 2: One Dimensional, steady-
state heat Conduction

Objectives
• To determine expressions for the temperature distribution
and heat transfer rate in common (planar, cylindrical, and
spherical) geometries.

• To introduce the concept of thermal resistance and the use

of thermal circuits to model heat flow.

2
 The heat diffusion equation
qz+dz
qy+dy
A homogenous medium in
which
Bulk velocity = 0
(No advection)
qx Est Eg qx+dx
T(x,y,z)
dy dz
qy
dx
qz

3
 The heat diffusion equation
qz+dz
qy+dy out in

qx
qx  dx  qx  dx
x
q y
qx Est Eg qx+dx q y  dy  q y  dy
y
dy dz q
qz  dz  qz  z dz
qy z
dx
qz

4
 The heat diffusion equation
qz+dz
qy+dy qx
qx  dx  qx  dx
x
q y
q y  dy  q y  dy
y
Est Eg qx+dx q
qx qz  dz  qz  z dz
z
dy dz
qy Eg  qdxdydz
dx T
qz Est   c p dxdydz
t
The energy balance (law of conservation energy) may be made :

Energy conducted in the element + Heat generated with element

= Change in internal energy + Energy conducted out the element
5
 qx qy+dy qz+dz
qx  dx  qx  dx
x
q y
q y  dy  q y  dy
y qx
q Est qx+dx
qz  dz  qz  z dz Eg
z
dy dz

Eg  qdxdydz qy
dx
qz
T
Est   c p dxdydz
t Ein  Eg  Est  Eout

6
 qy+dy qz+dz

qx Est Eg qx+dx

dy dz
qy
dx
qz

T
qx  q y  qz  qdxdydz  qx dx  q y dy  qz dz  c p dxdydz
t

7
 T
qx  q y  qz  qdxdydz  qx dx  q y dy  qz dz   c p dxdydz
t

Recall that
qx
qx  dx  qx  dx
x
q y
q y  dy  q y  dy
y
qz
qz  dz  qz  dz
z

8
 qx q y qz T
 dx  dy  dz  qdxdydz   c p dxdydz
x y z t
Recall Fourier’s Law
Area

T
qx  kdydz
x dz

qx qx+dx

dy

9
 qx q y qz T
 dx  dy  dz  qdxdydz   c p dxdydz
x y z t

T
qx  kdydz
x
T
q y  kdxdz
y

T
qz  kdxdy
z

Finally divide the whole equation by the volume dxdydz

10
The Diffusion equation:

  T    T    T  T
 k    k    k   q   c
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
p

qz+dz
qy+dy

qx Est Eg qx+dx

dy dz
qy
dx
qz

11
If thermal conductivity is constant, you can divide the whole equation by k and
this leads to the simplification

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
 2  2  
x 2
y z k  t

Where  is the thermal diffusivity

given by

k

cp

Thermal diffusivity has units of square meters per seconds (m2/s).

12
Under steady state conditions and with no heat generation then the storage
quantity reduces to zero and the heat equation reduces to

  T    T    T 
k  k  k q  0
x  x  y  y  z  z 

For one dimensional steady state heat transfer (w/o heat generated)

  T 
k 0
x  x 

i.e the heat flux is constant in the direction of the heat transfer.

13
 One dimensional steady state heat transfer
(w/o heat generated)
q

T2,h2

Ts1 Ts2

T1,h1

x x=L

0 0 0
0
  T    T    T  T
k  k  k   q  cp
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
14
 Q
T2,h2

Ts1
Ts2

T1,h1

x x=L

Integrate twice wrt x

  T 
k 0 T ( x) C1 x  C2
x  x 
15
T ( x) C1 x  C2 In order to calculate C1 and C2 we need to
apply the BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

@x=0 T=Ts,1

@x=l T=Ts,2

C2=Ts,1

T ( x) C1 x  Ts ,1

T ( x) Ts ,2  Ts ,1   Ts ,1
x
16
L
 T ( x) Ts ,2  Ts ,1   Ts ,1
x
L
For one dimensional steady state conduction in a plane wall with no
heat generation and constant thermal conductivity the temperature
varies linearly with x ,

