IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-20, NO.

2, MARCH/APRIL 1984 407

High-Altitude Considerations for Electrical Power Systems

and Components
JOHN P. NELSON, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-The design and application of electrical systems at eleva- Temperature and barometric pressure together determine
tions in excess of 1000 m (3000 ft) requires knowledge of the effects of the relative air density, and the fact exists that, on the average,
atmospheric conditions on each particular component. Failure to the relative air density decreases with an increase in altitude.
understand adequately and include the effects or high altitude in the
design and application of the equipment may result in its poor per- In other words, the air is thinner at high altitudes, and it is
formance, premature aging, and/or failure. The relationship of rela- the lack of air which adds the constraint to the electrical
tive air density and altitude is discussed, followed by the effects of system design. As will be shown later, it is the combination
altitude on electric power system components. Along with the dis- of temperature and barometric pressure parameters, and to
cussion of the effects of high altitude on each component are sug- a certain extent humidity, which needs to be included in the
gestions or solutions to the high-altitude problem. Although the
actual design calculations. However, general rules or approxi-
subject deals with high-altitude applications or equipment, the per-
formance of equipment from sea level to 1000 m may be affected by mations are given in the standards based on altitudes . The
the relative air density. Since the relative air density decreases at a proper use of these approximations will greatly reduce the
rate of approximately one percent per 100 m above sea level, the effort required in designing the system, but the engineer
operation of any piece of equipment which is dependent on the air should be aware of the generalities and assumptions made
density will be different at 3300 ft compared to sea level. This subject
by the standards in order to be more cognizant of the limita-
is discussed so that independent conclusions may be drawn.
tion of design.

RELATNEAIR DENSITY
INTRODUCTION
Air is probably the most commonly and widely used of
HE DEVELOPMENT of synthetic fuels has introduced
T and will continue to introduce many new challenges to
the engineering profession. In particular, the oil shale develop-
all insulating mediums. The majority of electrical distribution
lines and practically all transmission lines are built above
ground using air as the dielectric for both phase to phase
ment in western Colorado imposes an electrical system con-
and phase to ground insulation.
straint which is described by the ANSI Standards as an "un-
Another dielectric which is commonly used is that of
usual service condition." This unusual service condition,
a vacuum. Therefore, a seemingly good analogy is that if
which is not a bit unusual in Colorado and Wyoming, is listed
air is a good insulator and a vacuum is even better, then the
as "altitudes above 1000 m (3300 ft)."
thinner the air the better the insulator. The fallacy to this is
The oil shale industry, unfortunately, does not have a
easily shown in Fig. 1 by the relative dielectric strength of
monopoly on this unusual service condition. Most of the
air as a function of pressure. The dielectric strength of air
gas and oil development in the Overthrust Belt, many mining
varies directly with the pressure until the pressure is low
projects in Wyoming, CO2 projects in Colorado, along with
enough that a "good" vacuum is created. The better the
the many synthetic fuel projects are being developed in areas
vacuum, the higher the dielectric strength. For common
where the altitude far exceeds the 1000-m (3300-ft) level
atmospheric conditions, the relative air density (RAD) is
defined as unusual. With the increasing number of projects
approximated by the following equation:
being built at high altitudes , more engineers will be faced
with the altitude constraint in the design of the electrical
RAD = -'-(0_.3_9_2B_)
system. (1)
However, before proceeding with the discussion of high- (273 + T)
altitude considerations for electrical power systems, the fact
where
should be stressed that altitude is not a true constraint in the
design of the electrical system. The actual constraint is based RAD relative air density,
on a combination of temperature and barometric pressure. B barometric pressure (mm of Hg),
T temperature (°C).
Paper PIO 83-10, approved by the Petroleum and Chemical Industry
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation The standard temperature and barometric pressure are 25°C
at the 1982 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical Conference, and 760 mm, respectively.
St. Louis, MO, August 30-September 1. Manuscript released for publi- Careful review of (1) will show that the RAD varies directly
cation April 25, 1983. with the barometric pressure and inversely with the absolute
The author is with Power Line Models, Inc ., Electric Power Engi-
neering, P. 0 . Box 550, Evergreen, CO 80439. temperature. One result is that RAD will vary froJTIsummer

