SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION – SCI1601

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Definition of Air pollution: It is the presence of substances in air in sufficient
concentration and for sufficient time, so as to be, or threaten to be injurious to human,
plant or animal life, or to property, or which reasonably interferes with the comfortable
enjoyment of life and property.

The air Act of Govt. of India (amendment 1987) defines air pollution as “air pollution
means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in the atmosphere in such
concentrations that may tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or
plants or property or enjoyment”.

Perkins (1974) defined air pollution as “air pollution means the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke or
vapor in quantities or characteristics and of duration such as to be injurious to human, plant
or animal life or to property or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable
enjoyment of life and property.”

Atmosphere can be defined as the thin blanket of air surrounding the earth. The clean dry
air has following average composition:-

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Definition of Air pollutants: Substances introduces into the air, natural or manmade, in concentrations
detrimental to human, plant or animal life, or to property.

Major Classification of Air Pollutants:

1] Primary – Secondary
2] Natural – Manmade
3] Criteria
AirPollutants
4] Physical - chemical - biological

Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants: Primary pollutants are substances that are
directly emitted into the atmosphere from sources. Primary pollutants are those that are
emitted directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants are those that are produced
in the air by the interaction of two or more primary airpollutant.

Primary Air pollutants:-

(i) Fine (less than 100µ) and coarse (more than 100µ) suspended particulatematter
(ii) Oxides ofsulfur
(iii) Oxides ofnitrogen
(iv) Carbonmonoxide
(v) Halogens
(vi) Organiccompounds
(vii) Radioactivecompounds

Secondary Air pollutants:-

(i) Ozone
(ii) PAN (peroxiaceylnitrate)
(iii) Photochemicalsmog
(iv) Acidmists

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Air pollutants arise from both manmade and natural processes. The ambient air quality may be
defined by the concentration of a set of pollutants which may be present in the ambient air we
breathe in. These pollutants may be called criteria pollutants.

Natural Contaminants: Pollen is important natural contaminant because of its peculiar

properties of irritation and allergy sometimes leading to bronchitis, asthma and dermatitis.
Pollen grains are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms and they are
discharged into the atmosphere from plants etc. The air transported pollen grains range mainly
between 10 and 50 microns. Manmade refers to any pollutant produced to influence or action
ofhumans.

Aerosols: Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in the
air. It can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is gas and the
dispersed phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable until it is in suspension and
after settlement due to its own weight or by addition with other particles (agglomeration) it is
no longer an air pollutant. The diameter of the aerosol may range from 0.01 (or less) micron
to 100 micron.

The various aerosols are as follows:-

(i) Dust: Dust is producedby the crushing, grinding and natural sources like windstorms.
Generally the dust particles are over 20 micron in diameter. They do not flocculate but settle
under gravity, but smaller particles like 5 micron form stablesuspensions.

(ii) Smoke: Smoke is made up of finely divided particles produced by incomplete

combustion. Generally it consists of carbon particles of size less than 1.0micron.

(iii) Mists: Mist is a light dispersion of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere
ranging from 40 to 400 micron insize.

(iv) Fog: Fog is made up of dispersion of water or ice near the earth’s surface reducing
visibility to less than 500 m. In natural fog the size of particles range from 1.0 to 40micron.

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(v) Fumes: Fumes are solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state after
volatilization from melted substances. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce.Gases:

Following are the main air pollutant gases

(i) Sulphur dioxide: It is a major air pollutant gas produced by the combustion of fuels like
coal. The main source of electricity production is by burning of fossil fuels in India and the
whole world. The sulphur content of the coal varies from 1 to 4% and fortunately the Indian
coal is low in sulphur content. SO2 is also produced in the metallurgicaloperations.

(ii) Oxides of nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen are produced either in the production of nitric acid
or in the automobile exhausts and as the effluent of power plants. Out of the seven oxides of
Nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5) only nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are
classified as the main pollutants. All the oxides of nitrogen are collectively known asNO X.

(iii) Carbon monoxide: It is produced because of the incomplete combustion of coal and
other petroleum products. It is produced in the exhaust of automobiles. In the pollution check
of vehicles mainly CO and unburnt hydrocarbons aremeasured.

(iv) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen Sulphide is an obnoxious (bad smelling) gas. It is

produced mainly by the anaerobic (in absence of air) decomposition of organic matter. Other
air polluting sulfur compounds are methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) and dimethyl sulphide (CH3-S-
CH3)etc.

(v) Hydrogen fluoride: It is an important pollutant even in very low concentrations. It is

produced in the manufacturing of phosphatefertilizers.

(vi) Chlorine and hydrogen chloride: It is mixed in the air either from the leakages from
water treatment plants or other industries where it is produced or used. Hydrogen chloride is
also evolved in various industrial chemical processes. The main effect of chlorine is
respiratory irritation which may befatal.

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(vii) Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs the UV
radiation of sunlight. But near the earth surface it is a poisonous gas. It makes poisonous
chemicals by photochemicalreactions.

(viii) Aldehydes: They are produced by the incomplete oxidation of motor fuels and
lubricating oil. They may also be formed because of photochemical reactions. Formaldehydes
are irritating to theeyes.

Classification according to chemical composition: (Organic – inorganic)

1. Sulfur-containingcompounds.
2. Nitrogen-containingcompounds.
3. Carbon-containingcompounds.
4. Halogen-containingcompounds.
5. Toxic substances (any ofabout).
6. Radiativecompounds.

Classification according to physical state:

1. Gaseous.
2. Liquid (aqueous).
3. Solid.

Criteria air pollutants are six major pollutants defined by EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) for which ambient air standards have been set to protect human health and welfare.
These include:

1. Ozone,O3.
2. Carbon monoxide,CO.
3. Sulfur dioxide, SO2.
4. Nitrogen oxides,NOx.
5. Lead,Pb.
6. Particulates,PM10.

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Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects
Carbon Colorless, Motor vehicle Headaches reduced Contribute to the
Monoxide odorless gas exhaust, indoor mental alertness, heart formation of
(CO) sources include attack, cardiovascular smog.
kerosene or wood diseases, impaired fetal
burning stoves. development, and
death.

Sulfur Colorless gas Coal-fired power Eye irritation, Contribute to the

Dioxide that dissolves in plants, petroleum wheezing, chest formation of acid
(SO2) water vapor to refineries, tightness, shortness of rain, visibility
form acid, and manufacture of breath, lung damage. impairment, plant
interact with sulfuric acid and and water
other gases and smelting of ores damage, aesthetic
particles in containingsulfur. damage.
theair.
Nitrogen Reddish Motor vehicles, Susceptibility to Contribute to
Dioxide brown, highly electric utilities, and respiratory infections, the formation of
(NO2) reactive gas. other industrial, irritation of the lung smog, acid rain,
commercial, and and respiratory water quality
residential sources that symptoms (e.g., cough, deterioration,
burn fuels. chest pain, difficulty global warming,
breathing). and visibility
impairment.
Ozone (O3) Gaseous Vehicle exhaust and Eye and throat irritation, Plant and
pollutant when certain other fumes. coughing, respiratory ecosystem
it is formed in Formed from other air tract problems, asthma, damage.
the pollutants in the lung damage.
troposphere. presence of sunlight.

Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, lead Anemia, high blood Affects animals
smelters, battery pressure, brain and and plants,
manufacturers, iron kidney damage, affects aquatic
and steel producers. neurological disorders, ecosystems.
cancer, lowered IQ.

Particulate Very small Diesel engines, power Eye irritation, asthma, Visibility
Matter (PM) particles of plants, industries, bronchitis, lung damage, impairment,
soot, dust, or windblown dust, wood cancer, heavy metal atmospheric
other matter, stoves. poisoning, cardiovascular deposition,
including tiny effects. aesthetic
droplets of damage.
liquids.

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Emission Sources
Major Classification of Air Pollution Sources:

1] Based on Origin: Natural and Manmade

While man-made air pollution does present health hazards, natural sources of air pollution can
be equally dangerous at times. These sources include dust picked up by wind erosion, the
emission of methane by livestock, and smoke from wildfires. Volcanic eruptions are perhaps
the largest single source of air pollution, natural or man-made, that humans have ever dealt
with. These can produce clouds of abrasive volcanic ash and other harmful substances such as
chlorine and sulfur.

2] Based on Position: Stationary and Mobile

The sources of air pollution may be classified as stationary point sources (generally industrial
in origin), diffuse or area sources and mobile sources (mainly cars and trucks).

3] Based on Aix of Release: Horizontal axis (Roadways traffic)

Vertical Axis release (Industrial Stacks)
4] Based on Intensity/frequency of release: Continuous release (Industrial Stacks)
Instantaneous release (Roadways traffic)
Stationary Sources

The stationary industrial sources are usually classified by process type or sub-type. Thus an oil
refining plant also includes large industrial boilers as a sub-type. Small and medium scale
plants such as garment or food processing plants may include industrial boilers, a common
source of air pollution. The quality and type of fuel used for energy production are important
determinants of the air pollution potential of a plant. Each type of plant or activity generally
emits more than one pollutant, and the pollutant emission rate depends on the fuel type and
quality, the design of the plant (and whether fitted with air pollution control devices or not),
and the activity rate or output of the plant.

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(i) Point source (power plantstacks)
(ii) Area source (forest fires, openburning)
(iii) Line Source (highway vehicleexhausts)

Mobile Sources Refer mainly to emissions from cars, trucks, minibuses and buses. The fuel
source may be petrol or diesel, and emissions include exhaust emissions and fugitive
emissions. Vehicle (mobile) source emissions depend on a number of factors, including
vehicle size, fuel type, speed and vehicle technology. Total vehicle emissions depend on the
vehicle population on the road at a giventime.

Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere

Substances in the top layer of the geosphere, known as the lithosphere, tend to become more
reduced over time. Biomass (CH2O) for example is slowly transformed to substances which
have no oxygen atoms through a sequence of steps, then to compounds with successively
larger carbon to hydrogen ratios and finally to products with a form of pure carbon. However,
atmospheric chemical reactions have the opposite effect on substances, causing an atom to
become more oxidized over time in the atmosphere. Atmospheric gases that are found in their
reduced states are oxidized stepwise to form ionic substances that are washed out of the
atmosphere in rainfall. Example, dissolution of atmospheric hydrogen sulfide by rain to form
sulfatemolecule.

Chemical reactions in the atmosphere can occur as gas phase collisions between molecules,
on the surfaces of solid particles or in aqueous solution (in water droplets); predominantly
acid-base reactions. Particles spend short residence time in the atmosphere. Due to this,
reactions that occur on particle surfaces are of minor importance in most cases. Gas phase
reactions dominate the chemical changes that occur to substances in theatmosphere.

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The most important single species in atmospheric chemistry is the hydroxyl radical (HO·).
This radical is formed by several reactions. However, the primary process is one where an O-
H bond of the water molecule is broken to form a hydrogen atom (H·) and a hydroxyl radical
(HO·). The hydrogen atom can then react with another water molecule to form hydrogen and a
second hydroxyl radical, or with an oxygen molecule (O2) to form a second hydroxyl radical
and an oxygen atom. The new oxygen atom can then react with another water molecule to
form two new hydroxylradicals.

Molecules in the atmosphere are continually moving and colliding with one another, as
described by the kinetic-molecular theory. The atmosphere is also continually illuminated
during daylight hours. As a result, absorption of light energy by atmospheric molecules can
cause photochemical reactions, reactions that would not occur at normal atmospheric
temperatures in the absence of light. Such reactions play an important role in determining the
composition of the atmosphere itself and the fate of many chemical species that contribute to
airpollution.

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, is one of the most photochemically active species in the atmosphere.
The NO2 molecule is an example of a free radical because it contains an unpaired electron,
represented by a next to its formula. When an NO2 molecule absorbs a photon of light with
energy, the molecule is raised to a higher energy level; it becomes an electronically excited
molecule, designated by an asterisk(*).

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The excited molecule may quickly re-emit a photon of light, or the energy may break an N-O
bond to form a nitrogen monoxide (NO) molecule and an oxygen atom (O). Both NO and O
are free radicals, because they have one or more unpaired electrons each denoted by adot.

Photodissociation is another mechanism of formation of radicals, in which a molecule absorbs

an ultraviolet photon and produces two free radicals as products. Molecular oxygen can
photodissociate to form two oxygen atoms.

Some free radicals, such as an oxygen atom, react with another atom or molecule almost
immediately. Others, such as an NO2 molecule, are not quite so reactive and are stable enough
to exist for a somewhat longer time. Most radicals are highly reactive and short-lived.

Fate of air pollutants in the atmosphere

1] NOx, Hydrocarbons, Ozone, Mist: - Formation of photochemical

smog 2] SO2, NOx: - Formation of Acid Mist / Rain

3] SO2, CO, Mist: - Formation of coal induced

smog 4] [O], NOx, OH- - Formation of Ozone

PHOTO CHEMICAL SMOG

Photochemical smog was first described in the 1950s. It is the chemical reaction of sunlight,
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne

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particles and ground-level ozone. This noxious mixture of air pollutants can includes
Aldehydes, Nitrogen oxides, such as nitrogen dioxide, Peroxyacyl nitrates

Tropospheric ozone, Volatile organic compounds etc. All of these chemicals are usually
highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog is considered to be a problem of modern
industrialization. It is present in all modern cities, but it is more common in cities with sunny,
warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles. Because it travels with the wind, it
can affect sparsely populated areas as well.

VOCs + NOx + sunlight → photochemical smog

To begin the chemical process of photochemical smog development the following conditions
must occur:
 Sunlight.
 The production of oxides of nitrogen(NOx).
 The production of volatile organic compounds(VOCs).
 Temperatures greater than 18 degreesCelsius.

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Nitrogen oxide is an essential ingredient of photochemical smog that is produced during the
high temperatures associated with combustion of vehicle’s engines. Nitrogen oxide is an
essential ingredient of photochemical smog that is produced during the high temperatures
associated with combustion of vehicle’s engines.

Formation

Sunlight can break down nitrogen dioxide back into nitrogen oxide.

NO2 + sunlight »»» NO + O

The atomic oxygen formed in the above reaction then reacts with one of the abundant oxygen
molecules producing ozone.

O + O2 »»» O3

Nitrogen dioxide can also react with radicals produced from volatile organic compounds in a
series of reactions to form toxic products such as peroxyaceyl nitrates.

NO2 + R »»» products such as PAN

Note the symbol R represents a hydrocarbon (a molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and
other atoms) which is primarily created from volatile organic compounds.

Steps

1) Nitrogen oxides generate oxygenatoms

2) Oxygen atoms form hydroxylradicals

3) Hydroxyl radicals generate hydrocarbonradicals

4) Hydrocarbon radicals form hydrocarbonperoxides

5) Hydrocarbon peroxides formaldehydes

6) Aldehydes form aldehydeperoxides

7) Aldehyde peroxides formperoxy-acyl-nitrates

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Health effects

It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and
throat and interferes with the body's ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility
toillness.

COAL INDUCED SMOG

Introduction to Smog

Smog is a recent compound word from "smoke" and "fog", and was coined by Harold
Antoine des Voeux, a doctor, in 1905. Smog refers to locally high concentrations of acids, dry
acid- forming compounds, particulates, or other pollutants in stagnant, stable air. Smog’s form
when emissions are prevented from dispersing by stable or sinking air masses. They were very
prevalent in European and North American cities during first part of 20th Century. London
smog’s were infamous in the 19th and early 20th centuries and formed every autumn and
winter due to sulphur emissions from coal burning industries and domestic fires. The most
severe London smog was on 4-10th December 1952, when cold, high-pressure conditions
trapped coal smoke in foggy air. The output of smoke was increased by the cold weather, due
to the large numbers of domestic fires. Sooty smoke produced peak daily concentrations of
black smoke of 5000 mgs/m3 (WHO 24 hr. max limit of 100-150), and daily average SO2
levels of 3000-4000 mg/m3 (WHO 24 hr. max limit of 100-150). Sulphuric acid droplets
resulted in pH estimatedas to 1.9: as acidic as car batteryacid.

HSO + H O  HSO
2 4(g) 2 2 4(aq)
SO + HO  H SO
2(g) 2 (l) 2 3(aq)

Chemistry

These are produced by high outputs of SO2, which are converted to acids on contact with
atmospheric moisture. Usually, sulphuroussmog’s also contain elevated concentrations of
suspended soot.

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Impacts

Visibility was reduced to 5m at times, and London buses had to be guided through the street
by men with lanterns during daylight hours. The smog lasted for 5 days, eventually extending
over a 50km radius. Approx. 4,000 excess deaths occurred as a result of inhaling pollution,
mainly old and sick and those with chest problems. Respiratory diseases alone accounted for
59 per cent of the increase in deaths registered in the week ending 13 December and 76 per
cent in the following week. Bronchitis and emphysema were the two conditions that stood
out in the coroner’s records as showing the greatest increase. Cardiovascular disease
accounted for 22 per cent of the increased number of deaths in the first week and 16 per cent
in the week ending 20 December. The disaster ultimately led to the introduction of the Clean
AirActs.

ACID MIST/ RAIN

Definition

Normal Rain water pH is slightly acidic due to certain concentration of CO 2dissolved as

rainwater trickles downatmosphere,

CO2+H2O→HCO3-+H+

Acid rain is defined as any type of precipitation with a pH that is unusually low or lower than
5.7. Acid rain was first found in Manchester, England. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith found the
relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution. Though acid rain was discovered in
1852, it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the
phenomenon.

Causes

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are
emissions from volcanoes and those from biological processes that occur on the land, in
wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is
dimethylsulfide.

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The principal cause of acid rain is sulfuric and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such
as electricity generation, factories and motor vehicles. Coal power plants are one of the most
polluting. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are
converted to acids and deposited. Factories used to have short funnels to let out smoke, but
this caused many problems, so now, factories have longer smoke funnels. The problem with
this is those pollutants get carried far off, where it creates more destruction.

Sulfur dioxide contributes to about seventy percent of acid rain while nitrogen oxides provide
the remaining thirty percent. The sources of sulfur in the atmosphere include coal combustion,
smelting, organic decay, and ocean spray. Approximately ninety percent of atmospheric sulfur
results from human activities.

In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor to form hydrogen sulfite

gas: SO2 + H2O+1/2O2 → H2SO4

Next, hydrogen sulfite reacts with oxygen to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid

rain: H2SO3 + 1/2O2 → H2SO4

The sources of nitrogen oxides include the combustion of oil, coal and natural gas, forest
fires, bacterial action in soil, volcanic gases, and lighting-induced atmospheric reactions.

In the atmosphere, nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen gas to form nitrogen dioxide

gas: NO + 1/2O2 → NO2

Then, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere to form hydrogen nitrite
and hydrogen nitrate:

2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3

Henceforth, acid rain is a mixture of HNO3, H2SO4 + HCl. however conditions needed to
favor formation of these are sunlight, temperature, humidity, hydrocarbons, NOX, SO2.

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Effects

Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface water that occur as a result
of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At p H lower than 5 most fish
eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity
is reduced. Soil biology can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical microbes can
quickly consume acids but other microbes are unable to tolerate low pH and are killed.

