CLASS: X- HISTORY-POLITICAL SCIENCE – STUDY MATERIAL

NAME: _________________________ ROLL NO: ________________

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CH-1 THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

FRÉDÉRIC SORRIEU AND HIS PAINTING:

1. In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream
of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’, as he called them.
2. The first print of the series, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all
ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty
as they pass by it.
3. Artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure – here you
can recognise the torch of Enlightenment she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of
Man in the other.
4. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of
absolutist institutions.
5. In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified
through their flags and national costume.
6. Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland,
which by this time were already nation-states.
Q: Describe the series of prints prepared by Frédéric Sorrieu.
Q: Explain Utopian vision of Frédéric Sorrieu.

NATIONALISM AN EMERGING FORCE:

1. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping
changes in the political and mental world of Europe.
2. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-
national dynastic empires of Europe.
3. The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a centralised power exercised sovereign
control over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in
Europe.
4. But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came
to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
5. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through
the actions of leaders and the common people.
6. he diverse processes through which nation-states and nationalism came into being in
nineteenth-century Europe.
Q: Define ‘modern states’ and ‘nation states’.

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Q: Describe the major changes in 19th century Europe.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION:

1. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to
the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens.
2. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation
and shape its destiny.
3. From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices
thatcould create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
4. The ideas of la patrie (thefatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a
united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag ,the tricolour,
was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
5. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National
Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the
name of the nation.
6. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all
citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform
system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became
the common language of the nation.
8. The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation
to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of
Europe to become nations.
9. When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and
other members of educated middle classes When the news of the events in France reached the
different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting
up Jacobin clubs.
10. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into
Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.
11. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of
nationalism abroad.
Q: Mention the major political and constitutional changes due to French Revolution in
Europe.
Q: How French revolution spread the ideas of nationalism throughout Europe?
Q: What steps were taken by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective
belonging?
Q: Describe how French began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

NAPOLEONIC CODE:

1. Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France.
2. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in
the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole
system more rational and efficient.
3. The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges
based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
4. This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in
Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the
feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
5. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were

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 improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
6. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform
laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the
movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
7. In the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed.
8. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like
Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of
liberty.
9. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new
administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.
10. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer
the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.
(SUMMARY)
Napoleon (1769-1821)
1. Ruled France from 1799 to 1815.
2. Assumed absolute powers in 1799 by becoming the First Consul.
3. Civil Code/Napoleonic Code (1804)
4. Established equality before law.
5. Abolished all privileges based on birth.
6. Granted the right to property to French citizens.
7. Simplified administrative divisions.
8. Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom.
9. Removed restrictions on guilds in towns.
10. Improved transport and communication.
11. Militarily, Napoleon proved to be an oppressor for the people of the conquered territories.
Taxation and censorship were imposed and military services were made mandatory.

Q: Describe Napoleon as modernizer in Europe?

Q: How the conquered nations react to the new change?
Q: What outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes ?

THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

1. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers
had their autonomous territories.
2. Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which
lived diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common
culture.
3. Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
4. The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many
different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the
Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
5. It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. In Hungary, half of
the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.
6. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived
within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples – Bohemians and
Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in
Transylvania.

Q: Explain the political set up in Europe before emergence of ‘nation states’.

Q: Write a note on Habsburg empire.

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 THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS

1. Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
2. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional
divisions.
3. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes
of diplomacy and in high society.
4. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was,
however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the
peasantry.
5. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and
Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were
cultivated by serfs.
6. In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the
growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on
production for the market.
7. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in France
and parts of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century.
8. In its wake, new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and middle classes
made up of industrialists, businessmen and professionals.
9. In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number till late nineteenth century.
10. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of national unity following the
abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.
Q: How were the aristocratic class socially united?
Q: What led to the emergence of the new middle class?

LIBERAL NATIONALISM:
1. Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology
of liberalism.
2. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
3. For the new middle classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all
before the law.
4. Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution,
liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and
representative government through parliament.
5. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
6. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. During the nineteenth
century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.
7. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by
most of the German states.
8. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to
two.
9. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unification.
10. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the
time.
Q: Describe the concept of liberalism which developed in Europe in 19th century.
Q: What do you understand by economic liberalism?
Q: Explain the conditions viewed as obstacles to economic growth of commercial classes in

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 Europe.
Q: What was Zollverein? What were its wider implications?

SUFFRAGE RIGHT( THE RIGHT TO VOTE):

1. Equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
2. In revolutionary France, which marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the
right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
3. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief
period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage.
4. Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor,
subject to the authority of fathers and husbands.
5. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men
organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

Q: ‘Suffrage right was not applicable to all citizens in France alike. Explain.

A NEW CONSERVATISM AFTER 1815:

1. European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.

2. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
3. Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary
days. Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could
in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
4. It could make state power more effective and strong.
5. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and
serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
6. The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come
about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
7. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to
power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon. A series of states were
set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
8. the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa
was added to Piedmont in the south.
9. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given
control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by
Napoleon was left untouched. In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was
given a portion of Saxony. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been
overthrown by Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.
10. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.
11. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of autocratic governments.
12. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays
and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and free.

Q: What was the objective of Treaty of Vienna of 1815? Mention the outcomes of it.
Q: Describe the conservative regime set up in 1815 Europe?
Q: ‘European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism’. Explain.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION:1830-1848:

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1. As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be
increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and
German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland
2. An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the
Greek war of independence.
3. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of
revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the
Greeks which began in 1821.
4. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West
Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
5. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public
opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
6. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died
of fever in 1824.
7. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation .

Q: How revolution spread in many European regions after 1815?

Q: How did the Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feeling among the
educated class in Europe?

