Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender On The Motivating Power of L2 Selves
Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender On The Motivating Power of L2 Selves
Influence of Learner Beliefs and Gender On The Motivating Power of L2 Selves
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Influence of Learner Beliefs and
Gender on the Motivating Power
of L2 Selves
TOMOKO YASHIMA,1 RIEKO NISHIDA,2 and ATSUSHI MIZUMOTO1
dansai University, Faculty of Foreign Language Studies, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
2 Osaka University, Faculty of Language and Culture, 1-8 Machikaneyama-cyo, Toyonaka-shi, Osaka 560-0043,
Japan Email: [email protected]
This study investigates 3 unexplored issues regarding Second Language (L2) Motivational Self Sys-
tem theory. It further validates the theory using multiple structural equation modeling (SEM) along
with a procedure comparing the strength of corresponding paths. Japanese university freshmen
(N = 2,631) responded to a questionnaire and took the TOEFL-ITP test. Results showed the follow-
ing: (a) Stronger Ideal and Ought-to L2 self visions led to intended effort, accounting in turn for
higher levels of objectively measured proficiency, (b) Two types of learner beliefs reflecting L2 learn-
ing experience - Communication Orientation (the tendency to value extensive use of language) and
Grammar-Translation Orientation (the tendency to value learning grammar explicitly) - influenced
the 2 future selves differently. The former affected Ideal self more than Ought-to self, while the re-
verse was true of the latter, (c) Women's greater tendency to value communication activities influenced
their stronger vision of Ideal L2 self. A stronger link between Grammar-Translation Orientation and
Ought-to self in male students than in female students was found. Finally, the etic approach using SEM
allowed for a comparison of studies conducted in different sociocuftural contexts, showing stronger mo-
tivating power for Ought-to self in Japan along with gender differences, a finding with context-specific
explanations.
Keywords: Ideal and Ought-to L2 selves; learner beliefs; implicit and explicit learning; gender differences;
multiple-group structural equation modeling; motivation
ONE OF THE MOST WIDELY USED THEO- different contexts. However, a number of related
retical frameworks for motivation research intro- issues remain unexplored.
duced in recent years is the Second Language Many studies found that the three components
(L2) Motivational Self System postulated byof the model, Ideal and Ought-to L2 self-concepts
Dörnyei (2005, 2009), which claims that when
and positive L2 learning experience, were able to
learners have a clear vision of future selves, that
account for important aspects of motivation. How-
is, Ideal L2 selves and Ought-to L2 selves com-
ever, three issues await clarification. First, strength
of motivation has usually been operationalized
bined with positive L2 learning experiences, their
motivation is enhanced to a substantial degree. as the self-reported intention to make an effort;
The L2 Motivational Self System has been appliedbut it is not clear whether intended effort in fact
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692 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
L2 selves on the other. Some issues just mentioned.
studies We then look at past r
hypothesize
that learning experience, often search on referred
learner beliefsto aslearning situation
about
atdtude toward the L2 learning and conclude situation
by reviewing andstudies of gender di
operadonalized as enjoyment derived
ferences from
in L2 learning lan-
motivation.
guage learning, affects the formation of future
selves (e.g., Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos 8c
L2 Motivational Self System
Csizér, 2008), while other researchers assume the
reverse, namely that clear future The theoretical frameworkinflu-
visions of the L2 Moti-
ence motivation in daily learning vational Self System
(e.g., was developed by Dörnyei
Taguchi,
Magid, 8c Papi, 2009; You et also
(2005; al., see2016).
Csizér 8c Fur-
Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei
ther, although past research has 2002)
8c Csizér, explored many
by drawing on self theories from
antecedents of Ideal and mainstream Ought-to self, (Higgins,
psychology none 1987; Markus
examined instructional styles or methods.
8c Nurius, In thisvarious L2 mo-
1986) and integrating
study, we focus on whether tivation
thetheories and frameworks
extended from second
process
of learners' day-to-day learning language acquisition (SLA),
experiences namely, Gardner's
helps
(or hinders) the evolving(1985) Social Educational Model,
development of Noels's
L2(2003)
selves. To do so, we introduce the construct of framework using Self-Determination Theory by
'learner beliefs,' defined as the learners' value Deci and Ryan (2000), and Ushioda's (2001)
judgments regarding learning situations that they framework using a temporal dimension. The L2
develop throughout many years of learning, a Motivational Self System hypothesizes that L2
dimension that is more enduring than attitudes learning motivation is enhanced when L2 learn-
in the immediate learning experience. A third ers are guided by future self-images as L2 users
issue relates to gender differences in motivation. (i.e., Possible Self Theory; Markus 8c Nurius,
Although past studies have rather consistently 1986) and try to reduce the discrepancy be-
found such differences, researchers have only re- tween their future and actual L2 selves (i.e., Self-
cently started to address their possible causes. For Discrepancy Theory; Higgins, 1987). In other
example, Henry and Cliffordson (2013) found words, the theory posits that if the learners' vision
that gender differences in terms of Ideal L2 self of themselves using the L2 is important to them,
were accounted for by women's stronger ten- this self-image will serve as a powerful motivator.
