Physics Ss2 2nd Term e Notes

CLASS: SS 2
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
SECOND TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES
SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
1. REVISION OF FIRST TERM WORK
2. LINEAR MOMENTUM: Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and moment

Newton’s
second law of motion, Calculations on the two laws, Newton’s third law of motion.
Applications of third law
3. MECHANICAL ENERGY: Principle of linear momentum, Types of collision,

Concept
of work as a measure of energy
4. MECHANICAL ENERGY: kinetic energy, Conservation of mechanical energy,

Simple Machines, Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, and efficiency.
5. SIMPLE MACHINES: Levers and pulleys, inclined plane and Hydraulic press
Wheel and Axle, Gear
6. HEAT ENERGY: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass thermometer,

. Constant volume gas thermometer, Resistance thermometer and Thermocouple.
7. HEAT ENERGY: Temperature scales of thermometers and conversion from one scale
to another, Molecular explanation of temperature, Measurement of heat energy,
Concept of Heat capacity and specific heat capacity.
8. HEAT ENERGY: Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid, Latent heat,

Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice, Determination of specific latent heat
of vaporization of steam.
9. HEAT ENERGY: Evaporation: Meaning, Factors that affects evaporation and
applications of evaporation and latent heat. Boling point: Meaning, determination of
boiling point, Effect of pressure and impurities on boiling and freezing point,
Relative humidity, mist, cloud, dew point
10. GAS LAWS: Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law, Boyle’s law and its
Application, Charle’s law and its application, General gas law.
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al. 2011.
2. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W. 2010
3. Comprehensive Certificate Physics by Olumuyiwa Awe and Okunola, O.O. 2009.
4. Science Teachers Association of Nigeria Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 2. New
Edition; 2012.
5. Melrose Physics for Senior Secondary School, Book 2 by Akano, O and Onanuga, O.O. 2012.
WEEK 1: DATE: __________________
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: REVISION OF LAST YEAR’S WORK.
CONTENT:
The educator should make a good revision of the last term’s/year’s work especially on
areas the students are having problems.
GENERAL EVALUATION:
Educator should construct questions based on previous term’s/year’s work to ascertain the level
of recalling.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Educator should give the students questions based on the previous term’s/year’s work and also
prepare the students’ mind for week 2.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Read up the topic: ‘’Linear Momentum’’ in the following text books.
i. Senior Secondary School Physics by P.N. Okeke et al.
ii. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Anyakoha, M.W.
WEEK 2
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: LINEAR MOMENTUM
CONTENT: 1. Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and momentum

2. Newton’s second law of motion
3. Calculations on the two laws.
4. Newton’s third law of motion.
5. Applications of third law
Sub –topic 1. Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and momentum
The influence of unbalanced forces and the laws governing the motion are discussed in this topic.
Newton’s first law of motion: The first law states that every object continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
Inertia: It is the tendency of a body to remain in its state of rest or uniform motion. Newton’s law of
motion is called law of inertia.
Applications of Newton’s first law:
1. When a moving vehicle is suddenly brought to rest by the application of the brakes, the passengers
suddenly jerk forward as they tend to continue in their straight line motion. That is why it is advisable to
use a safety belt.
2. A car driver in a stationary car hit by another car from behind is likely to suffer neck injuries because
when the car is hit, his body is pushed forward, but his head stays still and is jerked back in relation to his
body. It is advisable to have a headrest to protect the driver and passengers from injury.
3. A moving body comes to rest due to opposing forces such as air resistance , friction or pull of gravity.
Momentum (p): The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.
The unit is kgms-1.
P=mv
M =mass in kg, V= velocity in ms-1
Impulse: it is the product of the average force acting on a particle and the time during which it acts. It is
numerically equal to change in momentum.
I =F × t , Ft =mv−mu.
mv is final momentum, mu is initial momentum
The unit of impulse is Newton-second (Ns) or kgms – 1
Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
c h ange∈momentum
force ∝
time
mv−mu
f∝
t
m( v−u)
f∝
t
v −u
but =a
t
f ∝ ma, f =kma , if k =1 ,
f =ma
−2
a is acceleration∈m s
f is resultant force acting on t h e body∧t h e unit is Newton.
Calculations:
1. A net force of magnitude 0.6N acts on a body of mass 40g, initially at rest.
Calculate the magnitude of the resulting acceleration.
SOLUTION:
f =0.6 N , m=40 g=0.04 kg
u=0 , a=?
f =ma
0.6=0.04 xa
0.6
a= =15 m s−2
0.04
2. A ball of mass 5.0kg hits a smooth vertical wall normally with a speed of 2ms -1 and rebounds with
the same speed. Determine the impulse experienced by the ball.
f =0.6 N , m=5.0 kg
u=2mls , v=−2 m/s , ( negative because of a c h ange ∈direction )
impulse=mv−mu
impulse=5 (−2−2 )=5 × (−4 )=−20 Ns
EVALUATION:
3. A ball of mass 0.1kg approaching a tennis player with a velocity of 10ms -1, is hit back in the opposite
direction with a velocity of 15ms-1. If the time of impact between the racket and the ball is 0.01s, calculate
the magnitude of the force with which the ball is hit.
4.A body of mass 20kg is set in motion by two forces 3N and 4N, acting at right angles to each other.
Determine the magnitude of its acceleration.
Sub –topic 2: Newton’s third of motion and applications
Newton’s third law of motion: It states that Action and Reaction are equal and opposite. Or to
every Action there is an equal and opposite Reaction.
Applications of Newton’s third law:

1. Gun and bullet: When a bullet is shot out of a gun the person firing it experiences the
backwards recoil force of the gun. The recoil force of the gun ( reaction) is equal to the
propulsive force(action) acting on the bullet.
Force is proportional to change in momentum,

Momentum of bullet is equal and opposite to momentum of gun.
If mass of bullet is m, and velocity u, velocity of recoil of gun V, mass of Gun M, then
MV =−mu
−mv
V=
M
2. Rocket and Jet propulsion: The momentum of the stream of hot gases issuing out of the
nozzle behind the yet or rocket impacts an equal and opposite momentum to the rocket or
aeroplane which undergoes a forward thrust.
Action force(jet of hot gas) Reaction force(forward thrust)
If mass of rocket is m, and velocity u, velocity of hot gas V, mass of hot gas M, then
MV =−mu
−mv
V=
M
GENERAL EVALUATION:
A bullet of mass 0.045kg is fired from a gun of mass 9kg, the bullet moving with an initial velocity of
200m/s. Find the initial backward velocity of the gun.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
!. The time rate of change of momentum is

(A) Impulse (B) Force (C) Power (D) Moment (E) Inertia
2. What change in velocity would be produced on a body of mass 4kg if a constant force of 16N acts
on it for 2s?
(A) 0.5ms-1 (B) 2.0ms-1 (C) 8.0ms-1 (D) 32.0ms-1 (E) 128.0ms-1
3. A stationary object of mass 4kg is set in motion by a net force of 50N. If the object attains a speed
of 5ms-1 in time t, calculate the value of t.
(A) 0.20s (B) 0.40s (C) 0.63s (D) 0.80s (E) 1.30s
4. The unit of impulse of a force is
(A) N (B) Ns (C) N/s D. Nm
5. A resultant force of 15.0N acts on a body for 4s, mass 4kg. Calculate the change in
momentum.
1a. Derive the relationship F = ma, where F is the force applied, m is the mass of the object and
a is the acceleration.
b. The engine of a vehicle moves it forward with a force of 9600N against a resistive force of
2200N. If the mass of the vehicle is 3400kg, calculate the acceleration produced.
c. A bullet of mass 120g is fired horizontally into a fixed wooden block with a speed of
20m/s. If the bullet is brought to rest in the block in 0.1s by a constant resistance, calculate
the
i. Magnitude of the resistance ii. Distance moved by the bullet in the wood.
2a. Define the term impulse.
b. A tractor of mass 5.0 ×103 kg is used to tow a car of mass 2.5 ×103 kg. The tractor
moves with a speed of 3.0m/s just before the towing rope becomes taut. Calculate the
i. speed of the tractor immediately the rope becomes taut.
ii. loss in kinetic energy of the system just after the car starts moving.
b. A stone weighing 500g is pushed along a tarmac by a horizontal force of 10N. If a force of
4N opposes its motion, calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the stone.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read collisions and types of collisions
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
a. Define the term, linear momentum
b. State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
c. A ball P of mass 0.25kg loses one-third of its velocity when it makes a head-on collision with an
identical ball Q at rest. After the collision, Q moves off with a speed of 2m/s in the original direction
of P. Calculate the initial velocity of P.
WEEK 3
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: MECHANICAL ENERGY
CONTENT: 1. Principle of linear momentum,

2. Types of collision,
3. Concept of work as a measure of energy
Sub –topic 1. Principle of conservation of linear momentum
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: In a closed system of colliding bodies, the

total momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision.
Case 1: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with
velocities u1 and u2 respectively. After collision there velocities were V1 and V2 as shown below.
U1 U2 V1 V2
A B A B
Before collision After collision
Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2
Case 2: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving towards each other with
velocities u1 and u2 respectively. After collision there velocities were V1 and V2 .
U1 U2 V1 V2
A B A B
Before
Assuming m1collision
u1 > m2u2, After collision
M1U1 - M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2
Case 3: Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with
velocities u1 and u2 respectively. If after collision they coalesce and move together with common
velocity V.
U1 U2
V
A B A B
Before collision After collision
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V
CALCULATIONS:
Example 1: A trolley of mass 4kg moving on a smooth horizontal platform with a speed of 1.0ms -1
collides perfectly with a stationary trolley of the same mass on the same platform. Calculate the total
momentum of the two trolleys immediately after the collision.
SOLUTION:
M1 = 4kg, U1 = 10m/s, U2 = 0, M2 = 4kg
Total momentum before the collision = total momentum after the collision.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
since u2 = 0,
m2u2 = 0
Momentum after collision (m1v1 + m2v2) = m1u1 = 4 x 1 = 4.0 kgms – 1
Example2. A ball of mass 0.5kg moving at 10ms-1 collides with another ball of equal mass at rest. If the
two balls move off together after the impact, calculate their common velocity.
M1 = 0.5kg, U1 = 10m/s, U2 = 0, M2 = kg
SOLUTION:
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V
0.5 x 10 + 0.5 x0 = (0.5 +0.5)V
5 = 1.0V
V = 5m/s
EVALUATION:
1. State the following: i. Newton’s third law of motion ii. Principle of conservation of linear
momentum.
2. A ball P of mass 0.25kg loses one-third of its velocity when it makes a head-on collision with an
identical ball Q at rest. After the collision, Q moves off with a speed of 2m/s in the original direction
of P. Calculate the initial velocity of P.
Sub-topic 2: Types of collisions