0093-9994/84/0200-0407$01 .00 © 1984 IEEE NOTICt:THISMATER!J\L

MAYBI:.
PROTECTED LAW
BYCOf'Yft.tGHT
408 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-io, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 1984

TABLEI
10 RAD COMPARISON AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
(CONSTANT STANDARD PRESSURE FOR A GIVEN
ELEVATION)

ELEVATION PRESSURE(!)
RAO RAO RAO
METERS (FEET) mm Hg (INCHES Hg) 5°c 25°c 29°F

0 0 760 29.92 1.07 1.00 .99

300 1,000 7 33 28 .86 1.03 .96 .95
600 2,000 707 27 .82 1.00 .93 .92
900 3,000 681 26.81 .96 .90 .88
1,200 4,000 656 25.84 .93 .86 .85
------. ................................ -. ............... -. ..... -...110 1,500 5,000 632 24.89 .89 .83 .82
0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000
PRESSURE· DISTANCE (ATM MILS) 1,800 6,000 609 23.98 .85 .80 .79
2,400 8,000 564 22.22 .80 . 74 . 73
Fig. 1. Pressure-spacing dependence of dielectric strength of air.
3,000 10,000 523 20.58 .74 .69 .68

to winter with the summer RAD normally being the lower

value and, probably the system design constraint (see Table The rating of the transformer is based on a temperature
rise of the unit over a given ambient temperature. When
I).
evaluating the rating of a particular transformer at a given
As an example, the mean relative air density in Denver,
altitude, both of these factors should be reviewed. First of all,
CO, under fair weather conditions is 0.854 with a standard
the average ambient temperature at higher altitudes has a
deviation of 0.034 [8). However, the maximum is 1.062
tendency to be lower. Secondly, because the air density is
which was recorded on a cold winter day while the minimum
lower, the temperature rise on a transformer will be greater
is 0.775 which was recorded on a hot summer day.
than at a lower altitude. The following formula is provided
HUMIDITY in [6] to calculate an increase in temperature rise due to
altitude:
The humidity also affects the dielectric strength of air.
The amount of correction, 1/kh, is dependent on the type TA= TE(A- l000)F (2)
of voltage {direct, alternating, lightning impulse, or switching
surge) and may be corrected by an exponent W, again depend- where
ing on the type of voltage [9, tables 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5] .
TA increase in temperature rise at altitude A meters (°C),
When determining the exact insulating qualities of air,
TE observed temperature rise (°C),
the appropriate humidity correction factors must be included
A altitude (m),
in the calculation. The humidity factor of a dry climate will
F 4 X 10- 5 , self-cooled mode,
have a tendency to lower the insulating quality of air while
F 6 X 10- 5 , forced-air cooled mode.
that of a moist climate will have a tendency to increase it.
For a reference point, [4] states that 11 g/m 3 is the standard The standard also states that a derating factor of 0.4 percent
humidity. per 100 m above 1000 m for a liquid-immersed air-cooled
transformer and 0.5 percent per 100 m for liquid-immersed
POWERTRANSFORMERS forced air-cooled transformers shall be applied.
The power transformer is one of the most important items When considering the rating for a transformer for high-
in the industrial electrical system. Therefore, its operation altitude applications, several alternatives exist. In deciding
is of paramount importance, and the effects of altitude on that which alternative to use, consideration should be given to the
device are of interest to the system designer. fact that the standard requires no derating from sea level to
Both the correction of temperature rises and derating 1000 m. For the standard deratings of 0.4- and 0.5-percent
factors for transformers operated at an altitude in excess of per 100 m in elevation previously discussed, this amounts
1000 m (3300 ft) are discussed in [5]. In both cases, the to a four- and five-percent derating for liquid-immersed
standard does not discuss the operation of the equipment self-cooled and forced air cooled transformers, respectively,
between sea level and 1000 m (3300 ft). The standard does from a sea level condition to 3300 ft. The following alterna-
state that when temperature rise tests are run at altitudes tives exist.
below 1000 m, no correction for the temperature rise cor- 1) Choose a transformer rating sufficiently high to handle
rection factor is required. However, if a transformer is tested the load and necessary altitude derating.
at a level below 1000 m and is to be operated above 1000 m, 2) Choose a 55/65°C rated transformer using the 55°C
a temperature rise correction factor is to be applied. Similarly, rating for a particular load, knowing that the transformer
the derating factors for dielectric strength are unity from sea can be operated at 65°C. This automatically allows up to
level to 1000 m, at which point the dielectric strength is a 12 percent altitude derating if the user allows the equip-
derated at a rate of approximately one percent per 100 m ment to be operated at 65°C.
(three percent per 1000 ft). 3) If it can be determined that the average ambient tern-
NELSON: HIGH-ALTITUDE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS 409