Fourier’s law can now be stated as

 k Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
dT A
qx  kA
dx L

i.e the flux is

q ''x 
k
L
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

17
 The electrical resistance analogy
V
q

R
V T
R Ohm’s law
I

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 L kA
T s, 1  T s, 2 
 conduction resistance : Rt ,cond   based on: q 
qx kA L

Ts  T 1
 convection resistance : Rt ,conv   based on: q  hA Ts  T 
q hA
T s  T sur
based on: q rad  hr ATs  Tsur 
1
 Radiation resistance : R t , rad  
q rad hr A

where h r    Ts  Tsur   Ts2  Tsur

2 

 
18
 T,1

Ts,1

Hot fluid Ts,2 Cold fluid

T, 1;h1 T, 2; h2

T,2

x x=L
The thermal circuit for
heat transfer through
this plane wall

Since qx is constant throughout the network, it follows that

T,1  Ts,1 Ts,1  Ts, 2 Ts, 2  T, 2

qx   
1 h1 A L kA 1 h2 A
In terms of the overall temperature difference, the heat transfer rate may also be
expressed as
T,1  T, 2 R tot 
1

L

1
qx  where h1 A k A h2 A
R tot
19
resistances in series
 The Composite Wall
q
A series composite wall separating two fluids

The 1-D heat transfer rate for the

Ts1 system may be expressed as
Ts2
T1  T 2
q
T2,h2

T1,h1
Ts3
Ts4 R
KA KB KC

x x=L

1 LA LB LC 1
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h A
2

20
 T1  T 2
qx 
1 LA LB LC 1
   
h1 A K A A K B A K C A h 2 A
Alternatively, qx can be related to the temperature difference and resistance associated
with each element :

T,1  Ts,1 Ts,1  T 2 T2  T 3

qx 

1 h1 A  
LA k A A LB kB A
 ...

qx  UAT
Where Rtot 1
U 
A 1 L L L 1
 A  B  C 
h1 K A K B KC h 2
T 1
In general, we may write R tot  Rt  qx

UA
21
 A parallel composite of two materials

2
T1 T2

T1  T 2 1
The heat transfer rate in the network is q x  where R tot 
R tot 1 R1 1 R 2

The heat transfer rate can be calculated as the sum of heat transfer rates in the individual
materials:
T1  T 2 T1  T 2
q x  q 1x  q 2 x  
R1 R2

22
 Series-parallel configurations

Area A
LE LF = L G LH
kF F
T1 kH T2
kE kG
E H
G

(a) Surfaces normal to the x direction (b) Surfaces parallel to the x direction
are isothermal are adiabatic

The actual value of q lies between the values obtained with circuits (a) and (b).

23
 Contact resistance
q”x
q”x

q”contact
A B
q”gap

TA  TB
Thermal contact resistance : R "t ,c 
q ''x
24
 0 0 0
0
  T    T    T  T
 k    k    k   q   c
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
p

For a steady state one dimensional heat   T 

transfer and no energy generation k 0
x  x 
Cylindrical coordinates
 2T 1 T 1  2T  2T q 1 T
  2  2  
r 2
r r r  2
z k  t
The heat equation for a steady state
one dimensional heat transfer and
no energy generation for a hollow
cylinder
r

1 d  dT 
 k r   0
r dr dr 
25
 Fourier’s Law

We stated the phenomenologically found dT

Fourier’s law of conduction in one direction
qx  kA
dx

Fourier’s law of conduction in one dT dT

direction namely the radial qx  kA  k  2 rL 
dr dr
direction

26
 Cylindrical heat transfer
1 d  dT 
Steady state conditions with no heat generation  kr 
r dr  dr 
Cold fluid
h 2 ,T2
Why is it
curved ?