Types of collision: There are two major types of collisions, elastic and inelastic collisions.
Elastic collision: In an elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. This means
that for two colliding bodies with masses m1 and m2 and initial velocities u1 and u2 and final
velocities after collision V1 and V2 ,
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,
1 1 1 1
M1U12 + M2U22 = M1V12 + M2V22
2 2 2 2
An example of perfectly elastic collision is a ball which bounces off the ground back to its original height.
Inelastic collision: In this case momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved. The energy
lost is usually converted to heat, sound or elastic potential energy.
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,
1 1 1 1
M1U12 + M2U22 ≠ M1V12 + M2V22
2 2 2 2
Example 3
1. A body of mass 5kg moving with a velocity of 20m/s due south hits a stationary body of mass 3kg.
If they move together after collision with a velocity v due south, find the value of v.
Solution
M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V
5 x 20 + 3 x0 = (5+ 3)V
100 = 8V
V = 12.5m/s
EVALUATION:
1a. Distinguish between perfectly elastic collision and perfectly in elastic collision.
b. A tractor of mass 5.0 ×103 kg is used to tow a car of mass 2.5 ×103 kg. The tractor
moves with a speed of 3.0m/s just before the towing rope becomes taut. Calculate the
i. speed of the tractor immediately the rope becomes taut.
ii. loss in kinetic energy of the system just after the car starts moving.
SUB –TOPIC 3: CONCEPT OF WORK AS A MEASURE OF ENERGY
Work is said to be done whenever a force or load moves its point of application a distance in the direction
of t
he force. i.e. work=force (f) x distance(d) moved in the direction of the force(fxd).
Mathematically
W(d)=fxd
The unit of work is joules with symbol J.
θ
Fcosθ
Work = F x d cosθ d
MECHANICAL ENERGY: Mechanical energy can be divided into:
1. Potential energyMECHANICAL ENERGY: Mechanical energy can be divided into:
1. Potential energy
2. Kinetic energy
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is a stored energy. It is the energy one possesses when one is not moving. That is, it is
the energy stored in stationary objects. By definition, potential energy is the energy an object possesses
by virtue of its position or level.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY:
It is energy possessed by a body when it is raised a certain height against the force of gravity.For instance,
if a body of mass “M” is kept stationary at height “h” above the ground, the amount of potential energy it
stores can be calculated thus:
Potential energy = work done
= force x distance
= mg h
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY: Work is done when an elastic material is stretched or compressed. If
the force stretching the material is F Newtons, then the work done is given by;
Elastic potential energy = Work done = average force x extension
Work = average force x extension
Work = ( 0+2F )× e
1
Work = F ×e
2
But from Hooke’s law, F = ke
1 2 1 F2
Therefore, Elastic potential energy = P . E= ke =
2 2 k
It is the energy possessed or released by an elastic material if stretched or compressed. It is given by
1
P . E= ke2
2
Example 1: A boy of weight 300N climbs to the top of a hill of height 20m. Calculate the work done
by the boy against the force of gravity.

SOLUTION:
Weight = mg = 300N, h = 20m,
Work done = force x distance
Work done = weight x distance
Work done = mg x h= 300 x 20 = 6000J.
Example 2: Calculate the potential energy stored in a spring of force constant 2 x 10 4N/m which is
acted upon by a force of 600N.
SOLUTION:
K = 2 X 10-4N/m, F = 600N, P.E = ?
1 2 1 F2
Elastic potential energy = P . E=
2
ke =
2 k
2 2
1F 1 600 1 X 360000 180
= = X = = =90 J
2 k 2 2 X 1O 4 2 X 2 X 1000 2
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Define the following terms (1) work (ii) potential energy
2. A drum of mass 1000kg is rolled into the deck of a lorry 1.5m above a horizontal floor using a
plank 4m long. calculate the work done against gravity during the process. ( g = 10m/s 2 ).
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. A boy of weight 300N climbs to the top of a hill of height 20m. the work done by the boy against
the force of gravity is
A. 6000J B. 600J C. 320J D. 15J
2. Under which of the following conditions is work done
A. A man supports a heavy Load above his head with his hands
B. A woman holds a pot of water
C. A boy climbs unto a table.
D. A man pushes against a stationary petrol tanker.
3. At what height above the ground must a body of mass 10kg be situated in order to have
potential energy equal in value to the kinetic energy possessed by another body of mass 10kg
moving with a velocity of 10m/s?
A. 5m B. 10m C. 100m D. 500m
4. As the tension in an elastic string is increased from 100N to 180N, the string extends by 10cm.
The work done in increasing the tension in the string is
A. 8J B. 10J C. 14j D. 18J
5. An elastic spring of force constant 200N/m is stretched through 0.8m Within its elastic limit.
Calculate the energy stored in the spring.
A. 64.0J B. 80.0J C. 128.0J D. 160.0J
ESSAY:
1. When a force of 50N is applied to the free end of an elastic cord, an extension of 4cm is produced
in the cord. Calculate the work done on the cord.
2. A 2kg body is allowed to roll down an inclined plane 4m long with angle of inclination 30 0.
Calculate the work done. ( Take g as 10m/s 2).
3. An elastic spring of force constant 200N/m is stretched through 0.8m Within its elastic limit.
Calculate the energy stored in the spring.
PRE- READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read kinetic energy in your text book.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY: Mention five devices that posses kinetic energy.
WEEK 4
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: MECHANICAL ENERGY
CONTENT:
1. Kinetic energy
2. Conservation of mechanical energy
3. Machines
SUB-TOPIC 1: Kinetic energy and principle of conservation of mechanical energy
KINETIC ENERGY: This is the energy possessed by a body because of its motion. Moving objects
possess kinetic energy. The stored potential energy in the springs of clock and wristwatches gradually
changes to kinetic energy as it winds.
The amount of kinetic energy possessed by a body is dependent on its mass and the velocity with which it
is moving. To this end, the kinetic energy of a moving object with mass “M” traveling with a velocity ‘v’
is written by the formula given below
1 2
kinetic energy (k.e)= mv
2
where,
m=mass of an object
v=velocity of an object
Examples of bodies that possess kinetic energy are

i. A rolling ball
ii. An object falling under gravity
iii. wind or air in motion
iv. An athlete running a race
v. A bullet movement
vi. A plane flying.
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY
It states that in a closed or isolated system, the total mechanical energy is always conserved
although energy can change from one form to another, e.g Potential energy to kinetic energy or
vise versa
Kinetic energy + potential energy = constant.

A typical example of alternating potential energy is that of the simple pendulum.
h
A C
B
DEMONSTRATION OF LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
As the pendulum swings, at point A and C it has highest potential energy and no potential energy. At
point B, it has highest kinetic energy. In between A and B, and B and C it has kinetic energy plus
potential energy. At each stage of the swing, the total energy remains constant.
Another example where it is applied is for a falling body.

P.EMAX
P.E +K.E
K.EK h
K.EMAX
Example 1. A ball of mass 8kg falls from rest from a height of 100m. Neglecting air
resistance, calculate its kinetic energy after falling a distance of 30m.
(take g as 10m/s2).
SOLUTION:
At maximum height, P.EMAX = mgh = 8 x 10 x 100 = 8000J
At 30m, applying the principle of conservation of mechanical energy,
P.E + K.E = 8000J
Potential energy at height (30m) is

P.E = 8 X 10 X 30 = 2400J
2400 + K.E = 8000
K.E = 8000 – 2400 = 5600J.
EVALUATION
(a) State the principle of conservation of energy. Using this principle explain
how energy is conserved for (i) objects falling under gravity
(ii) swinging of a simple pendulum bob.
(b) A ball of mass 1kg is dropped from a height of 5m and bounces to a height
of 10m. Calculate (i) its kinetic energy just before impact.
(ii) its initial bouncing velocity and kinetic energy.
SUB-TOPIC 3: SIMPLE MACHINES
An arrangement by which work can be done conveniently on a load or against a resistance is

known as machine
Simple machine is a machine in its simplest form. They are devices that use energy to do work.
The work is being done by the machine when a small effort is used to overcome a large
resistance.
Simple machine can be classified into different categories namely the lever, the pulley, the
inclined plane, the wedge, the wheel and axle, the screw, the hydraulic press.
Some common examples of simple machines are, scissors, drill brace, the shovel (a form of
lever), the pulley at the top of a flagpole, the steering wheel of an automobile (a form of wheel
and axle), and the wheelchair ramp (a form of inclined plane). An everyday example of a
complex machine is the can opener, which combines a lever (the hinged handle), a wheel and
axle (the turning knob), and a wedge (the sharpened cutting disk).
SCISSORS DRIL BRACE AND BITS
Mechanical advantage/Force ratio of a machine is defined as the ratio of the load to the effort.
Load L
Mechanical Advantage= =
Effort e
If the laod is bigger than the effort, the mechanical Advantage is greater than one.
In pratice,all machines have some friction in them and this reduces the efficiency. Part of the work put
into a machine is thus always wasted in overcoming friction and in moving some parts of the machine.
Thus, no machine is hundred percent (100%) efficient.
Velocity Ratio of a machine is defined as the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the
load.
Distance moved by Effort x
Velocity ratio= =
Distance moved by Load y
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of work obtained from the machine to work put into
the machine expressed in percentage.
It also defined as the ratio of work output of the machine to the total work input expressed in percentage.
Efficiency = Work output X 100%

Workinput
DERIVATION OF EFFICIENCY
The level of the efficiency of a machine can be determined by the work output and work input of the
machine or its velocity ratio and mechanical advantage.
Therefore:
Efficiency (E) = Workoutput x 100%

Workinput
Efficiency (E) = Work done in load x 100%

Work done in effort
Since Work = force x distance
Efficiency (E) = Load(L) x distance moved by load(y) x 100%

Effort(e) x distance moved by effort( x )
L× y
Therefore E¿
e×x
M.A
Therefore E ¿ ×100 %
V .R
x 1 y
Since Velocity ratio (V.R) = or = and
y V.R x
L
Mechanical advantage (M.A) =
e
Efficiency (E) = Mechanical Advantage x 100%

Velocity Ratio
Example 1:
A system of lever with velocity ratio 30 overcomes resistance of 2500 Newton when an effort of 125
Newton is applied to it, calculate
(a)The mechanical advantage of the system.

