Mediterranean Sea

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Coordinates: 35°N 18°E

Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic
Mediterranean Sea
Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost
completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and
Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa,
and on the east by the Levant. The Sea has played a central role
in the history of Western civilization. Although the
Mediterranean is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic
Ocean, it is usually referred to as a separate body of water.
Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago,
the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly
or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years Map of the Mediterranean Sea
during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the
Location Western Europe,
Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.
Southern Europe,
The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 North Africa and
(970,000  sq  mi),[3] representing 0.7% of the global ocean Western Asia
surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Coordinates 35°N 18°E
Gibraltar—the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to
Type Sea
the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in
Europe from Morocco in Africa—is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. In Primary inflows Atlantic Ocean, Sea of
oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Marmara, Nile, Ebro,
Mediterranean Sea, the European Mediterranean Sea or the Rhône, Chelif, Po
African Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean
Basin countries Coastal countries:
seas elsewhere.[4][5] The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast
number of islands, some of them being of volcanic origin. The Albania · Algeria ·
two by far largest islands are Sicily and Sardinia. Bosnia and Herzegovina
· Croatia · Cyprus ·
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500  m Egypt · France · Greece
(4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) · Israel · Italy · Lebanon
in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies between latitudes
· Libya · Malta · Monaco
30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west–east
· Montenegro · Morocco
length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on
the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about 4,000 kilometres · Northern Cyprus
(2,500  mi). The north–south length varies greatly between (recognized only by

different shorelines and whether only straight routes are Turkey)[1] · Palestine ·
considered. Also including longitudal changes, the shortest Slovenia · Spain · Syria
shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the · Tunisia · Turkey ·
Libyan coastline of Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres United Kingdom (Akrotiri
(1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm and Dhekelia and
in summer and give name to the mediterranean climate type due
Gibraltar) · For other
to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its
countries, see
southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far
inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the §Hydrography
Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation.
Surface area 2,500,000 km2
(970,000 sq mi)
Average depth 1,500 m (4,900 ft)
The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of Max. depth 5,267 m (17,280 ft)
ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between Water volume 3,750,000 km3
peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region
(900,000 cu mi)
is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many
modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical Residence time 80–100 years[2]
hegemony over the sea for centuries.
Max. 28 °C (82 °F)
The countries surrounding the Mediterranean in clockwise order temperature
are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Min. 12 °C (54 °F)
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, temperature
Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and
Islands 3300+
Morocco; Malta and Cyprus are island countries in the sea. In
addition, the disputed territory of Northern Cyprus, and some Settlements Alexandria, Barcelona,
enclaves, notably Gibraltar and Ceuta, have coastlines on the Algiers, Izmir, Rome,
sea. Alexandria is the largest coastal settlement. The drainage Athens, Beirut, Tripoli,
basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile Tunis, Tangier, Tel
being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. Aviv-Yafo, Split, (full
list)

Contents
History
Ancient civilizations
Middle Ages and empires
21st century and migrations
Geography
Marginal seas
Extent
Hydrography
Coastal countries
Exclusive economic zone
Coastline length
Coastal cities
Subdivisions
Other seas
Other features
Largest islands
Climate
Sea temperature
Oceanography
General circulation
Other events affecting water circulation
Climate change
Biogeochemistry
Geology
Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis
Messinian salinity crisis
Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna
Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"
Paleoclimate
Biodiversity
Environmental issues
Natural hazards
Invasive species
Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species
Sea-level rise
Pollution
Shipping
Tourism
Overfishing
Gallery
See also
Notes
References
External links

History

Ancient civilizations

Some of the world's greatest ancient


civilizations that were the base of the entire
Western culture were located around the
Mediterranean shores and were greatly
influenced by their proximity to the sea. It
provided routes for trade, colonization, and
war, as well as food (from fishing and the
gathering of other seafood) for numerous
communities throughout the ages.[6]

Due to the shared climate, geology, and


access to the sea, cultures centered on the
Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in antiquity c. the 6th
Mediterranean tended to have some extent
century BC
of intertwined culture and history.

