increases the ability of individual

Boiling Point
molecules to attract each other.
Boiling is the temperature at which the Branching in molecules decreases the
vapor pressure of the substance is surface area thereby decreasing the
equals the pressure of the atmosphere attractive force between individual
above it. It is a physical constant that molecules. As a result, the boiling point
can be used in identification and decreases.
characterization, as well as a criterion of
4. Polarity
purity of a substance.
The polarity of a molecule is
Pure compounds have constant boiling
determined by its functional group. The
point. Mixtures have a boiling point
greater the polarity, the higher is the
range except for
boiling point.
azeotropes. Compounds involving ionic
bonds have higher boiling point because 5. Impurities
the amount of heat required to
separate the ions is higher than the Presence of impurities may affect the
amount required to separate molecules boiling point of a liquid. Non-volatile
in covalent compounds. impurities usually increase the boiling
point of the liquid due to a decrease in
Factors that affect the boiling the vapor pressure. Volatile impurities
point usually decrease the boiling point of the
liquid
1. Strength of intermolecular forces
M7 Lesson 3 - How to Determine
The intermolecular forces go in the
order Ionic > Hydrogen Bonding > the Melting Point of Organic
Dipole-Dipole > Van der Waals Compound
dispersion force.
The melting point of an organic solid
2. Length of carbon-carbon chain can be determined by introducing a tiny
amount into a small capillary tube,
As the number of carbon atoms attaching this to the stem of a
increases or the length of thermometer centered in a heating
carbon-carbon chain increases, the bath, heating the bath slowly, and
boiling point also increases. This is observing the temperatures at which
because the force of attraction between melting begins and is complete. Pure
the molecules increases as the molecule samples usually have sharp melting
gets longer and has more electrons. It points, for example 149.5-150°C or
takes more energy to overcome the 189-190°C; impure samples of the same
force of attraction, and so the boiling compounds melt at lower temperatures
point rises. and over a wider range, for example
3. Branching decreases the boiling point 145-148°C or 186-189°C.

As the length of carbon chain increases,

the surface area of the compound will
also increase. Van der Waals dispersion
force is proportional to the surface area.
So the increase of surface area
M7 Lesson 4 - Factors Affecting Hydrogen bond occurs when a
Melting Points of Organic molecule contains a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to a small, highly
Compounds
electronegative atom (e.g. O, N or F).
1. Composition of Molecules The highly electronegative atom on one
molecule attracts the hydrogen atom on
When molecules are tightly packed a nearby molecule.
together, a substance has a higher
Dipole-dipole forces or interaction
melting point than a substance with
occur when one dipole molecule comes
molecules that do not pack well.
into contact with another dipole
Molecular size also affects the melting
molecule wherein the positive pole of
point. When other factors are equal,
the one molecule will be attracted to
smaller molecules melt at lower
the negative pole of the other.
temperatures than larger molecules.
In non-polar molecules the
Macromolecules have giant
electronic charge is usually evenly
structures made up of many nonmetal
distributed but it is possible that at a
atoms joined to adjacent atoms by
particular moment in time, the
covalent bonds. Substances with giant
electrons might not be evenly
covalent structures, such as diamond,
distributed (remember that the
graphite and silica, have extremely high
electrons are always moving in their
melting points because several strong
orbitals). The molecule will have
covalent bonds must be broken before
a temporary dipole. When this happens,
they can melt
molecules that are next to each other
2. Force of Attraction attract each other very weakly. This
A strong attraction between type is called dispersion forces or
molecules results in a higher melting London forces. Recall previous lessons
point. In general, ionic compounds have on these attractive forces.
high melting points because the 3. Presence of Impurities
electrostatic forces connecting the ions
Impure solids melt at lower
– the ion-ion interaction – are strong. In
temperatures and may also melt over a
organic compounds, the presence of
wider temperature range, known as
polarity, especially hydrogen bonding,
melting point depression. The melting
usually leads to a higher melting point.
point range for pure solids is narrow,
The melting points of polar substances
usually only 1 to 2 degrees Celsius,
are higher than the melting points of
known as a sharp melting point.
nonpolar substances with similar sizes.
Impurities cause structural defects that
The force of attraction between make the intermolecular interactions
covalent molecules is called between the molecules easier to
intermolecular forces. These overcome. A sharp melting point is
intermolecular forces arranged in often evidence that a sample is fairly
decreasing order are hydrogen bonding , pure, and a wide melting range is
dipole-dipole interaction and dispersion evidence that it is not pure.
forces. There are two types of hydrogen
bonding- intermolecular and
intramolecular H-bond.
M8 Solubility negative logarithm (base 10) of
hydrogen ion concentration.
At the molecular level, solubility is
controlled by the energy balance of If the hydrogen ion concentration is
intermolecular forces between very high, the pH value is very low. It
solute-solute, solvent-solvent and was introduced by a Danish chemist
solute-solvent molecules. Recall from Soren Peder Lauritz Sorensen.
general chemistry that intermolecular Substances with pH lower than 7 are
forces come in different strengths acidic, those with pH equal to 7 are
ranging from very weak induced dipole neutral and those with pH greater than
– induced dipole interactions to much 7 are basic in nature.
stronger dipole-dipole forces (including
the important special case, hydrogen pOH of a Solution
bonding). However there is a simple,
very useful and practical empirical rule pOH is used to measure the
that is quite reliable. That simple rule is concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH- ions)
“like dissolves like” and it is based on or the alkalinity of a solution. pOH is
the polarity of the systems i.e. polar defined as the negative logarithm (base
molecules dissolve in polar solvents (e.g. 10) of hydroxyl ion concentration.
water, alcohols) and non-polar
Measurement of pH
molecules in non-polar solvents (e.g.
the hydrocarbon hexane). This is why pH of a solution is measured using pH
ionic compounds like table salt (sodium indicators. pH indicators are substances
chloride) or compounds like sugar, that changes colour when in contact
dissolve in water but do not dissolve to with acidic, basic or neutral solutions.
any great extent in most organic
solvents. It also applies to the pH paper
separation of oil and water (e.g. in salad
is a strip of special paper that is
dressings).
prepared by dipping the strip in
different chemical compounds and then
M9 Acidity and Basicity
drying it.
Acids and Bases pH Meter
Acids are substances that produce free is an electronic instrument consisting of
hydrogen ions (H+ ions) when dissolved a special bulb that is sensitive to
in water. Bases are substances that hydrogen ions that are present in the
produce hydroxyl ions (OH- ions) when test solution.
dissolved in water. Acidic solutions are
rich in hydrogen ions and basic M10 POST TASK
solutions are poor in hydrogen ions.
 Hydrocarbons are the simplest
pH of a Solution organic compounds that contain
only carbon and hydrogen.
The acidic or basic property of  The majority of hydrocarbons are
substances is measured in terms of pH. found naturally occur in crude oil.
It is a measurement of the hydrogen ion  Saturated hydrocarbons are
concentration. pH is defined as the characterized by the presence of
 only sigma (σ) bond; hence, the 5. ACROLEIN TEST
carbon atoms are all single-bonded. The most important triol is glycerol.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons include Fermentation
alkenes and alkynes
 Alkanes undergo substitution Ethanol or ethyl alcohol can be
reaction. produced from the fermentation of
 Alkenes and alkynes undergo sugars and starches catalyzed by the
addition reaction. enzyme zymase found in yeast.
 Baeyer’s test is used to detect the Fermentation is the principle behind the
degree of unsaturation of alkenes preparation of alcoholic beverages.
and alkynes.
M12 Tests for Phenolic Group
 Major products of the combustion
of organic compounds are CO2 and
H2O
1. Litmus test

