PSY 101L:

Psychological Experiment and Testing

Dr. Most. Aeysha Sultana (MAS1)
Professor
North South University

Lecture Outline
 Definition of Psychological Test
 Characteristics of A Good Psychological Test
 Functions of Psychological Test
 Origin of Psychological Testing
 Uses of Psychological Testing
 The Sources of Error During Test Administration
 Lack of advance preparation of examiners as the source of error
 Testing conditions as the sources of error
 Other Critical Issues
 Rapport
 Test Anxiety
 Examiner/test provider and Situational Variables
 Social and Ethical Implications Testing

Definition of Psychological Test

 A psychological test is essentially an objective and standardization measure of a sample
of overt (observable) and covert (e.g. feelings, attitude) behavior.
 Psychological tests are made on a small but carefully chosen sample of an individuals’
behavior.
• Example- if the psychologist wishes to test the extent of a child’s vocabulary OR ability
to perform arithmetic computations, he examines his/her performance with a
representative set of words OR arithmetic problems.

Categories and uses of psychological tests

 Three general categories of tests:

 Tests in which the subject performs a task (e.g. mental ability tests).
 Tests that involve observations of the subject’s behavior within a particular context.
 Self-report measures (e.g. personality scales)
 Why do psychologists use psychological tests?
 To help people better understand themselves
 To help people to make decisions about their lives

Characteristics of A Good Psychological Test

 Standardization
 Validity
 Reliability
 Objectivity
 Practicability
• Following these characteristics we can justify a psychological test.

 Standardization
 Standardization implies uniformity of procedure in an administering and scoring the
test.
 Purposes of Standardization:
 The behavior sample is obtained under standardized conditions.
 To ensure that each individual taking a psychological or educational test should be tested
under essentially identical conditions.
 Set of rules or procedure for scoring responses
 To establish test norms.
 Why is standardization needed?
 If we want to compare the scores obtained by different individuals, testing conditions
must obviously be the same for all (or same procedure). It will be possible only through
the standardization.

 Steps taken through standardization to ensure secure uniformity of testing

conditions
 Step-1: For secure uniformity of testing conditions, the test constructor provides detailed
directions for administering each newly developed test as a major part of the
standardization.
 Such standardization extends to the exact-
Materials employed, Time limits, Oral instruction to subjects, Preliminary
demonstrations, Ways of handling requires from subjects and Every other detail of the
testing situation

 Example- in an oral instruction, an instructor may help respondent to detect correct

answer by smiling or pausing, and facial expression when the crucial word is read.

 Step-2: Another step of standardization is the establishment of “norms”.

 Psychological tests have no predetermined standards of passing or failure, an
individual’s score is evaluated by comparing it with the scores obtained by others. That
means individual’s score is compared with norm.
• A norm is the normal or average performance.
• More specifically, norms are standards (or standard scores) of test performance that
permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of other individuals
(as a representative & large sample) who have taken the same test.
• Example- if normal 8-year-old children complete 12 out of 50 problems correctly on a
particular arithmetic reasoning test, then the 8-year-old norm on this test corresponds to a
score of 12. Here, “12” is known as the raw score on the test which is meaningless until
evaluated in terms of a suitable set of norms.
 Procedure of standardization
 In the procedure of standardizing a test, it is administered to a large representative
sample of the type of subjects for whom it is designed.
 This group, known as the standardization sample, serves to establish the norms.
 Such norms indicate not only the average performance but also the relative frequency
of varying degrees of deviation above and below the average.
 It is thus possible to evaluate different degree of superiority and inferiority.

 Validity
 Validity is the property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to
measure
• Example, an intelligent test developed to assess the level of intelligence should measure
the intelligence of the person, not other factors.
 Types of Validity
 Face validity: A given test may appear to be valid simply because it makes sense and
seems reasonable.
 Predictive validity: The ability of a given test to predict future characteristics or
behavior. Predictive validity tells us how well a certain measure can predict future
behavior.
• Example, University admission test score of a student predicts his likely success in
higher education.
 Concurrent validity: The degree to which the measures gathered from one test agree
with the measures gathered from other tests.
• Example: Participants’ scores on a new test designed to measure anxiety should
correlate highly with their scores on other anxiety tests.

 Reliability
 Test reliability is the consistency of scores obtained by the same persons when retested
with the identical test or with an equivalent form of the test.
 Reliability is the property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to
measure.
• Example- If a child receives an IQ (intelligence quotient) of 110 on Monday and an IQ
80 when retested on Friday, it is obvious that little or no confidence can be put in their
score.
 Types of Reliability

 Objectivity
 The test should be free from subjective—judgment regarding the ability, skill,
knowledge, trait or potentiality to be measured and evaluated.
 The administration, scoring, and interpretation of scores are objective insofar as they are
independent of the subjective judgment of the individual examiner. Any one individual
should theoretically obtain the identical score on a test regardless of who happens to be
his examiner.
 Practicability:
 The test must be practicable in-time required for completion, the length, number of items
or questions, scoring, etc. The test should not be too lengthy and difficult to answer as
well as scoring.