Two of the most notable Mediterranean


civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively
colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans
referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire
completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the Levant.

Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea.
Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days
to traverse.[7]
In 2019, the archaeological team of experts
from Underwater Research Center of the
Akdeniz University (UA) revealed a
shipwreck dating back 3,600 years in the
Mediterranean Sea in Turkey. 1.5 tons of
copper ingots found in the ship were used
to estimate its age. The Governor of
Antalya Munir Karaloğlu described this
valuable discovery as the "Göbeklitepe of
the underwater world”. It has been
confirmed that the shipwreck, dating back
to 1600 BC, is older than the "Uluburun
Shipwreck" dating back to 1400
BC.[8][9][10]
The Roman Empire at its farthest extent in AD 117

Middle Ages and empires

The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. Temporarily the east was again dominant as Roman
power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire.
Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the
east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads, controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left
a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.

The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade
routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting the trade across the
Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world. Products from East
Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors
and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt.
However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury
goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area
around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to
counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice.[11]

The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like
Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza
documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants
living in Cairo. Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with
Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants
to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.[12]

The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended The Crusades led to flourishing of trade between Europe and the
in victory for the European Holy outremer region.[13] Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in
League against the Ottoman Turks. regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with
the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern
world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning
of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however
continued.[14]

Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle
Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.
Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453
extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of
Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the
16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–
1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is
a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza
(1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman
naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the
European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the
The bombardment of Algiers by the
region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the
Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an
Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily
ultimatum to release European
between galleys.
slaves, August 1816
The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping
and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea.[15] According to
Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1  million to 1.25  million Europeans as
slaves.[16]

The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade
between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region, but after the 1490s the development of
a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic
ports of western Europe.[17][18][19]

The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and
Southwest Asia. Especially after the naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile) and Trafalgar (1805), the
British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean.[20] Wars included Naval
warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II.

With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed
fundamentally. The fastest route now led through the Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to
a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with the direct connections to Central
and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World War as well
as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which
changed again towards the southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and
free world trade.[21]

21st century and migrations

In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean


Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who
drowned there after their boats capsized.[22] European
Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's
migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard",
referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a
Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at
direct result of the policies.[23] An Azerbaijani official night
described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die".[24]

Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national
system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and
humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more
than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.[25]
Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis. Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed
in Italy,[26] mainly sub-Saharan Africans.[27]

Geography
The Mediterranean Sea connects:

to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of


Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings
as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west
to the Sea of Marmara and the Black
Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles
and the Bosporus respectively, in the
east

The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal A satellite image showing the The Dardanelles strait in
in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea. The Strait Turkey. The north (upper) side
to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the of Gibraltar appears in the forms part of Europe (the
bottom left (north-west)
water level is essentially the same.[28][29] Gelibolu Peninsula in the
quarter of the image; to its left Thrace region); on the south
The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is is the Iberian Peninsula in (lower) side is Anatolia in
located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to Europe, and to its right, the Asia.
the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is Maghreb in Africa.
on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in
southeastern Turkey. The northernmost point of
the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while the
southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila.

Large islands in the Mediterranean include:

Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos, and
Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean
Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula, and Malta in the central Mediterranean
Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands: Ibiza, Majorca, and Menorca in the Western
Mediterranean

The Alpine arc, which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the
Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice.

The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include
olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, carobs and cork.

Marginal seas

The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas:[30][31][32]


Number Sea Area (km2) Marginal countries and territories

1 Libyan Sea 350,000 Libya, Turkey, Greece, Malta, Italy


Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Cyprus, Akrotiri
2 Levantine Sea 320,000
& Dhekelia
Tyrrhenian
3 275,000 Italy, France
Sea
4 Aegean Sea 214,000 Turkey, Greece
(Part of
5 Icarian Sea Greece
Aegean)

(Part of
6 Myrtoan Sea Greece
Aegean)

(Part of
7 Thracian Sea Greece, Turkey
Aegean)

