tt

,g-gtt dd'1,002'sraqsilqnd )0o!/uoluloB'l\>1suetlLra7

lo^eJ pue doqsrg ,(puary1,4q patpa 'Llileosa1 sl palqng aql,, 1uaLunOLy peqsreosau
e 6urluM u r!rnbu1 +0 oloU 0ql:u0rlesraAUol se 1uaun0ty,, ]renls'eueale
zoMl aql uao^ leq ocueJaJ+lp aql s,leqM
46urpes clLuapece uB ul sueaLu plom oql lulql noA op teLlM auotleslonuoc
Aepfuere ul pasn pJoM oql sr nnoH 'lueun5te eutlap noA Moq lnoqe )ulL11 .
:sorlrlrlce 6urnno11o1 or1l Jo ouo lseal le op'peer noA eto4eg
peou ol 6u1geg
^peau
'slcefqns esaqllnoqe suorlsenb 6utuunl-6uo1 olut slqbrsur,rneu roJJo uene Aeu unno
rnoA uo op noA qcJeosoJ eqf'Luaql ol polelal sensst pue suotlsenb uo auop ueeq
Apear;e s,leql qcrpasol qlrm secuer;adxe rnoA,,oleeM,, 11,noA'1xe1uoc jo uolssncstp
srq ur s1sa66ns euearg sV'splo4 poleleJ pue 'uollectunuur-uoc 'e6enDue1 'Acetelt; '6ut
-lum uo qcJeosor +o sLurel ut Allecrlrceds seldtcutld eseql Aldde 11,noA'1ooq stql u1
'.,(6o;ooz o1 A6o;odorqtue LUor]'6uruaddeq st qcleosar ,{1le;oqcs areqnn p;et; fuena
ur lJoM Aaql'anou 1q0r.r 6urApnls ar,noA eleqnn Alts.lentun;o ebe;1oc olllua oql an llp
leqlsorlr^rlce pue seopr oqlore -ssacotd 1e1cos e ut oopalMou) nneu ele;eue6 ollnq
uorlEr.ulolurlcalloc ollou )eas sleqcJeoso.l oleq^^ pue'z(ennlelnctped e uualqold e6ur
-uJu] ol alnqrJluoc uollenys pue anssl ue orotlm 'ltrnbur leuo1esJaAuo, se Llsreosol
ro,L) ro sonll
-sessnosrp ouaelD leql seldrcutld eq1'6utlooqos rollleo ul (sn ]o lsoLU
Iepllene lno ut rolunocua a^^ spur) aql ruo.rl lueuun6re pup qcleesel,o put) luola+
-]!p e sl Alrnbur,{1ieloqcs moq suteldxe ouaarD uen}S ,i uottesra^uoJ se 1ueLun6ty,, u1
x&tgsffi*:& &xwffii-s
lual'Un6rv peqcieosau e
6ur1r.r11ur Arrnbul +o oloU oqI
uollesranuoS
se lualun6rv
J
 CHAPTER 1. THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

. Have a conversation with a classmate on the following topic: How would you
$ay argument and conversation relate to each other? Can some arguments
be conversational and some conversations argumentative, or is no crossover
possible? Provide examples, and be sure to explain your terms as precisely
as possible.

As you read. consider the following questions to help you focus on particularly
important parts of the article:

o Who is Greeneb audience?Who, in other words, is the "you" he addresses?

How do you know?
. How does Greene structure his article? If you were to pull out the major
headings, would the outline created from them be useful in any way?
o What kinds of support does Greene use for his claims? What other texts
does he refer to? Is this support relevant to his claims and sufficient to
prove them?

ARGUI\I!EI{T lS V=RY MUCH a part of what we do every day: \7e confront

a public issue, something that is open to dispute, and we take a stand and sup-
port what we think and feel with what we believe are good reasons. Seen in this
way, argument is very much like a conversation. By this, I mean that making
an argument entails providing good reasons to support your viewpoint, as well
as counterarguments, and recognizing how and why readers might object to
your ideas. The metaphor of conversation emphasizes the social nature of writ-
ing. Thus inquiry, research, and writing arguments are intimately related. If, for
example, you are to understand the different ways others have approached your
subject, then you will need to do your "homework." This is what Doug Brent
(L995) means when he says that research consists of 'the looking-up of facts in
the context of other worldviews, other ways of seeing' (78).
In learning to argue within an academic setting, such as the one you probably
find yourself in now, it is useful to think about writing as a form of inquiry in
which you conyey your understanding of the claims people make, the quesdons
they raise, and the conficts they address. As a form of inquiry, then, writing
begins with problems, conficts, and questions that you identify as important.
The questions that your teacher raises and that you raise should be questions that
are open to dispute and for which there are not prepackaged answers. Readers
within an academic setting expect that you will advance a scholarly conversation
and not reproduce others' ideas. Therefore, it is important to find out who else
has confronted these problems, conflicts, and questions in order to take a stand
within some ongoing scholarly conversation. You will want to read with an eye