dency to value human relations, while You et al. Two dimensions of possible L2 selves are distin-
(2016) suggested that women's higher visionary guished in the L2 Motivational Self System: Ideal
capacity may be behind their clearer Ideal selves. L2 self, and Ought-to L2 self (Dörnyei, 2009). For
To date no studies have explored the possibility example, in Japan, the Ideal L2 self might repre-
of gender differences being created through sent the image of the English-using self one would
instructed L2 learning experiences themselves. like to become in the future, while Ought-to L2
A notable trend in recent motivation research
self represents the self-images learners recognize
has been to study motivation as a set of complex
they must achieve owing to a sense of obligation to
and dynamically changing phenomena emergent normative pressure from sources such as parents,
in context (Dörnyei, Maclntyre, 8c Henry, 2015),
teachers, or society. As the third component, the
typically using qualitative methods to spotlight a
L2 Motivational Self System includes the learners'
small number of cases. By contrast, this studyattitude
uses toward the immediate learning context
a quantitative method with a large sample as and
a vital component sustaining motivation. While
visions of Ideal self and Ought-to self direct the
applies multiple-group structural equation mod-
eling along with a procedure designed to com- learners as future self guides, favorable learning
experience encourages them to exert daily effort
pare the relative strength of corresponding paths
between groups. The goal is to illuminate whatto learn the language.
is generalizable across contexts and what is spe-Since this theory was introduced, a number of
related empirical studies have been conducted.
cific to particular contexts: The etic (as opposed
to ernie) perspective adopted here allows for Somea have investigated the links among the three
components of the L2 Self System and variables
comparison between studies conducted in differ-
ent contexts. measuring the strength of motivation or the
amount of intended effort (often referred to as
LITERATURE REVIEW a "criterion measure" following Dörnyei, 2009, p.
31); others have explored the antecedents that
We begin by reviewing studies applyinginfluence
the L2 the formation of visions, and yet oth-
Motivational Self System in relation to the ers three
have examined the relations among the three
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 693
in Saudi
components. Many of these studies use Arabia and Arabic-speaking students in
the statis-
the Unitedmodeling
tical procedure of structural equation Kingdom, Al-Shehri (2009) reported a
high correlation
(SEM) to investigate these dimensions of .78 between Ideal L2 self and
in a single
motivated
model (e.g., Apple, Falout, & Hill, behavior.
2013; Csizér
8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos, Kiddle, These
8c Csizér, 2011; indicate that Ideal self
studies generally
Munezane, 2013; Taguchi et al.,encourages
2009; You etto al.,
learners make more effort to learn
2016). the L2 in all contexts studied. Ought-to self had
the same
Regarding the relative importance of effect, though to a lesser degree, in Asian
the three
components of the L2 Motivational contexts, but did
Self not lead to intended effort in
System,
somewhat different results are Hungary
reported depend-
or Chile. Kormos et al. (201 1 ) attributed
ing on the context. In their studythis toofa specific socio-educational factor, refer-
Hungarian
secondary school and university ring to China and
students Japan as exam-oriented con-
learn-
ing English, Csizér and Kormos texts where reported
(2009) considerable pressure is placed on
students.
that the Ideal self led to motivated learningWhenever studied, attitudes to learning
behav-
context operationalized
ior for both groups (with path coefficients of .37 as enjoyment in learning
and .49), while the Ought-to self also
had the predicted
strongest motivational effect. Crucially, in
motivated learning behavior, butnoneonlyof these
in the studies
uni- was an objective measure
versity student group and to a of much weaker
L2 proficiency de-
considered, inviting critiques of
gree (.13). However, L2 learning experience
motivation research had
in general.