(b) It’s efficiency.
SOLUTION:
Load 2500
Mechanical Advantage= = =20 N
Effort 125
M.A
Efficiency= x 100
V .R
20 200
Efficiency= x 100= =66.75 %
30 3
GENERAL EVALUATION
a. Explain what is meant by a machine.
b. Define the terms: mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency as applied to a machine.
c. Show that the efficiency E, the force ratio M.A and the velocity ratio V.R of a machine are related
M.A
by the equation. E= x 100 %
V .A
d. Explain why the efficiency of a machine is usually less than 100%.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A machine has an efficiency of 60%. If the machine is required to overcome a load of 30N with a
force of 20N, calculate its mechanical advantage.
(A) 0.7 (B) 0.9 (C) 1.5
(D) 2.5 (E) 10.
2. Which of the following equations for the efficiency of a machine is correct?
[ E = efficiency, V = velocity ratio, M= mechanical Advantage].
(A) E = V/M x100% (B) E = input/output x 100%
(C) E = load distance/effort distance x 100% (D) E = M/V x 100%
3. A machine of velocity ratio 5 is used in lifting a load with effort of 500N. If the machine is 80%
efficient, determine the magnitude of the load.
(A) 2500N (B) 2000N (C) 900N (D) 625N
4. The velocity ratio and efficiency of a system of pulleys are 6 and 80%, respectively. How much
effort
Is required to lift a load of mass 120kg with this system? [g = 10ms -1]
(A) 25N (B) 90N (C) 96N (D) 250N (E) 960N
5. Which of the following statements correctly defines a simple machine?
(A) that can produce electric current.
(B) which can only carry people from one place to another.
(C) with which work can be done easily.
(D) which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an object
ESSAY
(a) A drum of mass 1000kg is rolled into the deck of a lorry 1.5m above a horizontal floor
using a plank 4m long. calculate the work done against gravity during the process.
( g = 10m/s2 ).
(b) A stone of mass 1.0kg is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10m/s.
Find (i) the potential energy at the greatest height h and the value of h.
(ii) the kinetic energy on reaching the ground again ( g = 10m/s 2).
(C). The efficiency of a machine is 80%. Determine the work done by a person using this machine
to raise a load of 200kg through a vertical distance of 3.0m (Take g= 10m/s 2 ).
PRE- READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read types of machine in your Text book.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
List five types of simple machines.
WEEK 5
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: SIMPLE MACHINES
CONTENT:
1. Lever and pulley
2. inclined plane and Hydraulic press
3. Wheel and Axle, Gear
SUB-TOPIC 1: Lever and pulley
LEVER: In a lever the relative positions of force(F), Effort(e) and Load(L) may vary and this leads to
different types of lever. The lever operates on the principle of moment.
FIRST ORDER LEVER: In first order lever, the fulcrum is between the load and the effort e.g crowbar,
claw hammer, pliers, scissors, see-saw e.t.c
Y X
E
L
Taking moment about F gives Y x L = X x E
L X
= =M . A=V . R
E Y
SECOND ORDER LEVER: In second order lever, the load is between the effort and the fulcrum. E.g
wheelbarrow, bottle opener, nut cracker
F
L
THIRD ORDER LEVER: In third order lever, the effort is between the load and fulcrum. E.g Forearm of
a human being, tongs e.t.c
F L
SUGAR TONG
E
PULLEYS:
MOVABLE PULLEY
FIXED PULLEY
T
T
E L L
A simple pulley is a fixed wheel with a rope passing round a groove in its rim. A load is attached to one
end of the rope while effort is applied at the other end. If there is no friction, load is equal to the effort
which is equal to the tension in the rope.
L =T =E, therefore M.A =V.R

For a block and tackle or systems of pulley of n pulleys, the velocity ratio is equal to the number of
pulley.
Velocity ratio = number of pulley = n
VELOCITY RATIO = NUMBER OF PULLEYS =N
A system of pulley is used for lifting loads. They are used by builders for hauling heavy loads to high
floors or in loading and unloading ships.
CALCULATIONS:
Example 1. The velocity ratio and efficiency of a system of pulleys are 6 and 80%, respectively. How
much effort is required to lift a load of mass 120kg with this system? [g = 10ms -1]
SOLUTION:
V.R = 6, Efficiency = 80%, Load = 1200N, e = ?
Calculating M.A,
M.A
Efficiency= x 100
V .R
M.A
80= x 100
6
80 X 6
M . A= =4.8
100
Load
M . A=
Effort
Load 1200
Effort = = =250 N
M.A 4.8
EVALUATION:
1. A pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6 is used to raise a load of 80N through a vertical
height of 16m,
i. Draw a diagram of this arrangement

ii. Calculate the effort required in the system, if its efficiency is 70%.
iii. Calculate the workdone.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Inclined plane and hydraulic press.
INCLINED PLANE:
An inclined plane is a sloping surface used for pulling or pushing a load up, rather than lifting them
vertically.
E
θ L
Distance moved by Effort x

Velocity ratio= =
Distance moved by Load h ¿
¿
1
Velocity ratio=
sinθ
HYDRAULIC PRESS:
Hydraulic press is a device used to produce a very large force to compress or lift up a heavy load. It is
used in the printing press where a large force presses the type with ink on it against the paper. Pressure is
transmitted equally to all parts of a liquid at the same level.
Effort
E R =radius of large
piston
L
r = radius
A1
of small A2
piston
If A1 is the area of small piston and A2 area of the large piston, pressure(P) is transmitted equally at the
same level, then
E
P= , E = P X A1
A1
L
P= , L=P X A2
A2,
Therefore a small effort lifts a large load.
L A 2, R
2❑
M . A= = =
E A 1, r 2
If x and y are the distances moved by E and L respectively, A 1x = A2y
x A 2, R
2 ❑
CALCULATIONS:
= = =V . R
y A 1, r
2
Example 2. An inclined plane of angle 15 0 is used to raise a load of 4500N through a height of 2m. If the
plane is 75% efficient, calculate i. Velocity ratio of the plane ii. Work done on the load
SOLUTION:
1. Θ = 150, Load = 4500N, Distance moved by load = 2m, efficiency = 75%
1 1
Velocity ratio= = =5.76
sinθ 1.736
ii. Workdone on the load = Load x distance moved by load
Workdone on the load = 4500 x 2 = 9000J.
Example 3. In a hydraulic press, a force of 40N is applied to the smaller piston of area 10cm2. If the area
of the large piston is 200cm2, calculate the force obtained.
SOLUTION:
L A 2, R
2❑
M . A= = =
E A 1, r 2
L A2,
=
E A1,
A 2 X E 200 X 40
L=¿
A1 ,
=
10
= 800N
EVALUATION:
A man pulls up a box of mass 70kg using an inclined plane of effective length 5m onto a platform
2.5m high at uniform speed. If the frictional force between the box and the plane is 100N, draw the
diagram of all the forces acting on the box when in motion and calculate the
i. Minimum effort applied in pulling up the box

ii. Velocity ratio of the plane
iii. Mechanical advantage of the plane
iv. Efficiency of the plane
v. Energy lost in the system
vi. Work output of the man
vii. Total power developed by the man given that the time taken to raise the box onto the
platform is 50s. ( g = 10m/s2)
SUB-TOPIC 3: SCREW, WHEEL AND AXLE, GEAR.
Screw
Screw, mechanical fastening device consisting essentially of an inclined plane wound spirally
around a cylinder or a cone. The ridges formed by the winding planes are called threads, and
depending on the intended use, the threads may be square, triangular, or rounded in cross section.
SUB-TOPIC 2: PARTS OF A SCREW THREAD
A screw thread is made of the following parts:
1. Thread or Lead: Is the distance along the screw's axis that is covered by one complete
rotation of the screw (360°).
2. Pitch: The distance between two corresponding points on adjacent threads
3. Plane or Start : It can be Single-start or double-start. Single-start- means that there is only
one "ridge" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body. Double-start" -means that
there are two "ridges" wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's body Each time that the
screw's body rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced axially by the width of two ridges.
Another application of the screw is Screw jack , Ratchet brace.

When a screw is turned through one complete revolution by the application of an effort ( on the screw
head, using the handle of the ratchet brace, or the Tommy bar of the screw jack), the load moves a
distance equal to the pitch(P), which is the distance between consecutive threads.
2 πR
V . R=
P
R = Radius of the screw or length of the handle of the ratchet brace of length of the
tommy bar.
WHEEL AND AXLE
A wheel and axle is really two machines in one because it consists of a wheel mounted rigidly
upon an axle or drum of smaller diameter, the wheel and the axle having the same axis.
The wheel & axle device is similar to the lever simple machine. The wheel acts as the lever and
the axle acts as a fulcrum. The lever applies force to the fulcrum, causing something to move.
If a rope is fixed onto the wheel and wound round it, leaving a free end where an effort E is to be
applied, the rope attached to the axle is wound round in the opposite direction and the load
attached to the free end, For each complete rotation of the wheel, there is one complete rotation
of the axle.
Let a and b be the radii of the wheel and axle respectively. Then
Distance moved by Effort 2ᴨa
Velocity ratio= =
Distance moved by Load 2 ᴨb a
= ¿
¿ b¿
¿
Applications of the wheel and axle are:

steering wheel of an automobile
Doorknob
windlass.
treadmill
windmill
waterwheel
GEAR:
Gear is a toothed wheel or cylinder used to transmit rotary or reciprocating motion from one part
of a machine to another. Two or more gears, transmitting motion from one shaft to another,
constitute a gear train.
Gear work on the wheel and axle principle. If toothed wheel A drives wheel B resulting in turning
forces,
Number of teeth on the driven gear