Acid rain can slow the growth of forests, cause leaves and needles to turn brown and fall off
and die. In extreme cases trees or whole areas of forest can die. The death of trees is not
usually a direct result of acid rain; often it weakens trees and makes them more susceptible to
other threats. Some scientists have suggested direct links to human health, but none have been
proven. However, fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed from the same gases as
acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness and
premature deaths such as cancer and other deadlydiseases

Toxic metals released into the environment by acid rain may enter water supplies or
accumulate in fish and crops. Acid deposition also destroys statues, headstones, buildings,
and fountains. Limestone structures are especially susceptible because they dissolve easily in
acidicsolutions.

Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. Acid
rain can cause weathering on ancient and valuable statues and has caused considerable
damage. This is because the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium
compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which
then flakes off. Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation foriron.

Control
 Design more efficient automobile engines in order to reduce nitrogen oxideemissions.
 Increase efficiency of power plants that burn coal in order to reduce waste that contains
sulfur dioxide and nitrogenoxide.
 Increase penalties on industries that do not meet air pollutionguidelines.

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  Increase tax incentives to industries that do meetguidelines.
 Use alternative energy sources, Increase funding for alternative energy sources; for
example, give tax incentives to buyers of hybridcars.
 Provide tax incentives to companies that use alternative energysources.
 Add CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) to lakes suffering from acid deposition; calcium
carbonate acts as a buffer, resisting a change in pH and lessening the negative effects of
acid rain.

OZONE DEPLETION

Definition

Ozone layer is an umbrella 24 km [15 miles] from earth surface, an essential component of the
stratosphere that absorbs short wavelength ultraviolet radiation from the sun, heating the gases
of the stratosphere in the process. World ozone day is celebrated on Sept, 16 of every year.

Stratospheric ozone is measured in Dobson units [DU] named after G.M.B Dobson who
pioneered the study; [I Dobson unit = 0.01 mm thickness of stratospheric ozone], Average
ozone thickness in stratosphere is 300 DU, & when it falls below 200 DU, it’s considered as
Ozone hole. It is thinnest around equator and thickest nearpoles.

Stratospheric ozone depletion is the term applied to the loss of stratospheric ozone molecules
(O3) and the disruption of Oxygen-Ozone concentration equilibrium in stratosphere [i.e., when
chlorine atoms upset the natural O2/O3 equilibrium in the stratosphere]. Oxygen molecules
interact with the intense solar radiation present at this elevation to form oxygen atoms. The
oxygen atoms thus generated react with other oxygen molecules to form ozone(O 3).

Causes

Ozone depletion is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) and other ozone-
depleting substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating foams, and
solvents. The discussion below focuses on CFCs, but is relevant to all ODS [NO, NO 2 (aircraft
exhaust), Br-, UV rays, [O] Atomic oxygen etc].

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Although CFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a
process that can take as long as 2 to 5 years. When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet
radiation from the sun causes them to break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with
ozone, starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine
atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozonemolecules.

Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used as a pesticide),
halons (used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial
processes). As methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms,
which are 40 times more destructive to ozone molecules than chlorineatoms.

Chapman’s Reaction

Ozone Depletion by CFC’s

Effects

Effect of ozone hole include cataract, genetic mutation, constriction of blood vessels, reduced
crop yield, leukemia, breast cancer, damage to crop, aqua culture,etc.,

The higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone is generally accepted to be a contributory

factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone,
which is a health risk to humans such as Snow Blindness [photo keratosis], i.e., inflammation
of cornea (outer coating of eyeball). The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal
and squamous cell carcinomas have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. Another form of
skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal
in about 15% - 20% of the cases diagnosed. In India there is no standard for Ozone. However
WHO standard is 100 ppm for 8 hrs. – avg.

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Control Measures

The Montreal Protocol, an international agreement signed by 139 nations, banning the
production of CFCs by the year 2000. We can't make enough ozone to replace what's been
destroyed, but provided that we stop producing ozone-depleting substances, natural ozone
production reactions should return the ozone layer to normal levels by about 2050. It is very
important that the world comply with the Montreal Protocol; delays in ending production
could result in additional damage and prolong the ozone layer's recovery. Control mechanism
stresses on replacement of the banned chemical by ammonia, steam, heliumetc.

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION – SCI1601

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 Air Pollution and Meteorology
The science of meteorology has great bearing on air pollution. An air pollution problem involves
three parts: the source, the movement of the pollutant and the recipient. All meteorological
phenomena are a result of interaction of the elemental properties of the atmosphere, heat,
pressure, wind and moisture.

Wind

Wind is simply air in motion. On global or macroscale wind patterns are set up due to unequal
heating of earth surface by solar radiation at the equator and the polar regions, rotation of the
earth and the difference between conductive capacities of land and ocean masses. Secondary or
mesoscale circulation patterns develop because of the regional or local topography. Mountain
ranges, cloud cover, waterbodies, deserts, forestation, etc., influence wind patterns on scales of a
few hundred kilometers. Accordingly a pattern of wind is setup, some seasonal and some
permanent. Microscale phenomenon occurs over areas of less than 10 km extent. Standard wind
patterns may deviate markedly due to varying frictional effects of the earth surface, such as,
rural open land, irregular topography and urban development, effect of radiant heat from deserts
and cities, effect of lakes, etc. The movement of air at the mesoscale and microscale levels is of
concern in control of air pollution. A study of air movement over relatively small geographical
regions can help in understanding the movement ofpollutants.

It is obviously important in predicting pollutant dispersion to know the direction of wind. The
wind direction and speed data may be collected every hour in a month and classified according
to speed and direction. It is then summarized in the form of a polar diagram called wind rose.
Figure shows a hypothetical wind rose. The position of the spokes show the direction from
which the wind was blowing, the length of various segments of the spokes show the percent of
time the wind was of the designated speed. Thus from the diagram, most often (12% of time) the
wind was from SE; the strongest wind (9-11 m/s) was from NW andNNW.

Importance of wind rose in air pollution studies

A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed
and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. It assists in city planning and siting
of industries.
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station
instrument. Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed,
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and those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close connection between the
pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for one will give information about both. A
simple type of anemometer, consistS of four hemispherical cups each mounted on one end of

four horizontal arms, which in turn were mounted at equal angles to each other on a vertical
shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the cups in a manner that was
proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the cups over a set time period
produced the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. On an anemometer with four cups it
is easy to see that since the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the arms, the wind
always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing on the back of the cup on the
opposite end of thecross.

A weather vane (or weathercock) is an instrument for showing the direction of the wind . They
are typically used as an architectural ornament to the highest point of a building. Although partly
functional, weather vanes are generally decorative, often featuring the traditional cockerel
design with letters indicating the points of the compass. Other common motifs include ships,
arrows andhorses.

3
The design of a wind vane is such that the weight is evenly distributed on each side of the
surface, but the surface area is unequally divided, so that the pointer can move freely on its axis.
The side with the larger surface area is blown away from the wind direction, so that the smaller
side, with the pointer, is pivoted to face the wind direction. Most wind vanes have directional
markers beneath the arrow, aligned with the geographic directions.

Wind vanes, especially those with fanciful shapes, do not always show the real direction of a
very gentle wind. This is because the figures do not achieve the necessary design balance: an
unequal surface area but balanced in weight. To obtain an accurate reading, the wind vane must
be located well above the ground and away from buildings, trees, and other objects which
interfere with the true wind direction. Changing wind direction can be meaningful when
coordinated with other apparent sky conditions, enabling the user to make simple short range
forecasts. From the street level the size of many weathercocks is deceptive.

The mean wind speed variation with altitude is the planetary boundary layer can be represented
by a simple empirical power.

Urban Heat Islands

4
Urbanization negatively impacts the environment mainly by the production of pollution, the
modification of the physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere, and the covering of the
soil surface. Considered to be a cumulative effect of all these impacts is the UHI, defined as the
rise in temperature of any man-made area, resulting in a well-defined, distinct "warm island"
among the "cool sea" represented by the lower temperature of the area’s nearby natural
landscape.

Though heat islands may form on any rural or urban area, and at any spatial scale, cities are
favoured, since their surfaces are prone to release large quantities of heat. Nonetheless, the UHI
negatively impacts not only residents of urban-related environs, but also humans and their
associated ecosystems located far away from cities. In fact, UHIs have been indirectly related to
climate change due to their contribution to the greenhouse effect, and therefore, to global
warming.

It is well-known that the progressive replacement of natural surfaces by built surfaces, through
urbanization, constitutes the main cause of UHI formation. Natural surfaces are often composed
of vegetation and moisture-trapping soils. Therefore, they utilize a relatively large proportion of
the absorbed radiation in the evapotranspiration process and release water vapour that
contributes to cool the air in their vicinity. In contrast, built surfaces are composed of a high
percentage of non-reflective and water-resistant construction materials. As consequence, they
tend to absorb a significant proportion of the incident radiation, which is released asheat.

Vegetation intercepts radiation and produces shade that also contributes to reduce urban heat
release. The decrease and fragmentation of large vegetated areas such as parks, not only reduces
these benefits, but also inhibits atmospheric cooling due to horizontal air circulation generated
by the temperature gradient between vegetated and urbanized areas (i.e. advection), which is
known as the park cool island effect. On the other hand, the narrow arrangement of buildings
along the city’s streets form urban canyons that inhibit the escape of the reflected radiation from
most of the three-dimensional urban surface to space. This radiation is ultimately absorbed by
the building walls (i.e. reduced sky view factor), thus enhancing the urban heat release.
Additional factors such as the scattered and emitted radiation from atmospheric pollutants to the
urban area, the production of waste heat from air conditioning and refrigeration systems, as well
from industrial processes and motorized vehicular traffic (i.e. anthropogenic heat), and the
obstruction of rural air flows by the windward face of the built-up surfaces, have been
recognized as additional causes of the UHIeffect

As it would be expected, the characteristic inclination towards warming of urban surfaces is

exacerbated during hot days and heat waves, which reinforces the air temperature increase,
particularly in ill-ventilated outdoor spaces or inner spaces of residential and commercial
buildings with poor thermal isolation. This increases the overall energy consumption for cooling
(i.e. refrigeration and air-conditioning), hence increasing the energy production by power plants,
which leads to higher emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, as
well as other pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
Furthermore, the increased energy demand means more costs to citizens and goverments, which
in large metropolitan areas may induce significant economic impacts. On the other hand, UHIs
promote high air temperatures that contribute to formation of ozone precursors, which combined
photochemically produce ground level ozone.

5
A direct relationship has been found between UHI intensity peaks and heat-related illness and
fatalities, due to the incidence of thermal discomfort on the human cardiovascular and
respiratory systems. Heatstroke, heat exhaustion, heat syncope,and heat cramps, are some of the
main stress events, while a wide number of diseases may become worse, particularly in the
elderly and children. In a similar way, respiratory and lung diseases have shown to be related to
high ozone levels induced by heat events. Other meteorological impacts of the UHI are
associated with reductions in snowfall frecuencies and intensities, as well as reductions in the
diurnal and seasonal range of freezing temperatures. Lastly, high temperatures may produce
physiological and phenological disturbances on ornamental plants and urbanforests.

There are two main UHI reduction strategies: first, to increase surface reflectivity (i.e. high
albedo), in order to reduce radiation absorption of urban surfaces, and second, to increase
vegetation cover, mainly in the form of urban forests and parks, in order to maximize the
multiple vegetation benefits in controlling the temperature rises. Reflective surfaces simply
results from light colored or white paint on the surface of a given construction material or from
cover the construction material surface with a white membrane. Both techniques have been
mainly applied on roofs and pavements. Cool roofs are specially important in commercial and
residential buildings, where significant energy demand for cooling can be saved by reducing
heat gain to the building. Cool pavements have mainly based on the use of whitened asphalt
roads, a very warm material.

Urban Dust Domes

Urban dust domes are a meteorological phenomenon in which soot, dust, and chemical
emissions become trapped in the air above urban spaces. This trapping is a product of local air
circulations. Calm surface winds are drawn to urban centers, they then rise above the city and
descend slowly on the periphery of the developed core. This cycleis of ten a cause of smog
through photochemical reactions that occur when strong concentrations of the pollutants in this
cycle are exposed to solar radiation. These are one result of urban heat islands: pollutants
concentrate in a dust dome because convection lifts pollutants into the air, where they remain
because of somewhat stable air masses produced by the urban heat island.

Atmospheric Stability

The ability of the atmosphere to disperse the pollutants emitted in to it depends to a large extent
on the degree of stability. A comparison of the adiabatic lapse rate with the environmental lapse
rate gives an idea of stability of the atmosphere. When the environmental lapse rate and the dry
adiabatic lapse rate are exactly the same, a raising parcel of air will have the same pressure and
temperature and the density of the surroundings and would experience no buoyant force. Such
atmosphere is said to be neutrally stable where a displaced mass of air neither tends to return to
its original position nor tends to continue its displacement

Lapse rate

As a parcel of air rises in the earth's atmosphere it experiences lower and lower pressure from
the surrounding air molecules, and thus it expands. This expansion lowers its temperature.
Ideally, if it does not absorb heat from its surroundings and it does not contain any moisture, it
cools at a rate of 1ºC/100 m rise. This is known as dry adiabatic lapserate.

6
If the parcel moves down it warms up at the same rate. For a particular place at a particular time,
the existing temperature can be determined by sending up a balloon equipped with a
thermometer. The balloon moves through the air, and not with it. The temperature profile of the
air, which the balloon measures, is called the ambient lapse rate, environmental lapse rate, or
the prevailing lapserate.

A super-adiabatic lapse rate also called a strong lapse rate occurs when the atmosphere
temperature drops more than 1ºC/100m. A sub-adiabatic rate also called weak lapse rate, is
characterized by drop of less than 1ºC/100 m. A special case of weak lapse rate is the inversion,
a condition which has warmer layer above colderair.

During super-adiabatic lapse rate the atmospheric conditions are unstable. If a parcel of air at
500m elevation, at 20ºC is pushed upward to 1000m, its temperature will come down to 15ºC
(according to adiabatic lapse rate). The prevailing temperature is however 10ºC at 1000m. The
parcel of air will be surrounded by colder air and therefore will keep moving up.

Similarly if the parcel is displaced downwards, it will become colder than its surroundings and
therefore will move down. Super-adiabatic conditions are thus unstable, characterized by a great
deal of vertical air movement and turbulence. The sub-adiabatic condition shown in is by
contrast a very stable system. Consider again a parcel of air at 500 m elevation at 20ºC. If the
parcel is displaced to 1000 m it will cool by 5ºC to 15ºC. But the surrounding air would be
warmer. It will therefore fall back to its point of origin. Similarly if a parcel of air at 500 m is
pushed down, it will become warmer than its surrounding and therefore will rise back to its
original position. Thus such systems are characterized by very limited verticalmixing.

Inversion

An inversion is an extreme sub-adiabatic condition, and thus the vertical air movement within
the inversion is almost nill. The two most common kind of inversion are subsidence inversion
and radiation inversion. The base of the subsidence inversion lies some distance above earth's
surface. This type of inversion is formed due to adiabatic compression and warming of sinking
air mass to a lower altitude in the region of a high pressure center. In the case of radiation
inversion, the surface layers of the atmosphere during the day receive heat by conduction,
convection and radiation from the earth's surface and are warmed. This results in a temperature
7
profile in the lower atmosphere, which is represented by a negative temperature gradient. On a
clear night, the ground surface radiates heat and quickly cools. The air layer adjacent to the earth
surface are cooled to a temperature below that of the layers of air at higher elevations. This type
of the inversion is strongest just before daylight when it may extend to 500 m. It breaks up as the
morning sun heats the ground.

Maximum mixing depth

The dispersion of pollutants in the lower atmosphere is greatly aided by the convective and
turbulent mixing that takes place. The vertical extent to which this mixing takes place depends
on the environmental lapse rate which varies diurnally, from season to season and is also
affected by topographical features. The depth of the convective mixing layer in which vertical
movement of pollutants is possible, is called the maximum mixing depth (MMD). Figure
illustrates these MMDs for different lapse rate profiles.

These profiles are usually measured at night or early in the morning. An air parcel at a
temperature (maximum surface temperature for the month) warmer than the existing ground
level temperature rises and cools according to adiabatic lapse rate. The level where its
temperature becomes equal to the surrounding air gives the MMD value. Urban air pollution
episodes are known to occur when MMD is 1500 m orless.

8
Plume Dispersion

Gases that are emitted from stacks are often pushed out by fans. As the turbulent exhaust
gases exit the stack they mix with ambient air. This mixing of ambient air into the plume
is called entrainment. As the plume entrains air into it, the plume diameter grows as it
travels downwind. These gases have momentum as they enter the atmosphere.

Often these gases are heated and are warmer than the outdoor air. In these cases the
emitted gases are less dense than the outside air and are therefore buoyant. A
combination of the gases' momentum and buoyancy causes the gases to rise. This is
referred to as plume rise and allows air pollutants emitted in this gas stream to be lofted
higher in the atmosphere. Since the plume is higher in the atmosphere and at a further
distance from the ground, the plume will disperse more before it reaches groundlevel.

The final height of the plume, referred to as the effective stack height (H), is the sum of
the physical stack height (hs) and the plume rise (∆h). Plume rise is actually calculated
as the distance to the imaginary centerline of the plume rather than to the upper or lower
edge of the plume (Figure 6-1). Plume rise depends on the stack's physical
characteristics and on the effluent's (stack gas) characteristics. The difference in
temperature between the stack gas (Ts) and ambient air (Ta) determines the plume
density which affects plume rise. Also, the velocity of the stack gases which is a
function of the stack diameter and the volumetric flow rate of the exhaust gases
determines the plume’s momentum.
The Gaussian plume model

The present tendency is to interpret dispersion data in terms of the Gaussian model. The
standard deviations are related to the eddy diffusivities.

9
 Dispersion characteristics of stack plumes

Dispersion is the process of spreading out pollution emission over a large area and thus
reducing their concentration. Wind speed and environmental lapse rates directly
influence the dispersion pattern.

Coning

A coning plume, shown in, occurs under essentially neutral stability, when
environmental lapse rate is equal to adiabatic lapse rate, and moderate to strong winds
occur. The plume enlarges in the shape of a cone. A major part of pollution may be
carried fairly far downwind before reaching ground.

Looping

Under super-adiabatic condition, both upward and downward movement of the plume is
possible. Large eddies of a strong wind cause a looping pattern. Although the large
eddies tend to disperse pollutants over a wide region, high ground level concentrations
may occur close to the stack.
Fanning

A fanning plume occurs in the presence of a negative lapse rate when vertical dispersion
is restricted. The pollutants disperse at the stack height, horizontally in the from of a
fanning plume.

Fumigation

When the emission from the stack is under an inversion layer, the movement of the
pollutants in the upward direction is restricted. The pollutants move downwards. The
resulting fumigation can lead to a high ground level concentration downwind of the
stack.

