School of Thought

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Supervisor

Dr Sumitra Mishra
HOD Clinical Psychology

COGNITIVE SCHOOL OF IMHH Agra

THOUGHT Presented by-


Radhika Jaiswal
MPhil clinical psychology
IMHH Agra
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
WHY COGNITIVISM - COGNITIVE REVOLUTION
DOMAIN OF COGNITION
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT– JEAN PIAGET
CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
CRITICISM
Refrences
INTRODUCTION
Cognitive psychology involves the study of basic information-
processing mechanisms such as attention and memory, as well as
higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and decision
making
Originally began as a reaction against the relatively mechanistic
nature of the traditional, radical behavioral viewpoint (espoused by
Watson and Skinner), including its failure to attend to the importance
of mental processes— both in their own right and for their influence
on emotions and behavior.
Albert Bandura (b. 1925), a learning theorist who developed an
early cognitive-behavioral perspective, placed considerable emphasis
on the cognitive aspects of learning. Bandura stressed that human
beings regulate behavior by internal symbolic processes—thoughts.
That is, we learn by internal reinforcement.
We do not always require external reinforcement to alter our
behavior patterns; our cognitive abilities allow us to solve many
problems internally. This came to be known as self learning theory -
the belief that one can achieve desired goals (1986, 1997). He
posited that cognitive-behavioral treatments work in large part by
improving self-efficacy.
HISTORY
Philosophically, ruminations of the human mind and its processes have
been around since the times of the ancient Greeks.
In 387 BCE, Plato is known to have suggested that the brain was the
seat of the mental processes.
In 1637, René Descartes posited that humans are born with innate
ideas, and forwarded the idea of mind-body dualism, which would
come to be known as substance dualism (essentially the idea that the
mind and the body are two separate substances)
In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire
and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:
1. With the development of new warfare technology during WWII,
the need for a greater understanding of human performance came to
prominence. Behaviorism provided little if any insight into these
matters and it was the work of Donald Broadbent, integrating
concepts from human performance research and the
recently developed information theory, that forged the way in this
area.
2.Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of
research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human
Information Processing in 1964.
COGNITIVE REVOLUTION
-WHY COGNITIVISM ?
Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism
more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the
"cognitive revolution".
Chomsky famously showed that Skinner’s version of behaviorism
could not account for language learning or performance,
completely reinventing the discipline of linguistics in the process,
and George Miller brought Chomsky’s insights to psychology.
Leon Kamin, Robert Rescorla, and others demonstrated that
conditioned responses, even in rats, rabbits, and dogs, were
mediated by expectations of predictability and controllability
rather than associations based on spatiotemporal contiguity.
COGNITION
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".
It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such
as: perception, attention, thought, intelligence, the formation of knowledge, m
emory and workingmemory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning
and computation, problem solving and decision making, comprehension and
production of language.
Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and discover new knowledge.
DOMAINS OF
COGNITION –
INTRODUCTION
DOMAINS OF COGNITION
SENSATION

PERCEPTION

ATTENTION

MEMORY

LEARNING

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

JUDGEMENT , REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING


INTRODUCTION
Philosophers of mind have debated two views about the origins
of knowledge: nativism and empiricism.
Cognitive psychology, while acknowledging the possibility that some
knowledge is innate, favours the empiricist view that most
knowledge is acquired through the senses, including our reflections on
sensory experience.
Therefore, cognitive psychology begins with an analysis of the sensory
mechanisms by physical energies arising from a stimulus
are transformed into neural impulses.
SENSATION
Sensation is the process that occurs when
special receptors in the sense organs – eyes,
ears, nose, skin, and taste buds are activated
allowing various forms of outside stimuli to
become neural signals in the brain.
At the psychological level, sensations are
experiences associated with simple stimuli. At
the biological level, sensory processes involve
the sense organs and connecting neural
pathways, and are concerned with the initial
stages of acquiring stimulus information. The
senses include vision; audition (hearing);
olfaction (smell); gustation (taste); the skin
senses, which include pressure, temperature,
and pain; and the body senses.
PERCEPTION
The study of perception deals with the question
of how organisms process and organize incoming
raw, sensory information in order to (a) form a
coherent representation or model of the world
within which the organism dwells and (b) use that
representation to solve naturally occurring
problems, such as navigating, grasping, and
planning.
ATTENTION

It’s the specific ability to actively process the specific information in the environment while
turning out other details .