the strongest influence on motivatedA number of studies
learning have investigated various
be-
havior, the criterion value, for factors
both that influence
groups the Ideal L2 self, Ought-
(.58,
.49). In the same context, usingtoregression
L2 self, and L2 learning experience. Csizér
anal-
yses, Kormos and Csizér (2008)and Kormos
found (2009)lan-
that reported that in both sec-
guage learning attitudes and IdealondaryL2 school
self andwere
university student groups in
Hungary, international
the two strongest predictors of motivated learning posture (Yashima, 2002)
behavior, while Ought-to L2 selfhad wasthenotstrongest
a predic-influence on Ideal L2 self,
tor. Using multiple SEM analyses comparing
while sec-
parental encouragement was a powerful an-
ondary school students, universitytecedent of Ought-toand
students, L2 self. The same tendency
adult learners of English in Chile, Kormos
was found with theet al. age groups in Chile (Ko-
three
(2011) also found that Ideal L2 self
rmos and
et al., L2 learn-
2011). In their comparison of three
contexts, Taguchi
ing attitudes both influenced motivated et al. (2009) found that atti-
learning
tudes to L2
behavior significantly but Ought-to L2 culture
self did and community and a vari-
not. able labeled instrumentality promotion , or the reg-
Comparing three non-Western contexts (Japan,ulation of the goal to be successful, influenced
China, and Iran), Taguchi et al. (2009) foundIdeal
thatL2 self, while family influence as well as a
Ideal self significantly predicted motivation variable
in all labeled instrumentality prevention , or the
three groups (with path coefficients between regulation
.27 of duties and obligations, were pre-
and .44) . The links between Ought-to self anddictors
mo- of Ought-to self. In her SEM modeling
tivation were weaker but significant for all groups
with Japanese learners of English as a foreign lan-
guage (EFL), Munezane (2013) also confirmed
(between .12 and .20). Aubrey and Nowlan (2013)
theby
focused on Ought-to self rather than Ideal self link between international posture and Ideal
comparing two different contexts within Japan.L2 self. Notably, recent studies have considered
They found that in an environment where learn-additional antecedents, including visionary capac-
ers have opportunities to meet international itystu-
(You et al., 2016) as well as interdependent self-
dents in person, Ought-to self was significantly
construal (a construct postulated by Markus & Ki-
related to motivated learning behavior (.21)tayama,
but 1991, and used in Henry 8c Cliffordson,
not when students had little experience of inter-
2013) in relation to gender differences.
cultural contact. In both contexts, the influenceRegarding learning experience understood as
of the L2 learning experience on motivation was
attitudes to the immediate impact of the teacher,
greater (.36, and .42) . In a recent large-scale the
studycurriculum, and the peer group, You et al.
conducted in China focusing on the role of vi- point out that, although there is variation
(2016)
sionary capacity, You et al. (2016) reported among
that labels, they are operationalized similarly
as the
in their SEM model, attitude to L2 learning was by extent to which students enjoy learning
far the stronger predictor of intended effortthe language (e.g., Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009). Al-
(.68)
compared to Ideal L2 self (.14) or Ought-to L2
though relations between future guides and learn-
ing experience have been investigated in SEM
self (.12). In a study of students learning English
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694 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
studies, the direction of influence isempirical
2012), little not uniform.