ROMANTICISM, A CULTURAL MOVEMENT WHICH SOUGHT TO DEVELOP A

PARTICULAR FORM OF NATIONALIST SENTIMENT:

1. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and
music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
2. Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment.
3. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and
focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
4. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the
basis of a nation.
5. Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk.
6. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation
(volksgeist) was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was
essential to the project of nation-building.
7. The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to
recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large
audiences who were mostly illiterate.
8. national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, for example,
celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the
polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols .
9. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian
occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was
imposed everywhere.
10. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed.
Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of
national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
11. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the
Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
12. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

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 Q: Explain the term ‘Romanticism’.
Q: How ‘Romanticism’ played a key role in development of nationalist sentiments?
Q: “Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance”. Explain the
statement.
Q: Highlight cultural activities of Poland which helped in keeping nationalism alive.

HUNGER, HARDSHIP AND POPULAR REVOLT :

1. The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
2. In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural
areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
3. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the
continent.
4. Especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops
and was only partly mechanised. In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed
power,
5. peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
6. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.
7. The year 1848 was one such year. Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the
population of Paris out on the roads.
8. A National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult male above 21 and
right to work.

Q: Why were the years of 1830’s of great hardship in Europe?Explain.

Q: What were the consequences of bad harvest and hardship in France 1848?

1848: THE REVOLUTION OF THE LIBERALS:

1. Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many
European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under
way.
2. men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism
with national unification.
3. In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-
class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt
and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
4. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their
places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul.
5. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a
parliament. When the deputies offered the crown onthese terms to Friedrich WilhelmIV ,King
of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
6. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of
parliament eroded.
7. The parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and
artisans and consequently lost their support.
8. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal
movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
9. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in
political meetings and demonstrations.
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10. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly.
11. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were admitted only
as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
12. Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not
restore the old order.
13. Monarchs were beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could only be
ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
14. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began
to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815.
15. Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
16. Habusburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

Q: Explain the 1848 revolution of the liberals.

Q: Elaborate the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals.
Q: Explain the role of women in the nationalist struggle of Europe.
Q: Mention the changes in western Europe due to liberal movements?
Q: What were the outcomes of 1848 revolt in Europe?

THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY:

1. After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and
revolution.
2. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and
achieving political domination over Europe.
3. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-
states.
4. nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite
the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected
parliament.
5. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia.
6. Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
7. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help
of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
8. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory
and completed the process of unification.
9. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony
held at Versailles.
10. On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the
German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief
minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles
to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
11. The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and
judicial systems in Germany.

Q: What changes came in nationalism in Europe after 1848?

Q: Briefly describe the process of German unification.
Q: Who was Otto von Bismarck and explain his role in nation building process in Germany?
Q: What was the outcome of German Unification of Germany?

ITALY UNIFICATION :

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1. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg
Empire.
2. During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only
one, Sardinia-Piedmont,was ruled by an Italian princely house.
3. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope
4. The southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
5. Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form and still had many regional and
local variations.
6. The 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary
Italian Republic.
7. He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of his goals.
8. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848 meant that the mantle now fell on
Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through
war.
9. In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified Italy offered them the possibility of
economic development and political dominance.
10. Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian
elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian.
11. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
12. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of
Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive
out the Spanish rulers.
13. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Q: Examine the conditions of Italy before unification.

Q: Describe the process of unification of Italy under Giuseppe Mazzini?
Q: Who was Cavour? Explain his role in Italian unification?

FORMATION OF UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN:

1. Britain formation of the nation-state was the result of a long-drawn-out process.

2. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people
who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
3. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English
nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over
the other nations of the islands.
4. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a
protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre,
came to be forged.
5. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the
‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its
influence on Scotland.
6. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
7. The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions were systematically suppressed.
8. The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever
they attempted to assert their independence.
9. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national
dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
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 10. Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and
Protestants.
11. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely
Catholic country.
12. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
13. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly
incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
14. A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture.
15. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save
Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations
survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
Q: What was the impact of the Act of Union 1707 ?
Q: Explain the process of nation- state formation in Britain.
Q: Explain how Ireland got incorporated intoUnited Kingdom in 1801?

VISUALISING THE NATION:

1. While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a statue, how does one go about
giving a face to a nation.
2. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.
3. In other words they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as
female figures.
4. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman
in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
5. The female figure became an allegory of the nation.
6. During the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty,
Justice and the Republic.
7. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols.
8. The attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a
blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
9. Similar female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the
nation.
10. In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of
a people’s nation.
11. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade.
12. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol
of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and
stamps.
13. Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears
a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Q: How was nation portrayed by artists in 18th and 19th century?

Q: Name the female allegory who represented France and Germany? Describe their
characteristics.

NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM:

1. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-
democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited
ends.
2. During this period nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and ever
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 ready to go to war.
3. The major European powers, in turn, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the subject
peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.
4. The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the
Balkans.
5. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
6. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
7. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration
of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
8. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared
independence.
9. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and
used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been
subjugated by foreign powers.
10. the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.
11. the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the
Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.
12. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at
the expense of the others.
13. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power
rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade
and colonies as well as naval and military might.
14. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power –
Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers
over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.
15. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

Q: Why Balkan turn into a perennial source of tension and proved to be the battlefield of
World War-I ?
Q: How was Nationalism identified in the last part of 19th century Europe?
Q: Explain the composition of Balkans.
Q: “The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called
the Balkans.” Explain the statement.

IDEA OF NATION STATES:

1. Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.

2. many countries in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the
nineteenth century began to oppose imperial domination.
3. The anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they
all struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by a sense of collective
national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism.
4. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their
own specific variety of nationalism.
5. The idea that societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural
and universal

Q: “Societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and

universal”. Explain.
Q: Summaries the anti-imperialistic struggle of Europe in early 20th century and how did it
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pave way for the rise of nationalism.

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