Velocity ratio=
Number of teeth on the driving gear
GENERAL EVALUATION:
A screw jack whose pitch is 4.4mm is used to raise a body of mass 8000kg through a height of
20cm. The length of the tommy bar of the jack is 70cm. If the efficiency of the jack is 80%,
calculate the:
i. velocity ratio of the jack. ii. Mechanical advantage of the jack
iii. Effort required in raising the body. Iv. Work done by the effort in raising the body
(g = 10m/s , π=22 /7 ¿
2
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1 .A screw jack with a tommy bar oflength 12cm is used to raise a car through a vertical height of 25cm
by turning the tommy bar through 50 revolutions. Calculate the approximate velocity ratio of the
jack. [ π=3 .14 ]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 13 (D) 151 (E) 654
2. A screw jack with a tommy bar of length 12cm is used to raise a car through a vertical height of
25cm by turning the tommy bar through 50 revolutions. Calculate the approximate velocity ratio
of the jack. [ π=3.14 ]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 13 (D) 151 (E) 654
3. The radius of a wheel is 30.0cm and that of its axle is 6.0cm. Calculate the effort required to lift a
load of 12.0N using this machine assuming 100% efficiency.
(A) 12N (B) 120 (C) 24N (D) 30N
4. A wheel and axle of radii 800mm and 200mm respectively is used to raise a body of weight 800N
by the application of 250N. Calculate the efficiency of the machine.
(A) 85% (B) 80 (C) 60% (D) 20%
5. Which of the following statements correctly defines a simple machine?
(A) that can produce electric current.
(B) which can only carry people from one place to another.
(C) with which work can be done easily.
(D) which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an object.
ESSAY
1a. List two examples of a simple machine.
b. Explain the statement that the velocity ratio of a machine is 5.
c. A screw jack, 25% efficient and having a screw of pitch 0.4cm is used to raise a load through
a certain height. If in the process the handle turns through a circle of radius 40.0cm, calculate
the i. Velocity ratio of the machine. ii. Mechanical advantage of the machine.
iii. effort required to raise a load of 1000N with the machine. ( take π = 3.14)
d. List four types of machines.
e. A pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6 is used to raise a load of 80N through a vertical
height of 16m,
i. Draw a diagram of this arrangement

ii. Calculate the effort required in the system, if its efficiency is 70%.
iii. Calculate the workdone.
Read Types of Thermometer in your Textbook.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Mention four types of Thermometer
WEEK 6
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
CONTENT:
1. Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass thermometer.
2. Constant volume gas thermometer
3. Resistance thermometer and Thermocouple.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass thermometer.
TEMPERATURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is measured by

means of a thermometer. The S. I. Unit of temperature is the Kelvin. However, it is also
measured in degree Celsius.
THE THERMOMETER
The thermometer is the instrument used for measuring temperature. There are various types of
thermometer, e.g. liquid-in-glass thermometer and the thermocouple. Each one makes use of the change
in the physical properties of materials they are made of, to indicate temperature change.
1. The liquid-in-glass thermometer. The liquid-in-glass thermometer uses liquid(mercury) as

thermometric substance. In which the change in volume of the liquid measures the change in
temperature. Any liquid that will be used as a thermometric liquid must be a good conductor of
heat, be easily seen in glass, have a high boiling point, have a low freezing point, have a low
specific heat capacity, must not wet glass and must expand uniformly. The liquid-in-glass
consists of the school thermometer, clinical thermometer, maximum and minimum thermometer.
1. The clinical thermometer has a constriction and it has a short range (35 0C – 430C). The
narrow constriction prevents the mercury from flowing back into the bulb immediately after the
thermometer has been removed from the patient’s body.
Constriction
0 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
2. The school thermometer is used in school laboratory, it ranges from 0 0C – 1000C. It has no
constriction.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
School thermometer
Maximum and minimum Thermometer
Mercury
Steel index
Maximum
Alcohol
3. The Maximum and minimum thermometer is used to measure the maximum and minimum
temperatures of the day. It contains alcohol at two upper part of the bent tube and mercury below.
A steel index is seen in the two tubes. When the temperature rises, since alcohol expands more
than mercury, The alcohol expands and flows in clockwise direction and the mercury pushes steel
index x upwards. The maximum temperature is read from the lower end of x. When the
temperature falls the alcohol contracts and moves in anticlockwise direction, the mercury pushes
steel index Y up. The lower end of Y indicates the minimum temperature.
EVALUATION
1. State three desirable properties of a thermometric liquid.
2. List four advantages of mercury over alcohol as a thermometric thermometer.
SUB-TOPIC : Constant volume gas thermometer.
Constant – volume gas thermometer
The constant – volume gas thermometer depends on the variation in the pressure of a gas
at constant volume with changes in the temperature of the gas. On heating the bulb to a
specific temperature, the gas expands and pushes the mercury down to tube A and
consequently mercury level at C rises. The right side of AC of the manometer is moved
up and down in order to bring the mercury level on the other side to its original position
D to ensure that the volume of gas is constant. The pressure of gas is read from the
manometer.
Air
Heat
Constant volume gas thermometer
When the level of mercury in A is higher than that of D, then

P = h + H, where H is the atmospheric pressure.
But when the level of mercury is lower, then
P=H-h
To use the thermometer it must be calibrated by getting the gas pressure at 0 0C , when the bulb containing
is placed in pure melting ice. The pressure at 1000C is also gotten by placing it over stem.
θ−0 pθ −¿ p
= ¿ 0
100−0 p100−¿ p ¿ 0
p θ−¿ p
θ= 0
¿
p100−¿ p x 100 ¿ 0
pθ – resistance at temp θ0c

p0 – resistance at O0C
P100 – resistance at 1000C
Example 1: A constant volume gas thermometer records pressure of a body as 250mm of Hg at 0 0C and
350mmHg at 1000C. Calculate the temperature of the body when the gas pressure reads
300mmHg.
SOLUTION:
pθ=300 mmHg, p 0=250 mmHg ,p 100 =350 mmHg ,θ=? ¿

¿
pθ−¿ p
θ= p ¿ 0
100−¿ p x 100 ¿ 0
300−¿250
θ= x 100¿
350−250
50 0
θ= x 100=50
100
EVALUATION:
A constant volume gas thermometer records pressure of a body as 300mm of Hg at 0 0C and 400mmHg at
1000C. Calculate the temperature of the body when the gas pressure reads 350mmHg.
3. Platinum resistance thermometer. This thermometer depends on the variation in the electrical
resistance of a conductor with temperature. The higher the temperature the greater the resistance.
The ends of the wire are connected to a wheatstone bridge which measures the resistance at 0 0C,
at 1000C and the resistance at the desired temperature. The temperature can be calculated using
the equation below.
Comparison lead platinum wire
Resistance Thermometer
θ−0 R θ−¿R
= ¿ 0
100−0 R100−¿ R ¿ 0
R θ−¿ R
θ= 0
¿
R100−¿ R x 100 ¿
0
Rθ – resistance at temp θ0c

Ro – resistance at O0C
R100 – resistance at 1000C
Example 2: The electrical resistance of the element in a platinum resistance thermometer at

1000C, 00C and room temperature are 75.000Ω, 63.000Ω and 64.992Ω respectively. Determine
the room temperature.
Rθ=64.000 Ω , R 0=63.000Ω , R100=75.000 Ω ,θ=? ¿
¿
R θ−¿ R
θ= 0
¿
R100−¿ R x 100 ¿
0
64.992−63.000
θ= x 100
75.000−63.000
1.992 0
θ= x 100=166.0 C
1.200
4. The Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of two different metals joined together by a circuit containing a
galvanometer. The working of a thermocouple depends on the variation of the
electromotive force (e.m.f) between junctions. The equation of the relationship is
E = a + bt + ct2, (a, b, c are constants)
constantan
2 Copper
GENERAL EVALUATION: Thermocouple
Describe the action of resistance thermometer.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. A thermocouple works on the principle of

A. variation of e.m.f with temperature
B. variation of volume with temperature.
C. variation of resistance with temperature
D. variation of pressure with temperature
2. A constant volume gas thermometer works on the principle of

D. variation of pressure with temperature
3. A liquid-in-glass thermometer works on the principle of

D. variation of pressure with
temperature
4. The clinical thermometer differs from other mercury in glass thermometer because it has
A. a constriction
B. a narrow bore
C. a wide range
D. steel index
1a. Draw a labeled diagram of a clinical thermometer and explain how it works.
b. Give the reasons for the following features of the thermometer
i. a bulb of thin glass.
ii. the constriction on the bulb.
iii. a tube of fine bore.
2a. State one advantage which a constant-volume gas thermometer has over other
thermometers and one reason why it is seldom used as an everyday laboratory
instrument.
3a. State three physical properties of substances which may be used to measure temperature.
b. State three desirable properties of a thermometric liquid.
c. List four advantages and four disadvantages of mercury as thermometric liquid.
d. Why is water considered as an unsuitable liquid for a thermometer.
e. The resistance in the element in a platinum resistance thermometer is
6.750Ω at 00c, 7.750Ω at 1000c and 6.900Ω at room temperature.
Determine the room temperature on the scale of the resistance thermometer.

Read absolute scale of temperature from your text book.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
What is Absolute scale of Temperature?
REFERENCES:
1. New School Physics for senior secondary schools by M.W. Anyakoha
2. Senior secondary physics by P.N Okeke, F.N Okeke, S.F. Akande
WEEK 7
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
CONTENT:
1. Temperature scales of thermometers and conversion from one scale to another.
2. Molecular explanation of temperature,
3. Measurement of heat energy
4. Concept of Heat capacity and specific heat capacity
SUB-TOPIC 1: Temperature scales of thermometers and conversion from one scale to

another.
TEMPERATURE SCALES:
1. Celsius scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 0 0C and 1000C. The fundamental interval is
divided into 100 equal parts.
2. Fahrenheit scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 32 0F and 2120F. The fundamental interval is
divided into 180 equal parts.
3. Absolute scale/Thermodynamic scale: The lower and upper fixed points are 273k and 373k. The
fundamental interval is divided into 100 equal parts.
The absolute scale of temperature is thermodynamic scale because it gives us the idea of the lowest
possible temperature or absolute zero with the value of –273 0C.
–2730C = 0k = 273k
The absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature below which nothing can be cooled since
temperature is the measure of the average or mean kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. It
follows that as we subtract heat from a substance, its temperature drops and hence its kinetic energy until
it eventually becomes zero under which the molecules remain stationary.
Upper fixed point
1000C 2120F 373k
Fundamental Fundamental Fundamental

interval interval interval
00C 320F 273k Lower fixed point
CONVERSION
CELSIUS SCALEFROM ONE SCALE TO ANOTHER:
FAHRENHEIT SCALE KELVIN SCALE
To convert from one scale to another, use interpolation technique.
1000C 2120
F
200C
θ
00C 320F
Unknown temperature−lower ¿ point ¿ point−lower ¿ point ¿=knowntemperature−lower ¿ point ¿