8 Ionian Sea 169,000 Greece, Albania, Italy


9 Balearic Sea 150,000 Spain
10 Adriatic Sea 138,000 Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Slovenia
Sea of
11 120,000 Italy, Spain
Sardinia
12 Sea of Crete 95,000 Greece, Libya, Egypt
13 Ligurian Sea 80,000 Italy, France
14 Alboran Sea 53,000 Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Gibraltar
Sea of
15 11,500 Turkey
Marmara
Consists of gulfs, straits, channels and other parts that do not have the
– Other ~500,000
name of a specific sea.
Mediterranean
Total ~2,500,000
Sea

List of seas
Category:Marginal seas of the Mediterranean
Category:Gulfs of the Mediterranean
Category:Straits of the Mediterranean Sea
Category:Channels of the Mediterranean Sea

Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the
Western Basin. It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia.[33]

Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea.

Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it.

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[33]
Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the
east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep
basins:
Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape
Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa)
On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of
Messina, a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci
(15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the
Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily
On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western Borders of the Mediterranean Sea
point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E), through the Adventure
Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia)
Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin
On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance
to the Dardanelles
On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal
On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel

Hydrography

The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly


heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean
region.[34] Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000  km2
(1,500,000  sq  mi) and 5,500,000  km2 (2,100,000  sq  mi),[note 1]
depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or
not.[35][36][37] The longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea is the
Nile, which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile
constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin[36]
and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains.[38] Approximate extent of the
Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Mediterranean drainage basin (dark
Chelif, both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains. In Asia, are the green). Nile basin only partially
Ceyhan and Seyhan, both on the south side of the Taurus shown
Mountains. [39] In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône,
Ebro, Po, and Maritsa.[40] The basin of the Rhône is the largest and
extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains, encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps.[41] The
basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkan Mountains,
which are the major ranges bordering Southern Europe.

Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially
near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river
discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin.[39]
These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m3 /s (35,000 cu ft/s).[36] Among large
natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and the Italian Lakes (Po).
While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by
endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere.

The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while not having a coastline on the
Mediterranean Sea:

In Europe, through various rivers:[40] Andorra,[note 2] Bulgaria,[note 3] Kosovo,[note 4] North


Macedonia,[note 5] San Marino,[note 6] Serbia,[note 7] and Switzerland.[note 8]
In Africa, through the Nile:[43] Congo, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan,
Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.

Coastal countries

The following countries have a coastline on the


Mediterranean Sea:

Northern shore (from west to east): Spain,


France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece,
Turkey.
Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey,
Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt. Map of the Mediterranean Sea from open Natural
Earth data, 2020
Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.
Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.

Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east):

the British overseas territory of Gibraltar


the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands
the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus
the Palestinian Gaza Strip

Exclusive economic zone

Exclusive economic zones in Mediterranean Sea:[31][45]

Alexandria, the largest city on the


Mediterranean

Barcelona, the second largest


metropolitan area on the
Mediterranean Sea (after Alexandria)
and the headquarters of the Union for
the Mediterranean
Number Country Area (Km2)
1  Italy 541,915

2  Libya 355,604
3  Greece 338,708

4  Turkey 292,195
The Acropolis of Athens with the
5  Spain 260,000
Mediterranean Sea in the background
6  Egypt 169,125

7  Algeria 128,843

8  Tunisia 102,047

9  Cyprus 98,088

10  France 88,389

11  Croatia 59,032
12  Malta 55,542 The ancient port of Jaffa (now in Tel
Aviv-Yafo), from which the biblical
13  Israel 25,139 Jonah set sail before being
swallowed by a whale[44]
14  Lebanon 19,265

15  Morocco 18,302

16  Albania 13,691

17  Syria 10,189

18  Montenegro 7,745
19  Palestine 2,591
20  Monaco 288
Catania, Sicily, Italy, with Mount
21  Slovenia 220 Etna in the background

22  Bosnia and Herzegovina 50


23  United Kingdom 6.8
Total Mediterranean Sea 2,500,000

Coastline length
İzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey
The Coastline length is about 46,000 km.[46][47][48] (after Istanbul and Ankara)