research has investigated
In this study, for learning possible links between
experience, we beliefs
aimandtomotivation in
capture beliefs learners develop
languagethroughout
learning. One such their
attempt was Lou and
learning history of differentNoels 's SEM study and
curricula (2017),teach-
which confirmed that
incremental
ers who differ in how they teach. language
Beliefs beliefbeen
have (the belief that lan-
shown to have an impact on guagehow learners
intelligence ap-
can be improved) predicted
proach learning (Dweck, 1999; Dörnyei
stronger 8cwhich,
learning goals, Ryan, in turn, predicted
2015). We therefore hypothesize intention tothat these
continue learningbe-
as well as reaction
liefs or value judgments regarding to failure. different
They also demonstrated
learn- that an inter-
ing situations influence the formadon
vention can change of future
learner beliefs and resulting
selves, a kind of classroom-based formadon of motivation. Peng and Woodrow's (2010) study ex-
Ideal and Ought-to selves. plored learner beliefs about English learning and
classroom communication using scales adapted
Learner Beliefs
from Sakui 8c Gaies (1999). Using SEM, they
found a significant path from learner beliefs to
Learner beliefs have attracted steady attention motivation as well as to communication confi-
among applied linguists because they are thought dence that in turn led to L2 willingness to com-
to have considerable influence on learning behav- municate (WTC). Peng (2012) also qualitatively
iors (Dörnyei 8c Ryan, 2015). Early studies of be- explored learner beliefs and motivation as ob-
liefs (e.g., Horwitz, 1988; Mori, 1999) fall under served in four Chinese learners of English. Com-
two broad categories: (a) beliefs about the nature paring two high-WTC and two low-WTC students
of language learning, including the role of lan- while acknowledging emergent contextual influ-
guage aptitude or natural talent, and (b) beliefs ences, she reported that the high-WTC learners
about the effectiveness of certain language learn- believed that communicative activities conducted
ing approaches or strategies. Recently, some stud- in class were necessary while low-WTC learners
ies have followed up on the nature of language believed that they were not useful. These be-
learning employing as a theoretical basis the psy- liefs were clearly reflected in their motivation to
chological construct of implicit theories (Dweck, communicate in the classroom, with the former
1999, 2006), or mindsets regarding the nature of willing to participate in communicative activities
intelligence as fixed or changeable (e.g., Lou 8c while the latter expressed reluctance to commu-
Noels, 2016, 2017; Mercer & Ryan, 2010; Noels nicate and indicated strong examination-oriented
8c Lou, 2015; Ryan 8c Mercer, 2011). These stud- attitudes. Finally, in a study of collaborative learn-
ies have probed how learners' implicit theories or ing using SEM, Fushino (2010) showed that be-
mindsets about language learning (e.g., need for liefs about L2 group work significantly - though
natural talent, need for exposure to the context indirectly - influenced WTC.
where the target language is spoken) affect lan- The beliefs we investigate in this study are
guage learning motivation and behaviors. Mean- those related to teaching approaches and learn-
while, beliefs that relate to teaching approaches ing styles, developed through the years of
and learning strategies have been the target of language learning experience. The following
scrutiny for other researchers (Peng, 2011; Sakui studies featuring specific beliefs about language
8c Gaies, 1999). In addition, much more nar- learning therefore have relevance to our inves-
rowly focused beliefs about specific teaching and tigation. Horwitz's study (1988) includes five ar-
learning formats have also been investigated, ad- eas reflected in the instrument called the Beliefs
dressing areas like corrective peer feedback (Sato, about Language Learning Inventory (BALLI).
2013) and group work (Fushino, 2010) and their One of these focuses on beneficial learning and
impact on learning. Recently, beliefs have been communication strategies, with items such as
studied as situated, dynamic, and emergent, using "The most important part of learning English is
qualitative approaches that focus on, for example, learning to translate from my native language,"
emotional dimensions that can make beliefs tena-and "If beginning students are permitted to make
errors in English, it will be difficult for them to
cious as well as on contextually and socioculturally
constructed aspects of beliefs (for a detailed speak
dis- correctly later on." In her study exploring
cussion, see Barcelos 8c Kalaja, 2011; Dörnyei 8c linkage between epistemological beliefs and
the
Ryan, 2015). language learning beliefs among Japanese as a for-
eign language learners, Mori (1999) proposed a
Although numerous psychological studies have
shown that beliefs (or mindsets) have an impact
construct of language learning beliefs that relates
on motivation (for a review, see Ryan 8c Mercer,
to the effectiveness of approaches to or strategies
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 695
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696 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 697
FIGURE 1
Communication
Orientation toward
effort score
Grammar-Translation s*
Ought-to L2
Orientation toward
self
learning English
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698 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
TABLE 1
Pattern Matrix
Factor 1 Factor 2
Grammar-
Communication Translation
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Tomóko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 699
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700 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 701
TABLE 2 tween future selves, effort, and linguistic outc
Summary of the Models for the Measurement measured by a standardized proficiency test
Invariance Analysis confirmed.
TABLE 3
Note.
*p <. 01,
**p <. 001. df= degrees of freedom. AIC = Akaike Information Criterion. BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion. A
stands for difference between Model 1 (baseline) and each model. The values reported in the table are all based on
robust estimation.
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702 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
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704 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
learn English
self, whereas it has less influence on thethat they intended to exert. How-
Ought-to
ever, for female students, more so than for male
self. In contrast, having a Grammar-Translation
Orientation - or the tendency
students,
to value
the English-using
learning self is desirable and
grammar explicidy, memorizing represents the person
words, and they want to be. In terms
trans-
lating sentences in order to learn English
of learner - results
beliefs, female students scored signif-
in a stronger sense of an Ought-to
icantly higherself, while Orientation.
on Communication
exerdng limited influence on This the
means Ideal self.
that female Inhave a stronger
students
other words, those who believetendency
thatthan they
do male students
learn to believe that
English best when they use they it and enjoy
learn English bestdoing
by using it and enjoy
so tend to possess clearer visions
learning itof hoped-for
for communication with others. On
the other hand,
selves as communicating in English the endorsement
with foreign of Grammar-
friends or in possible futureTranslation
occupations.