perature is sufficiently below the standard or if the trans- "D": DISTANCE BETWEEN
former loads are low in the summer and high in the winter, HIGH VOLTAGEBUSHING
AND BUS DUCT
the standard rating of the transformer may be used .
4) The manufacturer can be contacted and asked to design
and build a transformer for the particular altitude applica-
tion. The design, in all probability, will include a standard
transformer core and coil design with more cooling surface
to dissqfa\e the heat.
The standards provide a dielectric strength derating factor
of approximately one percent per each 100 m over 1000 m
above sea level. When derating the dielectric strength of a
transformer for altitude, this should be done only for insula-
tion that depends on air . The internal dielectric strength of
the transformer which is oil immersed and not exposed to the
atmosphere has a constant dielectric strength which is not
derated for altitude. The phase to ground, phase to phase,
and high voltage phase to low voltage phase insulation of
external bushings are examples of insulation which are de-
rated for altitude. Perhaps one of the most commonly ignored
clearances for high-altitude applications involves the high Fig. 2.
voltage to low voltage bus duct. The reason for this problem
is that the bus duct is usually supplied by a different manu- to assure that the unit can be safely and adequately applied
facturer than the transformer (Fig. 2). at the higher elevation. Such problems as insufficient oil for
While it is difficult to ascertain whether the manufacturer low-temperature operation may result in insufficient internal
has de~igned a transformer for a rating at sea level, 1000 m, dielectric strength, and marginally applied ancillary equip-
or somewhere in between (all within standard), the external ment may be inadequate at higher altitudes.
dielectric strength can be easily determined by measurement.
In addition, the electrical insulation tests are corrected to MOTORS AND GENERATORS
standard conditions resulting in the dielectric strength closely A large portion of the load in a typical industrial complex
matching sea level conditions. Unless otherwise determined consists of motors. Although not as widely used as motors,
by test or measurement, the external dielectric strength of a the generator is another device used in an industrial plant for
transformer at 1000 m is approximately 90 percent of the emergency, supplemental or total power requirements . Due
sea level condition. Likewise and due to the derating of to the similar construction of the motor and generator, they
dielectric strength of one percent per 100 m, the dielectric are both covered in this section.
strengths at 2000 and 3000 m compared to standard condi- NEMA Standard MGI-14.04 discusses the application and
tions are 80 percent and 70 percent, respectively. operation of motors above 1000 m. Although NEMA MG-1
Similar to the problem of choosing the proper rating states that the usual service condition of a motor or generator
of the transformer, several solutions exist to choosing the is at an altitude which does not exceed 1000 m, motors can
proper insulation levels. be operated above 1000 m under the following three condi-
I) Apply surge protection (which allows an adequate pro- tions:
tective margin) to the transformer. However, be sure to apply 1) Motors and generators having Class A or B insulation
the protective characteristics of the surge arrester to the actual and air temperature rises as stated in MG-1 provided that the
basic impulse insulation level (BIL) of the device at a given ambient temperature compensates for the increased tempera-
altitude deratecl for altitude from standard conditions. This ture due to the reduced cooling at the higher altitude (see
usually requires a one-percent per 100 m derating from sea Table II}.
level. 2) Motors having a service factor of at least 1.15 will
2) Specify additional clearances to meet the insulation operate satisfactorily at a unity service factor at an ambient
requirements at the higher altitude. This usually requires the temperature of 40°C up to an altitude of 2740 m (9000 ft}.
listing of minimum clearance dimensions. 3) Motors and generators which have been designed with a
3) Use a higher voltage bushing or high-altitude bushing. reduced temperature rise at an ambient temperature of 40°C
Caution should be taken not to miscoordinate phase to phase at sea level and in accordance with MG-I.
clearances by increasing the phase to ground clearance. One As was a concern with the transformer design is the fact
simple rule to assure insulation coordination is to assure that the motor and generator are designed for a given ambient
that the phase to phase dimensions are ten percent greater temperature with a given temperature rise at sea level and no
that phase to ground. derating to an altitude of 1000 m. However, under a given
Although the application of a particular transformer may ambient temperature of 40°C, motors are allowed to be de-
appear to be satisfactory at a higher than the standard eleva- rated at approximately 0.86 percent per 100 m above 1000 m
tion of 1000 m, the manufacturer should still be contacted to an altitude of 2740 m. Therefore, when applying motors
r'
410 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-20, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 1984