Coastal cities

Major cities (municipalities), with populations larger than 200,000 people, bordering the Mediterranean Sea
include:
Algeria: Algiers, Annaba, Oran
Egypt: Alexandria, Damietta, Port Said
France: Marseille, Toulon, Nice
Greece: Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Heraklion
Israel: Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv
Italy: Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Taranto, Trieste, Venice
Lebanon: Beirut, Tripoli
Libya: Benghazi, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten
Malta: Valletta
Morocco: Tétouan, Tangier
Palestine: Gaza City
Spain: Alicante, Almería, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca,
Valencia.
Syria: Latakia, Tartus
Tunisia: Sfax, Sousse, Tunis
Turkey: Alanya, Antalya, Çanakkale, İskenderun, İzmir, Mersin

Subdivisions

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the


Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their
own designation (from west to east):[33]

the Strait of Gibraltar


the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco
the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic
Islands Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe
the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy) (right), as seen from Gibraltar
the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula
and Sicily
the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece
the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and
Albania
the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey

Other seas

Some other seas whose names have been in common use from the
ancient times, or in the present:

the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands,


as a part of the Balearic Sea
the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia
the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete
In the Aegean Sea, Positano, Italy, Tyrrhenian Sea
the Thracian Sea in its north
the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese
the Sea of Crete north of Crete
the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios
the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus
the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from such associations.

Other features

In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are recognised:

the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon


the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria
the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.
the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient
Ugarit, Syria
the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the View of the Saint George Bay, and
Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco snow-capped Mount Sannine from a
the Bay of Algeciras, at the southern end of the Iberian tower in the Beirut Central District
Peninsula
the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian
Sea and the Corinth Canal
the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic
Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula
the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth
Canal and the Mirtoan Sea
the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the
northern Greek region of Macedonia
the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia
the Gulf of Almeria, southeast of Spain The Port of Marseille seen from
the Gulf of Lion, south of France L'Estaque
the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain
the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and Calabrian
peninsula
the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy
the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy
the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy
the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy
the Gulf of Saint Euphemia, southern Italy, with the
international airport nearby Sarandë, Albania, stands on an
the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy open-sea gulf of the Ionian sea in the
central Mediterranean.
the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy
the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania
the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel
the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy
the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica
the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)
the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)
the Gulf of İzmir, in İzmir (Turkey)
the Gulf of Fethiye, in Fethiye (Turkey)
the Gulf of Kuşadası, in İzmir (Turkey)
the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia
the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta
the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

Largest islands

The Mediterranean Sea encompasses about 10,000 islands and islets,


of which about 250 are permanently inhabited.[49] In the table below
are listed the ten largest by size.

Country Island Area in km2 Population

Italy Sicily 25,460 5,048,995


Italy Sardinia 23,821 1,672,804
The two biggest islands of the
Cyprus Cyprus 9,251 1,088,503
Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia
France Corsica 8,680 299,209 (Italy)
Greece Crete 8,336 623,666
Greece Euboea 3,655 218,000
Spain Majorca 3,640 869,067
Greece Lesbos 1,632 90,643
Greece Rhodes 1,400 117,007
Greece Chios 842 51,936

Climate

Much of the Mediterranean coast enjoys a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. However, most of its
southeastern coast has a hot desert climate, and much of Spain's eastern (Mediterranean) coast has a cold semi-
arid climate, while most of Italy's northern (Adriatic) coast has a humid subtropical climate. Although they are
rare, tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea, typically in September–November.
Map of climate zones in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to the Köppen climate classification

Sea temperature

Mean sea temperature (°C)


Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Málaga[50] 16 15 16 16 18 20 22 23 22 20 18 17 18.6

Barcelona[51] 13 12 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15 17.8

Marseille[52] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14 16.6

Naples[53] 15 14 14 15 18 22 25 27 25 22 19 16 19.3

Malta[54] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18 19.9

Venice[55] 11 10 11 13 18 22 25 26 23 20 16 14 17.4

Athens[56] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 18 19.3

Heraklion[57] 16 15 15 16 19 22 24 25 24 22 20 18 19.7

Antalya[58] 17 17 16 17 21 24 27 29 27 25 22 19 21.8

Limassol[59] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 28 27 25 22 19 21.7

Mersin[60] 18 17 17 18 21 25 28 29 28 25 22 19 22.3

Tel Aviv[61] 18 17 17 18 21 24 27 28 28 26 23 20 22.3

Alexandria[62] 18 17 17 18 20 23 25 26 26 25 22 20 21.4

Oceanography
Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a
result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately
recognised by its deep blue colour.

Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the
water circulation within the basin.[63] Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level
to decrease and salinity to increase eastward.[64] The average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m depth.[65]
The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F).[65]
The net water influx from the Atlantic Ocean is
ca. 70,000 m³/s or 2.2 × 1012   m3 /a
(7.8 × 1013   cu  ft/a).[66] Without this Atlantic
water, the sea level of the Mediterranean Sea
would fall at a rate of about 1 m per year.[67]

General circulation

Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be


attributed to the surface waters entering from the Predominant surface currents for June
Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar (and also
low salinity water entering the Mediterranean
from the Black Sea through the Bosphorus). The cool and relatively low-salinity Atlantic water circulates
eastwards along the North African coasts. A part of the surface water does not pass the Strait of Sicily, but
deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean. The surface waters entering the eastern
Mediterranean basin circulate along the Libyan and Israeli coasts. Upon reaching the Levantine Sea, the
surface waters having warmed and increased its salinity from its initial Atlantic state, is now denser and sinks
to form the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW). Most of the water found anywhere between 50 and 600 m
deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW.[68] LIW are formed along the coasts of Turkey and
circulate westwards along the Greek and South Italian coasts. LIW are the only waters passing the Sicily Strait
westwards. After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters circulate along the Italian, French and Spanish coasts
before exiting the Mediterranean through the depths of the Strait of Gibraltar. Deep water in the Mediterranean
originates from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from which most of the deep water in the eastern
Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of Lion. Deep water formation in the Mediterranean is
triggered by strong winter convection fueled by intense cold winds like the Bora. When new deep water is
formed, the older waters mix with the overlaying intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean.
The residence time of water in the Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean
especially sensitive to climate change.[69]

Other events affecting water circulation

Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can affect the water
circulation on short time scales. In the mid 1990s, the Aegean Sea became the main area for deep water
formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold winter conditions. This transitory switch in the
origin of deep waters in the eastern Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) and
had major consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean.[70][71][72]

Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic inversion of the
North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the northern part of the Ionian Sea, off the
Greek coast. The transition from anticyclonic to cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the origin of the waters
fueling it; when the circulation is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre originate from the
Adriatic Sea. When the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine Sea. These waters have
different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre (called
Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean circulation and biogeochemistry around the
Adriatic and Levantine regions.[73]

Climate change

Because of the short residence time of waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot-spot for climate
change effects.[74] Deep water temperatures have increased by 0.12 °C (0.22 °F) between 1959 and 1989.[75]
According to climate projections, the Mediterranean Sea could become warmer. The decrease in precipitation
over the region could lead to more evaporation ultimately increasing the Mediterranean Sea salinity.[74][76]
Because of the changes in temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea may become more stratified by the
end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation and biogeochemistry.

Biogeochemistry
In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea are very
low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the world. The Mediterranean Sea is commonly
referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) area. The Mediterranean Sea fits the definition of a
desert in which its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult for plants and animals to develop.

There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity in the
Mediterranean. Nutrient concentrations in the western part of the basin are about double the concentrations in
the eastern basin. The Alboran Sea, close to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary productivity of about
0.25 g C (grams of carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average daily productivity of 0.16 g C
m−2 day−1 .[77] For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is termed "ultraoligotrophic". The
productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small. High (i.e. more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll a
per cubic meter) productivity occurs in coastal areas, close to the river mouths which are the primary suppliers
of dissolved nutrients. The Gulf of Lion has a relatively high productivity because it is an area of high vertical
mixing, bringing nutrients to the surface waters that can be used by phytoplankton to produce Chlorophyll
a.[78]

Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability. In winter, the
strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing, bringing nutrients from the deep waters
to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it into biomass.[79] However, in winter, light may be the
limiting factor for primary productivity. Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off between
light intensity and nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur. In summer, high atmospheric
temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters. The resulting density difference virtually isolates the
surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient exchanges are limited. As a consequence,
primary productivity is very low between June and October.[80][78]

Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea biogeochemistry: most
of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in sub-surface waters between 80 and 200
meters deep.[81] Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (N:P).
Redfield demonstrated that most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio around 16. However, the
Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a widespread phosphorus
limitation.[82][83][84][85]

Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are dominated by small
organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria.[86][87]

Geology
The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once
thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger
basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates
during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry
climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The
Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked,
and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a
million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.[88][89]
Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3  million years
ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured
in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now
called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders
of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the
Amazon River.[90]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and


the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep
in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A A submarine karst spring, called
shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of vrulja, near Omiš; observed through
Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: several ripplings of an otherwise
the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850,000  km2 calm sea surface.
(330,000  mi2 ); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about
1.65  million  km2 (640,000  mi2 ). Coastal areas have submarine karst
springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the water from below the surface; the
discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[91][92]

Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis

The Mediterranean basin and sea system were established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding
with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean
which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana.
At about that time in the middle
Jurassic period (roughly 170 million years ago) a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed
shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a
very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of
mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of
collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs
(34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin
consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the eastern part of the
Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction contain the highest oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and
south of the Aegean. The Central Indian Ridge runs east of the Mediterranean Sea south-east across the in-
between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean.

Messinian salinity crisis

During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner


of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain
belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the
development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins created
two roughly parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian
corridors, they gradually closed during the middle and late
Miocene: perhaps several times.[93] In the late Miocene the
closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian
salinity crisis" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely Messinian salinity crisis before the
dried out. The start of the MSC was recently estimated Zanclean flood
astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000
years until about 5.3 mya;[94] see Animation: Messinian salinity
crisis, at right.
After the initial drawdown and re-flooding, there followed more
episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and
re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the
Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of
Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the
Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a
desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated
several times, which could explain several events of large
amounts of salt deposition.[95][96] Recent studies, however, 0:00
show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a
geodynamic point of view.[97][98]
Animation: Messinian salinity crisis

Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean
Flood. As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian
Corridor across northern Morocco. The Betic closed about 6 mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC);
the Rifian or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity
crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad
connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which allowed migrations of flora and fauna—
especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a
typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic
upheaval and overland migrations of new species:[99] see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal
migrations), at right.

The almost complete enclosure of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate
seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected
by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are
interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby
Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene),
and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Many diatomites are found
underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their formations.

Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation
and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the
Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic,
causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline
Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the
Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project)
across the Straits, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying
energy grid was also intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of
Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the
planned grid).[100]

Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"

The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from
that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting
laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the
late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they
persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present
Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with
small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands
have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few
relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.

Paleoclimate
Because of its latitude and its landlocked position, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically
induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is
subject to the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input
prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution
climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales
for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.[101]
Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the
Earth's orbital variations in the past.

Biodiversity
Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective oceanic zones;
biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of
currents which affects favourably, even the smallest macroscopic type of volcanic life form. The stable marine
ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep
sea to flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors. It
is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the Mediterranean Sea with generally higher
marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental shelves, and decreases with depth.[102]

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[103] the marine biota of the
Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and
more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its
differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.

The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic
species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is
home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding
grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran Sea also hosts important commercial fisheries,
including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003,
the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of
dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the spiny squat lobster.