Functions of Psychological Test

 To measure differences between individuals OR
 To measure differences the reactions of the same individual on different occasions

Origin of Psychological Testing

 The first psychological problem (psychological phenomenon) for which the first
psychological test was developed:
 To identify the mentally retarded (through intelligence test)

Current Uses of Psychological Testing

 The detection of intellectual deficiencies
 The examination of the emotionally disturbed
 The examination of the delinquent
 Other types of behavioral deviants

Areas or users of psychological testing

 School
 Industry
 Counseling
 Education (the problem raised up first in this area)-
 School –
• the classification of children with reference to their ability to profit from different types
of school instruction
• the identification of the intellectually retarded
• the identification of the gifted children
• the diagnosis of academic failures
• the educational and vocational counseling of high school and college students
• the selection of applicants for professional and other special schools
 Uses of Psychological Testing (cont.)
 Areas or users of psychological testing (cont.)
 Industry –
• The selection and classification of industrial personnel (from the assembly-line operator
or filing clerk to top management). However, the tests are usually used as an adjunct to
skillful interviewing. The uses of psychological tests began from World War I for the
selection and classification of military personnel.
 Uses of Psychological Testing (cont.)
 Areas or users of psychological testing (cont.)
 Counseling
• The tests used to enhance self-understanding and interpersonal development (as
objectives of counseling), and tests scores also helpful to decision-making processes.

Sources of Error during Test Administration

The following issues in the test situation may be the sources of error variance and
reduction of the test validity:

1. Lack of advance preparation of examiners as the source of error

2. Testing conditions as the sources of error

 1. Advance Preparation of Examiners

The most important requirement for good testing procedure is advance preparation.

Advance preparation for the testing session takes many forms:

a. Preparation for giving instruction

b. The preparation of test materials
c. Familiarity with the specific testing procedure
a. Preparation for giving instruction
 Memorizing the exact verbal instructions is essential in most individual testing
 In a group test, familiarity with the statements to be read prevents misreading and
hesitation and, permits a more natural, informal manner during test administration.

b. The preparation of test materials

• In individual testing (especially for performance tests), such preparation involves the
actual layout of the necessary materials to facilitate subsequent use with a minimum of
search or fumbling.
o Materials should generally be placed on a table near the testing table so that they are
within easy reach of the examiner but do not distract the subject.
o When apparatus is employed, frequent periodic checking and calibration may be
necessary.
 In group testing, all test blanks, answer sheets, special pencils, or other materials needed
should be carefully counted, checked, and arranged in advance of the testing day.

c. Familiarity with the specific testing procedure

Through familiarity with the specific testing procedure is another important prerequisite in
both individual and group testing.

 For individual testing, supervised training in the administration of the particular test is
usually essential. Depending upon the nature of the test and the type of subjects to be
examined, such training may require from a few demonstration and practice sessions to
over a year of instruction.

 For group testing, and especially in large-scale projects, such preparation may include
advance briefing of examiners and proctors, so that each is fully informed about the
functions he is to perform.
 o In general, the examiner reads the instructions, takes care of timing, and is in charge of
the group in any one testing room. The proctors hand out and collect test materials,
make certain that subjects within the limitations specified in the manual, and prevent
cheating.

2. Testing Conditions as the source of error

Standardized procedure also applies to the testing environment. Some attention should be
given to the selection of a suitable testing room.

 Selection of the suitable testing room- The room should be free from undue noise
and distraction and should provide adequate lighting, ventilation, seating facilities,
and working space for the subjects.
 Interruptions due to others’ entry: Special steps should also be taken to prevent
interruptions during the test. Posting a sign on the door to indicate that testing is in
progress is effective, provided all personnel have learned that such a sign means no
admittance (entry) under any circumstances.
In the testing of large groups, locking the doors or posting an assistant outside each
door may be necessary to prevent the entrance of late-comers.

Other Critical Issues

 The following issues should be considered in a test situation:
1. Rapport
2. Test anxiety
3. Examiner and Situational Variables (cont.)

1. Rapport:

In psychometrics, the term “rapport” refers to the examiner’s efforts to arouse the subject’s
interest in the test, elicit his cooperation, and ensure that he follows the standard test instructions.

The training of examiners covers techniques for the establishment of rapport as well as those
more directly related to test administration.
Specific techniques for establishing rapport vary with the nature of the test and with the age and
other characteristics of the subjects.