Ts1
r1 Ts2 Ts2
1 d  dT 
 kr 
r dr  dr 
r2 r1 r2
Hot fluid L

h 1 ,T1 Ts1
1 ln  r2 / r1  1 27
h1 2 r1 L 2 Lk h2 2 r1 L
 We would like to solve for the radial temperature field

Assume the conduction coefficient is constant and 1 d  dT 

integrate the heat equation twice   r dr  kr dr  = 0

T (r )  C1 ln r  C2

Apply the boundary conditions

T(r1) = Ts1
T(r1) = Ts2

Ts1  C1 ln r1  C2
Which gives
Ts2  C1 ln r2  C2 28
 Ts1  Ts2 r
Solving the two equations T (r ) ln  Ts2
ln r1 / r2 r2
simultaneously gives C1 and
C2 and substituting into the
general solution gives

The wall temperature in the cylinder is logarithmic and not linear

like the case for the plane wall under the same conditions

Take the derivative of T(r) wrt r and substitute dT/dr in Fourier’s

Law in cylindrical form

dT/dr
dT
qr  k  2 rL 
dr

2  L k T s ,1  T s , 2 
qr 
ln r 2 r1 
Which gives
29
 qr  k A
dT
  k 2  r L 
dT Note that the heat rate is
dr dr NOT a linear function of

2  L k T s,1  T s, 2  radius but a logarithmic


ln r 2 r1  function of the radius

Recall the electrical resistance Ts1  Ts 2

analogy Rt ,cond 
qr

ln  r2 / r1 
Which gives the conductivity Rt ,cond 
resistance 2 Lk
30
 Cylindrical heat transfer
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt ,cond 
2 Lk
Cold fluid
h2 ,T2 Ts1 Ts2
T1 T2
1 ln  r2 / r1  1
h1 2 r1 L 2 Lk h2 2r2 L

r1 Ts2
1 d  dT 
 kr 
r dr  dr 
r2
Hot fluid L

h1 ,T1 Ts1
31
 Composite cylindrical
wall

1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r4 / r3 ) 1

h1 2 r1 L 2 k A L 2 k B L 2 kC L h2 2 r4 L
32
 The heat transfer rate

T1  T 2
qr 
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r4 / r3 ) 1
   
h1 2 r1 L 2 k A L 2 k B L 2 kC L h2 2 r4 L

33
 Spherical heat transfer
The appropriate form of Fourier’s law is

  k  4  r 2 
dT dT
q r  k A
dr   dr
 The heat transfer rate is then (assuming constant k)

4  k T s, 1  T s, 2 
qr 
  
1 r1  1 r 2 
The thermal resistance is

T 1  1 1 
R t , cond   
qr 4  k  r1 r 2 
 

Note: Spherical composites may be treated the same way as composite walls
and cylinders.

34
 Critical radius of insulation

• For a plane wall exposed to a fluid, an increase in the thickness of the wall results in an

increase in the conduction resistance Rcond = L/(kA) but does not change the convection
resistance Rconv. Hence, the heat transfer rate will reduce as the wall thickness increases.

• For geometries with non-constant cross-sectional area (e.g. a cylinder, a sphere), increase
in the wall thickness does not always bring about a decrease in the heat transfer rate.

k
•The critical radius of insulation for a cylinder exposed to convection is rcr 
h
where k is the of thermal conductivity of the insulation material and h is the
convection heat transfer coefficient on the insulation.

2k
•The critical radius of insulation for a sphere exposed to convection is rcr 
h

35
 Wall with Heat generation
• We looked at a wall with no heat generation.
Many cases require the consideration of a wall
with heat generation.
• One such case is heat generation due to
resistance.
The rate at which energy is generated by passing
a current I through the resistance R Eg  I 2 R

If you assume the power generated is uniform In Eg I 2R

q 
this case Volume Volume

Let us solve for the temperature field starting with the

36
heat diffudion equation
 Plane wall with uniform heat generation
0 0 0
ss
  T    T    T  T
k  k  k   q  cp
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

Plane wall Uniform

Assume conductivity means this
is constant term is
constant
The heat rate equation d 2T q
simplifies to  0
dx k

q 2
Integrate twice gives T x  C1 x  C2
2k
37
 Plane wall with uniform heat generation
q 2
Solving for C1 and C2
depends on the boundary
T x  C1 x  C2
conditions
2k