TABLE II to affect only the required ventilation for the battery room,
it appears that the battery charger is directly affected by
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE MAXI MUM ALTITUDE
altitude.
DEGREES C METERS (FEET) The hydrogen production from a battery (primarily the
40 1,000 (3,300) lead acid type) poses a safety hazard if the concentration
30 2,000 (6,600)
20 3,000 (9,900)
becomes too high. The usual criteria is to keep the hydrogen
concentration well below three percent by volume. Therefore,
....... calculations are usually made on hydrogen production from
a battery.
and generator to a system above 1000-m altitude, the manu- According to Boyle's law, the volume of a gas is inversely
facturer should be contacted and asked to confirm whether proportional to the pressure. Therefore, when calculating
or not the motor was designed under sea level or l 000-m the volume of hydrogen gas produced from a battery at a
conditions. given altitude, the volume of hydrogen must be increased
according to the following equation:
OIL AND VACUUMCIRCUIT BREAKERS
The oil or vacuum circuit breaker's design should be re-
Vstd • 760mm
viewed to assure adequate clearances phase to phase, phase to Va1t = ------ (3)
ground, and pole to pole across bushings of the same phase. Pau
If not, the application of surge arresters, larger bushings
or both, should be investigated. where
A slight current derating of approximately two percent
per 1000 m occurs which is generally not critical for circuit V8 u volume of hydrogen produced at given altitude (L),
breakers. The interrupting capability remains constant at all Vstd volume of hydrogen produced under standard condi-
elevations due to the current interrupting means being handled tions (L),
under oil or in a vacuum and not exposed to the atmosphere. Pau atmospheric pressure at a given altitude (mm of Hg).
Therefore, both the oil and vacuum circuit breakers have As an example, the amount of hydrogen by volume produced
relatively good applications at higher elevations. at 3000-m altitude is approximately 43 percent more than at
sea level. (The amount of hydrogen remains the same; the
AIR MAGNETICCIRCUIT BREAKERS percent concentration increases due to the thinness of the
atmosphere.)
The air magnetic circuit breaker has a similar current de-
The battery charger, which requires air for cooling, appears
rating of approximately two percent per 1000 m. The clear-
to be affected by altitude. One manufacturer provided the
ances of the air magnetic circuit breaker should be checked
derating of a battery charger with respect to altitude as shown
to assure the adequacy of the dielectric strength. However,
in Table III.
confusion exists as to whether or not the interrupting rating
The most logical solution for the high-altitude application
decreases for high-altitude application.
of a battery charger is to increase the rating of the battery
At least one manufacturer has the opinion that the inter-
charger and have the manufacturer limit the charging rate
rupting capability of an air magnetic circuit breaker should
to some lesser value than rated.
be derated for altitudes above 1000 m. There is a strong
reason to believe that the interrupting capability of an air
magnetic circuit breaker should be derated for altitude due
SURGE ARRESTERS
to the fact that the interrupting medium is air, and the dielec- Most manufacturers of surge arresters have provided ex-
tric strength of air at higher altitudes is less than at sea level. tended altitude ranges to include 6000- and 10 000-ft appli-
With reason to believe that an air magnetic circuit breaker cations. The primary problem in applying surge arresters at
should have its interrupting capability derated, the manu- higher than rated altitudes is that the arrester is commonly
facturer should be contacted and requested to furnish de- a sealed system. The sealed system is composed of either
rating factors foi his breaker at the altitude in question. If dry air or nitrogen under a given pressure.
the particular breaker that is being contemplated for use has If a low-altitude designed surge arrester is applied at a
its interrupting capability derated below the expected fault high altitude, the possibility exists that the internal pres-
capability of the system, the next larger size breaker should sure will be sufficiently high to cause a leak in the seal. A
be applied. Another alternative would be to use a vacuum or leak of this type could allow moisture to enter the arrester
oil circuit breaker. One of the most logical choices would and cause a surge arrester failure.
be the vacuum breaker since both the vacuum and air magnetic A second potential problem exists with the new metal
circuit breakers are used in metalclad switchgear. oxide arresters in which the overall length of the housing is
decreased substantially. Attention must be given to assure
STORAGEBATTERYSYSTEM
that an adequate margin exists between the arrester protective
The storage battery system consists of two basic elements, characteristics and the external flashover of the housing at
the battery and the battery charger. While altitude appears a high altitude.
NELSON: HIGH-ALTITUDE CONSIDERATIONS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS 411