32
8t
no1'aroJeq euo8 peq rerp sdars aqr p nol roJ acenrr or paglenb sr tuasard
auo ou tErF os 'araqr to8 urarpJo lue aro3ag 3uo1 un8eq lpzarp pErI uorssnf,srp
arF D?J uI 'lnoqE sl rr req,vr dpxxa nol [a] puE esned o1 lualp roJ prrEar{ oo]
uorssnrsrp e 'uorssnf,srp pat"ar{ e ur pa8z8ua a.re lagr pue .nol papacard 3uo1
e er{ sJeqro 'aaule nol uarltyetel ourol no :o1rcd r ratua nol rrqr aur8erul
:a8essed paronb-go ue ur. (1t761) a>lrng qtauua)
ruory seuJof uor]?sJeluof se 8urtrr,rt3o ]uaruetels tuanbo]e tsour aql sdegre4
']xetuof,
[mrJotsrq scrdot eqt ere crdot r rnoge
uo Suro8 uaaq lpearp e^Er{ teqt suon"sJaluoc ag1 .roa(qns arues arp uo apEru
useq e,/\"r{ leqt slu3lun3re ,sraglo dlrepcnred .uorlE3runruruos
Jo spuDI JBIIruls
3o ,fuorrg arp qtl-A spoB ;no 8ur:uepq 3o ssacord e sr 8unrr4, 'lueuodtur sr
uallrr^\ ro ples uaag seg regt Surrprfuaae pue txat aqt uaa \teg tnq
-puerproJag
Jepeer pue Jorpn" uee^uaq {uo rou-anSoprp se Sunrlrrgo Bapl sIIL .ruJoJ ual
-trr.ta ur uo Bulo8 lpeerp art ter{} suorltsJeluo r3lue ot r',r.or{ Suru;ea13o ssecord
e sr tuarunS.r? par{JJEe$J e etrJn. ot ,laor{ Suru;ea1 .snq1 .8ulllr,ry\ aJ? eta r{llr#a
rnoqt ordor aqt r{f,eorq o} }srg srp lgea.r ralau a-re aaa. .Surrpauros e^ar]eg ot ro
op ol auoaruos eprnsrad ot pepuatur luarun8re uE atrua. ot u.laop trs a./'t uerl,Xt
'(191) ,poprsJaluof, aan:npord otur.rarpaSor rg8no;g oq rr"3 sratunof,ue auo
sacro,r lwru orp Jo r{3lr{-4a
rnoqr srueur8pnf Surleur su?aru,, Surprer ,uosaay {o
r!,tolary aqf 11ooq srq ul srsaSSns olrr{.&ssor3 sauref sE ,peatsul .r{f,reesoJ fre.lgrt
uo pJseg r{rreasar pur8r.lo ro 'spuollpa ,slessa puosrad alirrv, nol Jar{teq^\
anJl sr srql 'uon?urJo3ur Suuaqre8 3o ssacord e sr ,(ydruls ]ou tng ,op no,( rrql
8ullrr.tl Jo surroJ lueru erp ur alor tueuluord e sleld lprrssacau Surpeag
'ursr:nda>1s pue suonsanb
.srapea-r.rnol3o txatuof, plcos cgrcads erpJo lno
sesrJ" r{orEasar yo arncerd pue tdacuoc ag1 .nol rpr.tr aar8e ot srap?eJ apensrad
ol Japro ur ef,uopl e qtr l. srure]r rnod uoddns 01 peeu p,r nol teqt azruSoca.r
nol3r llprcadsa Taat alour ssaco.rd r{)reasal ar{l se>leru uowsraluor e Surcue.r.pe
JoJ sueaur E se r{rJraser Sulaag 'uorssnrsrp rapun na(gns aqt }noqe ocrld ualer
aleq ler-p suonesJaluoc snorae.rd luno3ie olur e>[Et lagr furnnce,r. e ur aceld alet
Jalau stueurnS-le aancaga 'srarpo r{}r^( a nol suorlesra^uof, lrgre^ eqt a>lr-I
"q 'uorlsanb otur seapl
urrto rnol I[e] lBilr s./r\er^ erp puB e>leuJ sJelrJ,Aa
surrelf, erp 01 stuaurnSrcratunor olgrssod aqr
'yaiAsuD pa6?
raPrsuof o1 1u"1( mrr nol 'll[Erg puv 'suospaJ
-p1dard lou arD araqj q)!q^
poo8 .raprsuol p1nolv' no,( trgrrr ere sluarunS.re
ro| pua alndsry o1 uado uD rerp r.roddns ot asn sJelrrlv\ suoseal er{t JI Suleas
lDtll suoqsanb aq plnoqs asnt (lecrrrrc >lro.&\ (sJar{}o pr3r o} tu"1(
ilL^ noa le,ta.
nol pql pul sasrcJ )aq)lal ureuac E ur IaaJ pue >luqt ot nol luera sJatrJ-&.
nol pql suo7sanb aq1 teql asues agt ur 'nol ot tcadsar qtr.l.t. Surxeur are
lagr rerp surrel, 'a>leur sJatu^\ srurel3 eql pJE.^aol
uorlesro^uoO se ]uauJnOlV o fNIIUD l-UVn-LS
 CHAPTER 1. THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

the argu-
listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of
ment; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another

comes ro yorrr d.f..rr.; anorher aligns himself against you, to either

the embar-

rassment tr gradfication ofyour opponent, depending on the qualiry ofyour

allys assisrance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late,
(110-111)
you must depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress'

As this passage describes, every argument you make is connected to

other argu-
ments. Every time you write an argument, the way you position yourself
will
depend. o.t ahr.. things: which previously stated arguments you share' which
p.e,rio,r.Iy .t"t.d yo,, want to refute, and what new opinions and
".g.ir.nr, for
.rrpporti.tg informatlon you are going to bring to the conversation' You may'
but that they have not
.*'r-pl., iffir- o.h.., for raising important issues, assert

given those issues the thought or emphasis that they deserve'

Or you may raise
a related issue that has been ignored entirely'

ENTERING THE CONVERSATION

To develop an argument that is akin to a conversation, it is helpful to think
of z

others make, and the

writing r.', p.o..r. of understanding conficts, the claims
imporiant qu.rtio.rs to ask, not simply as the ability to tell a story that infuences
.."d.rr'ways of looking at the world or to find good reasons to suPport our own
beliefs. The real work of writing a researched argument occurs when
you try to
figure out the answers to the following:

. \Xlhat topics have people been talking about?