10
Lofting

When the stack is sufficiently high and the emission is above an inversion layer, mixing
in the upward direction is uninhibited, but downward motion is restricted. Such lofting
plumes do not result in any significant concentration at ground level. However, the
pollutants are carried hundreds of kilometers from the source.

Trapping

It occurs when the plume effluent is caught between two inversion layers. The diffusion
of the effluent is severely restricted to the unstable layer between the two unstable
layers.

11
12
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT –II I – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION – SCI1601

1
 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

CONTROL DEVICES FOR PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

Particulate matter is any finely divided liquid or solid substance. Examples of particulate
matter include smoke, dust, or some forms of fine mist and is entrained in effluent gas
streams or suspended in ambient air. Any particulate less than 10 micrometers (µm) in
diameter is defined as PM10 and is regulated as a criteria pollutant. The purpose of such
regulation is to control smaller, respirable particles that can bypass the body’s respiratory
filters and penetrate deeply into the lungs, which could cause harm to human health. Toxic
substances, such as sulfates, sulfites, nitrates, heavy metals, and polycyclic organic matter
are predominantly carried by particles in this size range. Therefore, control devices used
today, to prevent particles from reaching the ambient air, focus on capturing particulate
matter ≤10µm in diameter. Several factors must be considered when selecting an
appropriate particulate control device. Typically, particles must be captured from an
effluent gas stream; therefore, characteristics of the particles and the gas stream will
determine the appropriate control device. Characteristics that must be considered include
the particle size and resistivity, exhaust flow rate, temperature, moisture content, and
various chemical properties of the exhaust stream such as explosiveness, acidity,
alkalinity, and flammability.

VENTURI SCRUBBERS
Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to remove solid particles. A venturi scrubber
accelerates the waste gas stream to atomize the scrubbing liquid and to improve gas-liquid
contact. In a venturi scrubber, a “throat” section is built into the duct that forces the gas
stream to accelerate as the duct narrows and then expands. As the gas enters the venture
throat, both gas velocity and turbulence increase. Depending on the scrubber design, the
scrubbing liquid is sprayed into the gas stream before the gas encounters the venturi throat,
or in the throat, or upwards against the gas flow in the throat. The scrubbing liquid is then
atomized into small droplets by the turbulence in the throat and droplet-particle interaction
is increased. Some designs use supplemental hydraulically or pneumatically atomized
sprays to augment droplet creation. However, the disadvantage of these designs is that
clean liquid feed is required to avoid clogging. After the throat section, the mixture
decelerates, and further impacts occur causing the droplets to agglomerate. Once the
particles are captured by the liquid, the wetted PM and excess liquid droplets are then
separated from the gas stream by an entrainment section, which usually consists of a
cyclonic separator and/or a mist eliminator. Particle collection efficiencies of venturi
scrubbers range from 70 to greater than 99 percent, depending on the application.
Typically, venturi scrubbers are applied where it is necessary to obtain high collection
efficiencies for fine PM. Thus, they are applicable to controlling emission sources with
high concentrations of submicronPM.

2
Advantages of Venturi Scrubbers

• Capable of handling flammable and explosivedusts

• Can handle mists in processexhausts
• Relatively lowmaintenance
• Simple in design and easy toinstall
• Collection efficiency can bevaried
• Provides cooling for hotgases
• Neutralizes corrosive gases and dusts

Disadvantages of Scrubbers

• Effluent liquid can create water pollutionproblems

• Waste product collectedwet
• High potential for corrosionproblems
• Requires protection againstfreezing
• Final exhaust gas requires reheating to avoid visibleplume
• Collected PM may be contaminated, and notrecyclable
• Disposal of waste sludge may be veryexpensive

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS.

An ESP is a PM control device that uses electrical forces to move particles entrained within an
exhaust stream onto collection surfaces. The entrained particles are given an electrical charge
when they pass through a corona, a region where gaseous ions flow. Electrodes in the center of
the flow lane are maintained at high voltage and generate the electrical field that forces the
particles to the collector plates. The high voltage electrodes are long wires or rigid “masts”
suspended from a frame in the upper part of the ESP that run through the axis of each tube. Rigid
electrodes are generally supported by both an upper and lower frame. The power supplies for the
ESP convert the industrial AC voltage to pulsating DC voltage in the range of 20,000 to 100,000
3
volts as needed. The voltage applied to the electrodes causes the gas between the electrodes to
break down electrically, an action known as a “corona.” The electrodes are usually given a
negative polarity because a negative corona supports a higher voltage than does a positive corona

before sparking occurs. The ions generated in the corona follow electric field lines from the
electrode to the collecting pipe. Therefore, each electrode-pipe combination establishes a charging
zone through which the particles mustpass.
As larger particles (>10µm diameter) absorb many times more ions than small particles (>1µm
diameter), the electrical forces are much stronger on the large particles. When the collection plates
are filled to capacity, the particulate is removed from the plates by “rapping,” which is a
mechanical means to dislodge the particulate. The collected particulate material slides downward
into a hopper located below the unit. The collection efficiency of an ESP is quite reliably about 99
percent for particles less than 10 micrometers. ESPs, in general, are very expensive to operate and
are not very well suited for use in industrial processes because they are too sensitive to
fluctuations in the gas stream. The Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) separates particles from the gas
stream by electrically charging theparticles.

FABRIC FILTER

In a fabric filter, flue gas is passed through a tightly woven or felted fabric, causing PM in the flue
gas to be collected on the fabric by sieving and other mechanisms. Fabric filters may be in the
form of sheets, cartridges, or bags, with a number of the individual fabric filter units housed
together in a group. Bags are the most common type of fabric filter. The dust cake that forms on
the filter from the collected PM can significantly increase collection efficiency. Fabric filters are
frequently referred to as baghouses because the fabric is usually configured in cylindrical bags.
Bags may be 6 to 9m (20 to 30 ft) long and 12.7 to 30.5 centimeters (cm) (5 to 12 inches) in
diameter. Groups of bags are placed in isolable compartments to allow cleaning of the bags or
replacement of some of the bags without shutting down the entire fabric filter). Operating
conditions are important determinants of the choice of fabric. Some fabrics (i.e., polyolefins,
nylons, acrylics, polyesters) are useful only at relatively low temperatures of 95° to 150ºC (200°
4
to 300ºF). For high temperature flue gas streams, more thermally stable fabrics such as fiberglass,
Teflon, or Nomex must beused.

The practical application of fabric filters requires the use of a large fabric area in order to avoid an
unacceptable pressure drop across the fabric. Baghouse size for a particular unit is determined by
the choice of air-to-cloth ratio, or the ratio of volumetric airflow to cloth area. The selection of
air-to-cloth ratio depends on the particulate loading and characteristics, and the cleaning method
used. A high particulate loading will require the use of a larger baghouse in order to avoid
forming too heavy a dustcake.

Determinants of baghouse performance include the fabric chosen, the cleaning frequency and
methods, and the particulate characteristics. Fabrics can be chosen which will intercept a greater
fraction of particulate. In order to accomplish this, some fabrics are coated with a membrane of
very fine openings for enhanced removal of submicron particulate. However, such fabrics tend to
be more expensive. Cleaning intensity and frequency are important variables in determining
removal efficiency because the dust cake can affect the fine particulate removal capability of a
fabric. Cleaning procedures, which may be too frequent or too intense, will also lower the
removal efficiency of the fabric filter. On the other hand, if removal is too infrequentor
too ineffective, then the baghouse pressure drop will become too high.

Mechanical shaking of the bags has been a popular cleaning method for many years because of its
simplicity as well as its effectiveness. In a typical operation, dusty gas enters an inlet pipe to the
shaker. Very large particles are removed from the stream when they strike the baffle plate in the
inlet duct and fall into the hopper. The particulate-laden gas is drawn from beneath a cell plate in
the floor and into the filter bags. The gas proceeds from the inside of the bags to the outside and
through the outlet pipe. The particles are collected on the inside surface of the bags and a filter
cake accumulates. In mechanical shaking units, the tops of bags are attached to a shaker bar,
which is moved briskly (usually in a horizontal direction) to clean the bags. The shaker bars are
operated by mechanical motors or by hand, in applications where cleaning is not required
frequently. Reverse-air cleaning is another popular fabric filter cleaning method that has been
used extensively and improved over the years. It is a gentler but sometimes less effective cleaning
mechanism than mechanical shaking. Most reverse-air fabric filters operate in a manner similar to
shaker-cleaned fabric filters. Typically, the bags are open on bottom, closed on top, and the gas
flows from the inside to the outside of the bags with dust being captured on the inside. However,
some reverse-air designs collect dust on the outside of the bags. In either design, forcing clean air
through the filters in the opposite direction of the dusty gas flow performs reverse-air cleaning.
The change in direction of the gas flow causes the bag to flex and crack the filter cake. In internal
cake collection, the bags are allowed to collapse to some extent during reverse-air cleaning. The
bags are usually prevented from collapsing entirely by some kind of support, such as rings that are
sewn into the bags. The support enables the dust cake to fall off the bags and into the hopper.
Cake release is also aided by the reverse flow of the gas because felted fabrics retain dust more
than woven fabrics. Therefore, they are more difficult to clean. For this reason, felts are usually
not used in reverse-airsystems.

5
 Fabric filters in general provide high collection efficiencies on both coarse and fine (submicron)
particulates. Typical new equipment design efficiencies are between 99% and 99.9%.

SETTLING CHAMBERS

This type of technology is a part of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred to as
“precleaners.” They are referred to as precleaners because they are often used to reduce the inlet
loading of particulate matter (PM) to downstream collection devices by removing larger, abrasive
particles. Settling chambers are also referred to as gravity settling chambers, gravity collectors,
expansion chambers, and outfall chambers. This is because settling chambers are quite effective in
removing only large particles; therefore, they can be frequently used in combination with other
control devices. Settling Chambers rely on simple gravitation to remove particles from a gas
stream.

Settling chambers, which rely on gravitational settling as a collection mechanism are the simplest
and oldest mechanical collectors. Settling chambers are generally built in the form of long,
6
horizontal, rectangular chambers with an inlet at one end and an exit at the side or top of the
opposite end. Flow within the chamber must be uniform and without any macroscopic mixing.
Uniform flow is can be improved by flow straighteners at the inlet to the chamber. Hoppers are
used to collect the settled-out material, though drag scrapers and screw conveyers have also been
employed. The dust removal system must be sealed to prevent air from leaking into the chamber
which increases turbulence, causes dust reentrainment, and prevents dust from being properly
discharged from the device. There are two primary types of settling chambers: the expansion
chamber and the multiple-tray chamber. In the expansion chamber, the velocity of the gas stream
is significantly reduced as the gas expands in a large chamber. The reduction in velocity allows
larger particles to settle out of the gas stream.

A multiple-tray settling chamber is an expansion chamber with a number of thin trays closely
spaced within the chamber, which causes the gas to flow horizontally between them. While the
gas velocity is increased slightly in a multiple-tray chamber, when compared to a simple
expansion chamber, the collection efficiency generally improves because the particles have a
much shorter distance to fall before they are collected. Multiple-traysettling chambers have lower
volume requirements than expansion-type settling chambers for the collection of small particles
(<15µm). Settling chambers are most effective when collecting large or dense particles, but often
fail when the chamber becomes plugged with collecteddust.
The most common failure of settling chambers is when chambers become plugged with collected
dust. In expansion settling chambers the plugging can result from hopper bridging or hopper
discharge seal failure. Multiple-tray settling chambers may experience plugging of the individual
gas passages. Such failures can be prevented or minimized by use of hopper level indicators or by
continuous monitoring of the dust discharge. Scheduled internal inspection can determine areas of
air leakage and condensation, both of which may cause hopper bridging. Normal instrumentation
for a settling chamber generally includes only an indicator of differential static pressure. An
increase in static pressure drop can indicate plugging

Advantages of Settling Chambers

• Low capitalcost
• Very low energycost
• No movingparts
• Few maintenancerequirements
• Low operatingcosts
• Excellentreliability
• Low pressure drop throughdevice
• Device not subject to abrasion due to low gasvelocity
• Provide incidental cooling of gasstream
• Dry collection anddisposal

7
Disadvantages of Settling Chambers

• Relatively low PM collectionefficiencies

• Unable to handle sticky or tackymaterials
• Large physicalsize
• Trays in multiple-tray settling chamber maywarp

Control of gaseous pollutants from stationary sources - Adsorption

When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part of it is taken up by the solid. The
molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the inside of the solid, or remain on the outside
attached to the surface. The former phenomenon is termed absorption (or dissolution) and the
latter adsorption. Adsorption is the binding of molecules or particles to a surface. In this
phenomenon molecules from a gas or liquid will be attached in a physical way to a surface. The
binding to the surface is usually weak and reversible. The most common industrial adsorbents are
activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have enormous surface areas per unit
weight.

Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification and removal of trace organic
contaminants from liquid and vapor streams. Carbon adsorption uses activated carbon to control
and/or recover gaseous pollutant emissions. In carbon adsorption, the gas is attracted and adheres
to the porous surface of the activated carbon. Removal efficiencies of 95 percent to 99 percent can
be achieved by using this process. Carbon adsorption is used in cases where the recovered
organics are valuable. For example, carbon adsorption is often used to recover perchloroethylene,
a compound used in the dry cleaningprocess.

Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative. A regenerative system

usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed actively removes pollutants, another bed
is being regenerated for future use. Steam is used to purge captured pollutants from the bed to a
pollutant recovery device. By "regenerating" the carbon bed, the same activated carbon particles
can be used again and again. Regenerative systems are used when concentration of the pollutant
in the gas stream is relatively high. Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated
carbon. In a non-regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes saturated
with the pollutant. Because of the solid waste problem generated by this type of system, non-
regenerative carbon adsorbers are usually used when the pollutant concentration is extremelylow.

8
Regenerative CarbonAdsorptionSystem Non-Regenerative Carbon AdsorptionSystem

Control of gaseous pollutants from stationary sources – Absorption

The removal of one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is probably
the most important operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions. Absorption is a
process in which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid. Water is the most commonly used
absorbent liquid. As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in much
the same way that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred. Absorption is commonly
used to recover products or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic
compounds. Absorption equipment is designed to get as much mixing between the gas and liquid
as possible. Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of absorption
equipment. The principal types of gas absorption equipment include spray towers, packed
columns, spray chambers, and venture scrubbers. The packed column is by far the most
commonly used for the absorption of gaseous pollutants. The packed column absorber has a
column filled with an inert (non-reactive) substance, such as plastic or ceramic, which increases
the liquid surface area for the liquid/gas interface. The inert material helps to maximize the
absorption capability of the column. In addition, the introduction of the gas and liquid at opposite
ends of the column causes mixing to be more efficient because of the counter-current flow
through the column. In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies greater than 95
percent. One potential problem with absorption is the generation of waste-water, which converts
an air pollution problem to a water pollutionproblem.

Typical packed column diagram

9
10
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION – SCI1601

1
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Air pollutants are added in the atmosphere from variety of sources that change the
composition of air and affect the biotic environment. The concentration of air pollutants
depend not only on the quantities that are emitted from air pollution sources but also on
the ability of the atmosphere to either absorb or disperse these emission. The pollution
concentrations vary spatially and temporarily causing the air pollution pattern to change
with different locations and time due to changes in meteorological and topographical
condition. The sources of air pollutants include vehicles, industries, domestic and natural
sources. The presence of air pollutants in the ambient air adversely affects the health of
the population. In order to prevent and control air pollution, the Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in1981. The responsibility has been further
emphasized under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It is necessary to assess the
present and anticipated air pollution through air quality survey/monitoring programs.
Therefore, Central Pollution Control Board had started National Ambient AirQuality
Monitoring (NAAQM) Network during 1984 - 85 at national level and gradually the
number of stations has increased over the years. The programmed was later renamed as
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).The ambient air quality
monitoring network involves measurement of a number of air pollutants at different
locations in the country. Air quality monitoring requires propers election of pollutants,
selection of locations, frequency and duration of sampling, sampling techniques,
infrastructural facilities, man power and operationand
maintenance. The areas selected for monitoring are based on high traffic density,
industrial growth, human population and its distribution, emission source, public
complaints, the land use pattern etc. Generally, the basis of a network design are the
pollution source and the pollutants present. The criteria pollutants measured are
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter(RSPM),
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), and Carbon Monoxide(CO) etc.
The quality of the air that we breathe affects our health and quality of life. It can
alsohavemajor impacts on the ecosystem. Measuring and understanding air pollution
provides a sound scientific basis for its management and control. Historically, air
pollution problem has typically been high levels of smoke and sulphur dioxide arising
from the combustion of sulphur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and
industrial purpose. However, now the major threat to clean urban air is posed by
vehicular emission. A variety of pollutants are emitted by petrol and diesel- engine
motor vehicles. These include carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates (PM10 and PM2.5). The sources of
particulate matter levels are vehicles, engine gensets, small scale industries, biomass
incineration, boilers and emission from power plants, re-suspension of traffic dust,
commercial and domestic use of fuels, etc. Fine particles containmicroscopic
1solids or liquid droplets that are very small and they can penetrate deep into the lung
sand cause serious health problems. Generally, coarse particles are directly emitted and
fine particles can be formed in the atmosphere. Photochemical reactions resulting from
the action of sunlight on nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and VOCs from vehicles leads to the
formation of ozone. Ozone is a secondary long-range pollutant, which affects areas far
from the original emission site. The report presents results of ambient air quality

2
monitoring carried out during the year 2008 at various monitoring stations under NAMP.
Four criteria pollutants namely sulphur dioxide,
nitrogendioxide,respirablesuspendedparticulatematterandsuspendedparticulatematterhave
been monitored regularly at various monitoring locations. The air quality is described in
terms of low, moderate, high and critical levels based on an exceedance factor. The
pollutants that are exceeding the standards in many cities are suspended particulate
matter and respirable suspended particulate matter. Results of additional pollutants such
as benzene and carbonmonoxide monitored in Delhi and ammonia in six cities have also
been presented. The next few chapters present details of the National Air Quality
Monitoring Programme and major findings during the year 2008. Also detailed are the
initiatives taken for air pollution control.