Orientation Because
by female students was no
beliefs influence actions, it different
is likely that
from male these
students. In other words, gen-
students chose to engage in dercommunicative ac-
differences in the motivation process may be
tivities in the classroom andattributable
possibly in students
to female natural having a stronger
Communication
L2 contexts as well, and, through Orientation,
these expe-which in turn leads
riences, were able to form vivid and elaborate to a stronger sense of Ideal L2 self. Crucially, this
L2 selves. On the other hand, students with a tendency may lead to higher proficiency more
stronger Grammar-Translation Orientation tendeffectively; despite the lack of difference in the
to possess self-images that were the result of out- amount of effort expended, male students did not
side pressures or were self-imposed, as suggested attain the same level of proficiency as measured by
by Ought-to self items such as "I will study English TOEFL as did female students.
because not doing so will disappoint my parents," Further multiple-group SEM analyses, com-
and "Studying English is important to me because bined with statistical comparisons of paired pa-
an educated person is supposed to speak English."rameters, clarified the extent to which these dif-
This implies that a Grammar-Translation Orien- ferent beliefs influence motivation processes in
tation is more likely to be linked to a tendency each gender, thus contributing to our under-
to study English because it is an important school standing of how gender differences are created
subject. (As an aside, all participants had passed through learning experiences. For both men and
an entrance examination that required discrete women, a stronger Communication Orientation
grammar knowledge and translation ability.) led to a clearer sense of Ideal self. But while this
Our findings regarding Grammar-Translation influence was substantial for both groups, it was
Orientation are consistent with those of Suzuki 8c greater among female students, where it was also
Childs (2016), whose study revealed that visions more strongly linked to a vision of Ideal selves
of university students learning English did not than in male students. In both groups, the in-
include interpersonal interactions. In fact, many fluence of Grammar-Translation Orientation on
university freshmen have developed a Grammar- Ought-to self was high. However, this time, the
Translation Orientation because grammar drills influence was stronger among male students. In
combined with vocabulary learning and reading other words, when male students develop the ten-
through translation are what they have been dency do- to value learning grammar and vocabulary
ing. Since these activities are usually carried as outwell as translating, they have stronger visions
of Ought-to L2 self compared to female students.
sitting alone at a desk, these learners are less likely
to form visions of themselves communicating with Since these activities are typically required in
others. preparation for entrance exams to university, this
Finally, the analyses conducted to respond to is an indicator of how seriously all students were
RQ3 revealed important gender-related influ- engaged in achieving their educational goals. Im-
ences. First, a comparison of means between male portantly, the link between this tendency and an
and female students for the study's variables not Ought-to self vision is stronger among male stu-
only confirmed previous findings but showed fe- dents. To determine why this is the case, we need
male students as having a stronger sense of Com- to examine the sociocultural context, specifically
munication Orientation, Ideal L2 self, and higher how genders are positioned in this society, which
proficiency. By contrast, no gender difference was may explain somewhat stronger pressure being
found in their scores on Ought-to self, suggesting placed on male students to achieve their goals.