. \What is a relevant problem?
. \7[rat kinds of evidence might persuade readers?
\W{hat obiections might readers have?
'
. \w{hat is at stake in this argument? (\x4rat if things change? \x/hat if
things stay the same?)

In answering these questions, you will want to read with an eye toward identi$'ing

an issue, rhe-siruatioirhat calls for some response in writing, and framing a question'

Identifr an Issue

An issue is a fundamental tension that exists between two or more

confict-
ing points of view. For example, imagine that I believe that the best approach

to"educational reform is to change the curriculum in schools. Another

person
might suggest that we need ,o Jd..r, reform by considering social and eco-
nomic concefns. One way to argue the point is for each writer to consider
the

34
9t
'tualgord srql ot seurof 1l ueq1ll lEaJep perBlfep e^?q slErfuo ]Er{l
sra^J3sgo ol les ot suess ]"q] uoEerllrs (3JIIJ0 lzs. e eruocaq seq ssausssleruoH
'auop sra8 Surqrou ral 'ssaussaleuroqJo " urayqord agr lpnrs a1doa6 :prJolrpe req
3]rr^a ol ualpurn| s3lB^rlour tBrll uoll?nlrs arp sr srql 's3ltrf, rarFo puB >lJo1\,{^eN
ur ssaussalsuroq Jo $uasard agr qryln 3 ll ot etuo eAEr{ aldoad lueru rel puy
'sJe1ro 1rcN en8eld ol sreadde lerp ans$ u? sasserppe ualpurn| ,saruxJ
WoA ftiaN
eql ur lBrrorrp) uE sE acard raq Surllu( 'srep"er illvvt e>IBut o1 salr Jorpne uE suon
-3euuo3Jo spur{ aqt satertsnll ipl{na...aruoH r>1T eleld o1q,, lretuauuro3 req ur
ss3leuoq ar{l }noq" rueum8re s.ualpulnt) euuy ot saqdde aldrcuud aues er{I
arFJo rlnsar E sB p3urr:ap saJors a^eq lu3rxa rer{ { oJ,, :lea,r. ruaragli:TTri;:;
PIno3 3uo JO ,.iloor{3s sFp lE s3ro3s pezrprEpu"ls ur surlsap eq} pasusnEur s^eq
sJolsEJ ter{l{.," 'uonsanb p"org er{r $ uopcn}ls qrFJo tno 8ur,tlor3 .aurlrep elqe
-af,nou luu ot rorrd s.real uat oqt Suunp seJors r{tr { slseJtuor puan srr11 .sreal
aag rsed arp Surrnp pasearf3p.(ppears a Er{ s}sa1 przrpr"puers uo seJors .loorps
gSgq pcol e re reql r Jesqo rg8lu aru 'ayd*rexa rod 'uonsenb e eurer3 ro anssr uE
3u5eP ol sler,rr ruaragrp luelu uauo 3rc srerp la^oerotr { 'slseqdua luersgrp " roJ
.pa8urgc aq rg8nu unlnrrr
I[Er tBrF pa lolur sropeJ rarpo aq rg8pu areqt rng
-Jnf, 3rp sdrq.rad 'loorlss relnonred E ur enrt sl ler{rJI 'IIa,&I e}Efrunruutos o1 eJnl
-Eretrl prr" lrorsrg3o a8pey*ou1 tu3r3gns aler{ tou op stueprus r"q} q haul17
.E ]eril ruelgord .tual
l?"ffq7?t) >looq srq ur pagrluapr qrsrlH 'C Jo puq euo
-gord aqr aaan aldoad r or{ uo spuadap esuas e)pur sa8uegc Jelnrrrrn3 rarperl[\
'uorlEnlrs oylcads euros
Jo ]xaluof erF ur snssr u" errJ?g 01 tueuodrur sr t1
uopenrls eqr,$nuep1
({'uor}B3npa jo ad& rueuodurr tsoru aqt $ Ioor{f,s ur uonernpa
leqr,, :tsure8r SuDrJ1r' rc,\{ ar{ uoqrsod r3o rq8q uI os plp puB srurelf, srq rroddns
ol Japro ul pop teat? e pEeJ er{'lessa sq 8uu.rzur. u1 ..lep l-raaa ur o^rl o1( rErp
stueurrroJr^us srIt puE sn punoJe aldoad ew lq pa1"3np3 3rE a1lt .looqrs ur uJeal
e.4A tEqt st3"J pue srdacuo: lq porrcnpa rsn( lou eJe alN,, :ler,a. srgr ur enssr aql
paruerj all 'ecuauadxa plror\-per uo qSnoua tou pue Surureal paseq-loor{rs uo
srseqdua r{rnru oot pereld Surpear serrr aq
1ooq e teqt tlal sluapnls &u3o aug
'SuraToaa slertrp are stuaurn8Je pu" crureulp eJ? sanssr reql purur ur daay
'sarnseeur elnf,ega aq qtoq leru e8ueqc 3rurou
-of,eorros pu" rrrnln3rJrnf, Jo slarcl arp 1" urroJar reqr an?re plnor auo .t:e3 u1
'rar{}o rpBa ateprpaur lgrEsss3eu tou lrur slurels Suncrguor 3rp .anssr ue.;o sl.red
luaJsJIP SuruSap ur 1eq] ef,EoN 'le 3] srruouoseorsos eql tE Jn3f,o plnoqs ruJoJsr
lEi{} a all3q aldoed auros leq} (1) sr uvd puosas eqr tunprr.unf er{l ur seSurgo
g8norrp rnro ppor{s urJoJar lpuonmnpa ter{} a^erleq aldoad eruos regr (z)
sr enssr agr 3o ued 3uo '1$.olloJ of auo tsag eql ag rg8nu gceordde .rraqr &1,vr
suosE3r 3rlt pue 'spog asorp rpeeJ ]S3q o] -6A0rl 'areqs
laqr leq] uoEBlnpa 3o spoS
uollesra^UoJ se tuaLUnOJV . fN:llu3 IUVnIS
 CHAPTER 1 . THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