M11 Introduction Phenol is a weak acid, it gives red

colour with litmus paper.
1. CHROMIC ACID TEST
2. Ferric chloride test
Primary and Secondary alcohols may be
Phenol reacts with ferric ions to form
distinguished from tertiary alcohols by
violet coloured complex.
the chromic acid test. Primary
alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes, 3. Phthalein Dye test
while the Secondary alcohols are
oxidized to ketones. This is indicated by phenolphthalein + acid = colorless or
the change in color of the solution from sometimes cloudy
orange to green. phenolphthalein + base = pink or red
2. LUCAS TEST color

Tertiary alcohols react immediately with 4. Bromine Test

Lucas reagent In this test, the orange-red colour of
3. ESTERIFICATION bromine solution disappears when it is
It is the reaction of alcohol with added to an unsaturated organic
carboxylic acid forming ester and water. compound (unsaturated hydrocarbon).
In the video presented, ethanol and 5. Millons Test
ethanoic acid reacts in the presence of
acid catalyst sulfuric acid to form the Millon's reagent is an analytical reagent
ester ethyl ethanoate or ethyl acetate used to detect the presence of soluble
with a fruity smell. proteins. A few drops of the reagent are
4. IODOFORM TEST added to the test solution, which is then
heated gently. A reddish-brown
When Iodine and sodium hydroxide are coloration or precipitate indicates the
added to a compound that contains presence of tyrosine residue which
either a methyl ketone or a secondary occur in nearly all proteins.
alcohol with a methyl group in the alpha
position, a pale yellow precipitate of
iodoform or triiodomethane is formed.
M13 Tests for Aldehydes and
Ketones
Tests for Carbonyl
2,4-nitrodiphenylhydrazine reacts with
aldehydes and ketones to form a
red-orange precipitate of
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone.
Tests for Aldehydes and Methyl
Ketones
In Tollens’ test, ammonical silver nitrate
is reduced to free silver, which adheres
to the glass walls of the container to
form a silver mirror.
In Fehling’s test, the reagent is
copper(II) ions, which form a complex
with tartrate ions. The copper(II) ions
are reduced to copper(II) ions by the
aldehyde. The result is a change of color
from dark blue to olive green and finally
to the brick-red color of the cuprous
oxide precipitate.
In the iodoform test, the positive result
is indicated by the formation of a
yellow crystalline precipitate of
iodoform, CHI3.

M14 Carboxylic Acids and their

Derivatives
 Carboxylic acids contain the
carboxyl acid group.
 Their names end with - oic acid.
 The functional group on the
carboxylic acids can be summarised
as
 -COOH. However the two oxygens
aren’t actually joint together