Upper ¿ upper ¿
20−0 θ−32
=
100−0 212−32
20 x 180
θ−32= =36
100
θ−32=36
0
θ=36+32=68 F
EVALUATION:
1. A faulty thermometer indicates – 0.40c and 100.60c at the ice and steam points respectively.
What will be the reading of this thermometer in a liquid whose true temperature is 80 0c?
A. 80.40c B. 80.80c
C. 84.00c D. 88.80c
2. The lower and upper fixed points of a mercury-in-glass thermometer are marked X and 180mm
respectively. On a particular day the mercury meniscus in the thermometer rises to 60mm. If the
corresponding reading on a Celsius scale is 200c, what is the value of X?
A. 6.0mm B. 18.0mm
C. 30.0mm D. 60.0mm
SUB-TOPIC 2: Measurement of heat
MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF TEMPERATURE
According to the molecular theory solids vibrate about their mean position, when heat is applied to
solid, the amplitude of vibration of these molecules become larger and their kinetic energy
increases. From kinetic theory, the total translational kinetic energy of the molecules is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature, thus increase in kinetic energy implies increase in
temperature.
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT ENERGY
Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy that flows due to temperature difference. It is measured in
joules.
The quantity of heat Q received by a body is proportional to its mass (m), and temperature change ( 02
- 01) and on the nature of the material the body is made of.
This Q ∝ m (02 - 01)
Q = MC (02 - 01)
C is a constant of proportionality called the specific heat capacity of the body, which depends on the
nature of the body.
The quantity of heat energy possessed by a body depends on these three quantities:
(i) the change in temperature (θ2 – θ1)

(ii) the specific heat capacity of the body (C)
(iii) mass of the body (m)
HEAT CAPACITY
This is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the entire body by one degree rise in
temperature(1k). It is measured in Joules/K.
H = MC
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass(1kg) of
the substance through a degree rise in temperature( 1 0C or 1K)
Q = MC (02 - 01)
Q is quantity of heat, C is specific heat capacity, θ2−θ1 change in temperature and m is the
mass of the substance.
Q
C=
m ( θ 2−θ1 )
The unit is JKg-1K-1
Example 1. What is meant by the statement: The specific heat capacity of copper is 400Jkg -1k-1?
SOLUTION:
1. It means the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of copper through one
degree rise in temperature is 400J
Example 2. How much heat is given out when a piece of iron of mass 50g and specific heat
capacity 460Jkg-1K-1 cools from 85 ℃ to 250C
SOLUTION:
M= 50g = 0.05kg, C = 460Jkg-1k-1, θ2 – θ1 = 85 -25 = 600C.
Q = MC (02 - 01)
Q = 0.05 x 460 x 60 = 1380J
DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A SOLID BY METHOD OF

MIXTURES
Thermometer
stirrer
The solid lead block is weighed on a balance to be M 1. A lagged calorimeter is dried and weighed to be
M2. It is then reweighed to be M3 when half filled with water. The initial temperature
water of the water is
taken to be 01.
lead calorimeter
The lead block is suspended in boiling water with a temperature 02 after which it is transferred to the
calorimeter and the mixture stirred to maintain a uniform temperature 03.
The specific heat capacity of the lead can be calculated using the fact that heat loss by the lead = heat
gained by calorimeter andburner
Bunsen water. Given the specific heat capacity of calorimeter and water to be C c and
Cw respectively.
M1 Cc (02 – 03) = M2 Cc (03 – 01) +(M3 – M2) Cw ((03 – 01))
Cl = M2 Cc (03 – 01) + (M3 – M2) Cw (03 – 01)
M1 (02 – 03)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The calorimeter should be well lagged.
2. The mixture should be well stirred to ensure even distribution of heat.
3. The hot solid should be quickly transferred to prevent loss of heat.
SUB-TOPIC 3:
(1) CALCULATIONS USING METHOD OF MIXTURES
(2) DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SOLID BY

ELECTRICAL METHOD.
(1) Calculations.
Example 3:
An iron rod of mass 2kg and at a temperature of 280 ℃ is dropped into some quantity of water
initially at a temperature of 30 ℃. If the temperature of the mixture is 70 ℃, calculate the mass
of the water. [Neglect heat losses to the surroundings.] [Specific heat capacity of iron = 460Jkg -
K , Specific heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-]
1 -1
SOLUTION:
Mass of iron rod = M1 = 2kg
Temperature of hot iron rod = θ2=2800C
Initial temperature of water = θ1= 30oC
Final temperature of mixture = θ3= 700
Specific heat capacity of iron = CI = 460Jkg-1K-1
Mass of water = M2= ?
Heat lost by hot iron = heat gained by water
M1 Ci (02 – 03) = M2 Cw (03 – 01)
M2 = M1 Ci (02 – 03)
CW (03 – 01)
M2 = 2 x 460 x (280 – 70)
4200 (70 – 30)
2 x 460 x 210
m 2=
4200 x 40
193200
m 2= =1.15 kg
168000
Example 4: Example 3: A piece of copper of mass 120g is heated in an enclosure to a

temperature of 1250C. it is then taken out of the enclosure and held in air for half a minute and
dropped carefully into a copper calorimeter of mass 105g containing 200g of water at 20 0C. The
temperature of the water rises to 250C. Calculate the rate at which heat is being lost from the
piece of copper when it is held in air. (specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg – 1 0C – 1 , specific
heat capacity of copper is 400J kg – 1 0C – 1 Waec)
Solution
θ1=125 0C, θ2=250C, mass of copper (Mc) = 120g = (120/1000)kg = 0.12kg
Heat lost by copper = Mc cc (θ2−θ1) = 0.12 x 400 x (125 – 25) = 4800J
Mass of calorimeter (mc) = 105g = (105/1000)kg = 0.105kg, specific heat capacity of calorimeter
(cc) = 400J kg – 1 0C – 1 mass of water = (200/1000)kg = 0.2kg.
Change in temperature Δ θ=¿)0C
Heat gained by calorimeter and water = mcCc Δ θ + mwcw Δ θ
= 0.105 x 400 x (25 – 20) + 0.2 x 4200 x (25 – 20) = 4410J
Heat lost to air = 4800 – 4410 = 390J
Therefore, rate of lost of heat to air = 390/30 = 13Js – 1
(2) DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY BY ELECTRICAL

METHOD
Thermometer
ELECTRIC HEATER
Brass block
Lagging
To calculate the specific heat capacity C b of a solid brass block, we make two holes in a weighed brass
block into which a thermometer and a heating element connected to a source of power supply are
inserted. Oil is poured in the holes to ensure thermal conductivity. Assuming no heat is lost to the
surrounding, the total amount of electrical heat energy supplied by the coil, Ivt = heat gained by the brass,
MCb0
Ivt = MCb0……………(1)
From v = IR (ohms law)
I2 Rt = MCb0………….(2)
V2 t = MCb0………(3)
R
Example 5: A liquid of specific heat capacity 3Jg – 1 k – 1 rises from 150C to 650C in one minute
when an electric heater is used. If the heater generates 63KJ per minute, calculate the mass of the
liquid.
Solution
Specific heat capacity of liquid Cl = 3Jg – 1 k – 1 = 3000Jkg – 1 k – 1 Δθ=65−15 = 500C
Heat supplied by heater = heat gained by water
Ivt = Ml x Cl Δ θ where Ml = mass of liquid
63000 = Ml x 3000 x 50
Ml = 63000 / 3000 x 50 = 0.42kg.
Example 6: A certain metal of mass 1.5kg at initial temperature of 27 0C, absorb heat from electric heater
of 75W rating for 4 minutes. If the final temperature was 47 0C, calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal and its heat capacity.
Solution:
Time ‘t’ = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 = 240s. power IV = 75W, mass of metal ‘m’ = 1.5kg.
Heat supplied by electric heater = heat gained by the metal
IVt = mc Δ θ
75 x 240 = 1.5 x c x ( 47 – 27)
75 x 240 = 1.5 x c x 20
75× 240
C= =600 Jkg – 1 K – 1
1.5× 20
Heat capacity = mc = 1.5 x 600 = 900JK – 1
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. 250g of lead at 170 0C is dropped into 100g of water at 0 0C. If the final steady temperature is 12 0C,
calculate the specific heat capacity of lead. (C w = 4.2 x 103 J/kgk)
2. A 2000W electric heater is used to heat a metal object of mass 5kg initially at 10 ℃. If a temperature
rise of 30 ℃ is obtained after 10min, calculate the heat capacity of the material.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. The absolute zero temperature is defined as the temperature at which
(A) thermal motion ceases (B) the volume of a real gas is maximum
(C) the temperature of a substance is 0 ℃ (D) the temperature of a gas is 273 ℃
(E) ice melts
2. Two samples of pure naphthalene of masses 100g and 200g are heated through temperature
differences of10 ℃ and 20 ℃ respectively. What is the ratio of the heat energy absorbed by the
smaller sample to that absorbed by the larger sample?
(A) 1:4 (B) 1:2 (C) 1:1 (D) 2:1 (E) 4:1
3. Thermal equilibrium between two objects exists when

(A) one object loses heat continuously to the other
(B) the heat capacities of both objects are the same
(C) the quantity of heat in both objects is the same
(D) the temperatures of both objects are the same
(E) the volumes of both objects are the same
4. A 2000W electric heater is used to heat a metal object of mass 5kg initially at 10 ℃. If a
temperature rise of 30 ℃ is obtained after 10min, the heat capacity of the material is
(A) 8.0 ×103 J ℃−1 (B) 1.2 ×104 J ℃−1 (C) 4.0 × 104 J ℃−1
(D) 6.0 ×10 4 J ℃−1(E) 1.2 ×106 J ℃−1
5. A piece of copper of mass 30g loses 60J of heat energy. If the specific heat capacity of copper
is
400Jkg-1K-1, calculate the change in temperature of the copper.
(A) 5.0K (B) 2.5K (C) 2.0K (D) 0.8K (E) 0.2K
ESSAY
1. Describe an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of copper using a copper ball.
State two precautions necessary to obtain accurate result.
2. A piece of copper ball of mass 20g at 2000C is placed in a copper calorimeter of mass 60g containing
50g of water at 300C. Ignoring heat losses, calculate the final steady temperature of the mixture.
( Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg -1k-1, specific heat capacity of copper = 0.4Jg-1k-1).
3. Water of mass 120g at 50 ℃ is added to 200g of water at 10 ℃ and the mixture is well stirred.
Calculate the temperature of the mixture. [Neglect heat losses to the surroundings].
(A) 60.0 ℃ (B) 40.0 ℃ (C) 30.0 ℃ (D) 25.0 ℃ (E) 22.5 ℃
4. Hot water at a temperature of t is added to twice that amount of water at a temperature of

30 ℃. If the resulting temperature of the mixture is 50 ℃, calculate t.
(A) 100 ℃ (B) 90 ℃ (C) 80 ℃ (D) 70 ℃ (E) 60 ℃
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read latent heat from your Textbook
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
A tap supplies water at 26 ℃ while another supplies water at 82 ℃. If a
man wishes to bathe with water at 40 ℃ , the ratio of the mass of hot
water to that of cold water required is
(A) 1:3 (B) 3:1 (C) 3:7 (D) 7:3 (E) 15:8
WEEK 8
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
CONTENT:
1. Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid.
2. Latent heat, Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
3. Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of steam.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid by electrical method.