Frame a Good Question

A good quesdon can help you think through what you might be interested in 12

writing; it is specific enough to guide inquiry and meets the following criteria: tu
wi[
. It can be answered with the tools you have.
. It conveys a clear idea of who you are answering the question for. w
' It is organized around an issue.
t It explores "how," "*hy," or "whether," and the "extent to which'" do.

A good question, then, is one thar can be answered given the access we have to
certain kinds of information. The tools we have at hand can be people or other
texts. A good quesdon also grows out of an issue, some fundamental tension that
you identifi, within a conversation. Through identifying what is at issue, you
should begin to understand for whom it is an i5511s-\M[rs you are answering
the question for.
tD!|
hd
FRAMING AS A CRITICAL STRATEGY FORWRITING, aod
READING, AND DOING RESEARCH
Thus far, Ihave presented a conversational model of argument, describing of
writing as a form of dialogue, with writers responding to the ways others have
defined problems and anticipating possible countefarguments. In this section,
I want to add another element that some people call framing. This is a stlategF
that can help you orchesrrate different and conflicting voices in advancing your
argument.
Framing is a metaphor for describing the lens, or perspective, from which 14

writers present their arguments. \(&iters want us to see the world in one way as
opposed ro anorher, not unlike the way a photographer manipulates a camera
lens to frame a picture. For example, if you were taking a picture of friends in
front of the football stadium on campus, you would focus on what you would
most like ro remember, blurring the images of people in the background. How
you set up rhe picture, or frame it, might entail using light and shade to make
some images stand out more rhan others. \Triters do the same with language.
For instance, in writing about education in the United States, E. D. Hirsch 15

uses the term culturdl literacy as a way to understand a problem, in this case
the decline of literary. To say that there is a decline, Hirsch has to establish the
criteria against which to measure whether some people are literate and some
are not. Hirsch uses culrural literacy as a lens through which to discriminate
between those who fulfill his criteria for literacy and those who do not. He
defines cuhural literary as possessing certain kinds of information. Not all educa-
tors agree. Some oppose equating literacy and information, describing literary as