Case 1
T2,h2
The boundary conditions are
Ts1
T(-L)=Ts,1 and T(L)=Ts,2
Ts2

T1,h1
This gives

38
x=-L x x=L
 Plane wall with uniform heat
generation
q 2
T x  C1 x  C2
2k

Ts ,2  Ts ,1
C1  q L 2 T s ,1  T s , 2
2L C2  
2k 2

qL2  x 2   Ts ,2  Ts ,1  x Ts ,2  Ts ,1
T ( x)  1      
2k  L2   2 L 2

39
 Solving for C1 and C2 q 2
depends on the boundary T x  C1 x  C2
conditions 2k

Case 2
Plane wall with uniform heat generation, both sides
maintained at the same temperature

T2,h2

The boundary conditions are Ts Ts

T(-L)=Ts and T(L)=Ts

This gives a symmetrical T1,h1

temperature distribution

qL2  x 2 
T ( x)  1  2   Ts
2k  L 
40
x=-L x x=L
• The maximum temperature for this case is
at the center and is given by

qL2
T (0)   Ts
2k
• The temperature gradient at this location is
d
T ( x)   0
dx
• Which means that no heat crosses the mid-plane

41
 T2,h2
The problem may be represented with an adiabatic
mid-plane
Ts

42
x x=L
Radial Systems with uniform heat generation
Cylindrical system
1 d  dT  q
Heat diffusion equation:  r   0
r dr dr k
dT
Boundary Conditions:
d r r 0
 0 and T r o   T s

q r o  r 2 
2
Temperature distribution: T r   4 k 1  2   T s
 ro 
 
2
q r o
T 0  T o   Ts
T r   Ts
2
centerline temperature :
4k r
1   
To  T s  ro 
 

Note: To relate Ts to T, apply an overall energy balance on the

  
cylinder to obtain:
q   r o L   h 2 r o L T s  T
2
 

43
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions

44
 Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat
transfer through a plane wall of
thickness L, for example, the
specified temperature boundary
conditions can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2

The specified temperatures can be constant, which is

the case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with
time. 45
 Specified Heat Flux Boundary
Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-
direction anywhere in the medium,
including the boundaries, can be
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as
dT Heat flux in the
q  k  positive x-
dx direction

The sign of the specified heat flux is determined

by inspection: positive if the heat flux is in the
positive direction of the coordinate axis, and
negative if it is in the opposite direction. 46
 Two Special Cases
Insulated boundary Thermal symmetry

k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0  
T L , t
2 0
x x x
47
 Convection Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Heat convection

at the surface in
a = at the surface in
the same
selected direction
direction

T (0, t )
k  h1 T1  T (0, t )
x
and
T ( L, t )
k  h2 T ( L, t )  T 2 
x
48
 Radiation Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Radiation

at the surface in
a
= exchange at the
surface in
selected the same
direction direction

T (0, t )
k  1 Tsurr
4
 T (0, t ) 4

x
,1

and
T ( L, t )
k   2 T ( L, t )4  Tsurr
4

,2 
x 49
 Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the
same temperature at the area of
contact,
(2) an interface (which is a surface)
cannot store any energy, and thus
the heat flux on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t)
and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A  k B B 0
x x
50
 Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general, a surface may involve convection, radiation,
and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary
condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface
energy balance, expressed as

Heat transfer Heat transfer

to the surface
in all modes
= from the surface
In all modes

Heat Generation in Solids

The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts
and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in
the medium in steady operation. 51
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
Rate of Rate of
energy
heat transfer
from the solid
= generation
within the solid

For uniform heat generation within the medium

Q  egenV (W)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also
be expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
- Q  hAs Ts  T  (W)
egenV
Ts  T 
hAs 52
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall
and V=2LAwall)
egen L
Ts , plane wall  T 
h
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2r0L
and V=r02L) egen r0
Ts ,cylinder  T 
2h
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4r02 and V=4/3r03)
egen r0
Ts , sphere  T 
3h 53