Attention is limited in terms of both capacity and duration, so it is important to have ways
to effectively manage the attentional resources we have available in order to make sense
of the world.

In many theories, attention is the link between perception and memory: the amount of
attention devoted to an event at the time it occurs (i.e., at encoding) is a good predictor
of the likelihood that it will be consciously remembered later (i.e., at retrieval).
TYPES OF ATTENTION

SUSTAINED SELECTIVE
ATTENTION DIVIDED ATTENTION ATTENTION
• Ability to focus on • Multitasking or • Being able to
one thing for a effortlessly choose and
continous period shifitng between 2 selectively attend
or more thing with to certain stimuli in
differengt cognitive the environment .
demands
THEORIES OF ATTENTION
1.BROADBENT THEORY 1958 –
proposed that physical charecterstics of
messages are used to select one
message for further processing and rest
are lost.
TRIESMAN'S ATTENTION
THEORY 1964

In addition to broadbent theory ,


triesman argues that unattended
materials do not eliminate
completely rather it just attenuate
(weakens )
MEMORY
It refers to the psychological processes of acquiring storing retaining and later
retrieving information. Psychologists today make three major distinctions
about memory.
1. The first concerns three stages of memory :encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
2. The second deals with different memories for storing information for short
and long periods.
3. The third distinction is about different memories being used to store
different kinds of information (for example, one system for facts and
another for skills).
For each of these distinctions, there is evidence that the entities being
distinguished – say, working versus long term memory – are mediated in part
by different structures in the brain.
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
There are three stages of memory:
encoding, storage, and retrieval.
There is increasing biological evidence
for these distinctions.
Recent brain-scanning studies of long-
term memory indicate that most of the
brain regions activated during encoding
are in the left hemisphere and that most
of the regions activated during retrieval
are in the right hemisphere.
THREE TYPES OF MEMORY
There are three kinds of memory that differ in terms of their temporal
characteristics:
Sensory memory lasts over a few hundreds of milliseconds;
short-term (now called working memory) operates over seconds;
long-term store operates over times ranging from minutes to
years. Explicit memory is conscious, and implicit memory is unconscious.
THEORY –
ATTKINSON AND
SHIFFRON MODEL
A classic basis for the distinction
between different memories
corresponding to different time
intervals was formalized by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in
1968. The basic tenets of this theory
were as follows.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
From an ontogenetic point of view, tracing the growth of cognition in
the individual organism, cognitive development has recapitulated the
debate between nativism and empiricism which has dominated
cognitive psychology at large.
From the empiricist perspective, the child is a tabula rasa, who
acquires knowledge and skills with learning and experience.
From the nativist perspective, even neonates possess at least primitive
cognitive faculties, which develop further in interaction with the
environment.
A new perspective on cognitive development, combining elements of
both nativism and empiricism, was offered by Jean Piaget.
HOW PIAGET DEVELOPED THE THEORY

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a


precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was
just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development
of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet
and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ
test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children
was inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter.
These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's
minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children
think is different from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and
develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think
more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are
both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of
young children versus older children
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less
intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.
Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius
could have thought of it."
PIAGET’S THEORY
OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
In Piaget’s view, early cognitive
development involves processes
based upon actions and later
progresses to changes in mental
operations.
Cogntive processes -

1. Schemas

2. Assimilation
3. Accomadation
4. Equilibrium
COGNITIVE
PROCESS
Schemas

Schemas are categories of knowledge


that help us to interpret and understand
the world.

What Role Do Schemas Play in the


Learning Process?

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information


into our already existing schemas is
known as assimilation.

The process is somewhat subjective


because we tend to modify experiences
and information slightly to fit in with our
preexisting beliefs
Accommodation

Accommodation involves modifying


existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of
new information or new experiences. New
schemas may also be developed during
this process.

Equilibration

Piaget believed that all children try to


strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through
a mechanism Piaget called equilibration.
As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying
previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation
STAGE 1 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE :0- 2Year

STAGE 2 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE :2 - 7 year


PIAGETIAN
COGNITIVE STAGE 3 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE :7-12 year

DEVELOPMENT
TRADITION STAGE 4 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE : 12 and above

Carr (2015, p.13)


STAGE 1 –
SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

1. Reflexes -birth -1month


2. Primary circular reactions- 1-4
months
3. Secondary circular reactions – 4-
8 months
4. Coordination of secondary
circular reactions- 8-12m
5. Tertiary circular reactions- 12-
18months
6. Mental representations-18-
24months
STAGE 2 -PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

1.Symbolic functional substage (2-4yrs)


Child is able to formulate design of objects ,make believe play
later becomes dramatic. Increase in social and cognitive activities.