TABLE III TABLE IV

ALTITUDE DERATING FACTOR MINIMUM CLEARANCE

(NOT TO EXCEED) GUARD TO LIVE PARTS
NOMINAL VOLTAGE
INCHES CM
1,000 m 1.00
1,500 m .94
301 - 600 2 5
3,000 m .82
2,400 3 8
7,200
13,800
•6 10
15
23,000 g 23
LOW-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS 34,500 12 31
'16,000 16
Low-voltage circuit breakers, 600 V and below, have a
standard rating through 2000 m . Above that elevation the
69,000
115,000
23
37
"'
58
94
138,000 4'1 112
circuit breakers are derated at approximately one percent 161,000 51 1'17
per 100 m and two percent per 1000 m above 2000 m for 230,000 66
voltage and current, respectively. "'
SHUNT POWER CAPACITORS ✓------... ........
'
The normal service condition for capacitors includes
elevations of 1800 m (6000 ft) and below. However, when / /
/
"' '\
I
consideration is given to the design of a capacitor, it appears I \
that the primary concern for applying capacitors at higher I \
altitudes would be the dielectric strength of the bushings. I I
To resolve the problem of inadequate dielectric strength \ I
of the bushings, one of two options is suggested. \ I
I
\ I
I) Request a high-altitude bushing which is sufficient
for the particular application. GUAIIO ZONE/'....._ " ,,,
___ /
/

2) Coordinate the bushing insulation level with a proper

and adequate surge arrester.

LIVE PARTS 2.6 M

(8 .5 FT)
Transmission and distribution lines, substation buses,
Fig. 3.
and other electrical equipment depend on air for a means of
insulation. Therefore, minimum clearances have been designated
by the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) for electrical ance under standard conditions, additional space should be
supply stations and overhead lines. added to compensate for higher altitudes. Since the relative
Altitude considerations were first introduced in the 1977 air density decreases at a rate of approximately one percent
edition of the NESC. In both the 1977 and the 1981 NESC, per 100 m of altitude above sea level, the clearances should
Section 23 sets provisions for calculating additional clearances be increased at a rate of one percent per 100 m above sea
for overhead lines if the line to neutral voltage exceeds 50 kV. level. However, if the standards are strictly followed where
The NESC is considered the standard of the industry for no derating occurs for 1000 m and below, an additional
minimum clearances and has been adopted by many regulatory clearance of one percent per 100 m above 1000 m can be used.
bodies. However, this standard does not preclude the use of No derating should be used for the 01her components
good engineering judgment and sometimes different clearances of clearances in the NESC since they provide only isolation
are required for a particular application. and not insulation. For example, increased clearances due
Since most industrial plants are operated at 230 kV and to conductor sag and temperature are not altitude dependent.
below, reference will be made to Section 12 of the NESC An alternative to increasing the clearances would be the
and in particular Table 2, Part A of that section. Columns 1 proper use of surge arresters to minimize the impulse voltage
and 4 are reproduced on Table IV for reference. applied to the particular voltage. If the impulse level to which
The column representing "minimum clearance guard to the equipment is subjected is minimized, standard clearances
live parts" approximates the amount of air clearance to may be used.
safely insulate a live part under standard conditions for a
given voltage provided that nothing is allowed to enter the CONCLUSION
confines of that air space. In an electrical supply station The design of an electrical power system is affected by the
where only authorized persons are allowed, a vertical dimen- altitude of the system. Many of the standards indicate that
sion of 2.6 m (8.5 ft) is added to this minimum clearance an electrical device will operate satisfactorily at elevations
guard to live parts to obtain the minimum vertical clearances between sea level and 1000 m. Usually, a derating is applied
on unguarded parts (Fig. 3). on equipment operated above 1000 m and in a few cases,
Since the minimum clearance guard to live parts is a clear- 2000m.
F
! , r
412 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-10, NO. 2, MARCH/APRIL 1984