Air Pollutants
a) Sulphur dioxide(SO2)
SO2, is formed when fuel containing sulfur is burned. Sulfur is prevalent in raw
materials such as crude oil, coal, and ore that contain common metals like aluminum,
copper, zinc, lead etc. SO2 reacts with other gases in the atmosphere to formsulphates
that can cause harm to human health. Effects of SO2 include respiratory illness,
visibility impairment, acid rain and aesthetic damage. Sulfur oxides are emitted in
significant quantities from thermal power plants, smelting process of sulfide ores to
produce copper, lead and zinc and also from petroleum refining processes. The diesel
driven vehicles are specific source of sulfur dioxide generated during combustion
process. Sulfate particles, can be transported over long distances and deposited far from
the sources. SO2 can result in respiratory illness, particularly in children andthe
elderly, and it can also aggravate existing heart and lung diseases.
b) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
Oxides of nitrogen are a generic term for a group of highly reactive gases that contain
nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) along with
particulates is seen as a reddish brown layer over urban areas. Nitrogen oxides
areformed when fuel is burned at high temperature. Sources of nitrogen oxides includes
vehicles, industrial processes that burn fuel. Oxides of nitrogen react with
VolatileOrganic Compounds (VOCs) to form ground level ozone. They also react to
formnitrates, acid aerosols. They also contribute to nutrient overload that deteriorates
water quality. Nitrogen dioxide irritates the nose and throat, and it appears to increases
usceptibility to respiratory infections.

c) Particulate Matter (RSPM10 &PM2.5)

Particulate matter is a mixture of many subclasses of pollutants that contain many
different chemical species. The particle size is often described by aerodynamic diameter.
Aerodynamic diameter depends on particle density and is defined as the diameter of a
particle with the same settling velocity as spherical particle with unit density i.e. 1 g/cm3
(USEPA, 1996). PM10 are the particles with upper size limited bya 50% cut at 10 μm
aerodynamic diameter (USEPA, 1996). PM10 can be formed by physical processes of
crushing, grinding and abrasion of surfaces. Mining and agricultural activities are some
of the sources of large size particles.PM2.5 are the particles with upper size limited by a
50% cut at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter(USEPA, 1996). Particulate matter is called
3
primary if it is in the same form chemical form in which it is emitted into the atmosphere.
The primary particulate matterincludeswind blown dust such as road dust, fly ash, soot
etc. Particulate matter is called secondary it is formed by chemical reactions in the
atmosphere. Secondary particulate matter include sulphates, nitratesetc.
The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems.
Small particles less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems,
because they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your blood
stream. Numerous scientific
studies have linked particle pollution exposure to avariety of problems, including
increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation ofthe airways, coughing, or difficulty
breathing, decreased lung function; aggravatedasthma; development of chronic
bronchitis; irregular heartbeat; nonfatal heart attacks; and premature death in people with
heart or lung disease (USEPA, 2008). People
with heart or lung diseases, children and older adults are the most likely to be affected
by particle pollution exposure (USEPA, 2008). Environmental effects of particulate
matter include visibility reduction, aesthetic damage etc.

Composition of Particulate Matter

Atmospheric particles include combustion-generated particles, such as diesel soot or fly
ash; photochemically produced particles, such as those found in urban haze; and soil-like
particles from resuspended dust. The major constituents of RSPM are organic and
elemental carbon, metals/elements like silicon, magnesium, iron, ions like sulphates,
nitrates, ammonium etc. Understanding composition of particulate matter is most
important to gain insight into the health effects caused and sources to be controlled.
Composition of particulate matter varies from place to place and season depending upon
sources present.

(i) ElementalCarbon
Elemental carbon (EC), also called ‗‗black carbon‘‘ or ‗‗graphitic
carbon‘‘, has a chemical structure similar to impure graphite. Atmospheric
elemental carbon isfrom
primary anthropogenic sources and is not formed by reactions involving gaseous
hydrocarbon precursors in the atmosphere. EC plays an important role in atmospheric
chemistry because of its adsorptive and catalytic properties, which can capture other
pollutants to react on its surface.

(ii) Organic Carbon

Organic carbon (OC), a mixture of hydrocarbons and oxygenates, is formed by avariety
of processes, including combustion and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation.
Organic carbon may be emitted as primary particles directly from sources, but secondary
organics can also be formed in the atmosphere from the low vapor pressure products of
atmospheric chemical reactions. OC is a complex mixture of different organic
compounds, containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and othercomponents.

4
(iii) Elements/Metals
Calcium, aluminum, silicon, magnesium, and iron are some of the crustal material found
predominately in the coarse particles. Most of the elements are emitted from coal, oil
combustion, vehicles, and industrial processes. Other sources includecrustral material
from road dust, tyre wear, construction activitiesetc.

(iv) Ions
The common ions found in particulate matter are sodium, sulphates, nitrates, calcium,
chloride, potassium. Potassium and nitrate may be found in both the small size and
coarse particles. Potassium comes from soil in coarse particles and in small size particles
it comes from wood burning. Nitrate in formed by reaction of gas phase nitricacid with
gas-phase ammonia forming particulate ammonium nitrate.

d) Carbon Monoxide(CO)
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and poisonous gas. It is formed by incomplete
combustion of carbon containing fuels. Major source of CO are vehicles. Incomplete
combustion is most likely to occur at low air-to-fuel ratios in the engine. These
conditions are common during vehicle starting when air supply is restricted and are not
tuned properly, and at altitude, where thin air effectively reduces the amount of oxygen
available for combustion. CO enters the bloodstream through lungs and forms
carboxyhemoglobin which inhibits blood‘s oxygen carrying capacityto organs and
tissues. Persons with heart disease are especially sensitive to carbonmonoxide poisoning
and may experience chest pain if they breathe the gas whileexercising. Infants, elderly
persons, and individuals with respiratory diseases are also particularlysensitive.

e) Ozone
Ozone is a secondary pollutants formed in the atmosphere by reaction between oxides of
nitrogen and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Vehicles,
industrial emissions, gasoline vapours, chemical solvents emitoxidesof nitrogen and
VOCs that form ozone. Peak O3 levels occur typically during the warmer times of
theyear.

f) Ammonia
Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, and is produced from the
putrefaction of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia occurs naturally and
is produced by human activity. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small
quantities in rainwater. It is an important source of nitrogen which is needed by plants
and animals. Ammonia gas can be dissolved in water and is called liquid ammonia or
aqueous ammonia. Once exposed to open air, liquid ammonia quickly turns into a gas.
Exposure to ammonia may occur by breathing or consuming food or water containing
ammonia. No health effects have been found in humans exposed to typical
environmental concentrations of ammonia. Exposure to high levels of ammonia in air
may be irritating to skin, eyes, throat, and lungs and cause coughing and burns. Lung
damage and death may occur after exposure to very high concentrations ofammonia.

g) Hazardous AirPollutants
5
 Hazardous air pollutants are also known as toxic air pollutants which may cause health
effects such as reproductive effects, cancer etc. Toxic air pollutants includebenzene,
perchlorethlyene, methylene chloride, dioxin, asbestos, toluene, and metalssuch as
cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds. Sources of benzene are gasoline
and perchlorethlyene, is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities. Methylenechlorideis
used as a solvent and paint stripper by a number of industries. As per USEPA, 2007
(Source:http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/allabout.html) people exposed to toxic air pollutants
at sufficient concentrations and durations may have an increased chance of experiencing
serious health effects and these health effects can include damage to the immune system,
as well as neurological, reproductive (e.g., reduced fertility), developmental, respiratory,
cancer and other health problems. Also as per USEPA, 2007, in addition to exposure
from breathing air toxics, some toxic air pollutants such as mercury can deposit onto
soils or surface waters, where they are taken up by plants and ingested by animals and
are eventually magnified up through the foodchain.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act1981

Government of India enacted the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981
toarrest the deterioration in the air quality. The act prescribes various functions for the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) at the control level and State Pollution Control
Boards at the state level. The main functions of the Central Pollution Control Board are
as follows:
• To advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the
quality of the air and the prevention, control and abatement of airpollution.
• To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control
and abatement of air pollution.• To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State
Pollution ControlBoard.
• To carry out and sponsor investigations and research related to prevention, control and
abatement of airpollution.
• To collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data related to air pollution;and
• To lay down standards for the quality of air. The main functions of the State Pollution
Control Boards are as follows:
• To plan a comprehensive programme for prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution and to secure the executionthereof.
• To advise the State Government on any matter concerning prevention, control and
abatement of airpollution.
• To collect and disseminate information related to airpollution.
• To collaborate with Central Pollution Control Board in programme related top
revention, control and abatement of air pollution;and
• To inspect air pollution control areas, assess quality of air and to take steps for
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in such areas.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards(NAAQS)

The ambient air quality objectives/standards are pre-requisite for developing programme
for effective management of ambient air quality and to reduce the damaging effects of
air pollution. The objectives of air quality standardsare:
• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to
6
Protect the public health, vegetation andproperty;
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutantlevel;
• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level;and
• To indicate the need and extent of monitoringprogramme.

Air Quality Monitoring and AQI Considerations

The air quality monitoring network in India can be classified as (i) online and (ii)
manual. The pollutant parameters, frequency of measurement and monitoring
methodologies for twonetworks are very different. The AQI system for these networks
could be at variance, especially for reporting and completeness in terms of parameters. (i)
Online Monitoring network: These are automated air quality monitoring stations which
record continuous hourly, monthly or annually averaged data. In India, ~ 40 automatic
monitoring stations are operated (e.g. Figure 3.2: continuous stations in Delhi), where
parameters like PM10, PM2.5, NO2 , SO2 , CO, O3 , etc. are monitored continuously.
Data from these stations are available almost in real-time. Thus such
networksaremostsuitableforcomputationofAQIsub-indices,asinformationonAQIcanbe
generated in real time. For AQI to be more useful and effective, there is a need to set up
more online monitoring stations for continuous and easy availability of air quality data
for computation of AQI for more Indiancities.

Manual:
The manual stations involve mostly intermittent air quality data collection, thus such
stations are not suitable for AQI calculation particularly for its quick dissemination. In
India, air quality is being monitored manually at 573 locations under National Air
Monitoring Programme (NAMP). In most of these manually operated stations, only three
criteria pollutants viz. PM10, sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) are
measured, at some stations PM2.5 and Pb are also measured. The monitoring frequency
is twice a week. Such manual networks are not suitable for computing AQI, as
availability of monitored data could have a lag of 1-3 days and sometimes not available
at all. However, some efforts are required to use the information in some productive
manner. Historical AQIs on weekly basis can be calculated and used for data
interpretation and ranking of cities or towns for further prioritization of actions on air
pollution control.

Computation and Basis of Sub-index Breakpoints Segmented linear functions are used
for relating actual air pollution concentration (Xi ) (of each pollutant) to a normalized
number referred to as sub-index (Ii ). While AQI system is not complex in
understanding, to arrive at breakpoints which will relate to AQI description is of
paramount significance. Consequences of inappropriate adoption of breakpoints could be
far reaching; it may lead to incorrect information to general public (on health effects) and
decisions taken for pollution control may be incorrect. The basis for linear functions (for
this study) to relate air quality levels to AQI requires careful consideration. Services of
practicing doctors and experts in this field (see Appendix 1) have proved very useful. In
this study, in addition to dose response relationship, the breakpoints adopted by other
countries/agencies (USEPA 2014; U.K. 2013; Malaysia 2013; GVAQI 2013; Ontario
2013) have been examined for using these in INDAQI. It is important that an AQI
7
system should build on AQS and pollutant dose-response relationships to describe air
quality in simple terms which clearly relates to health impacts. The first step for arriving
at breakpoints for each pollutant is to consider attainment of INAQS (Table 3.1). The
index category is classified as ‗good‘ for concentration range up to half of INAQS (for
example, for SO2 AQI=0-50 for concentration range of 0-40 μg/m3 ) and as
‗satisfactory‘ up to attainment of INAQS (i.e. SO2 range 41-80μg/m3 linearly maps to
AQI=51-100). To arrive at breakpoints for other categories (for each pollutant), we
require a thorough research/review of dose response relationships, which is described
here. 3.3.1 Carbon Mono-oxide (CO) Carbon monoxide (CO) is an important criteria
pollutant which is ubiquitous in urban environment. CO production mostly occurs from
sources having incomplete combustion. Due to its toxicity and appreciable mass in
atmosphere, it should be considered as an important pollutant in AQI scheme. CO
rapidly diffuses across alveolar, capillary and placental membranes. Approximately 80-
90% of absorbed CO binds with Hb to from Carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb), which is a
specific biomarker of exposure in blood. The affinity of Hb for CO is 200-250 times than
that of oxygen. In patients with hemolytic anemia, the CO production rate was 2–8 times
higher and blood COHb concentration was 2–3 times higher than in normal person
(WHO 2000). The initial symptoms of CO poisoning may include headache, dizziness,
drowsiness, and nausea. These initial symptoms may advance to vomiting, loss of
consciousness, and collapse if prolonged or high exposures are encountered and maylead
to Coma or death if high exposures continue. A US study estimated that 6 per cent of the
congestive heart failures and hospitalizations in the cities were related to an increase in
CO concentration in ambient atmosphere (WHO 2000). Reduction in the ability of blood
to transport oxygen leads to tissue hypoxia. The body compensates for this stress by
increasing cardiac output and the blood flow to specific areas, such as the heart and
brain. As the level of COHb in the blood increases, the person suffers from effects which
become progressively more serious. CO has both 1 hrand 8 hrstandard. Figure 3.3 shows
air pollution level and percent of COHb. The symptoms associated with various percent
blood saturation levels ofCOHb

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 )

The major source of NO2 is combustion processes. An appreciable quantity of NO2 is
present in rural and urban environments. Further, NO2 is showing alarmingly high
increasing trend in Indian cities due to increase in number of vehicles. On inhalation,
70–90% of NO2 can be absorbed in the respiratory tract of humans, and physical
exercise increases the total percentage absorbed (Miller et al., 1982). NO2 exposure can
cause decrement in lung function (i.e. increased airway resistance), increased airway
responsiveness to broncho-constrictions in healthy subjects at concentration exceeding 1
ppm (WHO 2000). Below 1 ppm level, there are evidences of change in lung volume,
flow volume, characteristics of lung or airway resistance in healthy persons. It has been
established that continuous exposure with as little as 0.1 ppm NO2 over a period of one
to three years, increases incidence of bronchitis, emphysema and have adverse effect on
lung performance (WHO 2000). Exposure to excessive NO2 , affects the defence
mechanism leaving the host susceptible to respiratory illness. Chronic exposure of NO2
may lead to chronic lung disease and variety of structural/morphological changes in lung
epithelium conducting airways and air -gas exchange region. Exposure to high levels
8
(>1.0 ppm) of NO2 causes Eustachian of bronchiolar and alveolar epithelium,
inflammation of epithelium and definite emphysema (WHO 2000). Normal healthy
people exposed at rest or with light exercise for less than 2 hours to concentrations of
more than 4700μg/m3 (2.5ppm) experience pronounced decrements in pulmonary
function; generally, such people are not affected at less than 1880μg/m3 (1ppm). One
study showed that the lung function of people with chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease is slightly affected by a 3.75-hour exposure to 560μg/ m3 (0.3ppm). A wide
range of findings in asthmatics has been reported; one study observed no effects from a
75- minute exposure to 7520μg/m3 (4ppm), whereas others showed decreases in FEV1
(forced expiration volume in one second) after 10 minutes of exercise during exposure to
560μg/m3 (0.3ppm). The lowest concentration causing effects on pulmonary function
was reported from two laboratories that exposed mild asthmatics for 30–110 minutes to
560μg/m3 (0.3ppm) during intermittent exercise (WHO 2000). WHO (2003) has
reported some but not all studies show increased responsiveness to bronchoconstrictors
at nitrogen dioxide levels as low as 376–560 μg/m3 (0.2–0.3 ppm); in other studies,
higher levels had no such effect. Studies of asthmatics exposed to 380–560 μg/m3
indicate a change of about 5% in pulmonary function and an increase in airway
responsiveness to bronchoconstrictors. Asthmatics are more susceptible to the acute
effects of nitrogen dioxide as they have higher baseline airway responsiveness. For acute
exposures, only very high concentrations (1990 μg/m3 ;> 1000 ppb) affect healthy
people. Asthmatics and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are clearly
more susceptible to acute changes in lung function, airway responsiveness and
respiratory symptoms. Given the small changes in lung function (< 5% drop in FEV1
between air and nitrogen dioxide exposure) and changes in airway responsiveness
reported in several studies, 375–565 μg/m3 (0.20 to0.30
ppm) is a clear lowest-observed effect level. A 50% margin of safety is proposed because
of the reported statistically significant increase in response to a bronchoconstrictor
(increased airway responsiveness) with exposure to 190 μg/m3 and a metaanalysis
suggesting changes in airway responsiveness below 365 μg/m3 (WHO 2000) After
giving due consideration to INAQS for NO2 , two categories good (Sub-Index: 0-50)
and satisfactory (51-100), the breakpoint concentration are fixed as 40μg/m3 and
80μg/m3 . Various studies reported that the small change in lung function (< 5% drop in
FEV1 between air and nitrogen dioxide exposure) and changes in airway responsiveness
gives 375–565μg/m3 (0.20 to 0.30 ppm), as the lowest-observed-effect level. Therefore,
breakpoints of 280μg/m3 for poor, 400 μg/m3 for very poor and 400+ μg/m3 for severe
category are adopted. For moderately-polluted category an intermediate value of 180
μg/m3 (between 80 and 280 μg/m3 ) has been adopted. It may be noted that minor
tweaking has been done with breakpoints so that these also corroborate with
international breakpoints adopted by other countries. The details of proposed break
points for IND-AQI and breakpoints of USEPA, China andEU

Particulate Matter (PM):

PM10 and PM2.5 PM levels in Indian cities are about 4-5 times higher than in the US
cities (WRI, 1996). These high PM levels may have severe impact on public health. The
sixteen-year long survey by Dockery et al. (1994) has revealed that there is a strong
correlation between ambient PM concentrations and increase in mortality and
9
hospitalizations due to respiratory diseases. Several epidemiological studies (Pope,
1989; Schwartz, 1996) have linked PM10 (aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 μm)and PM2.5
with significant health problems, including: premature mortality, chronic respiratory
disease, emergency visits and hospital admissions, aggravated asthma, acute respiratory
symptoms, and decrease in lung function. PM2.5 is of specific concern because it
contains a high proportion of various toxic metals and acids, and aerodynamically it can
penetrate deeper into the respiratory tract. A HEI study, (Wichmannetal., 2000) reported
that the concentration of both ultrafine.

Clean Air Implementation Plans

Air quality management aims at the preservation of environmental quality by prescribing

the tolerated degree of pollution, leaving it to the local authorities and polluters to devise
and implement actions to ensure that this degree of pollution will not be exceeded. An
example of legislation within this approach is the adoption of ambient air quality
standards based, very often, on air quality guidelines (WHO 1987) for different
pollutants; these are accepted maximum levels of pollutants (or indicators) in the target
area (e.g., at ground level at a specified point in a community) and can be either primary
or secondary standards. Primary standards (WHO 1980) are the maximum levels
consistent with an adequate safety margin and with the preservation of public health, and
must be complied with within a specific time limit; secondary standards are those judged
to be necessary for protection against known or anticipated adverse effects other
thanhealthhazards(mainlyonvegetation)andmustbecomplied―withina reasonabletime‖.Air
quality standards are short-, medium- or long-term values valid for 24 hours per day, 7
days per week, and for monthly, seasonal or annual exposure of all living subjects
(including sensitive subgroups such as children, the elderly and the sick) as well as non-
living objects; this is in contrast to maximum permissible levels for occupational
exposure, which are for apartial
weekly exposure (e.g., 8 hours per day, 5 days per week) of adult and supposedly
healthy workers.