2.Intitutive thought substage(4-7 yrs).


is marked by greater dependence on intuitive thinking rather than
just perception.
At this stage, children ask many questions as they attempt to
understand the world around them using immature reasoning-
Salient features- Make believe play
• Egocentrism
• Conservation errors
• Classification errors
• Animism
STAGE 3 –
CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL STAGE

The concrete operational child is able


to make use of logical principles in
solving problems involving the
physical world.

For example, the child can


understand principles of cause and
effect, size, and distance.
Major achievements-
1.Classification
2.Conservation – reversibility
3.Decentration
4.Seriation ,transitive
STAGE 4 – FORMAL
OPERATIONAL STAGE –(
11 YRS AND OLDER)

1.Hypothetical deductive
reasoning- when faced with a
problem they start with
hypothesis or a prediction
about variables, that might
affect an outcome. They
systematically isolate and
combine variables to see which
of these inferences are
confirmed

2.Prpopostional thought- either


or is always true, or always
false
Self consciousness and self
focusing

cognitive distortion- Imaginary


audience, Personal fable
CONSEQUENCES
OF FORMAL Idealism and criticism
OPERATIONAL
THOUGHT Problems with decision making

Inexperience , overwhelming
options,
META-COGNITION
Development also entails the acquisition of
metacognition: one’s knowledge of what one knows,
and how one’s own mind works, and how this
knowledge can be deployed strategically in the
service of adaptive behavior.
Metacognitive knowledge is sometimes
characterized as a theory of mind, a phrase which
recalls Piaget’s argument that children, no less than
adults, function as naïve scientists
This higher-level cognition was given the label metacognition by
American developmental psychologist John H. Flavell (1976).
The term metacognition literally means 'above cognition', and is used
to indicate cognition about cognition, or more informally, thinking
about thinking.
Flavell defined metacognition as knowledge about cognition and
control of cognition. For example, a person is engaging in
metacognition if they notice that they are having more trouble
learning A than B, or if it strikes them that they should double-check C
before accepting it as fact.
MetaCogntiveTherapy evolved from classical CT. Metacognition
(knowing about knowing) is the aspect of cognition that
controls mental processes and thinking.
CLINICAL APPLICATION OF PIAGET'S
THEORY IN PSYCHIATRY
1.Sensori-Motar stage -
seperation anxiety due to Object Permanence
2. Pre-operational child- Unable to deal with concepts or abstractions
, benefits more from role playing proposed medical procedure or situations
than by explaining verbally .
They does not understand cause and effect , and has not mastered concept to
conserve and reversibility.
3. Formal operational stage. -
Thinking of adolescent in during this stage may appear to be overly abstract ,
which is a normal development stage.
ADULTS under stress can regress cognitively as well as emotiionally , thinking
can become preoperational , ego centric and sometimes animistic.
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS
Today the cognitive or cognitive-behavioral perspective on abnormal
behavior generally focuses on how thoughts and information
processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions
and behavior.
A schema is an underlying representation of knowledge that guides
the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in
attention, memory, and comprehension.
People develop different schemas based on their temperament,
abilities, and experiences.
MICHENEBAUM'S SELF INSTRUCTIONAL
TRAINING
Probably the first cognitive approach to generate interest among
behavioral researchers was self-instructional training
(Michenebaum,1975)
Michenbaum suggested that the behavior change can be brought
about by changing the instructions that patient give themselves, away
from maladaptive and upsetting thoughts to more adaptive self-talk.
The more sophisticated cognitive therapy described by Beck
(1970,1976) similar to Rational Emotive Therapy, was adapted much
more slower
RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
Rational emotive therapy is the pioneering form of cogntive behaviour therapy
developed by Albert Ellis in early 1955 after he had found psychoanalysis
insuffeicient .
Prefrential RET follows ABCDE paradigm .
A represents anticident factors,
B for individual belief system,
C for feelings or consequences or systems,
D for controntation of irrational ideas,
E for outcomeof symptoms. A taetor represents that faulty emotional behaviour
is caused by the person's pattern o f thinking. B factor represents that human
behaviour and emotions can be altered by changing the patiernof thinking. C
factor indicates that they cause themselves prob!em because they have learned
one or more irrational ideas.
COGNITIVE THERAPY
According to Beck (1967; Beck et al., 2005), different forms of
psychopathology are characterized by different maladaptive
schemas that have developed as a function of adverse early
learning experiences.
These maladaptive schemas lead to the distortions in thinking that are
characteristic of certain disorders such as anxiety, depression, and
personality disorders.
In addition to studying the nature of dysfunctional schemas associated
with different forms of psychopathology, researchers have also
studied several different patterns of distorted information
processing exhibited by people with various forms of
psychopathology.
SCHEMAS, AUTOMATIC
NEGATIVE THOUGHTS.
Early experience- parents quarel , divorce
Core belief - I drive people away, I am
worthless
Formation of Dysfunctionion assumption -
unless i always please people, theywill leave
me.reject me
Critical incident – bf went out with another
girl
NAT- ITS MY FAULT, NO ONE LOVES ME , I
WILL BE ALONE FOREVER.
In contrast to the traditional psychiartic view of depression , Beck
proposed that the negative thinking so prominent in disorder is not just
a symptom but has a central role in the maintenance of depression,
This implies that depression can be treated by helping patients to
identify and modify their negative thoughts.
The research has illuminated the cognitive mechanisms that may be
involved in causing or maintaining certain disorders.
For example, individuals who are depressed show memory biases
favoring negative information over positive or neutral information.
Such biases are likely to help reinforce or maintain one’s current
depressed state (e.g., Joormann, 2009; Mathews & MacLeod, 2005).
Another important feature of information processing is that a great
deal of information is processed nonconsciously, or outside of our
awareness.
1.One example relevant to psychopathology is that anxious people
seem to have their attention drawn to threatening information even
when that information is presented subliminally (that is, without the
person’s awareness; e.g., Mathews & MacLeod, 2005).
2. the well-known phenomenon of implicit memory, which is
demonstrated when a person’s behavior reveals that she or he
remembers a previously learned word or activity even though she or
he cannot consciously remember it.
ATTRIBUTIONS, ATTRIBUTIONAL
STYLE, AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