There was a resident population of orcas in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when they went extinct,
probably due to long-term PCB exposure. There are still annual sightings of orca vagrants.[104]

Environmental issues
For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the "humanisation
of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate.[105] The image of a
simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was
destroyed by later civilisations, dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in
archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis
of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population
studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe"
challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested
region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.[105] The belief stems
more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by
artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.[105]

The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in


southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more
complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the
deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in
the Roman age large enterprises such as the latifundia took effective
care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came
with the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation
took place in modern times—the later usage patterns were also quite
different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has
usually been unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and
The thermonuclear bomb that fell into
modern "Little Ice Ages",[106] and plant cover accommodated to the sea recovered off Palomares,
various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of human Almería, 1966
activity.[105]

Human activity was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.[105] The wide ecological
diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behaviour, as it is and has been
closely related to human usage patterns.[105] The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange
and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations,
and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes,
however, came after World War II, in line with the "1950s syndrome"[107] as rural populations throughout the
region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the
traditional agricultural patterns and instead became scenery-setting agents for tourism. This resulted in more
uniform, large-scale formations.[105] Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are
overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the
reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.[105]

Natural hazards

The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely


interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among
others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to
the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some
experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the
nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may
have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend.[108]
Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European
mainland, while others, Mount Etna and Stromboli, are on Stromboli volcano in Italy
neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the
Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active[109] and
constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world where an eruptive event may occur within
decades.[110]

Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.[111] It is
best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii
and Herculaneum.
The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level
with the cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[112] The
Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved
relations between traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens in 1999. The European
Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European
solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.[113] The largest amount of funding requests in the
EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes. Forest fires, whether man-made or natural, are a
frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[112] Tsunamis are also an often underestimated
hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in
Sicily and Calabria and were among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.

Invasive species

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water
passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Red Sea is
higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal functions as a tidal
strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter
Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal,
blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for
many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with
that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants
and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern
The reticulate whipray is one of the
Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor species that colonised the Eastern
than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Mediterranean through the Suez
Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Canal as part of the ongoing
Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not Lessepsian migration.
vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration
(after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean ("red")
invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of
freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even
more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts
on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at
some groups of exotic species shows that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of
the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin,[114] introduced into the
Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal the first pathway of arrival of alien species into
the Mediterranean. The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to be considerable, mainly in the
Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a familiar sight.

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-
native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which
is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea,
compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of
change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by
human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez
Canal, being an artificial (man-made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced"
species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native
Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian
government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal[115] have raised concerns from
marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the
Mediterranean, and lead to even more species passing through the canal.[116]
Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become noticeable. Whether this
reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the
Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension of the
maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While
not as intense as the "Lessepsian" movement, the process may be of scientific interest and may, therefore,
warrant increased levels of monitoring.

Sea-level rise

By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result of the
effects of climate change.[117] This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:

Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt
water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.[118]
A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta,
displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[119]
Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea
levels.[120]

Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic,
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east–west movement corridors,
which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.[121] Sea level rise for the next century
(2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the
deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.[122]

Pollution

Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme
has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral
oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons)
of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[123] The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce
pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby
contributing to its sustainable development.'[124]
Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of
the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's
most endangered marine mammals.[125]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the
coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935
items per km2 . Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.[126]

Shipping

Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. In particular, the Maritime Silk Road
from Asia and Africa leads through the Suez Canal directly into the Mediterranean Sea to its deep-water ports
in Piraeus, Trieste, Genoa, Marseilles and Barcelona. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant
vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one-third of the world's total
merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the
marine environment.
The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also
represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean
Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17%
of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between
100,000  t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000  t (150,000 long tons) of
crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.

Approximately 370,000,000  t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are A cargo ship cruises towards the
transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the Strait of Messina
world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every
day. An important destination is the Port of
Trieste, the starting point of the Transalpine
Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's oil
demand (100% of the federal states of Bavaria
and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and
50% of the Czech Republic.[127] Accidental oil
spills happen frequently with an average of 10
Port of Trieste
spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any
time in any part of the Mediterranean.[122]

Genoa La Spezia
Leghorn
Fos
Barcelona Ambarlı
Evyap
Valencia Gemlik
Gioia Tauro Nemrut Bay

Algeciras Piraeus Mersin


Marsaxlokk
anger-Med
Beirut
Haifa
Ashdod

Largest ports of the Mediterranean area per total vessel traffic as of 2016.[128]