Examples-
In testing preschool children, special factors to be considered include shyness with strangers,
distractibility, and negativism. A friendly, cheerful, and relaxed manner on the part of the
examiner helps to reassure the child. The shy, timid child needs more preliminary time to become
familiar with his surroundings.

2. Test Anxiety:

 Many of the practices designed to enhance rapport serve also to reduce test anxiety.
Procedures tending to dispel surprise and strangeness from the testing situation and to
reassure and encourage the subject should certainly help to lower anxiety.
 The examiner’s own manner and a well-organized, smoothly running testing operation
will contribute toward the same goal.

3. Examiner and Situational Variables

 In general, children are more susceptible to examiner and situational influences than are
adults; in the examination of preschool children, the role of the examiner is especially
crucial.
 Emotionally disturbed and insecure persons of any age are also more likely to be affected
by such conditions than are well-adjusted persons.

 Examiner Variables
• Examiner’s personal characteristics
• Examiner’s behavior
• Interaction between examiner and examinee characteristics
• Examiner’s expectations

 Examiner’s personal characteristics

 Several studies revealed that personal characteristics of the examiner, such as his age,
sex, race, professional or socioeconomic status, training and experience,
personality characteristics, and appearance led to misleading or inclusive test
result. That means the effects of these variables (two or more variables) may be
confounded.

 Examiner’s behavior
The examiner’s behavior before and during test administration has also been shown to
affect test results.

Example- “warm” versus “cold” interpersonal relationship between examiner

and examinees may affect intelligence test performance differentially.

 Interaction between examiner and examinee characteristics

There may be significant interactions between examiner and examinee
characteristics, in the sense that the same examiner characteristic or testing manner
may have a different effect on different examinees as a function of the examinee’s
own personality characteristics.
 Examiner’s expectations
Examiner’s expectation may affect the examinee’s response. This is simply a special
instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal, 1966; Rosenthal & Rosnow,
1969).

 Situational Variables
 Influence of other testing situation: Apart from the examiner, other aspects of the
testing situation may significantly affect test performance, like examinee’s experience in
the test situation immediately preceded may affect the individual’s subsequent test score.
Bridgeman (1974) found that “success” feedback was followed by significantly higher
performance on a similar test than was “failure” feedback in subjects who had actually
performed equally well to begin with.

This type of motivational feedback may operate largely through the goals the subjects
set for themselves in subsequent performance and may thus represent another example of
the self-fulfilling prophecy.
 Social and Ethical Implications Testing
The ethical Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests (1974) adopted by the
American Psychological Association (APA) are discussed below-

 User Qualification
 Purchasers’ Qualification
 Protection of Privacy
 Confidentiality
 Communicating Test Results

 User Qualification
It is required that tests will be used by appropriately qualified examiners. This step protects
the individual against the improper use of tests.

Of course, necessary qualifications vary with the type of test, like a minimum of specialized
psychological training needed in the case of educational achievement or vocational
proficiency tests whereas a relatively long period of intensive training and supervised
experience required for the proper use of individual intelligence tests and most personality
tests.

 Purchasers’ Qualification
 The purchase of tests is generally restricted to persons who meet certain minimal
qualifications. Usually individuals with a master’s degree in psychology or its
equivalent qualify.
 Distinctions are also made between individual purchasers and authorized
institutional purchasers of appropriate tests. Graduate students who may need a
particular test for a class assignment or for research must have the purchase order
countersigned by their psychology instructor, who assumes responsibility for the
proper use of the test

 Protection of Privacy
 Some tests of emotional, motivational, or attitudinal traits are necessarily disguised, the
subject may reveal characteristics in the course of such a test without realizing that he is
so doing. The procedures of such indirect tests (e.g. personality test) impose a grave
responsibility on the psychologists who uses them. For making these kind of tests
effective, it may be necessary to keep the examinee in ignorance of the specific ways in
which his responses on any one test are to be interpreted. However, a person should not
be subjected to any testing program under false pretenses. It is important that there
should be the obligation to have a clear understanding with the examinee regarding the
use that will be made of his test results.

 Confidentiality
The fundamental question regarding “confidentiality” is: who shall have access to test
results? Several considerations influence the answer in particular situations. Among
them are (i) the security of test content, (ii) the hazards of misunderstanding test
scores, and the need of various persons to know the results.

 Communicating Test Results

 Psychologists have given much thought to the communication of test results in a form
that will be meaningful and useful.
 It is clear that the information should not be transmitted routinely, but should be
accompanied by interpretive explanations by a professionally trained person.
 When communicating scores to parents, for example, a recommended procedure is to
arrange a group meeting at which a counselor or school psychologist explains the
purpose and nature of the tests, the sort of conclusions that may reasonably be drawn
from the results, and the limitations of the data.
 Written reports about their own children may then be distributed to the parents, and
arrangements made for personal interviews with any parents wishing to discuss the
reports further (like, the intelligence test).

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