that both men and women feel equally obliged Why might Communication Orientation be
and socially expected to be competent in English. linked more strongly to Ideal L2 selves in fe-
Nor did the respondents differ in the effort to male students? The answer is partly suggested
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 705
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706 The Modem Language Journal 101(2017)
unique needs of each context. may Unlike in Hungary
not be as transparent to the learner as that of
or Chile, Ought-to self exerts motivating
grammar drills. power
in Japan, suggesting that working To develop on Communication
learners'Orientation and
Ought-to self in instruction is effective
positive L2 selves, in encour-
positive L2 experience is cru-
aging them to exert an effort to learn
cial. Instructors the
need lan-
to have learners experience
guage. Constantly reminding them
using of what
the language they
and enjoy doing so, so that us-
should do with adequate teacher ing English control
becomes (e.g.,
a natural part of language
in quizzes and homework) may work
classrooms andwell in this
(hopefully) beyond, thus helping
context. Differences based on age
learners group
create wereself-images. For vi-
English-using
observed within a single culture sions to be vivid and elaborate
in past and thus increase
studies
(Csizér 8c Kormos, 2009; Kormos motivating et power,
al., 2011)
L2 selvesas need to be rooted
well as on gender differences among
in realistic university
experiences of communication. In ad-
students in the present study. These
dition, differences
many ideas for enhancing future self vi-
inform instructors regardingsions how arethey
available. For example,
should ad- Hadfield and
just priorities in teaching each Dörnyei
group.(2013) introduced
Given that a number of activi-
female students have stronger Communication
ties (e.g., visualization training techniques, role-
Orientadon and Ideal self, leading plays, etc.)to higher
within pro-
instructed L2 learning designed
ficiency, while male studentstowith developequal
Ideal L2readiness
selves. Past studies agree on
to make an effort did not attain the of
the influence same profi-
international posture on the for-
ciency level, instructors may mation need of toIdeal self. This suggests
influence the that ideal L2
learners, male students in particular, toward
selves can be enhanced in EFLde-teaching that ad-
veloping Communication Orientation dresses international as well
posture.as Through content-
lucid and realistic ideal future visions. based teaching in global studies with some visual-
As the endorsement of Communication Orien- ization as well as goal-setting trainings, Munezane
tation or Grammar-Translation Orientation re- (2015) showed that Japanese university students'
lates to whether particular learners mainlywillingnessvalue to communicate increased after the
implicit or explicit learning, it may be worthwhile treatment. In a teaching intervention to create
for the teacher to raise consciousness of the real- L2 visions, Japanese engineering students gave
istic roles for each type of learning. SLA research presentations on technical inventions in English
suggests that abundant exposure and opportuni- to an imagined community of engineers, which
ties to use language facilitate L2 learning (e.g., led to improvement in attitudes and motivation
fluency, acquisition of implicit knowledge under- (Maekawa & Yashima, 2012).
lying natural L2 use). At the same time, a great Activities that foster Ought-to self-images are
deal of research has accumulated on the roles of helpful to facilitate self-regulated learning, as
explicit learning of language forms particularly Hadfield and Dörnyei (2013) suggest. For partici-
within meaning-focused instruction (e.g., pants Ellis, in the current study, with a motivationally
2008, 2015; Norris 8c Ortega, 2000, 2001). Ineffectiveview Ought-to self, the emphasis should be
of these findings, valuing the explicit learning on of
how Ought-to self and Ideal self can be co-
linguistic forms is not a problem in itself, ordinated
while and be in harmony (Dörnyei, 2005).
beliefs in some instruction techniques used Tointhis end, instructors can design tasks in which
grammar-translation approaches, including the will be genuinely interested, for example,
learners
rote learning of isolated sentences, discrete gram- in areas closely related to their academic majors,
mar drills, and extensive use of the LI may not and have
be them listen to and read materials exten-
so useful. How can students shift away from sively
these in order to gain the knowledge they need to
traditional beliefs toward stronger Communica- acquire to be successful in their hoped-for occu-
tion Orientation? In Lou 8c Noels 's (2016) study, pational field. They can then use this knowledge
having learners read scientific evidence about in-
to communicate the content that they find mean-
cremental theories influenced their mindset as ingful and generate ideas. When these activities al-
well as their approaches to learning. This low sug-learners to imagine themselves using English
gests that teachers' explanations about the in effec-
an imagined community of professionals, they
tiveness of each instruction method or task can be will help them create visions of Ideal selves that
are in accord with their Ought-to selves. Gram-
influential in shaping learners' beliefs. In fact, the
literature on motivating strategies (e.g., Keller, mar and vocabulary learning should be integrated
1987) emphasizes that explaining the value of ac- into communication activities instead of being iso-
lated and decontextualized, thus bolstering the
tivities and tasks is of vital importance, particularly
when the value of some communicative activities possibility of constructing an L2 self image. The
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 707
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708 The Modern Language Journal 101 (201 7)
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APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
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Tomoko Yashima, Rieko Nishida, and Atsushi Mizumoto 711
APPENDIX C
Questionnaire Items
Ideal L2 Self
Ideal 1. 1 often imagine myself as someone working using English in the future.
Ideal 2. 1 often imagine myself as someone who is able to speak English.
Ideal 3. The things I want to do in the future require me to speak English.
Ideal 4. If my dreams come true, I will use English effectively in the future.
Ideal 5. 1 often imagine myself speaking English with international friends.
Ought-to L2 Self
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