Thermometer
Connected to electric supply

Liquid
Lagging
A calorimeter of known heat capacity (McCc) is used and a known mass of liquid( M1) is placed in the
calorimeter, the temperature of the liquid is recorded (θ 1)). The known quantity of heat (VIt) is recorded
by taking readings from the voltmeter, ammeter and stop watch. The final temperature is recorded (θ 2).
Electrical energy supplied by the heater = Heat energy absorbed by the calorimeter and water.
VIt = M1CL(θ2 – θ1) + McCc (θ2 –θ1)
CL = VIt - Mc Cc (02 – 01)
C1 (02 – 01)
LATENT HEAT
Latent heat or hidden heat is experienced when there is a change of state ( melting, vaporization,
condensation, freezing, sublimation), it is not visible in the thermometer because there is no
change in temperature. There are latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy required to convert a substance from its solid form to its
liquid form without change in temperature.
Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change unit mass
of a substance from solid to liquid without change in temperature. The unit is Jkg-1.
Q = quantity of heat(in joules)

m = mass of substance(kg)
Q = ml
Q
l= l=specific latent heat of fusion .
m
Specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change
unit mass of substance from liquid to vapour without change in temperature.
Q = ml
Q
l=
m
Example 1: How much heat is required to convert 20g of ice at 0 ℃ to water at the same temperature?
[Specific latent heat of ice = 336Jg-1]
M= 20g = , l = 336Jg-1
Q
l=
m
Q = ml
Q = 336 X 20 = 6720J
Example 2: Calculate the quantity of heat released when 100g of steam at 100 ℃ condenses to
water. [Take specific latent heat of vaporization of water as 2.3 ×106 Jkg-1]
M= 100g = 0.1kg , l =2.3 x 106Jkg-1
Q
l=
m
Q = ml
Q = 2.3 x 106 X 0.1 = 2.3 x 105J
EVALUATION:
Calculate the energy required to vapourise 50g of water initially at 800C. [Specific heat capacity
of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of vapourisation of water = 2260Jg-1]
Sub-Topic 2: Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

Thermometer
Stirrer
calorimeter
Connected to electric supply

Ice block
Lagging
Dried ice is dropped in weighed calorimeter(M1) containing water of known mass(M2-M1) and
known temperature(θ1). The mixture is stirred continuously and more ice is added until the
temperature of the mixture falls to about 100C below the room temperature(θ2). The content is
reweighed to find the mass of the ice.
Heat lost by calorimeter and water in cooling from θ1 to θ2 = Heat gained by ice in melting to
water at 00c + Heat gained by melted ice when its temperature rises from 00C to θ2.
M1C1(θ1-θ2) + (M2-M1) CW( θ1-θ) = (M3-M2)L + (M3-M2) CW θ1
L = M1C1(θ1-θ2) + (M2-M1) CW( θ1-θ) - (M3-M2) CW θ1
(M3-M2)
PRECAUTIONS:
3. The ice must be dried before it is put in the calorimeter.
Example 3: Calculate the heat energy required to change 0.1kg of ice at 0 ℃ to water boiling
at 100 ℃. [Specific heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg -1K-1; specific latent heat of fusion of ice
=336000Jkg-1].
SOLUTION
Q = Heat required to melt ice at 00C + Heat required to change temperature of ice from 00C to
1000C.
Q = m l+m c w ( θ 2−θ1 )
Q = 0.1 x 336000 + 0.1 x 4200 x ( 100−0 )

Q = 33600 + 42000 = 75600 = 7.56 X 104J
EVALUATION:
1. Calculate the heat required to convert 20g of ice at 0 ℃ to water at 16 ℃ . [Specific latent
heat of fusion of ice = 336Jg-1; specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1]
2. Explain what is meant by the following statements: The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.4 x 105Jkg-1.
Sub-Topic 3: Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization of stem.
Connecting rubber tube
Safety expansion
tube
screen Steam trap
Boiling water
Thermometer
Lagging
The calorimeter is weighed empty and the mass(M1) is recorded. Water is poured into the
calorimeter and the mass(M2) recorded. Dried steam is passed into the lagged calorimeter
containing water until the temperature of water rises to 250and the steam is removed and the
content stirred. The mass(M3 )is recorded and the final steady temperature taken(θ2).
Mass of water = M2 – M1 , Mass of steam= M3 – M2
Heat lost by stem in condensing + Heat lost by condensed stem in cooling from 1000C to θ2 =
Heat gained by water and calorimeter during the experiment.
(M3 – M2)L + (M3 – M2)(100 – θ2)Cw = ( M2 – M1)Cw(θ2 – θ1) + M1C(θ2 – θ1)
L = ( M2 – M1)Cw(θ2 – θ1) + M1C(θ2 – θ1) - (M3 – M2)(100 – θ2)Cw
(M3 – M2)
PRECAUTIONS:
3. The Steam must be dried
Example 4: Calculate the energy required to vaporize 50g of water initially at 80 ℃ . [Specific
heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260Jg-1]
SOLUTION
Q = Heat required to raise the temperature of water from 80 0C to 1000C + Heat required to
vaporize water
Q = m c w ( θ 2−θ1 ) +m l
Q = 50 x 42 x ( 100−80 ) + 50 x 2260
Q = 42000 + 113000 = 155000 = 1.55 X 105J
Example 5: heat is supplied to a liquid of mass 500g contained in a can by passing a current of
4A through a heating coil of resistance 12.5Ω immersed in the liquid. The initial temperature of
the liquid is 240C. The liquid reaches its boiling point in 10 minutes after the current is switched
on. It takes a further 2 minutes after the liquid starts to boil away. Calculate
(a). The specific heat capacity of the liquid

(b). The specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid
(boiling point of liquid = 840C, thermal capacity of can = 400J/K)
Solution
(a) Mass of liquid = 500g = 0.5kg
Heat required to raise temperature of liquid from 240C to 840C (boiling point of liquid) is
given as
Q = mc(θ2−θ1 ¿ = 0.5 x c x (84 – 24) = 30c. c is the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Heat required to raise temperature of can from 240C to 840C = 400 x 60 = 24000J (thermal
capacity x change in temperature).
Heat supplied by heating coil is
Ivt = I2Rt = 4 x 4 x 12.5 x 10 x 60 = 120000J
Since this heat is used to raise the temperature of the can and the liquid to boiling point,
we have
30c + 24000 = 120000
30c = 120000 – 24000
c = 3200Jkg – 1
(b) let L be the specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid.
Heat required to vaporize liquid = mL = 0.5L
Heat supplied by current = I2Rt = 4 x 4 x 12.5 x 2 x 60 = 24000J
Since this heat is required to boil away the liquid at 840C, we have
0.5L = 24000 (neglecting heat loss to the surrounding)
L = 24000/0.5 = 4.8 x 104 Jk – 1
GENERAL EVALUATION:
A cup containing 100g of pure water at 20 ℃ is placed in a refrigerator. If the refrigerator

extracts heat at the rate of 840J per minute, calculate the time taken for the water to freeze.
[Neglect the heat capacity of the material of the cup.] [Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg -
K ; specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336Jg-1].
1 -1
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. 80% of the heat supplied to a 30g block of ice at 0 ℃ completely melts it to water at 0 ℃ .
Calculate the total heat energy supplied. [Specific latent heat of ice = 336Jg-1].
(A) 26880J (B) 12600J (C) 10080J (D) 8064J (E) 4200J
2.. Which of the following best explains why a person suffers a more severe burn when his skin
is exposed to steam than when boiling water pours on his skin?
(A) Steam is at a high temperature than boiling water.
(B) Steam possesses greater heat energy per unit mass than boiling water.
(C) Steam spreads more easily over a wider area of the skin than boiling water.
(D) Steam penetrates more deeply into the skin than boiling water.
(E) The specific latent heat of vaporisation is released in changing from boiling water to steam.
3. A steam trap is a component of the apparatus used in determining the specific latent heat of
vaporization of steam. In steady state, the steam trap
(A) stores the steam for future use
(B) prevents the steam from escaping
(C) ensures that only dry steam gets into the calorimeter
(D) determines the quantity of steam used
(E) allows condensed steam to go into the calorimeter
4. Water of mass 5kg at 30 ℃ absorbs8.4 × 105 J of heat. Neglecting heat

