The Vector Operator  and The

Divergence Theorem
 Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar, just
like the dot product.
 We define the del operator  as a vector operator:
  
 ax  a y  az
x y z

 Then, treating the del operator as an ordinary vector, we can

write:
   
  D   a x  a y  a z   ( Dxa x  Dy a y  Dz a z )
 x y z 
Dx Dy Dz
 D   
x y z
Dx Dy Dz
div D =  D =  
x y z
 The Vector Operator  and The
Divergence Theorem
 The operator does not have a specific form in other
coordinate systems than rectangular coordinate system.
 Nevertheless,
1  1 D Dz
 D  (  D )   Cylindrical
    z

1  2 1  1 D
 D  2 (r Dr )  (sin  D )  Spherical
r r r sin   r sin  
 The Vector Operator  and The Divergence
Theorem
 We shall now give name to a theorem that we actually have
obtained, the Divergence Theorem:
 D  dS  Q  
S vol
v dv    Ddv
vol

 The first and last terms constitute the divergence theorem:

 D  dS  
S vol
 D dv

“The integral of the normal

component of any vector field
over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of
this vector field throughout the
volume enclosed by the closed
surface.”
 The Vector Operator  and The
Divergence Theorem
 Example
Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field
D = 2xy ax + x2 ay C/m2 and the rectangular parallelepiped
formed by the planes x = 0 and 1, y = 0 and 2, and z = 0 and 3.

 D  dS    D dv
S vol
Divergence Theorem

 D  dS    (D)  (dydz a x )    (D)

3 2 3 2
S x 0 x 1  (dydz a x )
S 0 0 0 0

   (D) )    (D)
3 1 3 1
y 0  (dxdz a y y 2  (dxdz a y )
0 0 0 0

But ( Dx ) x0  0, ( Dy ) y 0  ( Dy ) y 2

 DS  dS    ( Dx ) x 1 dydz   
3 2 3 2
2ydydz  12 C
S 0 0 0 0
 The Vector Operator  and The
Divergence Theorem
 
 D = (2 xy)  ( x2 )  2y
x y

  D dv    
3 2 1
(2 y)dxdydz
vol z 0 y 0 x 0

2 2
 x0 y
1 3
0
z0
 12 C

  D  dS    D dv  12 C
S vol
 Chapter 4
Energy and Potential
 Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge
in an Electric Field
 The electric field intensity was defined as the force on a unit
test charge at that point where we wish to find the value of the
electric field intensity.
 To move the test charge against the electric field, we have to
exert a force equal and opposite in magnitude to that exerted
by the field. ► We must expend energy or do work.
 To move the charge in the direction of the electric field, our
energy expenditure turns out to be negative. ► We do not do
the work, the field does.
 Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge
in an Electric Field
 Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an
electric field E, the force on Q arising from the electric field is:
FE  QE

 The component of this force in the direction dL which we must

overcome is:
FEL  FE  aL  QE  aL
 The force that we apply must be equal and opposite to the force
exerted by the field:
Fappl  QE  a L
 Differential work done by external source to Q is equal to:
dW  QE  aL dL  QE  dL
• If E and L are perpendicular, the
differential work will be zero
 Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge
in an Electric Field
 The work required to move the charge a finite distance is
determined by integration:
W 
final
dW
init

W  Q 
final
E  dL
init

• The path must be specified beforehand

• The charge is assumed to be at rest at both initial
and final positions

• W > 0 means we expend energy or do work

• W < 0 means the field expends energy or do work
 The Line Integral
 The integral expression of previous equation is an
example of a line integral, taking the form of
integral along a prescribed path.
 Without using vector notation,
we should have to write:
W  Q 
final
EL dL
init

• EL: component of E along dL

 The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is

approximately:
W  Q(EL1L1  EL2L2   EL6L6 )
W  Q(E1  L1  E2  L2   E6  L6 )
 The Line Integral
 If we assume that the electric field is uniform,
E1  E2   E6
W  QE  (L1  L2   L6 )
L BA
 Therefore,
W  QE  LBA (uniform E)
 Since the summation can be interpreted as a line integral, the
exact result for the uniform field can be obtained as:
W  Q  E  dL
A

W  QE   dL
A
(uniform E)
B

W  QE  LBA (uniform E) • For the case of uniform E, W

does not depend on the particular
path selected along which the
charge is carried
 The Line Integral
 Example
Given the nonuniform field E = yax + xay +2az, determine the
work expended in carrying 2 C from B(1,0,1) to A(0.8,0.6,1)
along the shorter arc of the circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1.

dL  dxa x  dya y  dza z • Differential path, rectangularcoordinate

W  Q  E  dL
A

 Q  ( ya x  xa y  2a z )  (dxa x  dya y  dza z )

A

 2 ydx  2 xdy  2 2dz

0.8 0.6 1

1 0 1

• Circle equation: x2  y2  1
x  1 y2
y  1  x2
 The Line Integral
W  2 1  x dx  2 1  y dy  2 2dz
0.8 0.6 1
2 2
1 0 1
0.8 0.6
x 1  y 1 
 2  1  x2  sin 1 x   2  1  y 2  sin 1 y 
2 2 1 2 2 0
 0.962 J u a2 1 u
 a  u du  a  u  sin
2 2 2 2