The cognitive perspective suggests that it is not events, but our


attributions about events, that influence our feelings and behaviors.
For instance, if you are home alone at night and hear a strange noise,
you may believe it was caused by the wind and do nothing. But, if you
believe it was caused by an intruder, you may grab a large knife.
THE BASICS
MBCT – MINDFULLNESS BASED
COGNITIVE THERAPY
Mindfullness is defined as paying attention in a particular way to a
present moment , on purpose , in a non-judgmental way .
Mindfullness based stress reduction program combines mindfullness
and the principles of yoga in a 8 week program which is
extensively used in both medical and psychological problems
MBCT has variously been called Mindfullness –integrated
CBT ,Mindfullness –integrated CT , MBCT etc.
MBCT was developed by incoperating the basic structure of
MBSR with CBT techniques to address relapse in Depression.
DIALECTICE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
DBT is a comprehnesive cognitive behaviour treatment for complex ,
difficult to treat mental disorders (Linehan , 1993a,b). Orignially
developed for chrinically suicidal individuals.
DBT grew out of a series of failed attempts to apply standard
cognitive and behaviour therapy protocols of the late 1970's to
chronically suicidal clients.
The main criticism of cognitive psychology is that it is
not directly observable.

CRITICISM OF Another criticism, like other psychological approaches,


is that this approach ignores other reasons for
COGNITIVISM behavior other than cognitive. For instance, a behavior
could be due to cognitive and social reasons. There
are some limitations to this approach.
This means that researchers within cognitive
LACKS psychology often conduct their studies within a 'false'
setting, or one which does not represent the real
ECOLOGICAL world.
This lack of ecological validity makes results of the
VALIDITY study less representative to everyday life, and could
mean they are not applicable outside the study
environment.
Reductionism is a term simply used to describe theories
that over simplify human behaviour.
In cognitive psychology individual differences are
REDUCTIONIST often ignored, and it is assumed all internal processing
is the same in different people.
This is reductionist as it fails to account for
environmental, biological or genetic influences on
cognitive function.
REFRENCES

■Berk, L. E. (2006). Child Development Seventh Edition.


■Carr, A. (2015). The handbook of child and adolescent clinical psychology: A
contextual approach. Routledge.

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