Typical measures in air quality management are control measures at the source, for
example, enforcement of the use of catalytic converters in vehicles or of emission
standards inincinerators, land-use planning and shut-down of factories or reduction of
traffic during unfavourable weather conditions. The best air quality management stresses
that the air pollutant emissions should be kept to a minimum; this is basically defined
through emission standards for single sources of air pollution and could be achieved for
industrial sources, for example, through closed systems and high-efficiency collectors.
An emission standard is a limit on the amount or concentration of a pollutant emitted
from a source. This type of legislation requires a decision, for each industry, on the best
means of controlling its emissions (i.e., fixing emissionstandards).

The basic aim of air pollution management is to derive a clean air implementation plan
(or airpollution abatement plan) (Schwela and Köth-Jahr 1994) which consists of the
following elements:

10
· description of area with respect to topography, meteorology and socioeconomy

· Emissionsinventory

· Comparison with emissionstandards

· Air pollutant concentrationsinventory

· Simulated air pollutantconcentrations

· Comparison with air qualitystandards

· Inventory of effects on public health and theenvironment

· Causalanalysis

· controlmeasures

· cost of controlmeasures

· cost of public health and environmentaleffects

· Cost-benefit analysis (costs of control vs. costs ofefforts)

· Transportation and land-useplanning

· Enforcement plan; resourcecommitment

· Projections for the future on population, traffic, industries and fuelconsumption

· Strategies forfollow-up.

Some of these issues will be described below.

Emissions Inventory; Comparison with Emission Standards

The emissions inventory is a most complete listing of sources in a given area and of their
individual emissions, estimated as accurately as possible from all emitting point, line and
area (diffuse) sources. When these emissions are compared with emission standards set
for a particular source, first hints on possible control measures are given if emission
standards are not complied with. The emissions inventory also serves to assess a priority
list of important sources according to the amount of pollutants emitted, and indicates the
relative influence of different sources—for example, traffic as compared to industrial or
residential sources. The emissions inventory also allows an estimate of air pollutant
concentrations for those pollutants for which ambient concentration measurements are
difficult or too expensive toperform.

11
Air Pollutant Concentrations Inventory; Comparison with Air Quality Standards

The air pollutant concentrations inventory summarizes the results of the monitoring of
ambient air pollutants in terms of annual means, percentiles and trends of these
quantities. Compounds measured for such an inventory include the following:

· Sulphurdioxide

· Nitrogenoxides

· suspended particulatematter

· Carbonmonoxide

· Ozone

· Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu, Fe, As,Be)

· polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(e)pyrene,

benzo(a)anthracene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, benzoghi)perylene,coronen

· volatile organic compounds:n-hexane, benzene, 3-methyl-hexane,n-heptane,

toluene, octane, ethyl-benzene xylene (o-,m-,p-), n-nonane, isopropylbenzene,

propylbenezene,n-2-/3-
/4-ethyltoluene, 1,2,4-/1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, trichloromethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane,
tetrachloromethane, tri-/tetrachloroethene.

Comparison of air pollutant concentrations with air quality standards or guidelines, if

they exist, indicates problem areas for which a causal analysis has to be performed in
order to find out which sources are responsible for the non-compliance. Dispersion
modelling has to be used in performing thiscausal analysis (see ―Air pollution:
Modelling of air pollutant dispersion‖).
Devices and procedures used in today‘s ambient air pollution monitoring are described
in ―Air quality monitoring‖.

Simulated Air Pollutant Concentrations; Comparison with Air Quality Standards

Starting from the emissions inventory, with its thousands of compounds which cannot all
be monitored in the ambient air for economy reasons, use of dispersion modelling can
help to estimate the concentrations of more ―exotic‖ compounds. Using
appropriate meteorology parameters in a suitable dispersion model, annual averages and
percentiles can be estimated and compared to air quality standards or guidelines, if they
exist.

12
Inventory of Effects on Public Health and the Environment; Causal Analysis

Another important source of information is the effects inventory (Ministerium

fürUmwelt 1993), which consists of results of epidemiological studies in the given area
and of effects of air pollution observed in biological and material receptors such as, for
example, plants, animals and construction metals and building stones. Observed effects
attributed to air pollution have to be causally analysed with respect to the component
responsible for a particular effect—for example, increased prevalence of chronic
bronchitis in a polluted area. If the compound or compounds have been fixed in a causal
analysis (compound-causal analysis), a second analysis has to be performed to find out
the responsible sources (source-causalanalysis).

Control Measures; Cost of Control Measures

Control measures for industrial facilities include adequate, well-designed, well-installed,

efficiently operated and maintained air cleaning devices, also called separators or
collectors. A separator orcollector can be defined as an ―apparatus for separating any one
or more of the following from a gaseous medium in which they are suspended or mixed:
solid particles (filter and dust separators), liquid particles (filter and droplet separator)
and gases (gas purifier)‖. The
basictypesofairpollutioncontrolequipment(discussedfurtherin―Airpollutioncontrol‖)are
the following:

· For particulate matter: inertial separators (e.g., cyclones); fabric filters (baghouses);
electrostatic precipitators; wet collectors(scrubbers)

· For gaseous pollutants: wet collectors (scrubbers); adsorption units (e.g., adsorption
beds); afterburners, which can be direct-fired (thermal incineration) or catalytic
(catalyticcombustion).

Wet collectors (scrubbers) can be used to collect, at the same time, gaseous pollutants
and particulate matter. Also, certain types of combustion devices can burn combustible
gases and vapours as well as certain combustible aerosols. Depending on the type of
effluent, one or a combination of more than one collector can be used.

The control of odours that are chemically identifiable relies on the control of the
chemical agent(s) from which they emanate (e.g., by absorption, by incineration).
However, when an odouris not defined chemically or the producing agent is found at
extremely low levels ,other techniques may be used, such as masking (by a stronger,
more agreeable and harmless agent) or counteraction (by an additive which counteracts
or partially neutralizes the offensive odour).

It should be kept in mind that adequate operation and maintenance are indispensable to
ensure the expected efficiency from a collector. This should be ensured at the planning
stage, both from the know-how and financial points of view. Energy requirements must
not be overlooked. Whenever selecting an air cleaning device, not only the initial cost

13
but also operational and maintenance costs should be considered. Whenever dealing with
high-toxicity pollutants, high efficiency should be ensured, as well as special procedures
for maintenance and disposal of waste materials.

The fundamental control measures in industrial facilities are the following:

Substitution of materials. Examples: substitution of less toxic solvents for highly toxic
ones used in certain industrial processes; use of fuels with lower sulphur content (e.g.,
washed coal), therefore giving rise to less sulphur compounds and so on.

Modification or change of the industrial process or equipment. Examples: in the

steel industry, a change from raw ore to pelleted sintered ore (to reduce the dust released
during ore handling); use of closed systems instead of open ones; change of fuel heating
systems to steam, hot water or electrical systems; use of catalysers at the exhaust air
outlets (combustion processes) and so on.

Modifications in processes, as well as in plant layout, may also facilitate and/or

improve the conditions for dispersion and collection of pollutants. For example, a
different plant layout may facilitate the installation of a local exhaust system; the
performance of a process at a lower rate may allow the use of a certain collector (with
volume limitations but otherwise adequate). Process modifications that concentrate
different effluent sources are closely related to the volume of effluent handled, and the
efficiency of some air-cleaning equipment increases with the concentration of pollutants
in the effluent. Both the substitution of materials and the modification of processes may
have technical and/or economic limitations, and these should beconsidered.

Adequate housekeeping and storage. Examples: strict sanitation in food and animal
product processing; avoidance of open storage of chemicals (e.g., sulphur piles) or dusty
materials (e.g., sand), or, failing this, spraying of the piles of loose particulate with water
(if possible) or application of surface coatings (e.g., wetting agents, plastic) to piles of
materials likely to give offpollutants.

Adequate disposal of wastes. Examples: avoidance of simply piling up chemical wastes

(such as scraps from polymerization reactors), as well as of dumping pollutant materials
(solid or liquid) in water streams. The latter practice not only causes water pollution but
can also create a secondary source of air pollution, as in the case of liquid wastes from
sulphite process pulp mills, which release offensive odorous gaseouspollutants.

Maintenance. Example: well maintained and well-tuned internal combustion engines

produce less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Work practices. Example: taking into account meteorological conditions, particularly
winds, when spraying pesticides.

14
By analogy with adequate practices at the workplace, good practices at the
community level can contribute to air pollution control - for example, changes in the use
of motor vehicles (more collective transportation, small cars and so on) and control of
heating facilities (better insulation of buildings in order to require less heating, better
fuels and so on).

Control measures in vehicle emissions are adequate and efficient mandatory inspection
and maintenance programmes which are enforced for the existing car fleet, programmes
of enforcement of the use of catalytic converters in new cars, aggressive substitution of
solar/battery-powered cars for fuel-powered ones, regulation of road traffic, and
transportation and land use planning concepts.

Motor vehicle emissions are controlled by controlling emissions per vehicle mile
travelled (VMT) and by controlling VMT itself (Walsh 1992). Emissions per VMT can
be reduced by controlling vehicle performance - hardware, maintenance - for both new
and in-use cars. Fuel composition of leaded gasoline may be controlled by reducing lead
or sulphur content, which also has a beneficial effect on decreasing HC emissions from
vehicles. Lowering the levels of sulphurin diesel fuel as a means to lower diesel
particulate emission has the additional beneficial effect of increasing the potential for
catalytic control of diesel particulate and organic HC emissions.

Another important management tool for reducing vehicle evaporative and refuelling
emissions is the control of gasoline volatility. Control of fuel volatility can greatly lower
vehicle evaporative HC emissions. Use of oxygenated additives in gasoline lowers HC
and CO exhaust as long as fuel volatility is notincreased.

Reduction of VMT is an additional means of controlling vehicle emissions by control

strategies such as

· use of more efficient transportationmodes

· increasing the average number of passengers percar

· spreading congested peak trafficloads

· reducing traveldemand.

While such approaches promote fuel conservation, they are not yet accepted by the
general population, and governments have not seriously tried to implement them.

All these technological and political solutions to the motor vehicle problem except
substitution of electrical cars are increasingly offset by growth in the vehicle population.
The vehicle problem can be solved only if the growth problem is addressed in an
appropriateway.

15
Cost of Public Health and Environmental Effects; Cost-Benefit Analysis

The estimation of the costs of public health and environmental effects is the most
difficult part of a clean air implementation plan, as it is very difficult to estimate the
value of lifetime reduction of disabling illnesses, hospital admission rates and hours of
work lost. However, this estimation and a comparison with the cost of control measures
is absolutely necessary in order to balance the costs of control measures versus the costs
of no such measure undertaken, in terms of public health and environmentaleffects.

Transportation and Land-Use Planning

The pollution problem is intimately connected to land-use and transportation, including

issues such as community planning, road design, traffic control and mass transportation;
to concerns of demography, topography and economy; and to social concerns (Venzia
1977). In general, the rapidly growing urban aggregations have severe pollution
problems due to poor land-use and transportation practices. Transportation planning for
air pollution control includes transportation controls, transportation policies, mass transit
and highway congestion costs. Transportation controls have an important impact on the
general public in terms of equity, repressiveness and social and economic disruption - in
particular, direct transportation controls such as motor vehicle constraints, gasoline
limitations and motor vehicle emission reductions. Emission reductions due to direct
controls can be reliably estimated and verified. Indirect transportation controls such as
reduction of vehicle miles travelled by improvement of mass transit systems, traffic flow
improvement regulations, regulations on parking lots, road and gasoline taxes, car- use
permissions and incentives for voluntary approaches are mostly based on past trial-and-
error experience, and include many uncertainties when trying to develop a viable
transportationplan.

National action plans incurring indirect transportation controls can affect transportation
and land- use planning with regard to highways, parking lots and shopping centres.
Long-term planning for the transportation system and the area influenced by it will
prevent significant deterioration of air quality and provide for compliance with air
quality standards. Mass transit is consistently considered as a potential solution for urban
air pollution problems. Selection of a mass transit system to serve an area and different
modal splits between highway use and bus or rail service will ultimately alter land-use
patterns. There is an optimum split that will minimize air pollution; however, this may
not be acceptable when non-environmental factors are considered.

The automobile has been called the greatest generator of economic externalities ever
known. Some of these, such as jobs and mobility, are positive, but the negative ones,
such as air pollution, accidents resulting in death and injury, property damage, noise, loss
of time, and aggravation, lead to the conclusion that transportation is not a decreasing
cost industry in urbanized areas. Highway congestion costs are another externality; lost
time and congestion costs, however, are difficult to determine. A true evaluation of
competing transportation modes, such as mass transportation, cannot be obtained if travel
costs for work trips do not include congestioncosts.
16
Land-use planning for air pollution control includes zoning codes and performance
standards, land-use controls, housing and land development, and land-use planning
policies. Land-use
zoning was the initial attempt to accomplish protection of the people, their property and
their economic opportunity. However, the ubiquitous nature of air pollutants required
more than physical separation of industries and residential areas to protect the
individual. For this reason, performance standards based initially on aesthetics or
qualitative decisions were introduced into some zoning codes in an attempt to quantify
criteria for identifying potential problems.

The limitations of the assimilative capacity of the environment must be identified for
long-term land-use planning. Then, land-use controls can be developed that will prorate
the capacity equitably among desired local activities. Land-use controls include permit
systems for review of new stationary sources, zoning regulation between industrial and
residential areas, restriction by easement or purchase of land, receptor location control,
emission-density zoning and emission allocation regulations.

Housing policies aimed at making home ownership available to many who could
otherwise not afford it (such as tax incentives and mortgage policies) stimulate urban
sprawl and indirectly discourage higher-density residential development. These policies
have now proven to be environmentally disastrous, as no consideration was given to the
simultaneous development of efficient transportation systems to serve the needs of the
multitude of new communities being developed. The lesson learnt from this
development is that programmes impacting on the environment should be coordinated,
and comprehensive planning undertaken at the level where the problem occurs and on a
scale large enough to include the entire system.

Land-use planning must be examined at national, provincial or state, regional and local
levels to adequately ensure long-term protection of the environment. Governmental
programmes usually start with power plant siting, mineral extraction sites, coastal zoning
and desert, mountain or other recreational development. As the multiplicity of local
governments in a given region cannot adequately deal with regional environmental
problems, regional governments or agencies should coordinate land development and
density patterns by supervising the spatial arrangement and location of new construction
and use, and transportation facilities. Land-use and transportation planning must be
interrelated with enforcement of regulations to maintain the desired air quality. Ideally,
air pollution control should be planned for by the same regional agency that does land-
use planning because of the overlapping externalities associated with both issues.

Enforcement Plan, Resource Commitment

The clean air implementation plan should always contain an enforcement plan which
indicates how the control measures can be enforced. This implies also a resource
commitment which, according to a polluter pays principle, will state what the polluter
has to implement and how the government will help the polluter in fulfilling the
17
commitment.

Projections for the Future

In the sense of a precautionary plan, the clean air implementation plan should also
include estimates of the trends in population, traffic, industries and fuel consumption in
order to assess responses to future problems. This will avoid future stresses by enforcing
measures well in advance of imagined problems.

Strategies for Follow-up

A strategy for follow-up of air quality management consists of plans and policies on
how to implement future clean air implementation plans.

Role of Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the process of providing a detailed

statement by the responsible agency on the environmental impact of a proposed action
significantly affecting the quality of the human environment (Lee 1993). EIA is an
instrument of prevention aiming at consideration of the human environment at an early
stage of the development of a programme or project.

EIA is particularly important for countries which develop projects in the framework of
economic reorientation and restructuring. EIA has become legislation in many
developed countries and is now increasingly applied in developing countries and
economies in transition.

EIA is integrative in the sense of comprehensive environmental planning and

management considering the interactions between different environmental media. On the
other hand, EIA integrates the estimation of environmental consequences into the
planning process and thereby becomes an instrument of sustainable development. EIA
also combines technical and participative properties as it collects, analyses and applies
scientific and technical data with consideration of quality control and quality assurance,
and stresses the importance of consultations prior to licensing procedures between
environmental agencies and the public which could be affected by particular projects. A
clean air implementation plan can be considered as a part of the EIA procedure with
reference to the air.

AIR QUALITY MONITORING

Air quality monitoring means the systematic measurement of ambient air pollutants in
order to beable to assess the exposure of vulnerable receptors (e.g., people, animals,
plants and art works) on the basis of standards and guidelines derived from observed
effects, and/or toestablish the source of the air pollution (causalanalysis).

18
Ambient air pollutant concentrations are influenced by the spatial or time variance of
emissions of hazardous substances and the dynamics of their dispersion in the air. As a
consequence, marked daily and annual variations of concentrations occur. It is
practically impossible to determine in a unified way all these different variations of air
quality (in statistical language, the population of air quality states). Thus, ambient air
pollutant concentrations measurements always have the character of random spatial or
time samples.
Measurement Planning

The first step in measurement planning is to formulate the purpose of the measurement
as precisely as possible. Important questions and fields of operation for air quality
monitoring include:

Area measurement:

· representative determination of exposure in one area (general airmonitoring)

· representative measurement of pre-existing pollution in the area of a planned facility

(permit, TA Luft (Technical instruction,air))

· smog warning (winter smog, high ozoneconcentrations)

· measurements in hot spots of air pollution to estimate maximum exposure of

receptors (EU- NO2 guideline, measurements in street canyons, in accordance with the
German Federal Immission ControlAct)

· checking the results of pollution abatement measures and trends overtime

· screeningmeasurements

· scientific investigations - for example, the transport of air pollution, chemical

conversions, calibrating dispersioncalculations.

Facility measurement:

· measurements in response tocomplaints

· ascertaining sources of emissions, causalanalysis

· measurements in cases of fires and accidentalreleases

· checking success of reductionmeasures

· monitoring factory fugitiveemissions.

19
The goal of measurement planning is to use adequate measurement and assessment
procedures to answer specific questions with sufficient certainty and at minimum
possible expense.

An example of the parameters that should be used for measurement planning is

presented in table in relation to an assessment of air pollution in the area of a planned
industrial facility. Recognizing that formal requirements vary by jurisdiction, it should
be noted that specific reference here is made to German licensing procedures for
industrial facilities.
Parameters for measurement planning in measuring ambient air pollution concentrations
(with example of application)
Parameter Example of application: Licensing procedure
for industrial facilities inGermany
Statement of the question Measurement of prior pollution in the licensing
procedure; representative random probe
measurement
Area of measurement Circle around location with radius 30 times actual
chimney height (simplified)
Assessment standards (place and Threshold limits IW1 (arithmetic mean) and IW2
time dependent): characteristic (98th percentile) of TA Luft (Technical
values to be obtained from instruction, air); calculation of I1 (arithmetic
measurementdata mean) and I2 (98th percentile) from
measurements taken for 1 km2(assessment surface)
to be compared with IW1 andIW2
Ordering, choice and density of Regular scan of1km2, resulting in
measurementsites ―random‖
choice of measurement sites
Measurement time period 1 year, at least 6 months
Measurement height 1.5 to 4 metres above ground
Measurement frequency 52 (104) measurements per assessment area for
gaseous pollutants, depending on the height of the
pollution
Duration of each measurement 1/2 hour for gaseous pollutants,
24 hours for suspended dust,
1 month for dustprecipitation
Measurement time Random choice
Measured object Air pollution emitted from the plannedfacility
Measurement procedure National standard measurement procedure (VDI
guidelines)

20
Necessary certainty of measurement High
results
Quality requirements, VDI guidelines
quality control, calibration,
maintenance
Recording of measurement Calculation of quantity of data I1V and I2V for
data, validation, archiving, every assessment area
assessment
Costs Depend on measurement area and objectives

The example in shows the case of a measurement network that is supposed to monitor
the air quality in a specific area as representatively as possible, to compare with
designated air quality limits. The idea behind this approach is that a random choice of
measurement sites is made in order to cover equally locations in an area with varying air
quality (e.g., living areas, streets, industrial zones, parks, city centres, suburbs). This
approach may be very costly in large areas due to the number of measurement
sitesnecessary.