losses to the surroundings, calculate the final temperature of the water.
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1]
(A) 30 ℃ (B) 34.0 ℃ (C) 37 ℃ (D) 40 ℃ (E) 70 ℃
5. A block of ice at its melting point is left on a table in the atmosphere and it is observed to
melt gradually. Which of the following statements is true about the melting process?
(A) Heat extracted from the ice block makes the ice block cold.
(B) he atmosphere absorbs heat from the ice block and the temperature of the ice block
falls.
(C) The ice block absorbs heat from the atmosphere and the temperature of the ice block
remains constant as it melts.
(D) The ice block absorbs heat from the atmosphere and the temperature of the ice block
rises.
(E) The reaction force of the table on the ice breaks the ice into water molecules.
ESSAY
i. A piece of copper of mass 300g at a temperature of 9500C is quickly transferred to a
vessel of negligible thermal capacity containing 250g of water at 250C. If the final steady
temperature of the
mixture is 1000C, calculate the mass of the water that will boil away.
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 4.0 x 102Jkg-1K-1, Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x
103Jkg-1k-1
Specific latent heat of vapourization of steam = 2.26 x 106Jkg-1)
2. Using the kinetic theory of matter. Explain why ice can change to water at 00C without
any change in temperature.
Read evaporation in your physics Text book
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Mention four factors that affect the rate of evaporation
REFERENCES:
WEEK 9
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: HEAT ENERGY
CONTENT:
1. Evaporation: Meaning, Factors that affects evaporation and applications of
evaporation and latent heat.
2. Boling point: Meaning, determination of boiling point,
3. Effect of pressure and impurities on boiling and freezing point
4. Relative humidity, mist, cloud, dew point
SUB-TOPIC 1: Evaporation: Meaning, Factors that affects evaporation and applications of
evaporation and latent heat.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a change of state from the liquid to the gaseous state. It takes place at all temperatures and
from the surface of the liquid. Volatile liquids such as Freon, ether, alcohol, vaporize easily. Evaporation
causes cooling because latent heat is taken from the body to change the liquid to the gaseous state.
Example the human utilizes the process of evaporation in cooling after exercise.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases as temperature increase.
Pressure: The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in pressure.
Area of liquid surface exposed: The greater the surface area of liquid exposed, the more rapid will be
the evaporation.
The nature of the liquid: The lower the boiling point of the liquid, the greater will be the rate of
evaporation.
Wind and dryness of the air: Dryness of the air around the body causes rapid evaporation from the
body. Wind blows away liquid vapour and causes rapid evaporation.
APPLICATION OF COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION AND LATENT HEAT
1. Refrigerator
2. Air conditioner
APPLICATION IN REFRIGERATORS
Refrigerators make use of the cooling effect of evaporation. The volatile liquid such as liquid ammonia
or freon evaporates inside copper coil surrounding the freezing compartment, supported by electric pump
which reduced the pressure. As the volatile liquid evaporates in those coils, it absorb heat from the
surround air, consequently cooling the inside of the refrigerator and its content.
The vapour produced is pumped off into the condenser, where it is compressed by the pump and
condenses back to liquid. The latent heat given out during this condensation is quickly dissipated by an
arrangement of cooling fins at the back of refrigerator.
Heat is eliminated by convection and radiation to the surroundings and by conduction into fins. The
liquid is again passed into the evaporator coil and thus the level of cooling is regulated by a thermostat
connected to the switch.
EVALUATION
1. What is Evaporation?
2. Mention and explain that affects the rate of evaluation.
3. Explain the mode of operation of the refrigerator.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Boling point: Meaning, determination of boiling point
Boiling happens at a particular temperature and pressure, the temperature of the liquid remains
steady during boiling. Boiling occurs throughout the entire volume of the liquid and wind has no
effect on boiling.
Boiling point of a liquid is that temperature at which its saturated vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
Saturated vapour is a vapour that is in contact with its own liquid within a confined space. The
pressure exerted by the saturated vapour is known as saturated vapour pressure.
Determination of boiling point of a liquid
The J-shaped tube is filled with mercury and a drop of liquid is introduced into the space on top of the
mercury in the shorter arm. The liquid evaporates and the pressure of the vapour depresses the mercury
level slightly. The tube is heated in a beaker of water as the temperature increases, the liquid evaporates
and more drops introduced. The s.v.p of the liquid increases. At a stage the mercury levels in both arms of
the tubes become equal and the temperature is read at this point. This temperature is the boiling point of
the liquid because at this temperature s.v.p of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. A pure sample of the liquid must be used.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES ON BOILING AND FREEZING
POINT
Effect of pressure on boiling point:
Reduced pressure lowers the boiling point: If a flask of boiling water is allowed to cool until the water
stops boiling and cold water is now poured over the bottom of the flask, boiling resumes and cease when
the pouring of water stops. The poured cold water causes condensation of the vapour inside the flask,
which consequently reduced the pressure on the surface of the water. This reduced pressure lowers the
boiling point of the liquid and make it boils again. Hence reduced pressure always lowers the boiling
point of a liquid. Dissolved impurities raises the boiling point of liquid.
Increased pressure raises the boiling point: The fact that increased pressure raises the boiling point is
put into a useful application in the pressure cooker. The increased pressure of the trapped gas above the
liquid raises the boiling of the liquid inside the cooker. This provides a high cooking temperature needed
to conserve fuel and save time.
Effect of pressure on freezing point:
Increase pressure lowers the melting point of all substances that expand on solidifying
(ice block), but for substances that contracts on solidifying(paraffin), their melting point is raised by
increased pressure.
Effect of dissolved impurities on boiling point:
Dissolved impurities raises the boiling point of pure liquid.
Effect of dissolved impurities on melting/freezing point:
Dissolved impurities lowers the melting point of pure solid or the freezing point of pure liquid.
EVALUATION
1. Define the boiling point of a liquid.

2. Describe an experiment to determine the boiling point of a small quantity of a liquid.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Relative humidity, mist, cloud, dew point
HUMIDITY: It is the water vapour content in the atmosphere. If there is high percentage of water in the
air, the air is humid or moist.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY: It describes how moist the air is. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapour present in a certain volume of air to the mass of water vapour required to saturate the same
volume of air at the same temperature. It is expressed in percentage. Very high humidity or very low
humidity makes one uncomfortable.
MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY (HYGROMETER)
Hygrometer is used to measure relative humidity. It consists of the dry bulb thermometer which reads
temperature of dry air, and the wet bulb thermometer which records a lower temperature because
evaporation of water from the moist cloth cools the bulb. The lower the humidity, the lower the
temperature of the wet bulb thermometer relative to the dry bulb thermometer. The difference between
the two temperatures is high. If the humidity is high water evaporates slowly from the wet bulb. The
difference between the two temperatures is small. The difference in the readings of the thermometers is a
measure of the relative humidity.
DEW POINT: it is the temperature at which the water vapour present in the air is just sufficient to
saturate it.
MIST: They are condensed water vapour( droplets) suspended in air near the earth surface which have
been cooled below dew point. Mist reduces visibility. In severe mist situation, we have fog.
CLOUD: Cloud is a mass of small water droplets that float in the air. Cloud is high up in the atmosphere.
GENERAL EVALUATION:
Explain the following terms i. Humidity ii. Mist iii. Dew point iv. Cloud.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The temperature at which the water vapour present in the air is just
sufficient to saturate it is called the
(A) saturation point
(B) steam point
(C) ice point
(D) dew point
(E) boiling point
2. Which of the following will affect the saturation vapour pressure of a liquid?
(A) Temperature of the liquid
(B) Humidity of air
(C) Volume of vapour
(D) Volume of the liquid
(E) Mass of the liquid
3. The boiling point of a liquid depends on the following except the
(A) volume of the liquid
(B) nature of the liquid
(C) impurities present in the liquid
(D) external pressure
(E) degree of its molecular
cohesive force
4. Water in an open container boils at a lower temperature when heated at
the top of a mountain than at sea level because at the top of a mountain
(A) impurities are less than at sea
level
(B) pressure is less than at sea level
(C) rays of the sun add more heat to
the water
(D relative humidity is higher than
that at sea level
(E) temperature is lower than that at
sea level
5. When an athlete perspires after running
A. Evaporation occurs and helps to cool the body.
B. Convection cools the body
C. The body absorbs cold from the surrounding air
D. Heat is conducted away from the body.
1. Explain the following
a. When methylated spirit is poured on the skin, it has cooling effect

b. Moisture is deposited on the outside of a glass bottle containing very cold water.
Read Charle’s law and Boyle’s law
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
State Charle’s Law and Boyle’s law.
REFERENCES:
WEEK 10
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: GAS LAWS
CONTENT:
1. Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law
2. Boyle’s law and its application
3. Charle’s law and its application, General gas law.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law
Measurement of Gas pressure
A manometer is used to measure Gas pressure gas pressure. One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere
while the other end is connected the gas supply. When the gas is released, the gas exerts pressure on the
water causing it to rise up to a height h, When the water levels are steady,
Pressure of gas = pressure of liquid at B (pressure at the level in a liquid are equal)
Pressure of gas = H + h (H = Atmospheric pressure)
WEEK 10
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 2
TOPIC: GAS LAWS
CONTENT:
1. Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law
2. Boyle’s law and its application
3. Charle’s law and its application, General gas law.
SUB-TOPIC 1: Measurement of Gas pressure, Pressure law
Measurement of Gas pressure
A manometer is used to measure Gas pressure gas pressure. One end of the tube is open to the
atmosphere while the other end is connected the gas supply. When the gas is released, the gas exerts
pressure on the water causing it to rise up to a height h, When the water levels are steady,
Pressure of gas = pressure of liquid at B (pressure at the level in a liquid are equal)
Pressure of gas = H + h (H = Atmospheric pressure)

GAS LAW
In an attempt to study the behaviour of gases in relation to volume, temperature and pressue, the
following conditions were investigated
(a) variation of volume with pressure at constant temperature, Boyle’s law (Pv = constant)
(b) variation of pressure with temperature at constant volume, pressure law (P/T = K)
(c) variation of volume with temperature at constant pressure, Charles law( V/T= constant)
Pressure Law or Gay- Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.
P P 1 P2
=Constant , =
T T1 T 2
Experimental verification of pressure law
It is performed using a constant volume Gas thermometer. The pressure of the gas at 0 0C is first
obtained by addition of ice shavings to water originally cooled to 0 0C and the manometer is adjusted
until the mercury level coincides with the fixed mark C. The difference between the mercury levels
(h) is the pressure of the gas at that temperature. The water is heated increasing the temperature at
intervals of 200C up to 1000C and corresponding heights (h) taken. A graph of pressure against
temperature plotted gives a straight line proving that pressure increases linearly with temperature.
P(cmHg)
-273
T( 0C)
Precautions:
1. The bulb must be dry and contain only dry air.
2. Position of the fixed mark must not shift throughout the experiment.
QUESTION1: A given mass of gas has a pressure of 80Nm -2 at a temperature of 47 ℃ . If the