36
LE
ituepnrs E s" arueltadxa u-&\o rno/ lnog? PuelsraPun nol dlaq ldacuoc
? r{f,ns saop rEIl.^ curnt uI 'tuepnts s" eJI] sq lnoge PuelsraPun or zen8t:poa
"
6L sdloq ,foq drqsreloqcs,, go uoltou eq1 t?q,l.r raPlsuor 'a8essed slql PeaJ no-4 sy
'a,titcads.rad.^aau e uorJ acuarradxa sn{ lIsIAar 01 urrq solgeua .y'oq drqs
-reloqrs,,Jo uonou srqr Suls;1 'hatatryto rasn aW'iooq Lg6I s,r:e33o11 Pr"I{rry
ur sp?el aq r"r{1 ,y'oq drgs;e1oqls,, Jo tdacuoc SurruerS agr g8norqr luaPnls E sE
3cueuedxe srq slleloJ zan8upoa esrtoN 'stuzr8trurut uEfIxoW io uos 3r{l sE
^\oI{
&rruapl srq Surcgr.rces tur3ur slr{r Jr ua a 'oJntTnf ru?aJlsulelrr Jelua ot rg8nos
dprrradsap oq,tr rlsrfuE 3o raleads ollleuuou E s" P3Juelradxa aq slrIguof
agr surcldxa zanBirpog '{ooq slqt u1 'horua14 lo 'LaSung tloularu s,zanBrrpog
prer{1ry urory tdraf,xa 8ur.ta.ogo; aqr Sulptor uI erueg pnldacuoo rue;agtp -&a,r.
z qBno.iqr saouat.rodxa puoll?rnPa rnol rnoge lurqr rq8nu nor( l1a,r.neurar1y
'ag rq8nu uone3nPa Jo asod:nd ei1r leryd lnoqe luorun8rc ue 8ur
-do1a,r.apur sdrrrt rteu uI sacuar.radxa rno,'( uodn loagal ol u#ag,{zru nol 'aprcap
nol ;a,lateg16 'tou '[a^\ no-{ pa,r'-res uol]ErnPe ol
ser{ 1I tEiF alqrssod os]E sI 1I
qceorddt u? rlfns teqt pue uolt?ulroJul Surltlnuncce lnoge -{lear sr-u nod ro3
Suqooqcs rrqr azruSocar rqSFu notr lcerarrl plnllnf 3o uorrdacuof srrssrrH Jo
sual aqt g8norqr sretlrld pu? srePEar st sacuerradxa .rnol JaPlsuoo rg8pu nol
'aldturxa rcl'ulqpru.tolrl ,rl qrrars a su Sutyaat utotT [anbut su Sutyuat gsrn8urr
-srp I sreH 'sJaqloJo seePr ar{r ro sEaPI u.^ao lno uo rq31 Paqs ol -rapro ui udac
-uoc Surturr3 Sursn put asn sIatIr,^ teqr sar8aterrs 8urrue;3 arp Surpurrsrapun
sll"lua Surpeor ]EI{l ueeul 1 'lrrnbut P)rlIJo lg 'pea:
no.{ uerl,tt lrrnbur pcru:o3o
l8arerts e se Sururer3 tnoq" >luqt ot no.( alII PPo.^a 1 'luaunS.re srql Pu3lxe oI
'saop 8unurcd e ro '3uos e 'r(essa u" JoJ elln e reqr dt,la. eurcs aq] ur ',sJaP"3J PUE
,srq8noqr rno.{ ezrue8.ro nol sdpq Sururer3 'rptnog 'uollEsraluor
3o rrrtds aqr ut
eBBBua ot tue,^ 11t,t no.{ rzqr stueun8J?retunof el"rauo8 or pue luarun8re rnol ot
puodsar ot sroqto Suqqeua 'luatun3.rr rnol sagrcods Surure;; 'Prlrll 'o1 Puodser
ot alnu?rsqns Sutqtaruos sJePEer aa€ no.( 'luarun8rz rno,{ Suugap ,(g ..'p1rom
urePour 3r{1 ui e lli{} ol PePeeu uoll?urroJul ls"q Jo uolssassod eql,, se hrua
-1I /v.lru/nr seugap I{3srIH 'alduexe rog 'sdola,tap
lueurn8J" -rno-{ qcrgr'L
PunoJE
aldrturrd aqr 3o uondufsep pu? uortru5ap E r{tog JeJo ot nol sef,JoJ Surruer3
'puof,es 'slr"rop srq seztutS:o eq IPHI( punon-,{oEralII Prnllnc-aldroul:d
eqt I]Elor ,(aqr rnq 'ruerun8lt srrlsrlHJo lltrap ltaaa roqualual lou ,(?ru srePEeU
'ssr]oeqr pue sru.rat le1 qSnolqr alqtroruaur des no,( rtqrrr sa>IElu osp 8ullur5 'op
srarpo sd?^\ eqr uro{ PIro,,vr eql lnoqe >luryl no,( le,tl aql Surqsrn8ullslP 'uolllsod
rno.4 aureu or no-,( so8elnorua Sunuer3 'tsrrg 'luaurnS.re ue 8urdo1a,r.ap roj l8e
9r -]"rls t se 8u[utr3 asn 01 suos"er rnoJ PagDuaPI e^?q I !a]u.^a e se 1ro,u dru u1
'srer{lo 1ou pu? s8urqt aruos aas ilL^a
sJap?al :uoISIAJo e8uer ,srapzal tIuIIT u€f sual .ro aarlradsred lue 'aas uec nol sy
'&runufiuoc Jo >lro1( arp qsrtdruoc]E ot ,^ .ou{ laqr req,lt esn aldoad ,^ oq lnoge
"
Surqtautos sles atqcAtd,t0 luaaa ut st lcuattl jo uollou aql 'PEslsuI :uoIl?IuJoJuI
an8re oi arxp?rd e st to luaaa ue
Jo strg Surrrnbce ot peuguor rou sr .4ctrarq reqr
uollesraluo3 se tuaLUn6rV . lNllEC fUVn_LS
 CHAPTER 1 . THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

Motivated to reflect For weeks I read, speed-read, books by modern

upon his life as a student, educational theorists, only to find infrequent
Rodriguez comes across andslightmentionofstudentslikeme. . . . Then
Richard Hoggartt book one day, leafing through Richard Hoggart's The
and a description of "the Uses of Literary, I found, in his description ofthe

scholarship boy." scholarship boy, myself. For the first time I real-
ized that there were other students like me, and
His initial response is to so I was able to frame the meaning of my aca-

identify with Hoggartt demic success, its consequent price-the loss.

description. Notice thar Hoggartt description is distinguished, at

Rodriguez says he used least initially, by deep understanding. V4rat
what he read to "frame the he grasps very well is that the scholarship
meaning of my academic boy must move between environments, his
success." home and the classroom, which are at cultural
extremes, opposed. \7ith his family, the boyhas
the intense pleasure of intimary, the familys
consolation in feeling public alienation. Lavish
emotions texture home life. Zlten, al school,
the instruction bids him to trust lonely rea-
son primarily. Immediate needs set the pace of
his parents' lives. From his mother and father
the boy learns to trust spontaneiry and nonra-
The scholarship boy tional ways of knowing. 7'/ten, at school, there
moves between school and is mental calm. Teachers emphasize the value
home, between moments of a reflectiveness that oPens a space between
ofspontaneiry and thinking and immediate action.
refectiveness. Years of schooling must pass before the
boy will be able to sketch the cultural differ-
ences in his day as abstractly as this. But he
senses those differences early. Perhaps as early
as the night he brings home an assignment
from school and finds the house too noisy for
study.
Rodriguez uses Hoggartt He has to be more and more alone, if he
words and idea to advance is going to "get on." He will have, probably
his own understanding of the unconsciously, to oppose the ethos ofthe health,
problem he identifies in his the intense gregariousness of the working-class
life: that he was unable to family group. . . . The Lroy has to cut himself
find solace at home andwithin off mentally, so as to do his homework, as well
his working-class roots. as he can. (47)