Tourism

The coast of the Mediterranean has been used for tourism since ancient times, as the Roman villa buildings on
the Amalfi Coast or in Barcola show. From the end of the 19th century, in particular, the beaches became
places of longing for many Europeans and travellers. From then on, and especially after World War II, mass
tourism to the Mediterranean began with all its advantages and disadvantages. While initially, the journey was
by train and later by bus or car, today the plane is increasingly used.[130]

Tourism is today one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries, despite the
man-made geopolitical conflicts in the region. The countries have tried to extinguish rising man-made chaotic
zones that might affect the region's economies and societies in neighbouring coastal countries, and shipping
routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the
rapid cooperation between various naval fleets. Unlike the vast open
oceans, the sea's closed position facilitates effective naval and rescue
missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or
natural disaster.

Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities, including


islands, independent of urban centres. However, tourism has also
played a major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine
environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by
Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists Kemer Beach in Antalya on the
visiting the region, but this has caused serious disturbance to marine Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast). In
habitats by erosion and pollution in many places along the 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the
Mediterranean coasts. world in terms of the number of
international tourist arrivals, with 51.2
Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a
million foreign tourists visiting the
serious threat to the habitats of endangered species such as sea turtles
country.[129]
and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce the incentive
for tourists to visit.[122]

Overfishing

Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that
more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna,
hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.

There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas,
larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.

Large open-water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are
now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the
Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that
without immediate action the stock will collapse.

Gallery

Coast of Alexandria, Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia The beach of la


view From Bibliotheca Courtade in the Îles
Alexandrina, Egypt d'Hyères, France

Sardinia's south Pretty Bay, Malta Panoramic view of Piran,


coast, Italy Slovenia

Panoramic view of View of Neum, A view of Sveti Ksamil Islands, Albania


Cavtat, Croatia Bosnia and Stefan, Montenegro
Herzegovina

Navagio, Greece Ölüdeniz, Turquoise Paphos, Cyprus


Coast, Turkey


Burj Islam Beach, A view of Raouché A view of Haifa, Israel Old city of Ibiza Town,
Latakia, Syria off the coast of Beirut, Spain
Lebanon

Les Aiguades near El Jebha, a port town Europa Point,


Béjaïa, Algeria in Morocco Gibraltar

Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco Sunset at the Deir al-


Balah beach, Gaza
Strip

See also
Aegean dispute – Series of controversies between Greece and Turkey over the Aegean Sea
Atlantropa – Proposed engineering project to create new land within the Mediterranean Sea
Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures
Cyprus dispute
Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute – Ongoing political dispute in the Mediterranean
Eastern Mediterranean – Countries that are geographically located to the east of the
Mediterranean Sea
Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly – Parliamentary assembly
Exclusive economic zone of Greece
Familial Mediterranean fever
History of the Mediterranean region – Historical development of the Mediterranean
Holy League (1571)
Libya–Turkey maritime deal
List of islands in the Mediterranean
List of Mediterranean countries
Mediterranean diet – Diet inspired by eating habits of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub – Habitat defined by the World Wide Fund for
Nature
Mediterranean Games – Multi-sport event of the Mediterranean
Mediterranean race – Outdated grouping of human beings
Mediterranean sea (oceanography) – Mostly enclosed sea with limited exchange with outer
oceans
Names of the Mediterranean Sea
Piri Reis – Turkish admiral and cartographer – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean
Qattara Depression Project
Seto Inland Sea – Japanese Inland Sea – also known as the Japanese Mediterranean Sea
Tyrrhenian Basin
Union for the Mediterranean – Intergovernmental organization

Notes
1. Not including the area of the Mediterranean Sea
2. Through the Ebro
3. Through the Struma, Maritsa and Nestos, see Geography of Bulgaria#Hydrography
4. Through the Drin
5. Through the Drin and Vardar
6. Through the Marecchia[42]
7. Through the Struma
8. Through the Rhône, Po and Adige, see Hydrology of Switzerland

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External links
Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera (http://www.foraminifera.eu/q
uerydb.php?area=Mediterranean+Sea&aktion=suche)
Eastern Mediterranean Sea Long Term Ecological Research Station (http://med-lter.haifa.ac.il/i
ndex.php/about)

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