Another conception for a measurement network therefore starts with measurement sites
that are representatively selected. If measurements of differing air quality are conducted
in the most important locations, and the length of time that the protected objects remain
in these
―microenvironments‖isknown, then the exposure can be determined. This approachcan
be extended to other microenvironments (e.g., interior rooms, cars) in order to estimate
the total exposure. Diffusion modelling or screening measurements can help in choosing
the right measurementsites.

A third approach is to measure at the points of presumed highest exposure (e.g., for NO 2
and benzene in street canyons). If assessment standards are met at this site, there is
sufficient probability that this will also be the case for all other sites. This approach, by
focusing on critical points, requires relatively few measurement sites, but these must be
chosen with particular care. This particular method risks overestimating real exposure.

The parameters of measurement time period, assessment of the measurement data and
measurement frequency are essentially given in the definition of the assessment
standards (limits) and the desired level of certainty of the results. Threshold limits and
the peripheral conditions to be considered in measurement planning are related. By using
continuous measurement procedures, a resolution that is temporally almost seamless can
be achieved. But this is necessary only in monitoring peak values and/or for smog
warnings; for monitoring annual mean values, for example, discontinuous
measurements areadequate.

21
The following section is dedicated to describing the capabilities of measurement
procedures and quality control as a further parameter important to measurement
planning.

Quality Assurance

Measurements of ambient air pollutant concentrations can be costly to conduct, and

results can affect significant decisions with serious economic or ecological implications.
Therefore, quality assurance measures are an integral part of the measurement process.
Two areas should be distinguished here.

Procedure-oriented measures

Every complete measurement procedure consists of several steps: sampling, sample

preparation and clean-up; separation, detection (final analytical step); and data collection
and assessment. In some cases, especially with continuous measurement of inorganic
gases, some steps of the procedure can be left out (e.g., separation). Comprehensive
adherence to procedures should be strived for in conducting measurements. Procedures
that are standardized and thus comprehensively documented should be followed, in the
form of DIN/ISO standards, CEN standards or VDI guidelines.

User-oriented measures

Using standardized and proven equipment and procedures for ambient air pollutant
concentration measurement cannot alone ensure acceptable quality if the user does not
employ adequate methods of quality control. The standards series DIN/EN/ISO 9000
(Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards), EN 45000 (which defines the
requirements for testing laboratories) and ISO Guide 25 (General Requirements for the
Competence of Calibration and Testing Laboratories) are important for user-oriented
measures to ensure quality.

Important aspects of user quality control measures include:

· acceptance and practice of the content of the measures in the sense of good
laboratory practice (GLP)

· correct maintenance of measurement equipment, qualified measures to eliminate

disruptions and ensurerepairs

· carrying out calibrations and regular checking to ensure properfunctioning

· carrying out interlaboratory testing.

22
Measurement Procedures
Measurement procedures for inorganic gases

A wealth of measurement procedures exists for the broad range of inorganic gases. We
will differentiate between manual and automatic methods.

Manual procedures

In the case of manual measurement procedures for inorganic gases, the substance to be
measured is normally adsorbed during the sampling in a solution or solid material. In
most cases a photometric determination is made after an appropriate colour reaction.
Several manual measurement procedures have special significance as reference
procedures. Because of the relatively high personnel cost, these manual procedures are
conducted only rarely for field

23
Material Procedure Execution Comments
SO2 TCM procedure Absorption in tetrachloromercurate EU-reference
solution (wash bottle); reaction measurement
with formaldehyde and procedure; DL =0.2
pararosaniline to red- µg SO2; s = 0.03
violet sulphonic acid; photometric mg/m3 at 0.5 mg/m3
determination
SO2 Silica gel procedure Removal of interfering substances DL = 0.3 µg SO2;
by concentrated s = 0.03 mg/m3 at 0.5
H3PO4; adsorption on silica gel; mg/m3
thermal desorption in H2-stream
and reduction to H2S; reaction to
molybdenum-blue;
photometric determination
NO2 Saltzman procedure Absorption in reaction solution Calibration with
while forming a red azo sodium nitrite;
dye (wash bottle); photometric DL = 3 µg/m3
determination
O3 Potassium Formation of iodine from aqueous DL = 20 µg/m3;
iodide procedure potassium iodide solution (wash rel. s = ± 3.5%
bottle); photometric determination at390µg/m3
F- Silver bead Sampling with dust preseparator; Inclusion of an
procedure; variant 1 enrichment of F- on undetermined portion
sodium carbonate-coated silver of particulate
beads; elution and fluorideimmissions
measurement with ion-sensitive
lanthanum fluoride-electrodechain
F- Silver bead Sampling with heated membrane Danger of lower
procedure; variant 2 filter; enrichment of F- on sodium findings due to partial
carbonate-coated silver beads; sorption of gaseous
determination by electrochemical fluoride immissions
(variant 1) or on membrane
photometric (alizarin- filter; DL =0.5
complexone)procedure µg/m3
Cl- Mercury Absorption in 0.1 N sodium DL = 9 µg/m3
rhodanide procedure hydroxide solution (wash
bottle); reaction with mercury
rhodanide and Fe(III) ions to
iron thiocyanato complex;
photometric determination
Cl2 Methyl-orange Bleaching reaction with methyl- DL = 0.015 mg/m3
procedure orange solution (wash

24
 bottle); photometric determination

NH3 Indophenol Absorption in dilute DL = 3

procedure H2SO4 (Impinger/wash bottle); µg/m3 (impinger);
conversion with phenol and partial inclusion
hypochlorite to indophenol dye; of compounds and
photometricdetermination amines
NH3 Nessler procedure Absorption in dilute DL = 2.5
H2SO4 (Impinger/wash bottle); µg/m3 (impinger);
distillation and reaction with partial inclusion of
Nessler‘s reagent, photometric NH4+- compounds
determination andamines
H2S Molybdenum- Absorption as silver sulphide on DL = 0.4 µg/m3
blue procedure glass beads treated with silver
sulphate and potassium hydrogen
sulphate (sorption tube); released
as hydrogen sulphide and
conversion to molybdenum blue;
photometric determination

H2S Methylene blue Absorption in cadmium hydroxide DL = 0.3 µg/m3

procedure suspension while forming CdS;
conversion to methylene blue;
photometric determination
Table 55.3 Manual measurement procedures for

inorganic gases DL = detection limit; s = standard

deviation; rel. s = relative s.

A special sampling variant, used primarily in connection with manual measurement

procedures,
is the diffusion separation tube (denuder). The denuder technique is aimed at separating
the gas and particle phases by using their different diffusion rates. Thus, it is often used
on difficult separation problems (e.g., ammonia and ammonium compounds; nitrogen
oxides, nitric acid and nitrates; sulphur oxides, sulphuric acid and sulphates or hydrogen
halides/halides). In the classic denuder technique, the test air is sucked through a glass
tube with a special coating, depending on the material(s) to be collected. The denuder
technique has been further developed in many variations and also partially automated. It
has greatly expanded the possibilities of differentiated sampling, but, depending on the
variant, it can be very laborious, and proper utilization requires a great deal
ofexperience.

25
Automated procedures

There are numerous different continuous measuring monitors on the market for sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and ozone. For the most part they are used
particularly in measurement networks. The most important features of the individual
methods are collected

Table 55.4 Automated measurement procedures for inorganic gases

Material Measuring principle Comments
SO2 Conductometry reaction of SO2 with Exclusion of interferences with
H2O2in dilute H2SO4; measurement of selective filter(KHSO4/AgNO3)
increased conductivity
SO2 UV fluorescence; excitation of Interferences, e.g., by
SO2molecules with UV radiation hydrocarbons, must be eliminated
(190–230 nm); measurement of with appropriate filtersystems
fluorescence radiation
NO/NO2 Chemiluminescence; reaction of NO NO2 only indirectly measurable; use
with O3 to NO2; detection of of converters for reduction of NO2 to
chemiluminescence radiation with NO; measurement of NO and
photomultiplier NOx (=NO+NO2) in separate
channels
CO Non-dispersive infrared Reference: (a) cell withN2;
absorption; measurement of IR (b) ambient airafterremoval of CO;
absorption with specific detector (c) optical removal of CO absorption
against referencecell (gas filtercorrelation)
O3 UV absorption; low-pressure Hg lamp Reference: ambient air after removal
as radiation source (253.7 nm); of ozone (e.g.,Cu/MnO2)
registration of UV absorption in
accordance with Lambert-Beer‘s law;
detector: vacuum photodiode,
photosensitive valve
O3 Chemiluminescence; reaction of Good selectivity; ethylene necessary
O3with ethene to formaldehyde; as reagentgas
detection of chemiluminescence
radiation withphotomultiplier

26
It should be emphasized here that all automatic measurement procedures based on
chemical- physical principles must be calibrated using (manual) reference procedures.
Since automatic equipment in measurement networks often runs for extended periods of
time (e.g., several weeks) without direct human supervision, it is indispensable that their
correct functioning is regularly and automatically checked. This generally is done using
zero and test gases that can be produced by several methods (preparation of ambient air;
pressurized gas cylinders; permeation; diffusion; static and dynamic dilution).

Measurement procedures for dust-forming air pollutants and its composition

Among particulate air pollutants, dustfall and suspended particulate matter (SPM) are
differentiated. Dustfall consists of larger particles, which sink to the ground because of
their size and thickness. SPM includes the particle fraction that is dispersed in the
atmosphere in a quasi- stable and quasi-homogenous manner and therefore remains
suspended for a certain time.

Measurement of suspended particulate matter and metallic compounds in SPM

As is the case with measurements of gaseous air pollutants, continuous and

discontinuous measurement procedures for SPM can be differentiated. As a rule, SPM is
first separated on glassfibre or membrane filters. It follows a gravimetric or radiometric
determination. Depending on the sampling, a distinction can be made between a
procedure to measure the total SPM without fractionation according to the size of the
particles and a fractionation procedure to measure the finedust.

The advantages and disadvantages of fractionated suspended dust measurements are

disputed internationally. In Germany, for example, all threshold limits and assessment
standards are based on total suspended particulates. This means that, for the most part,
only total SPM measurements are performed. In the United States, on the contrary, the
so-called PM-10 procedure (particulate matter ≤ 10mm) is very common. In this
procedure, only particles with an aerodynamic diameter up to 10 mm are included (50
per cent inclusion portion), which are inhalable and can enter the lungs. The plan is to
introduce the PM-10 procedure into the European Union as a reference procedure. The
cost for fractionated SPM measurements is considerably higher than for measuring total
suspended dust, because the measuring devices must be fitted with special, expensively
constructed sampling heads that require costly maintenance. Table contains details on
the most important SPM measurement procedures.

27
Table Measurement procedures for suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Procedure Measuring principle Comments

Small filter device Non-fractionated sampling; air Easy handling; control
flow rate 2.7–2.8 m3/h; filter clock; device operable with PM-
diameter 50 mm;gravimetric 10preseparator
analysis
LIB device Non-fractionated sampling; air Separation of large
flow rate 15-16 m3/h; filter dust quantities; advantageous
diameter 120 mm;gravimetric for analysis of dust
analysis components; controlclock
High-Volume-Sampler Inclusion of particles up Separation of large
to approx. 30 µm diameter; air dust quantities, advantageous
flow rate approx. 100 for analysis of dust
m3/h; filter diameter 257 components; relatively high
mm; gravimetricanalysis noiselevel
FH 62 I Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by
dust measuring device; non- dusting of single filters; device
fractionating sampling; airflow also operable with PM-10
rate 1 or 3 m3/h; registration of preseparator
dust mass separated on a filter
band by measuring attenuation
of β- radiation (krypton
85) in passage through
exposed filter
(ionizationchamber)
BETA dust meter F Continuous, radiometric Gravimetric calibration by
703 dust measuring device; non- dusting of single filters; device
fractionated sampling; air also operable with PM-10
flow rate 3 m3/h; registration preseparator
of dust mass separated on a
filter band by measuring
attenuation of β-radiation
(carbon 14) in passage through
exposed filter (Geiger Müller
countertube)

28
TEOM 1400 Continuous dust Relationship between
measuring device; non- frequency lowering and dust
fractionated sampling; air flow mass must be established
rate 1 m3/h; dust collected on a throughcalibration
filter, which is part of a self-
resonating, vibrating system,
in side stream (3 l/min);
registration of the frequency
lowering by increased dust
load on thefilter

Recently, automatic filter changers have also been developed that hold a larger number
of filters and supply them to the sampler, one after another, at timed intervals. The
exposed filters are stored in a magazine. The detection limits for filter procedures lie
between 5 and 10 µg/m3 of dust, as a rule.

Finally, the black smoke procedure for SPM measurements has to be mentioned.
Coming from Britain, it has been incorporated into EU guidelines for SO2 and suspended
dust. In this procedure, the blackening of the coated filter is measured with a reflex
photometer after the sampling. The black smoke values that are thus photometrically
obtained are converted into gravimetric units (µg/m3) with the help of a calibration
curve. Since this calibration function depends to a high degree on the composition of the
dust, especially its soot content, the conversion into gravimetric units is problematic.

Today, metal compounds are often routinely determined in suspended dust immission
samples. In general, the collection of the suspended dust on filters is followed by a
chemical dissolution of the separated dusts, since the most common final analytical steps
presuppose converting the metallic and metalloid compounds in an aqueous solution. In
practice, the most important methods by far are atom absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and
spectroscopy with plasma excitation (ICP-OES). Other procedures for determining
metallic compounds in suspended dust are x-ray fluorescence analysis, polarography and
neutron activation analysis. Although metallic compounds have been measured for more
than a decade now as a component of SPM in outside air at certain measurement sites,
important unanswered questions remain. Thus the conventional sampling by separating
the suspended dust on filters assumes that the separation of the heavy metal compounds
on the filter is complete. However, earlier indications have been found in the literature
questioning this. The results are veryheterogeneous.

A further problem lies in the fact that different compound forms, or single compounds of
the respective elements, cannot be distinguished in the analysis of metallic compounds in
suspended dust using the conventional measurement procedures. While in many cases
adequate total determinations can be made, a more thorough differentiation would be
desirable with certain especially carcinogenic metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Co, Be). There are
often big differences in the carcinogenic effects of elements and their individual
compounds (e.g., chromium compounds in oxidation levels III and VI - only those in
29
level VI are carcinogenic). In such cases a specific measurement of the individual
compounds (species analysis) would be desirable. Despite the significance of this
problem, only first attempts at species analysis are being made in measurement
technique.

Measurement of dustfall and metallic compounds in dustfall

Two fundamentally different methods are used to collect dustfall:

· sampling in collectingvessels

· sampling on adhesivesurfaces.

A popular procedure for measuring dustfall (deposited dust) is the so-called Bergerhoff
procedure. In this procedure the entire atmospheric precipitation (dry and wet
depositions) is collected over 30± 2 days in vessels about 1.5 to 2.0 metres above the
ground (bulk deposition). Then the collecting vessels are taken to the lab and prepared
(filtered, water evaporated, dried, weighed). The result is calculated on the basis of the
surface area of the collecting vessel and exposure time in grams per square meter and
day (g/m2d). The relative detection limit is 0.035 g/m2d.

Additional procedures for collecting dustfall include the Liesegang-Löbner device and
methods which collect the deposited dust on adhesive foils.

All measurement results for dustfall are relative values that depend on the apparatus
used, as the dust separation is influenced by the flow conditions at the device and other
parameters. The differences in the measurement values obtained with the different
procedures can reach 50 per cent.

Also important is the composition of the deposited dust, such as the content of lead,
cadmium and other metallic compounds. The analytical procedures used for this are
basically the same as those used for suspendeddust.

Measuring special materials in dust form

Special materials in dust form include asbestos and soot. Collecting fibres as air
pollutants is important since asbestos has been classified as a confirmed carcinogenic
material. Fibres with a diameter of D ≤ 3mm and a length of L ≥ 5mm, where L:D ≥ 3,
are considered carcinogenic. Measurement procedures for fibrous materials consist of
counting, under the microscope, fibres that have been separated on filters. Only electron
microscopic procedures can be considered for outside air measurements. The fibres are
separated on gold-coated porous filters. Prior to assessment in an electron scan
microscope, the sample is freed of organic substances through plasma incineration right
on the filter. The fibres are counted on part of the filter surface, randomly chosen and
classified by geometry and type of fibre. With the help of energy dispersive x-ray
analysis (EDXA), asbestos fibres, calcium sulphate fibres and other inorganic fibres can

30
be differentiated on the basis of elemental composition. The entire procedure is
extremely expensive and requires the greatest care to achieve reliableresults.

Soot in the form of particles emitted by diesel motors has become relevant since diesel
soot was also classified as carcinogenic. Because of its changing and complex
composition and because of the fact that various constituents are also emitted from other
sources, there is no measurement procedure specific to diesel soot. Nevertheless, in order
to say something concrete about the concentrations in ambient air, soot is conventionally
defined as elemental carbon, as a part of total carbon. It is measured after sampling and
an extraction step and/or thermal desorption. Determination of the carbon content ensues
through burning in an oxygen stream and coulometric titration or non-dispersive IR
detection of the carbon dioxide formed in theprocess.

The so-called aethalometer and the photoelectric aerosol sensor are also used for
measuring soot, in principle.

Measuring Wet Depositions

Together with dry deposition, wet deposition in rain, snow, fog and dew constitute the
mostimportant means by which harmful materials enter the ground, water or plant
surfaces from the air.

In order to clearly distinguish the wet deposition in rain and snow (fog and dew present
special problems) from the measurement of total deposition (bulk deposition, see section
―Measurement of dustfall and metallic compounds‖ above) and dry deposition, rain
catchers, whose collection opening is covered when there is no rain (wet-only sampler),
are used for sampling. With rain sensors, which mostly work on the principle of
conductivity changes, the cover is opened when it starts to rain and closed again when
the rain stops.
The samples are transferred through a funnel (open area approx. 500 cm2 and more) into
a darkened and if possible insulated collection container (of glass or polyethylene for
inorganic components only).