38
6t
'suosar ueeoo snorJnxnl pue 'saror{s lpu?s esoderxnf [lm aqs
arrq 'srare,tr enlg prslrc ql1,l\ pepunoJrns puEIsI rerp rcadxa or dn srapear
^,
ue uo puads or slep ua3ryg pzr{ i 'puelsl ueaqqlreJ res 3ral{ sraipe8 oqs sllerap
E roJ papear{ pue eueld e pepreog J 'aur pull{3q el3rruof, elp }Er[] af,I]ou tnq
uolle3npa uef,rJarrrvJo s.reel uaalrtgt qtl.& 'loor{3s ltdaruoc Surruers JrI{ ParuEu
g31g ruo;g Sulrenpe.r8 reur >Ier( auo lpcexE lal lou ser{ ratlrl( ar{I
IIerrEd rayuuaf
<augap
iaqrrf,s3p pue 'aureu or raq dpq saure5 osaqt op aouarradxe tEqA\ isnroJ otul
Sung raruzrr aqt dpg seopr aseyt op leq/k\ .<'euazl:eluo3 ar{r3o s}rv,, eppe speJd
asmol Lreyg ruog 1f,€tuo1, pue <JJorl"Jntlmsrren , srdacuoc Sururery orul
- (.auoz -
sem relrrx\ arp /(oq flesrno,( 1se tftssa s.ruaprus slIp ulog ldracxa arP PEar nol ry
'srseq prlos e seq tueunS.re rnol lerp acuarpnt rnol
af,ur uo3 lla,rnraga rsoru [y!r gclgrrr Surururra]ap 'saruauedxe :nol-azlpue
pue-esn lsnru nol pee$ul 'uorurdo ue Surtrasse lldruls ro 'sa:uatradxa3:o
rsrl aldurs e Surlzrreu puoleq Suro8 sueau srr11 '8u1u:zal repury llpnrce
uef sluapnts rroddns ot sldruarle Sunrearu-i1em rsouJ ar{r uela rer{r 'aldruexa
ro.1
:uortrsod e an8re o] sa:uarradxa asoqr asn nol regr sr Surqr lutuodurr
3r{I 'ureqr paruangur e Er{ oqr aldoadgo suorrdtnsep pesn a Er{ sral{to pue
'acuar:adxa proagd E uo pemfoJ a BII euros 'saAII eJllu3 JIarF tsorxpJo ltal^Jelo
ue parryo areq aldoad aruos 'tuaruu8rsse srqr or Surpuodsar ut 'tsed erp u1
i$urB5 IEf,rllJf, mol armrldruo3 ro Pustxe ssrusrJedxe
rnol op rurol{ isef,uarradxa .rnol urorj ureel 01 ureql ruen' nol }Ery( sJap"ar
rnol qceal nol dpg slxat asarlt ruo+ sEapl ro 'saserqd 'surrar lal rEtLK'u1(o
rnol uo auop a Er{ leu nol Surpear agr 3o lue ro tuaurn8re rnol aruer3 ot
(r{]srlH 'arra.rg) srorpne rnoJ erll
lrun srp ur p3pnllur (rrer4 's8uqpfl-uospeT
'aJII -rnol ur nol or tuearu seq tl rer{ r pue
Jo o^\r asn 'lesse rnol Sunrur uI
uon"lnpa lnoqe tuarun8re ue Surdo]a ap q sa:uerladxa e311 rnol uo aErC
:3uvur.o11o3 aqr
oP 01 rarl Pa>lsE PsPuodsa.r sgs q3lrryt ol luaruu8rss? ag1 .,'gslueds uI lr?f,Ir3urv,
8ururee1,, paFll 'aro:aa ruapnls uoursodruoc Jea/-lsrg e rueurngJe palpJerser ?
LZ uro5 ]dJerxa ue tE iool s.re1 'q;ozrr SurureJj ,,r,r.ol{Jo esues ? a,reg nol tegt .^ oN
<pu3rxa
,,1hq dTqs.qaqJs se rnret E rpns arecllduror Jo 'a8ualJeqc saouauedxa
lur oq,, ro ((iaqlJrsrp rre33o11 prre zan3upog leqrr uo rq8q a,rnnod arour p,troJl{l
tdacuoc slpsllH s3op tuetxa terfra' oL, '1se rg8pr nol :arpmg '(,,[r Lraa rog,,
te.&sue plnor no,( g:rqrrt. or) ..;aauauadxa ,{ut ot ,{1dde rbq dtqstryoqts uttar s,rre88og
saop llara 1(og,, '8ur>Ise or pasoddo s?-rr,v\o ;nol ro seldwexa s.Jerlrl( ralpoue Jo
sradse naau seteururnm rura] srre33o11 rq31u nol 'uollernpe rnoqe Surqr
^\oq IsE
-aruos lrs ot r{3lr+{ q8no:rp sual B sE rtoq dVcluEoqts urrar s,ueB3o11 Sursn drssa ue
Surtrut arar"r nol31 'seapr w\{o mol rnoge a.roru des nod Surdpq JoJ sloo} sB alres
rrer slxel s,aldoad rarpo ]Br{r lcEJ aqr srq8ryp1q Sulure.ggo eap{ etfr 'rdracxa sqr uI
uollesreluoJ se lueurn6:y r fNllUD l-UVnIS
 CHAPTER 1 o THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