2 2 a
 Example
Redo the example, but use the straight-line path from B to A.
yA  yB
• Line equation: y  yB  ( x  xB )  y  3x  3
xA  xB
W  2 ydx  2 xdy  2 2dz
0.8 0.6 1

1 0 1

y
 2 (3x  3)dx  2
0.8 0.6
(1  )dy  0
1 0 3
 0.962 J
 Differential Length
dL  dxa x  dya y  dza z Rectangular
dL  d a    da  dza z Cylindrical
dL  drar  rd a  r sin  da Spherical
Work and Path Near an Infinite
Line Charge L
E  E a   a
2 0 
dL  d a    da  dza z

L
W  Q 
final
a   1da
init 2 
0 1
final 
 Q L
d a  a
init 2
0
0

L
W  Q 
final
a  d a
init 2  
0
b 
L d
 Q
a 2
0 
QL b
 ln
2 0 a
 Definition of Potential Difference
and Potential
 We already find the expression for the work W done by an
external source in moving a charge Q from one point to another
in an electric field E:
W  Q 
final
E  dL
init

 Potential difference V is defined as the work done by an

external source in moving a unit positive charge from one point
to another in an electric field:
Potential difference  V   
final
E  dL
init

 We shall now set an agreement on the direction of movement.

VAB signifies the potential difference between points A and B
and is the work done in moving the unit charge from B (last
named) to A (first named).
 Definition of Potential Difference
and Potential
 Potential difference is measured in joules per coulomb (J/C).
However, volt (V) is defined as a more common unit.
 The potential difference between points A and B is:
VAB    E  dL V
A
• VAB is positive if work is done in carrying
B the unit positive charge from B to A

 From the line-charge example, we found that the work done in

taking a charge Q from ρ = a to ρ = b was:
QL b
W  ln
2 0 a
 Or, from ρ = b to ρ = a,
QL a QL b
W  ln  ln
2 0 b 2 0 a
 Thus, the potential difference between points at ρ = a to
ρ = b is:
W  b
Vab   L ln
Q 2 0 a
 Definition of Potential Difference
and Potential
 For a point charge, we can find the potential difference
between points A and B at radial distance rA and rB, choosing
an origin at Q:
Q
E  Er ar  ar
4 0 r 2

dL  drar

VAB    E  dL
A

B
Q
 
rA
dr
rB 4 0 r 2

Q 1 1
    • rB > rA  VAB > 0, WAB > 0,
4 0  rA rB  Work expended by the
external source (us)
• rB < rA  VAB < 0, WAB < 0,
Work done by the electric
field
 Definition of Potential Difference
and Potential
 It is often convenient to speak of potential, or absolute
potential, of a point rather than the potential difference
between two points.
 For this purpose, we must first specify the reference point
which we consider to have zero potential.
 The most universal zero reference point is “ground”, which
means the potential of the surface region of the earth.
 Another widely used reference point is “infinity.”
 For cylindrical coordinate, in discussing a coaxial cable, the
outer conductor is selected as the zero reference for potential.

 If the potential at point A is VA and that at B is VB, then:

VAB  VA VB
 The Potential Field of a Point
Charge
 In previous section we found an expression for the potential
difference between two points located at r = rA and r = rB in the
field of a point charge Q placed at the origin:
Q 1 1
VAB      VA  VB
4 0  rA rB 

VAB   Er dr
rA

rB

 Any initial and final values of θ or Φ will not affect the answer.
As long as the radial distance between rA and rB is constant,
any complicated path between two points will not change the
results.
 This is because although dL has r, θ, and Φ components, the
electric field E only has the radial r component.
 The Potential Field of a Point
Charge
 The potential difference between two points in the field of a
point charge depends only on the distance of each point from
the charge.
 Thus, the simplest way to define a zero reference for potential
in this case is to let V = 0 at infinity.
 As the point r = rB recedes to infinity, the potential at rA
becomes:
VAB  VA  VB
Q 1 Q 1
VAB  
4 0 rA 4 0 rB
Q 1 Q 1
VAB  
4 0 rA 4 0 
Q 1
VAB   VA
4 0 rA
 The Potential Field of a Point
 Generally,
Charge
Q
V
4 0 r

 Physically, Q/4πε0r joules of work must be done in carrying

1 coulomb charge from infinity to any point in a distance of r
meters from the charge Q.

 We can also choose any point as a zero reference:

Q
V  C1
4 0 r
with C1 may be selected so that V = 0 at any desired value of r.
 Equipotential Surface
 Equipotential surface is a surface composed of all those points
having the same value of potential.
 No work is involved in moving a charge around on an
equipotential surface.

 The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a point

charge are spheres centered at the point charge.
 The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a line charge
are cylindrical surfaces axed at the line charge.
 The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a sheet of
charge are surfaces parallel with the sheet of charge.