In general, analysing the collected water for inorganic components can be done without
sample preparation. The water should be centrifuged or filtered if it is visibly cloudy.
The conductivity, pH value and important
4 anions (NO3– , SO 2– , Cl–) and cations (Ca
4
2+
,
+ 2+ + +
K , Mg , Na , NH and
so on) are routinely measured. Unstable trace compounds and intermediate states like
H2O2 or HSO3 – are also measured for research purposes.

For analysis, procedures are used that are generally available for aqueous solutions such
as conductometry for conductivity, electrodes for pH values, atom adsorption
spectroscopy for cations (see section ―Measuring special materials in dust form‖, above)
and, increasingly, ion exchange chromatography with conductivity detection foranions.

31
Organic compounds are extracted from rain water with, for example, dichloromethane,
or blown out with argon and adsorbed with Tenax tubes (only highly volatile materials).
The materials are then subjected to a gas chromatographic analysis (see ―Measurement
procedures for organic air pollutants‖, below).

Dry deposition correlates directly with ambient air concentrations. The concentration
differences of airborne harmful materials in rain, however, are relatively small, so that
for measuring wet deposition, wide-mesh measuring networks are adequate. Examples
include the European EMEP measurement network, in which the entry of sulphate and
nitrate ions, certain cations and precipitation pH values are collected in approximately
90 stations. There are also extensive measurement networks in North America.

32
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION – SCI1601

1
 NOISE POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

What is noise?
In simple terms, noise is unwanted sound. Sound is a form of energy which is emitted by a
vibrating body and on reaching the ear causes the sensation of hearing through nerves. Sounds
produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. The frequency limits of audibility are from 20
HZ to 20,000 HZ.

A noise problem generally consists of three inter-related elements- the source, the receiver and
the transmission path. This transmission path is usually the atmosphere through which the sound
is propagated, but can include the structural materials of any building containing the receiver (See
Fig.1)

Source Path Receiver

Barrier

Source Path Receiver

Fig. 1 Inter-relationship between the elements of noise

Noise may be continuous or intermittent. Noise may be of high frequency or of lowfrequency

which is undesired for a normal hearing. For example, the typical cry of a child produces sound,
which is mostly unfavorable to normal hearing. Since it is unwanted sound, we call it noise.

The discrimination and differentiation between sound and noise also depends upon the habit and
interest of the person/species receiving it, the ambient conditions and impact of the sound
generated during that particular duration of time. There could be instances that, excellently
rendered musical concert for example, may be felt as noise and exceptional music as well during
the course of the concert!

2
 Sounds offrequencieslessthan20HZarecalledinfrasonicsandgreaterthan20,0000HZ are called
ultrasonics. Since noise is also a sound, the terms noise and sound are synonymously used and are
followed in thismodule.
Causes, effects and control of noise and thermal pollution.

Noise pollution

Noise is perhaps one of the most undesirable by products of modern mechanized lifestyle.
It may not seem as insidious or harmful as the contamination of drinking water supplies from
hazardous chemicals, but it is a problem that affects human health and well-being and that can
also contribute to the general deterioration of environmental quality. It can affect people at home,
in their community, or at their place ofwork.

Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner organs and sending
bioelectrical signals to the brain. The human ear can detect sounds in the frequency range of
about 20 to 20,000 Hz, but for most people hearing is best in the range of 200 to 10,000 Hz. A
sound of 50 Hz frequency, for example, is perceived to be very low-pitched, and a 15,000 - Hz
sound is very high pitched.

Simply defined, noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. It takes energy to produce
sound, so, in a manner of speaking, noise is a form of waste energy. It is not a substance that can
accumulate in the environment, like most other pollutants, but it can be diluted with distance
from a source. All sounds come from a sound source, whether it be a radio, a machine, a human
voice, an airplane, or a musical instrument. Not all sound is noise. What may be considered
music to one person may be nothing but noise to another. To a extent, noise pollution is a matter
of opinion. Noise is measured in terms of Decibel units.

Sources of noise

Based on the type of noise include

a) IndustrialNoise

b) TransportNoise

C) NeighbourhoodNoise

Industrial Noise

It is caused by machines used for the technological advancement. There exist a long list
of sources of noise pollution including different machines of numerous factories, industries and
mills.
3
 Transport Noise:

Main source is transport. In addition to

adversely impacting urban air quality, heavy
automobile traffic creates seemingly
unbearable noise pollution. Ever since
industrial revolution doubling of noise for
every 10 years

Pointed nose that angles downward during

takeoff, the Anglo-French Concorde flies at
more than twice the speed of sound.
Supersonic plane is very noisy, and some
believe its sonic booms
harm the environment.

Animals such as whales use water to

communicate with one another over great
distances. Human-generated noises in the
ocean, such as engine noises by boats, may
interfere with animalcommunication.

Measurement of noise

The noise is usually measured either by i) Sound Pressure or ii) Sound Intensity. The
Sound intensity is measured in Decibel (dB), which is tenth part of the longest unit “Bel” named
after Alexander Graham Bell. Decibel (dB) is a ratio expressed as the logarithmic scale relative
to a reference sound pressure level. The db is thus expressed as

Intensity Measured (I)

Sound Intensity Level = 10 log ---------------------------

Reference intensity (I0)

or dB = 10 log I /I0

4
 Intensity of Noise sources

Sources Intensity(dB)
Breathing 10
Trickling clock 20-30
Normal conversation 35-60
Office noise 60 - 80
Traffic 50-90
Motor cycle 105
Jet fly 100 - 110
Effects of Noise Pollution Auditory effects

• Auditory fatigue -- Whistling & buzzing in ears( noise level -90dB)

• Deafness -- Permanent hearing loss ( noise level-100dB)
Tinnitus

 Persistent sound in one or bothears.

 Tinnitus is often experienced as a high-pitched hiss, ring, buzz, orroar.
 It is usually continuous, but it may pulsate, and the beats may coincide with theheartbeat.

Non auditory effects

• Interference with speech communication -50dB

• Annoyance, ill temper,bickering
• loss in working efficiency - tiredness, deterioration or complete loss of ability towork

Physiological disorders

Neurosis, anxiety, hypertension, increased sweating, giddiness, nausea, fatigue, visual

disturbance, reduces depth and quality of sleep , peptic ulcers, Increases cholesterol level
resulting in constriction of blood vessel , Low weight children to mothers

Noise intensity Health hazards

80 Annoyance
90 Hearing damage
95 Very annoying
110 Stimulation of reception in skin
120 Pain threshold
130 Nausea,vomiting
140 Pain in ear
150 Burning of skin
160 Rupture of tymphonic membrane
180 Permanent damage

5
Even the nonliving things such as buildings undergo physical damage by cracks, breakage of
windows, doors, and glasses etc. by sudden and explosive sounds.

Control of Noise Pollution

Noise definitely affects the quality of life. It is therefore important to ensure the mitigation
or control of noise pollution. Noise pollution can be controlled

• At source level – Can be done by i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices in

air craft engines, automobiles industrial machines and home appliances, ii) By
segregating the noisy machines

• During Transmission – can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-proofing to

doors, around industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to maintain a separation
between residential areas and zones of excessive noise.Sound
a) Acoustillite : made up of Compressed wood pulp, wood fibers and is
available in the form oftiles
b) Acoustical blanket : Prepared from mineral wool or glassfibres
c) Hair Felt: Consists of wool fibres, Coarse CottonFibres.
d) Fibre Glass
e) Cork Carpet: Prepared out of pieces of corks treated with linseed oil and is
used for coveringfloors.
f) Acoustic Plaster: Mainly consists of gypsum in the form ofplaster.
• Protecting the exposedperson
• By creating vegetation cover – Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and thus act
as Buffer Zone. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and otherplaces.

Planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution – Trees can act as a noise barrier

• Through law
a) Silence Zones must be created near Schools,hospitals
b) Indiscriminate use of loudspeakers at public places should be
banned/restricted bylaws
c) Restriction on unnecessary us e of horns and vehicles plying
without silencers
6
 d) Restrictions on aircraft flight at midnight

Permissible Ambient Noise Level in

Differentareas

Noise level (dB)

Area Code category Day Time Night Time
(6 to 9 Am) (9 to 6PM)
A Industrial Area 75 70
B Commercial Area 65 55
C Residential Area 55 45
D Silence Zone 50 40

a) The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act,1981

b) The Motor VehiclesAct,1988
c) Indian Penal Code – Sections 268 &290
• Through education - We Indians are Noisy people. Every occasion, it may be
religious or family functions or elections; we used to celebrate with noise.
Educating the people that noise is a pollutant, not a part of our routinelife.

Thermal Pollution

The term thermal pollution has traditionally been used more often to refer to the
heating of lakes, river, streams, and other water bodies usually by electric power generating
plants or by factories

• The combustion of fossil fuels always produces heat, sometimes as a primary

desired product, and sometimes as a secondary, less desired by-product
i.e.noise
• Heat is also produced when fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity. In
this case, heat is a by-product, not the main reason that fuels areburned.
• Electricity is also generated in nuclear power plants, when no combustionoccurs.
• The decay of organic matter in landfills also releases heat to theatmosphere.

It is clear, therefore, that a vast array of human activities result in the release of heat to the
environment. As those activities increase in number and extent, so does the amount of heat
released. In many cases, heat added to the environment begins to cause problems for
plants, humans, or other animals. This effect is then known as thermal pollution.

7
 Sources of Thermal pollution

• Coal fired power planteffluents

• Domesticsewage
• Hydroelectric powereffluent
• Industrialeffluents
• Nuclear powerplants
Effects of thermal Pollution

A one megawatt nuclear power

plant may require 1.3 billion gallons (five
million m3) of cooling water each day. The
water used in such a plant has its
temperature increased by about 63oF
(17oC) during the cooling process. For this
reason, such plants are usually built very
close to an abundant water supply such as
a lake, a large river, or the ocean.
When thermal pollution drives water temperatures up, most aquatic and marine
wildlife cannot survive. Immobile organisms, such as plants and shellfish, simply die. One
inevitable result of thermal pollution is a reduction in the amount dissolved oxygen in
water. The amount of any gas that can be dissolved in water varies inversely with the
temperature. As water is warmed, therefore, it is capable of dissolving less and less
oxygen. Organisms that need oxygen to survive will, in such cases, cant be able to survive.
When heated water is released
from a plant or factory, it does not
readily mix with the cooler water around
it. Instead, it forms a stream- like mass
known as a thermal plume that spreads
out from the outflow pipes. It is in this
thermal plume that the most severe
effects of thermal pollution are likely to
occur. Only over an extended period of
time does the plume gradually mix with
surrounding water, producing a mass of
homogenous temperature

8
Invasion of Destructive Organism

Water temperatures can have other, less expected effects also. As an example, trout
can swim less rapidly in water above 66oF (19oC) making them less efficient predators.
Organisms may become more subject to disease in warmer water too. The bacterium
Chondrococcuscolumnarisis harmless to fish at temperatures of less than 50 oF (10oC).
Between temperatures of 50o - 70oF (10o - 21oC), however, it is able to invade through
wounds in a fish's body and at temperatures above 70oF (21oC) it can even attack healthy
tissue.

Urban Heat dome

Another example of thermal pollution is the development of urban heat islands. An

urban heat island consists of a dome of warm air over an urban area caused by the release
of heat in the region. Since more human activity occurs in an urban area than in the
surrounding rural areas, the atmosphere over the urban area becomes warmer than it is
over the rural areas.
It is not uncommon for urban heat islands to produce measurable climate changes.
For example, the levels of pollutants trapped in an urban heat island can reach 5 to 25
percent greater than the levels over rural areas. Fog and clouds may reach twice the level
of comparable rural areas, wind speeds may be produced by up to 30 per cent, and
temperatures may be 32.9o - 35.6oF (0.5o - 2oC) higher than in surrounding rural areas.
Such differences may cause both personal discomfort and, in some cases, actual health
problems for those living within an urban heat island.

9
Undesirable changes in Algal population: Excess Nutrients from the washout water
from farm lands combined with thermal pollution cause an excessive algal growth with
consequent changes. High Temperature promotes blue green algal blooms which disrupts
the aquatic food chain.

Control of Thermal pollution

The water heated by thermal pollution also has a number of potential useful
applications. For example, it may be possible to establish aquatic farms where
commercially desirable fish and shellfish can be raised. The Japanese have been especially
successful in pursuing this option. Some experts have also suggested using this water to
heat buildings, to remove snow, to fill swimming pools, to use for irrigation, to de-ice
canals, and to operate industrial processes that have modest heat requirements. Hot water
is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. The
heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. The main disadvantage is large
amounts of water are lost due toevaporation

Here at Westport, Kentucky the Ohio

River provides the large amount of water
required by this coal-fired power plant.
Thermal pollution is abated by the use of
the large cooling tower which emits only
steam into the atmosphere. The emission
of the smokestack is largely steam but
still containspollutants.

Lecture 11 Causes, effects and control of noise and

thermal pollution.

1. Human Ear can detect sounds in the frequency range of about -------------------
a) 20 Hz b) 20-20,000Hz
c) 40,000Hz d) 24,000 Hz
2. Unit of measuring noise is ---------------------------
a)Dopson b)Decimel
c) Decibel d) Dobson
3. The permitted noise level in a silant zone during day time is -------------------
a)65 b)55
c)50 d)70
10
4. Human generated noise in the ocean may interfere with marine organisms
a) Communication b) mobility
c) food finds ability d) migration
5. When a person exposed to a voice level of 160 decibels for long time causes
a)Annoyance b)Restlessness
c)Tiredness d)Rupture of tymphonic membrane
6. For one megawatt energy generation, nuclear power plant requires colling water each day
------------------------------- Cooling water each day.
a) 1:3 million m3 b) 0.3 million m3
c) 1 million m3 d) 5 million m3
7. Thermal pollution in a river -------------------
a) reduces the O2Disssolution b) increases O2 solubility
c) stabilizes O2 level d) none of the above
8. urban heat island is nothing but --------------------
a) a dome of cool air over the urban area b) a dome of warm air over the urban
area
c) a dome of noise pollution over the urban d) reduced wind speed over the urban area
area
9. Chondrococcuscolumnarisis harmless to fish at 10°C but causes diseases when the
temperature
of water is
a) more than 12°C b) more than 21°C
c) less than 10°C d) at 10°C
10. The thermal pollution of water in a industrial process can be
a) used for cogeneration b) used to heat building to remove snow
c) used to deice canals d) all the above
11. Tinnitus is due to
a)Water pollution b) Noise Pollution
c)Soil pollution d)Xenobiotics
12. The major effect of discharging heated water from power plants to aquatic ecosystems
a)Reduction in DO concentration B0)Reduction in Biodiversity of the
ecosystem
c)Increase in metabolic rate of organism d) All the above
13 The noise level during normal conversation is
a)30 db b)35-60 db
c)20 db d)90 db
14 Persistent sound in one or both ears, often experienced as a high pitch ringing sound is
a)annoyance b)all the above
c)deafness d)tinnitus
15 The amount of any gas that can be dissolved in water is
a)inverse with temperature b)direct with temperature
c)no relation with temperature d)none of the above

11
How it is computed?

The intensity of sound is measured in sound pressure levels (SPL) and common unit of
measurement is decibel, dB. The community (ambient) noise levels are measured in the A
- weighted SPL, abbreviated dB(A). This scale resembles the audible response of human
ear. Sounds of frequencies from 800 to 3000 HZ are covered by the A - weighted scale. If
the sound pressure level, L1 in dB is measured at r1meters, then the sound pressure level, L2
in dB at r2 meters is given by,

L2 = L1 - 20log10(r2/r1)....... (1)

If the sound levels are measured in terms of pressure, then, sound pressure level, LP is
given by,

LP = 20 Log10(P/Po) dB(A) ....... (2)

The Lp is measured against a standard reference pressure, Po = 2 x 10-5N/m2which is

equivalent to zero decibels. The sound pressure is the pressure exerted at a point due to a
sound producing source (see. Fig. 2)

o)))))*)SPL

Fig. 2 Definition of sound pressure

Day-night equivalent noise levels (Ldn): The day night equivalent noise levels of a
community can be expressed as -

Ldn , dB(A) = 10 x log10 [15/24 (10Ld/10) + 9/24 (10(Ln+10)/10)] .............. (3)

where, Ld = day-equivalent noise levels (from 6AM - 9 PM), dB (A)

Ln = night equivalent noise levels (from 9 PM - 6 AM), dB
(A)

The day hours in respect to assessment of noise levels, is fixed from 6 AM - 9 PM (i.e., 15
hrs) and night hours from 9 PM - 6 AM (i.e., 9 hrs). A sound level of 10 dB is added to Ln
due to the low ambient sound levels during night for assessing the Ldnvalues.

Addition of sound levels: The effective sound levels form two or more sources cannot be
simply added algebraically. For example, the effective sound level from two air
conditioners60dB(A)each,sayisnot60+60=120dB(A)but60+3=63dB(A).(See
table 1). Similarly, the effective sound level of 57 dB, 63 dB, 63 dB, 66 dB and 69 dB is

12
72 dB. The computation is illustrated below.

57

63
66
63 72

69
66
72
69

Table 1 Addition of sound levels, L1 and L2 (L1> L2)

L1 - L2, Add to
dB L1
0 or 1 3 dB
2 or 3 2 dB
4-8 1 dB
9 or more 0 dB
Source : Ref. (9)

Frequency analysis

The frequency analysis allow to separate the main components of the signals by dividingthe
frequency range of interest into smaller frequency bands using a set of filters. We may
distinguish between noises that consist of regularly repeated or periodic sounds and those
that consist of aperiodic sounds. The simplest periodic sound is a pure tone i.e., a pressure
disturbance that fluctuates sinusoidally at a particular frequency. The lower the frequency,
the longer is the wave length (wavelength = velocity ofsound/frequency).

The noise produced by most sources of community noise, such as automobiles or aircraft
engines, are examples of aperiodic sounds. Such sounds cannot be subdivided into sets of
harmonically related pure tones but can be described in terms of components extending
over finite frequency bands. Such frequency analysis are often done in bands of octaves or
1/3octaves.

13
An octave band is a frequency band with upper and lower cutoff frequencies having a ratio
of 2. The cut off frequencies of 707 HZ and 1414 HZ define an octave band, whose band
centrefrequency is 1000 HZ and would be referred to as the 1000 HZ octave band.

Frequency analyserscan be divided into two groups viz. constant band width analyserand
constant percentage bandwidth analyser. In the constant bandwidth analyserthe filter
bandwidth is kept constant throughout the frequency range while in the constant
percentage bandwidth analyser, the bandwidth is proportional to the centre frequencies. The
constant percentage bandwidth analyseris widely used. The nine preferred centre
frequencies for noise level measurement are 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000
and 8000 HZ.(3)

As already mentioned, dB(A) values give emphasis to sounds in the range of about 800 to
3000 HZ. Since the sound generating frequencies are not fully covered under dB(A), for
detailed evaluation and engineering design, the multiple-number descriptions provided by
frequency analysis are often required.

Noise measurement instruments

Noise measurement is an important diagnostic tool in noise control technology. The

objective of noise measurement is to make accurate measurement which give us a
purposeful act of comparing noises under different conditions for assessment of adverse
impacts of noise and adopting suitable control techniques for noise reduction. The various
equipment used for noise level measurement are summarisedat Table 2. The principle and
the components of noise measuring instruments is summarisedbelow.