'\fithbeaches to play on by day and casinos to play

the culture of Guayabal
and the Dominican in during the night, I was told that this country was
Republic with that of the an exciting new tourist destination. My days in the
United States. Dominican Republic, however, were not filled with
snorkeling lessons and my nights were not spent at
the blackjack table. Instead ofvisiting the ritzy East
Coast, I traveled inland to a mountain community
with no running water and no electricity' The bus
ride to this town, called Guayabal, was long, hot, and
uncomfortable. The mountain roads were not paved
and the bus had no air-conditioning. Surprisingly,
the four-hour ride flew by. I had plenty to think
about as my mind raced with thoughts of the next
two weeks. I wondered if my host family would be
welcoming, if the teenagers would be friendly, and if
myworkwould be hard. i mentally prepared myself
for life without the weryday luxuries of a flushing
toilet, a hot shower, and a comfortable bed' Because
Guayabal was without such basic commodities, I did
not expect to see many reminders of home' I thought
I was going to leave behind myAmerican ways and
immerse myself into another culture' These thoughm
filled my head as the bus climbed the roclg' hill
toward Guayabal.'When I finally got offthe bus and
stepped into the town square, I realized that I had
thought wrong: There was no escaping the influence
of the American culture.
In a way, Guayabal was an example of what
The writer names her
author Mary Louise Pratt refers to as a contact zane'
experience as an examPle
Pratt defines a contact zone as "aplacewhere cultures
ofPrattk concePdon ofa
meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in
"contact zone." Further,
contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power"
the writer expands on
(7 6). In Guayabal, American culture and American
Pratt's quote by relating it
consumerism were clashing with the Hispanic and
to her own observations.
Caribbean culture of the Dominican Republic'
And finally, she uses this
The clash came from the Dominicans' desire to be
frame as a way to organize
American in every sense, and especially to be con-
the narrative (as oPPosed
sumers ofAmerican products. This is nearly impos-
to ordering her narrative
sible for Dominicans to achieve due to their extreme
chronologically).
poverty. Their poverty provided the 'asymmetrical
relation ofpower" found in contact zones, because it
impeded not only the Dominicant abiliry to be

40
Li
Tf,nJl urEeJf,-af,r ar{t JaIs asEr{f,
uerplrqr rrmrreury sE tsnf (rurq raue paser{f, ,tlta?ea
uarpllr{r umrnruoq rr{I 't3>lseq alcl:1q tuor3 erp
ur urEar3 aolJo IIrg raloor E Sulcuepq pue IIaq puer{ 'uor1EJn1]nf sueJl
r 3u13urr 'eplcrq e uo lq 3plr uetu E oes ot erun
3o aldurexa
ur lsnf sPlslno P3>lool I (iureerf, a3I iurBar3 3]L, ro J3rpoue sJeJo JstrJ {
,siopelrH iopEIaH,, '3ur1al uarpllr{r aruos preerl I 3qI 'ereq 1x3tuo3
ual{ 4. uoouJaryE lol{ E uo sel1\ uollBzllEJnllnf,suBJl UA/rO JeI{ SflSOJ OluI
snp 3o .&orueu p1a1z' rsou ly,q 'se/rs uecrraury pue Surrg or rapro ur uerd
uelrururoq rpog SururquroJ aJntlnr e3o uorssardxa setonb aqs ure8e ara11
anbrun E patuolur prre 'arntln3 rrzf,rJaury tueulruop
arp go srcadse palcalas'sue3rurruoc paqsrrar'odur3o
{('uonemllnrsuBJl,, Jo
dn aperu 'dno.r8 pufreru arp 'pqrlengJo euoz rcel tdeluor Sururer3 suer4
-uor erlr uI 'seuoz tf,EtuorJo arnteeJ 8u/+rruapr ue Surcnportur'uoudrrcsap
sr uonerrrllnrsuen lerp surrep ar{S '(gg) ..a;nrpc uer
raq or.ralel rarporre
-lodolaur Jo tuEururop e lg parrtusue[ slerraleur SPPB rorpne 3qI
urorJ ]u3lur prre Delas sdnor8 pulS.retu ro peteu
-lproqns Jo sr3gurarrr lqareql.t. ssssecord aqlrrsop,,
o] Pssn sr urJ3l srrll 'uol]ernllnfsrrerl srql s[[e] 'uorlE Jasgo
nerd 'lsr1r\r rrEsrurluoo PaPPs ue rpp\ lnq 'arnt[n3 s,rorpne erp 3o rred
uerrJaurvJo padse ue pardope per{ sue3rururoq sE aJar{steaddeat'auoz
arl] af,uelsur rlf,ea q 'f,rmru an8uararu rle3rur{uoq p?luor Jo uoErugaP aqr
puoupeJl aTtJo uorsJr upf,rJaurv arp (esnor{ ur pasn 'qsrp gte^s,netd
sn8ua;aru ot peu3tsrl I 'pqtolseq Surleld e1rq,r.r
rBI{r 3roN'saqlrcseP
'qqy8uE tsaq rrat1r uI ..a{IW a{II eq euuerrr 1,, 'les ]rBrd ]Eq1( ol rellluls
sloq apn prearl I 'surrs raByIIH luxuolgolcou4 sr aruarradxa srr{}
.^&Es 'sef,ual lpa8Ber uo perured spe ^{oq
I "lo3-ero3 Sur1!,gep'pacuarradxa
'Errrarrly3o sasdurq8 oFtrl aes 1 pqeleng
^\es I er{s tBr{naJo uorlEr}snlll
uI Pa>Iool l aragr,a,fiarrg 'arrulnr dod umuaury3o u? sle-uo rJtrJ/s eql
uorleluasa:dar paruaur3rr3 .srre3rurruoq aqt ur tua
-redde se,ll r1 'lr.raaod s.&runruuroo orp pue 'ernt[n]
rre3rururoC eql (aJnl[nJ uefrJauryarJl uea \]ag
qsep arp parnou I snq 3qtJo 1og I luauroru aql 'turod rar{ r:oddns
'&uarros a8e tz
o1 sfusPrAa atsJ3UOJ
srrEag aagof, Surprd [i]s se,& oryra ueru plo peru ar{l sapraord Ja1rr,^ ar{I
Jo spuBq peJaqteel'uaorq aqt ur u3es eq plnor rI
'o8ueur adrrrapun ue se r a.ro3eq lep aq] tea ot per{
3r{ IP esnBaq Iooqls uI alertualuo3 }!PIno3 orr(
loq p1o-real-u3 as arpJo sala arp ur uaas ag plnor
lrrarod rrarpJo srcaga 3qI 4rylpr.{ a II o} pue
'>lJo\ ot 'uJeal ot lrrpqe rraqr osp tnq 'sreurnsuof
uollesre^uo3 se lueLunOrV . fNllfUC l_UVnIS
 CHAPTER 1, THRESHOLD CONCEPTS