temperature is reduced to 27 ℃ with the volume remaining constant, the new pressure is
SOLUTION
P P 1 P2
=Constant , =
T T1 T 2
T1 = 47 + 273 = 320K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K, P1 = 80Nm-2, p2 = ?
P 1 P2
=
T1 T 2
80 P2
=
320 300
80 X 300 −2
P 2= =75 N m
320
EVALUATION
1. The pressure of a given mass of gas changes from 200Nm -2 to 100Nm-2 while its temperature drops
From 1270c to -730c. Calculate the ratio of the final volume of the gas to its initial volume.
(A) 2.4:1 (B) 2.0 : 1 (C) 1.2 : (D) 1.0 :1 (E) 1.0 : 2
2. The pressure of air in a tyre is 22.5Nm -2 At 270c. If the air in the tyre heats up to 47 0c, calculate the
new pressure of the air, assuming that no air leaks out and that the change in volume of the air
can be neglcted.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Boyle’s law and its application
BOYLE’S LAW: It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas varies inversely as its pressure,
provided the temperature remains constant.
P1 V 1=¿ P V
2 2 ¿
Experimental verification of Boyle’s law
Dry air is introduced into the tube B and the atmospheric pressure noted(H). The tube is kept steady
while tube A is raised or lowered to obtain at least five different heights(h) of mercury and the
corresponding lengths of the dry air in tube B. Since the tube is of uniform cross-sectional area, The
length L is proportional to the volume of air.
A graph of pressure against inverse of volume gives a straight line.
P(cmHg)
-273 1/v cm-3
1. The set-up illustrated above shows a capillary tube of uniform cross-sectional area in two different
arrangements. Using the data in the diagrams, calculate the pressure of the atmosphere.
15cm 45cm
Dry air 30cm
15cm mer-
cury
SOLUTION
P1 =( A + 15)cmHg, V1 = 30cm, P2 = (A – 15)cmHg, V2 = 45cm
P1 V 1=¿ P V
2 2 ¿
( A+15 ) ( 30 )= ( A−15 ) (45)
30 A + 450=45 A−675
450+ 675=45 A−30 A
1125=15 A
A=75 cmHg
EVALUATION
1. An air bubble of volume 2cm 3 is formed 20cm under water. What will be its volume when it rises to
just below the surface of the water if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a height of 10cm of
water?
(A) 6cm3 (B) 4cm3 (C) 3cm (D) 2cm3 (E) 1cm3
2. The pressure exerted a given mass of gas in a container

(A) decreases if the container is heated.
(B) increases if the molecules of the gas move faster.
(C) increases if the volume of the container is doubled.
(D) decreases as the kinetic energy of the gas molecules increases.
SUB-TOPIC 3: Charle’s law and its application, General gas law.
CHARLE’S LAW: It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (T), provided the pressure remains constant.
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Experimental verification of Charle’s Law
Dry gas is trapped by pellet of mercury in the capillary tube of uniform diameter. The temperature of the
gas at 00C is obtained by adding ice shavings to the water in the beaker until the temperature is 0 0C. The
water is heated and lengths of the gas column at different temperatures taken and recorded. The water
must be stirred before taken the readings. The length of the gas column is taken as the volume of the
gas because the capillary tube is of uniform cross sectional area.
A graph of length of gas column against corresponding temperature is plotted, a straight line is obtained
with slope approximately 1/273.
V/L
T(0C)
Cubic or volume expansivity(γ) of Gas

It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume at 00C per degree rise in temperature
Increase ∈volume V −V
γ= 0 = V1 0
volume 0 C x temperature rise 0 (T −T )
1 0❑
V 1−V 0=increase∈volume∨expansion
T 1−T 0=Temperature rise
V 0=volume at 00 C
V 1=V 0 {γ ( T 1−T 0 ) +1}

QUESTION 1: Dry hydrogen is trapped by a pellet of mercury in a uniform capillary tube closed at one
end. If the lenght of the column of hydrogen at 270 0C is 1.0m, at what temperature will the lenght be
1.20m.
T1 = 270 + 273 = 543K, T2 = ?, V1 = 1.0m, V2 = 1.20m
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
1.0 1.20
=
543 T 2
543 x 1.20
T2 ¿ =651.6 k
1.0
QUESTION 2: The cubic expansivity of a certain gas at constant pressure is 1/273K -1. If a given mass of
the gas is held at constant pressure and its volume at 0 0c is 273m3. Determine the volume of the gas at
2730c.
SOLUTION
Increase ∈volume V 1−V 0

γ= = V 0 (T −T )
volume 0 0 C x temperature rise 1 0❑
V 1=V 0 {γ ( T 1−T 0 ) +1}

1
V 1=273 { ( 273−0 )+1 }
273
1
V 1=273 { X 273+1}
273
V 1=273 {1+1 }
3
V 1=273 X 2=546 cm
GENERAL GAS LAW
The general gas law is the combination of the Boyle’s, Charles and Pressure Law.
It follows that
PV
=Constant ,
T
P 1V P2 V
1
= 2
T1 T2
1. 500cm3 of a gas is collected at 00c and at a pressure of 72.0cm of mercury. What is the volume of
the gas at the same temperature and a pressure of 76.0cm of mercury?
SOLUTION
P 1V P2 V
1
= 2
T1 T2
❑72 X 500 76 X V 2
=
273 273
V2 X 76 X 273 = 72 X 500 X 273
72 X 500 X 273
V 2=
76 X 273
V2 = 473.7cm3
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. As a bicycle tyre was being pumped up, it was noticed that contrary to Boyle’s law the volume
increased as the pressure increased. The best explanation of this is that Boyle’s law is only true
for
(A) ideal gases
(B) a fixed mass of gases
(C) a mixture of gases
(D) a gas at variable temperature.
2. The pressure P, volume V and absolute temperature T of a given mass of an ideal gas, change
simultaneously, which of the following equation is correct about the gas?
(A) PV = constant/T
(B) PV/T = constant
(C) PT= constant/V
(D) PV = T
3. The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is 2.0 x 10 5Nm-2 at a known temperature, assuming that the
temperature remains constant, what will be the pressure of the gas if its volume is halved?
(A) 1.0 x 10 5Nm-2
(B) 2.0 x 10 5Nm-2
(C) 3.0 x 10 5Nm-2
(D) 4.0 x 10 5Nm-2
(E) 5.0 x 10 5Nm-2.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The pressure of a given mass of gas changes from 200Nm -2 to 100Nm-2 while its temperature
drops from 1270c to -730c. Calculate the ratio of its the final volume of the gas to its initial
volume.
(A) 2.4:1 (B) 2.0 : 1 (C) 1.2 :1 (D) 1.0 :1 (E) 1.0 : 2
2. A gas has a volume of 546cm 3 at 00c, what is the volume of the gas at -100 0c, if its pressure
remains constant?
(A) 346cm3 (B) 446cm (C) 546cm3 (D) 646cm3 (E) 746cm3
3. A given mass of gas at a temperature of 30 0 is trapped in a tube of volume V, calculate the

temperature of the gas when the volume is reduced to two-third of its marginal value by
applying pressure twice the original value?
(A) -710c (B) 400c (C) 1310 (D) 3130c (E) 4040c
a. State Boyle’s law

b. With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe an experiment to illustrate the relationship between the
volume and the temperature of a given mass of air at constant pressure.
c. A thread of mercury of length 15cm is used to trap some air in a capillary tube with uniform cross-
sectional area and closed at one end. With the tube vertical and the open end uppermost, the
length of the trapped air column is 20cm. Calculate the length of the air column when the tube is
held.
i. Horizontally ii. Vertically with the open end underneath.
(Atmospheric pressure = 76cm of mercury)
d. A uniform capillary tube, closed at one end contained dry air trapped by a thread of mercury 8.5 x
10-2m long. When the tube was held horizontally, the length of the air column was 5.0 x 10 -2m.
When it was held vertically with the closed end downwards, the length was 4.5 x 10 -2m. Determine
the value of the atmospheric pressure. ( g = 10m/s 2, density of mercury = 1.36 x 104kgm-3)
PRE-READIND ASSIGNMENT
2. A closed inexpansible vessel contains air saturated with water vapour at 77 0c. The total pressure in
the vessel is 1007mmHg. Calculate the new pressure in the vessel if the temperature is reduced to
270C. ( The s.v.p of water at 770C and 270C are 314mmHg and 27mmHg. Treat the air in the vessel
as an ideal gas)
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
11. REVISION.
12. EXAMINATION

Physics Ss2 2nd Term e Notes

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CLASS: SS 2

SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK

2. LINEAR MOMENTUM: Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and moment

3. MECHANICAL ENERGY: Principle of linear momentum, Types of collision,

4. MECHANICAL ENERGY: kinetic energy, Conservation of mechanical energy,

6. HEAT ENERGY: Temperature and its measurement, liquid-in-glass thermometer,

8. HEAT ENERGY: Determination of specific heat capacity of liquid, Latent heat,

WEEK 1: DATE: __________________

TOPIC: LINEAR MOMENTUM

CONTENT: 1. Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and momentum

Sub –topic 1. Newton’s first law of motion, impulse and momentum

Applications of Newton’s first law:

M =mass in kg, V= velocity in ms-1

mv is final momentum, mu is initial momentum

The unit of impulse is Newton-second (Ns) or kgms – 1

f is resultant force acting on t h e body∧t h e unit is Newton.

Calculate the magnitude of the resulting acceleration.

u=2mls , v=−2 m/s , ( negative because of a c h ange ∈direction )

impulse=5 (−2−2 )=5 × (−4 )=−20 Ns

Sub –topic 2: Newton’s third of motion and applications

Applications of Newton’s third law:

Force is proportional to change in momentum,

Action force(jet of hot gas) Reaction force(forward thrust)

!. The time rate of change of momentum is

TOPIC: MECHANICAL ENERGY

CONTENT: 1. Principle of linear momentum,

Sub –topic 1. Principle of conservation of linear momentum

Principle of conservation of linear momentum: In a closed system of colliding bodies, the

Before collision After collision

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 - M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

M1 = 4kg, U1 = 10m/s, U2 = 0, M2 = 4kg

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

0.5 x 10 + 0.5 x0 = (0.5 +0.5)V

Sub-topic 2: Types of collisions

M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,

M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2,

Applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2)V

i. speed of the tractor immediately the rope becomes taut.

SUB –TOPIC 3: CONCEPT OF WORK AS A MEASURE OF ENERGY

MECHANICAL ENERGY: Mechanical energy can be divided into:

1. Potential energyMECHANICAL ENERGY: Mechanical energy can be divided into:

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY:

Potential energy = work done

Elastic potential energy = Work done = average force x extension

Work = average force x extension

But from Hooke’s law, F = ke

It is the energy possessed or released by an elastic material if stretched or compressed. It is given by

by the boy against the force of gravity.

Weight = mg = 300N, h = 20m,

Work done = force x distance

Work done = weight x distance