A sound level meter consists basically of a microphone and an electronic circuit including
an attenuator, amplifier, weighting networks or filters and a display unit. The microphone
converts the sound signal to an equivalent electrical signal. The signal is passed through a
weighting network which provides a conversion and gives the sound pressure level in dB.
The instructions laid down by the noise level meter manufacturers shall be followed
whileusing the instruments.

The time constants used for the sound level meter standards are
S (Slow) = 1 second
F (Fast) = 125 milli seconds

Relatively steady sounds are easily measured using the "fast" response and unsteady sounds
using "slow" response. When measuring long-term noise exposure, the noise level is not
always steady and may vary considerably, in an irregular way over the measurement period.
This uncertainty can be solved by measuring the continuous equivalent level,which is
14
defined as, the constant sound pressure level which would have produced the
sametotalenergyastheactuallevelover the giventime.ItisdenotedasLeq.Thedisplay of
Leqfacility is also available in certain models of sound level meters. This is the desired
parameter for assessment of ambient noiselevels.

Table2 Equipment used in the measurement of noiselevels

S.No. Equipment Specification/Area of usage

1. Sound level meter Type-0 : Laboratory reference standard
Type-1: Lab use and field use in specified controlled
environment
Type-2: General field use (Commonly used)
Type-3: Noise survey
2. Impulse meters For measurement of impulse noise levels e.g. hammer
blows, punch press strokes etc.
3. Frequency analysers For detailed design and engineering purpose using a set
of
filters.
4. Graphic recorders Attached to sound level meter. Plots the SPL as a
function
of time on a moving paper chart.
5. Noise dosimeters Used to find out the noise levels in a working
environment.
Attached to the worker
6. Calibrators For checking the accuracy of sound level meters.

Noise Sampling

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has published several code books for sampling and
analysis of noise pollution and guidelines for control of noise pollution from domestic and
industrial sources. The reader is advised to refer to the BIS code books (table 3) for a better
understanding of methods of noise sampling. For sampling of noise levels from industrial
sources, noise levels in the different octave bands are measured by a sound level meter in
conjunction with octave - band filters at the workers ear level or at about a distance of one
meter from the source ofnoise.

15
Table 3 Selected BIS code books on noise pollution

BIS Code Descriptio

n
IS-4954-1968 Noise abatement in town planning recommendations
IS-3098-1980 Noise emitted by moving road vehicles, measurement
IS-10399-1982 Noise emitted by stationary road vehicles, methods of measurement
of
IS-6098-1971 Air borne noise emitted by rotating electrical machinery, method of
measurement of
IS-4758-1968 Noise emitted by machines, methods of measurements of
IS-3483-1965 Noise reduction in industrial buildings, code of practice for
IS-1950-1962 Sound insulation of non-industrial buildings, code of practice for
IS-9167-1979 Ear protectors

Sources of noise

Where does it generate from? The sources of noise may vary according to daily activities.
They sources may be domestic (movement of utensils, cutting and peeling of
fruits/vegetables etc.) natural (shores, birds/animal shouts, wind movement, sea tide
movement, water falls etc.), commercial (vendor shouts, automobiles, aeroplanes,
marriages, laboratory, machinery etc.) industrial (generator sets, boilers, plant operations,
trolley movement, transport vehicles, pumps, motors etc.). The noise levels of some of the
sources are summarisedat table 4.

Typical surveys pertaining to causes of noise pollution, reveal the various sources of noise
pollution and frequency variation of their occurrences. The results of a survey conducted in
Central London, way back in 1961-62 reveals the presence of noise pollution even in the
early ‘60s (Table 5). Road traffic is identified as the major source of noise pollution while
at home or outdoors or at work.

16
 Table 4 Typical noise levels of some point sources

Source Noise level Source Noise level,

dB(A) dB(A)
Air compressors 95-104 Quiet garden 30
110 KVA diesel generator 95 Ticking clock 30
Lathe Machine 87 Computer rooms 55-60
Milling machine 112 Type institute 60
Oxy-acetylene cutting 96 Printing press 80
Pulveriser 92 Sports car 80-95
Riveting 95 Trains 96
Power operated portable 108 Trucks 90-100
saw
Steam turbine (12,500 kW) 91 Car horns 90-105
Pneumatic Chiseling 118 Jet takeoff 120

Table5 Noisethatdisturbpeople-1961-62CentralLondonSurvey

S.No. Description of noise No. of people disturbed per 100 questioned

When at When When at

home outdoors work
1 Road traffic 36 20 7
2 Aircraft 9 4 1
3 Trains 5 1 0
4 Industry / Construction 7 3 10
work
5 Domestic appliances 4 0 4
6 Neighbors impact 6 0 0
7 Children 9 3 0
8 Adult voices 10 2 2
9 Radio/TV 7 1 1
10 Bells/alarms 3 1 1

The variations in the emission of noise levels in a particular environment can be assessed
from the statistical distribution of noise levels in that environment (See Fig 3). To draw a
statistical distribution curve, terms like L10, L50 and L90play an important role.

17
 The Sound levels exceeding 10%, 50% and 90% of the total time intervals during a
particular period are designated as L10, L50 and L90 respectively.

From figure, it can be seen that, 90% of the sound levels are about 64 dB(A). Local
disturbances increased the sound levels (L10) to 76 dB(A), i.e., during 10% of the total
time. L90represents the background noiselevels.

Fig. 3 Statistical distribution of noise levels

The equivalent noise levels, Leq can also be calculated as (5)

Leq = L50 + (L10 - L90)2/ 60

Noise Climate (NC): It is the range over which the sound levels are fluctuating in an
interval of time(5)
NC = L10 - L90

Hence, Leq in the above example is -

Leq = 69 + (76 - 64)2 /60 = 71.4 dB.

and noise climate, NC = 76 - 64 = 12 dB/sampling time.

Aircraft Noise

The noise of aircraft is described in terms of Perceived Noise Levels (PNL), a scale of
noisiness, expressed in pNdB. There is no simple relationship between the dB(A) value and
pNdB value for all noises. However, a useful statement is that, the pNdB value for a noise
is approximately 13 units greater than the dB(A) value for thenoise.

18
Afurther refinementresultingfromthestudyofaircraftnoiseistheEffectiveNoiseLevel,a scale
of noisiness of a time-varying event, expressed in EPNdB. It is used to describe the noise of
a single aircraft activity. In order to describe the noise exposure associated with an airport,
the EPNdB values are supplemented with such information as the number of flights of each
aircraft type, the flight paths that the aircraft use and the time of day at which the
operations occur. The resulting picture is often presented in such terms as Noise Exposure
Forecast (NEF) contours, which are intended to represent the long-term average noise
exposure in communities around airports. More detailed information on the subject is
available with Ref.9.

Impacts of noise

Why bother about noise? Often neglected, noise induces a severe impact on humans
and on living organisms. Some of the adverse effects are summarised below.

Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due to sound level fluctuations. The
aperiodic sound due to its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing and
causesannoyance.
Physiological effects: The physiological features like breathing amplitude, blood
pressure, heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood cholesterol areeffected.
Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels cause loss of hearing. This is
mostly unnoticed, but has an adverse impact on hearingfunction.
Human performance: The working performance of workers/human will be affected as
they'll be losing theirconcentration.
Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby
effecting the functioning of humansystem.
Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing the people to become restless
and loose concentration and presence of mind during theiractivities
Damage to material : The buildings and materials may get damaged by exposure to
infrasonic / ultrasonic waves and even getcollapsed.

Control of Noise Pollution

Noise generation is associated with most of our daily activities. A healthy human ear
responds to a very wide range of SPL from - the threshold of hearing at zero dB,
uncomfortable at 100-120 dB and painful at 130-140 dB(3). Due to the various adverse
impacts of noise on humans and environment (See LO-5), noise should be controlled. The
19
technique or the combination of techniques to be employed for noise control depend upon
the extent of the noise reduction required, nature of the equipment used and the economy
aspects of the available techniques.

The various steps involved in the noise management strategy is illustrated at Fig 4.
Reduction in the noise exposure time or isolation of species from the sources form part of
the noise control techniques besides providing personal ear protection, engineered control
for noise reduction at source and/or diversion in the trajectory of sound waves.

The techniques employed for noise control can be broadly classified as (4,5,9,10)
Control atsource
Control in the transmissionpath
Using protective equipment.

Noise Control at Source

The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by
employingtechniques like-

Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors: The domestic noise coming from
radio, tape recorders, televisionsets, mixers, washing machines, cooking operations can
be minimisedby their selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any
absorbing material, the noise generated from felling of items in house can beminimised.

Maintenance of automobiles: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the
noise levels. Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the noise
levels.

Control over vibrations: The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper
foundations, rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused byvibrations.

Low voice speaking: Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the
excess noiselevels.

Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers

in the habitant zones except for important meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban
Administration of the metro cities in India, is becoming stringent on usage of
loudspeakers.

20
 Selection of machinery: Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces
excess noise levels. For example selection of chairs, or selection of certain
machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technology
etc. is also an important factor in noise minimisationstrategy.

Maintenance of machines: Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles

etc. will reduce noise levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts
of a vehicle will become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts
are not properly fitted, they will generate noise and cause annoyance to the
driver/passenger. Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular
maintenance is essential not only for noise control but also to improve the life of
machine.
Control in the transmission path

Please recall the Fig 4 wherein the inter-relationship between elements of noise was
represented. The change in the transmission path will increase the length of travel for the
wave and get absorbed/refracted/radiated in the surrounding environment. The available
techniques are briefly discussedbelow.

Installation of barriers: Installation of barriers between noise source and receiver can
attenuate the noise levels. For a barrier to be effective, its lateral width should extend
beyond the line-of-sight at least as much as the height (See Fig. 5). It may be noted that,
the frequencies, represented on the X-axis of the graph in Fig. 5, are the centre frequencies
of the octave band. The barrier may be either close to the source or receiver, subject to the
condition that, R <<D or in other words, to increase the traverse length for the sound wave.
It should also be noted that, the presence of the barrier itself can reflect sound back towards
the source. At very large distances, the barrier becomes less effective because of the
possibility of refractive atmospheric effects. Another method, based on the length of
traverse path of the sound wave is given at Fig. 6.

Barrier
Source Receiver
Barrierclose ◆ o
tosource R
D

receiver

Barrier
close to
21
 B
a
r
r
i
e
r
Source Receiver
◆ o
R
D

22
Fig.6 Attenuation of noise levels usingbarriers

Design of building: The design of the building incorporating the use of suitable noise
absorbing material for wall/door/window/ceiling will reduce the noise levels. The
approximate reduction of outside noise levels using typical exterior wall construction is
given at Table 6. The reduction in noise levels for various frequencies and the A-weighted
scale are shown. Variations in spectrum shape may change this A-weighted value by as
much as +/- 3dB.

Installation of panels or enclosures: A sound source may be enclosed within a

paneled structure such as room as a means of reducing the noise levels at the receiver.
The actual difference between the sound pressure levels inside and outside an enclosure
depends not only on the transmission loss of the enclosure panels but also on the
acoustic absorption within the enclosure and the details of the panel penetrations which
may include windows ordoors.

The product of frequency of interest and surface weight of the absorbing material is
the key parameter in noise reduction through transmission loss. With conventional
construction practices, the high-frequency transmission loss of a panel becomes limited
to around 40 dB, owing to the transmission of sound through flanking paths other than
the panel itself. Examples of such flanking are structural connections or ducts joining
the two spaces on either side of the panel of interest.

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Table6
Approximatereductionofoutsidenoiseprovidedbytypicalexteriorw
all construction

Octave Band A B C D E F G H
Center
Frequency
(Hz)
63 0 9 13 19 14 24 32 21
125 0 10 14 20 20 25 34 25
250 0 11 15 22 26 27 36 30
500 0 12 16 24 28 30 38 37
1,000 0 13 17 26 29 33 42 42
2,000 0 14 18 28 30 38 48 44
4,000 0 15 19 30 31 43 53 45
8,000 0 16 20 30 33 48 58 46
approx. 0 12 16 24 27 30 38 33
dB(A)
A: No wall; outsideconditions.
B: Anytypicalwallconstruction,withopenwindowscoveringabout5%ofexteriorwallarea.
C: Any typical wall construction, with small open air vents of about 1% of exterior wall
area, all windows closed.
D: Any typical wall construction, with closed but operable windows covering about 10-
20% of exterior wall area.
E: Sealedglasswallconstruction,1/4-
inglassthicknessoverapproximately50%ofexteriorwallarea. F:
2
Approximately20lb./ft solidwallconstructionwithnowindowsandnocracksoropeni
ngs.
G: Approximately50lb/ft2solidwallconstructionwithnowindowsandnocracksoropenings.
H: Anytypicalwallconstruction,withcloseddoublewindows
(panesatleast3/32”thick,airspaceatleast4 in.) and solid-core gasketed exteriordoors.

Green belt development: Green belt development can attenuate the sound levels. The
degree of attenuation varies with species of greenbelt. The typical attenuation of noise
levels by shrubs and trees is presented at Fig. 7 (a) and (b).The statutory regulations
direct the industry to develop greenbelt four times the built-up area for attenuation of
various atmospheric pollutants, including noise.

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Using protection equipment

Before employing the use of protective equipment, please recall the Fig. 4, wherein the
various steps involvedin the noise management strategy are illustrated. Protective
equipment usage is the ultimate step in noise control technology, i.e. after noise reduction
at source and/or after the diversion or engineered control of transmission path of noise.

Fig. 7 (a) & (b) Noise level attenuation by shrubs and trees

Thefirststepinthetechniqueofusingprotectiveequipmentistogaugetheintensityofthe problem,
identification of the sufferer and his exposure to the noise levels. For the Regulatory
standards pertaining to time of exposure vs. maximum noise levels permitted in a
workspace environment, please refer toLO-8.

The usage of protective equipment and the worker's exposure to the high noise levels can
be minimisedby -

Job rotation: By rotating the job between the workers working at a particular noise
source or isolating a person, the adverse impacts can bereduced.

Exposure reduction: Regulations prescribe that, noise level of 90 dB (A) for more
than 8 hrcontinuous exposure is prohibited. Persons who are working under such
conditions will be exposed to occupational health hazards. The schedule of the workers
should be planned in such a way that, they should not be over exposed to the high
noiselevels.
25
 Hearing protection: Equipment like earmuffs, ear plugs etc. are the commonly used
devices for hearing protection. Attenuation provided by ear-muffs vary widely in
respect to their size, shape, seal material etc. Literature survey shows that, an average
noise attenuation up to 32 dB can be achieved using earmuffs (7). Details of some of the
suppliers of the protective equipment are given in Ref.3.

Documentation of noise measurements

Please recall the Fig. 4, where noise survey is the first step of noise management strategies.
By now, the reader might be conversant with the terminology, impacts, significance and
control technology of noise pollution. Hence, it is felt to place this section just before the
end of the module to avoid any confusion for the reader.

Noise surveys will be conducted in an area (or zone) to find out the ambient noise levels or
noise levels at the work environment. The field data will be analysedand documented for
decision making. The parameters to calculate however, vary with the objective. But in
most cases, Leq, Ldn, NC are the likely deciding parameters (See Table 7 and8).

For a systematic presentation, the noise survey reports for a typical industrial noise level
survey should contain the following information (3)

Reference to individualstandard(s)
Description of the machine and its conditions of installation andoperation
Description of the test environment with respect to its ability to reflect, dissipate or
absorb noise and location of themachine.
Number of workers exposed and duration ofexposure
Description of the measuring apparatus used and method ofcalibration
Time constant and weighting networkused
Position of measuring points.
Results of SPL instruments either A -scale or octave bandanalysis
Background noise levels and sound pressure values corrected for background noise, if
any.

The same principles can be applied for documentation of community (ambient) noiselevels
and is left as an exercise to thereader.

26
Regulatory guidelines
Statutory Regulatory guidelines were prescribed both for the ambient noise levels (Table
7) and for workspace environment noise levels (table 8). Factories Act, 1948 prescribes the
protection of workers against high noise levels (noise level > 90 dB (A)). The State
Pollution Control Board and Inspector of Factories have powers to administer the control
of noisepollution.

Table 7 Indian Standards for ambient noise levels 1

Are Noise Limits, Leq, dB (A)

a Day Time Night Time
2 3
4
Silence zone 50 45
Residential area 55 45
Commercial area 65 55
Industrial area 75 65
1. Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) Guidelines vide Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 third amendment rules, dated 26/12/89 (Ref.6)
2. Day time from (600 hrs to 2100 hrs,IST)
3. Night time from (2100 hrs to 600 hrsIST)
4. Silencezone:Upto100maroundhospitals,educationalinstitutionsandcourts.Thezones
aretobe declared by competent authority. Use of vehicle horns, loud speakers and
bursting of crackers shall be banned in thesezones.

Table 8 Damage risk criteria for hearing loss Occupational Safety & Health
Administration (OSHA) regulations
Maximum allowable duration per Sound pressure
day level,
hours dB (A)
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.75 107
0.5 110
0.25 115
No exposure in excess of 115 dB(A) is permitted.

27
Application in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies

The EIA study will be carried out to evaluate and assess the impacts of any proposed (or
existing) activity on the environment. Noise is one of the environmental attributes, on
which the likely impacts due to the proposed (or existing) activity need tostudied.

The likely steps to be carried out while conducting noise level studies for an EIA project
are summarisedbelow. The EIA wiilbe carried out for either proposed or existing activities.
The sequential steps involved will be same for both theactivities.

The likely activities that generate noise from the proposed activity are to beidentified
The typical sound (noise) levels of the noise generating sources are to be assessed either
from literature or from a similarsource
The likely exposure time of a worker at a noise generating source is to be assessed from
the plant / utilityrecords
The workspace environment noise levels are to be checked with OSHA standards
(Table 1.8). If the noise exposure levels are higher, suitable noise control measures like
personal protective equipment, installation of barriers, enclosures etc., need to be
suggested
The EIA will usually be carried out in an impact circle of radius 3 Km to 25 Km or
even more depending on the objective and the likely activities of the proposed project.
The representative baseline (or back ground) status of the ambient noise levels need to
be collected by monitoring at various stations in the studyzone
The ambient noise levels are to be analysedfor the prescribed parameters like, Leq, Ldn
etc., and compared with the ambient noise level standards (Table 1.7) for the study
region. If these values are higher than the prescribed limits, the likely causes for the
high values need to beassessed
The likely impact of the noise levels from the proposed activity on the local
environment keeping in view the baseline status of noise levels need to bepredicted
If the predicted impact is adverse, suitable measures for attenuating the noise levels like,
green belt development, in-plant control measures etc., need to besuggested.
The objective of the EIA study is to make ensure that, the local environment, say noise,
will not get affected by the noise levels emanated from the proposed activity. If the
ambient noise levels are high, then control measures be suggested to the project
proponent to ensure that, ambient noise levels will not increase due to the proposed
activity

28