Although you will notice rhar the r,vriter does not challenge the framing rerms
she uses in this paper,it is clear that rarher than simply reproducing Pratt's ideas
and using her as the Voice of Authoriry she incorporates Pratt's understandings
to enable her to say more about her own experiences and ideas. Moreover, she
uses this frame to advance an argtlment in order to affect her readers' vielvs of
culture. In turn, rvhen she mentions others' ideas, she does so in the service of
rvhat she wants to say.

.WRITING
CONCLUSIONI RESEARCHED ARGUMENTS

I want to conclude this chapter by making a distinction between rwo different

On the one hand, research is often taught as a Process of col-
viervs of research.
lecting information for its or'vn sake. On the other hand, research can also be
conceived as the disco\rery and purposeful use of information. The emphasis
here is u:pofl use and the \\rays you can shape information in wa,vs that enable you
to enrer con\rersatiotls. To do so, vou need to demonstrate to readers that you
undelstand the conr.ersation: rvhat others have said in the pasr, what the context
is, and rvhat you anticipate is the direction this conversation might take. Keep
in mind, however, that contexts are neither found nor located. Rather, context,
derir.ed from the Latin contexrir, denotes a process of r'veaving together. Thus
your attempt to understand context is an active process of making connections
among rhe different and conflicting views people present within a conversation.
Your version of the context u'ill var,v from others' interpretations.
Your attempts to understand a given conversation mav PromPt you to do
research, as rvili your attempts to define what is at issue. Your reading and inquiry
can help you construct a question that is rooted in some issue that is open to
dispute. In turn, you need to ask yourself what is at stake for you and your
reader other than the fact that you might be interested in educational reform,
homelessness, amrmative action, or any other subject. Finally, your research can
provide a means for framing an afgu.ment in order to move a conversation along
and to say something ne\\'.
If yor.r see inquiry as a means of entering conversations, then you will under-
srand research as a social process. It need not be the tedious task of collecting
information for its orvn sake. Rather, research has the potential to change read-
ers' rvorldviews and your own.

42
tn
i
'8umre:j pu? uonesla^uor se tuarunS:t ,
Jo suonou agr g8norqr >lurqr atu Surdlaq :o3 llsurprl pdy ptre rnqrr) traqo1 >lurqt ol qsl-tt I
rueuSPel,,r ou{f,Y
's)loog uJ"turg
:IroI .l't.aN 'zanSTtyoy paqtrylo uo4?rn?J aq1 :fuorua2,1Jto nSung t86I 'pr"qrrv 'zan8r.rpoX
'rsnoH uIoPu"U :)1]o ./deN 'VV-ZV 'ax?nx.t(J 2f
PuI1
1ilqilJ ary ?ruzs.tad aql ug :Vno7 u6 Suqu?ql u1,'aruoH rll-I ar"ld oN,, 't66I 'euuy'ualpurn|
'0t€€:$66I) y6 uotssalot6 ({'ruoz rrEtuo) 3r{rJo srry,, 'asrnol l-rzry 'rrer4
'ssa.r4 a8a1o3 sJ3qr"al :>llo -4\rN
'uarFlxq) uotttaury uutu{ylo aaqtaal y{ssanns :aadaalrupate aql '166I 'euol3 's8ulillg-uospE I
's1oog a8erurA :Iro .ttaN 'houtt'1 ytu1n2 'Lg6I 'q 'g '.qrsrrH
trrnnurluo) :Iro .^aaN 'yassatddg acltlo r6o8rpa4'016I 'olned 'arJ3rC
'sserd ursuolsrlN
Jo ltrsra^run :T4N
'uosrp"W tuarut&tylo suaxraulv aqt ?uu 3u111t4, :uosaay lo utuap ,qL '966I 'saurzf 'arrqmssor3
'ssard BruroJIIeJJo &rsra^rull :la1a1:ag 'utog f.rautt7lo rQdosopr.l4 aq1 'I?6I 'qteuue) 'a>l]ng
dau ua1 qe: o qa p u"'! qrslu r rurug ?.r? qrE g
c [n?d' Ia d;:ffi '[1 :;?-yi ;il"" :;:;;;E
tt ut SutuaayT Suutqo&aN :yau{aya6 ruaan8ty :?alxsxa2y ruarunZty u1 ..'uoneruarun8ry
Jo sruroC a^u"urallv q8no:q1 rllaol-9 Te)rqtg :luoteqg uer:a3o6,, '9661 '8nog 'rua-rg
'qoog ProJPag :{ro .^.aN
'statrqA u! [3o10WuV uV :8u1Vaay lo s,Cag '9661 'l1so:ra4 luoqruy pu" '.pl^rq 'a?ruoloq]r?g
PETIJ SIJOI(
uollesranuo3 se 1uaun6:y . lNllUC lUVnlS