The application of a piece of equipment at any elevation presented at the Colloquium of CIGRE, SC No. 33, London, June
should be reviewed since the relative air density at 1000 m 1977.
[9) IEEE Standard Techniques for High Voltage Testing, IEEE
is approximately ten percent less than at sea level. Therefore, Standard 4-1978, pp . 22-26 .
a device designed under standard conditions will probably [ 10) IEEE General Requirements and Test Procedures for Outdoor
operate differently at 1000 m than at sea level. Discussion Apparatus Bushings , IEEE Standard 21- 1976, pp. 8-13.
[I I) L. M . Robertson et al., .. Leadville High Altitude EHV Test
with the manufacturer upon design considerations may prove Report . " IEEE Conf . Paper, Dec . 1960.
to be quite enlightening. The application of surge arresters [ 12] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book , Westing-
- ·'and a close review of equipment ratings with regard house Elect ric Corporation, East Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 56-57, 1964.
to a particular application at a high altitude during the
design of the electrical power system will minimize
operational problems. John P. Nelson (S ' 73-M'76-SM'82) received
the B.S . degree in electrical engineering from the
REFERENCES University of Illinois, Urbana, in 1970, and the
M.S. degree from the University of Colorado ,
[I) AIEE Committee Rep., "A guide for minimum electrical clear- Boulder, in 1975. He also performed post gradu-
ances for standard basic insulation levels," Al EE Trans. , vol. 12, ate work in business administration at the Uni-
pp. 636-641, June I 954. versity of Colorado during 1976-1979.
[2) National Electrical Safety Code, ANSI Standard C2, 1981 Ed., He began his career with Public Service Com-
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers. pp. 92-93, 138- pany of Colorado as an Engineer-in-Training in
217. June 1969. After completing the one-year train-
[3) IEEE Standard for Shunt Capacitors, ANSI/IEEE Standard 18- ing program , he spent five months on active duty
1980, pp . 8, 12. with the United States Anny . Upon returning from active duty , he was
[4) American National Standard for Low Voltage AC Power Circuit assigned as an Engineer in the Electrical Engineering Department . In this
Breakers Used in Enclosures, ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13-1981, assignment , he was involved with the protective relaying for Public Ser-
pp . 1, 17-18. vice Company's generation, transmission and distribution facilities. In
[5) General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution Power, 1974, he was promoted to the position of Senior Engineer in the same
and Regulating Transformers, ANSI/IEEE Standard C57. 12.00- department. In I 977, he was transferred to the Engineering Services
1980, pp . 9-10, 33 . Department and was respon sible for engineering standards and specifica-
[6) Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution , Power and Regulating tions . In I.ate 1977, he was transferred to the Fuel Supply Development
Transformers and Guide for Short Circuit-Testing of Distribution Department where he was involved with the procurement of fuel for Public
and Power Transformers, ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.90-1980, Service's generating plants . He was also responsible for reviewing alter-
p . 43. native energy sources . In 1979, he became a Project Manager with Power
[7] Requirements for Instrument Transformers, ANSI/IEEE Standard Line Models where he was involved with the design of electrical sub-
C57. 13-1978, pp . 11-12 . stations, transmis sion lines, and distribution lines. In 1980, he was pro-
[8) A. R . Heilman , · 'Effect of atmospheric parameters on the switching moted to the position of Vice President in charge of electric power
and lightning performance of transmission lines and stations ," engineering.