A review of flywheel energy storage systems: state of

the art and opportunities

Xiaojun Lia,b,∗, Alan Palazzoloa

a Dwight Look College of Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas,
77840, USA
arXiv:2103.05224v4 [eess.SY] 2 Dec 2021

b Gotion Inc, Fremont, CA, 94538, USA

Abstract

Thanks to the unique advantages such as long life cycles, high power density,
minimal environmental impact, and high power quality such as fast response and
voltage stability, the flywheel/kinetic energy storage system (FESS) is gaining
attention recently. There is noticeable progress in FESS, especially in utility,
large-scale deployment for the electrical grid, and renewable energy applications.
This paper gives a review of the recent developments in FESS technologies.
Due to the highly interdisciplinary nature of FESSs, we survey different design
approaches, choices of subsystems, and the effects on performance, cost, and
applications. This review focuses on the state of the art of FESS technologies,
especially those commissioned or prototyped. We also highlighted the opportu-
nities and potential directions for the future development of FESS technologies.
Keywords: energy storage, flywheel, renewable energy, battery, magnetic
bearing
2010 MSC: 00-01, 99-00

1. Introduction

In the past decade, considerable efforts have been made in renewable energy
technologies such as wind and solar energies. Renewable energy sources are ideal

∗ Corresponding author
Email address: [email protected] (Xiaojun Li)

Preprint submitted to Elsevier December 6, 2021

for replacing fossil fuels to provide sustainable and clean energies. Besides, they
are more available globally, where electrical shortages are frequent due to poor
infrastructure. However, wind and solar power’s intermittent nature prevents
them from being independent and reliable energy sources for micro-grids. En-
ergy storage systems (ESS) play an essential role in providing continuous and
high-quality power. ESSs store intermittent renewable energy to create reli-
able micro-grids that run continuously and efficiently distribute electricity by
balancing the supply and the load [1]. The existing energy storage systems
use various technologies, including hydroelectricity, batteries, supercapacitors,
thermal storage, energy storage flywheels,[2] and others. Pumped hydro has the
largest deployment so far, but it is limited by geographical locations. Primary
candidates for large-deployment capable, scalable solutions can be narrowed
down to three: Li-ion batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels.
The lithium-ion battery has a high energy density, lower cost per energy
capacity but much less power density, and high cost per power capacity. This
explains its popularity in applications that require high energy capacities and
are weight-sensitive, such as automotive and consumer electronics. Comparing
to batteries, both flywheel and supercapacitor have high power density and
lower cost per power capacity. The drawback of supercapacitors is that it has
a narrower discharge duration and significant self-discharges. Energy storage
flywheels are usually supported by active magnetic bearing (AMB) systems to
avoid friction loss. Therefore, it can store energy at high efficiency over a long
duration. Although it was estimated in [3] that after 2030, li-ion batteries would
be more cost-competitive than any alternative for most applications. FESSs are
still competitive for applications that need frequent charge/discharge at a large
number of cycles. Flywheels also have the least environmental impact amongst
the three technologies, since it contains no chemicals. It makes FESS a good
candidate for electrical grid regulation to improve distribution efficiency and
smoothing power output from renewable energy sources like wind/solar farms.
Besides, because of their high power density and fast response time, typical
applications of FESSs also include uninterrupted power service (UPS), hybrid

2
locomotives, and power pulsation.
FESSs are introduced as a form of mechanical ESS in several books[4, 2].
Several review papers address different aspects of FESS researches [5, 6]. Many
have focused on its application in renewable energies [5], especially in power
smoothing for wind turbines[7]. There is also one investigation into the auto-
motive area [8]. These reviews have a strong emphasis on applications and grid
integration or market overview/outlook[9]. Nevertheless, there is less review
focusing on the technological aspects. Since FESS is a highly inter-disciplinary
subject, this paper gives insights such as the choice of flywheel materials, bearing
technologies, and the implications for the overall design and performance. For
the application survey, we focus on the FESS systems that have been commis-
sioned or at least have completed a prototype system. [10, 4] also give overviews
of the main components and the related technologies for FESS. But they have
less information regarding new trends and future directions. This review focuses
on the state-of-art of FESS development, such as the rising interest and success
of steel flywheels in the industry. In the end, we discuss areas with a lack of
research and potential directions to advance the technology.

2. Working principles and technologies

High Strength Steel Flywheel Superconducting Magnetic Bearing

Composite Flywheel y Bea Heteropolar Magnetic Bearing
log rin
Shaftless Flywheel no g Homopolar Magnetic Bearing
Active Magnetic Bearing Heteropolar Active
ch

Te

Annulus Flywheel
r Te

ch

Passive Magnetic Bearing

nol

Shell Flywheel
Roto

Hybrid Bearing
ogy

Hybrid Flywheel Magnetic Bearing

Ball Bearing
Catcher Bearing Bearingless Machine
Induction Machine
A u xi

Impact Damper
r

Homopolar Machine
e rte
lary

Vibration Isolator Permanent Magnet

nv

Synchronous Machine
Active Vacuum System mp
Co

Co

on er Switch reluctance Machine

Po w Back-to-Back Converter
Passive Vacuum System ent
Cooling System AC-to-AC Converter

Figure 1: An overview of system components for a flywheel energy storage system.

3
Figure 2: A typical flywheel energy storage system [11], which includes a flywheel/rotor, an
electric machine, bearings, and power electronics.

2.1. Overview

Unlike the electrochemical-based battery systems, the FESS uses an electro-

mechanical device that stores rotational kinetic energy (E) , which is a function
of the rotational speed (ω) and the rotor’s primary moment of inertia (Ip ) :

1
E= Ip ω 2 . (1)
2
Fig. 1 has been produced to illustrate the flywheel energy storage system,
including its sub-components and the related technologies. A FESS consists of
several key components:1) A rotor/flywheel for storing the kinetic energy. 2) A
bearing system to support the rotor/flywheel. 3) A power converter system for
charge and discharge, including an electric machine and power electronics. 4)
Other auxiliary components. As an example, the structure of a typical FESS is
depicted in Fig. 2.
To achieve a higher energy capacity, FESSs either include a rotor with a
significant moment of inertia or operate at a fast spinning speed. Most of the
flywheel rotors are made of either composite or metallic materials. For exam-
ple, the FESS depicted in Fig. 3 includes a composite flywheel rotor [12], whose

4
Figure 3: The Beacon Power Flywheel [12], which includes a composite rotor and an electric
machine, is designed for frequency regulation.

operational speed is over 15,000 RPM. When spinning, the rotor is supported
by operational bearings. The bearings can be either mechanical or magnetic.
Magnetic bearings are preferred for minimal standby loss and maintenance re-
quirements. For a composite flywheel, such as the one [13] depicted in Fig. 4,
the rotor is usually carried by a metallic shaft that is magnetically permeable
so that it can work with magnetic bearings and the motor/generator. Like the
one depicted in Fig. 5, the shaft can be integrated with the rotor for a steel
flywheel. A FESS also includes an energy converter. A mainstream choice is an
electric machine like a motor/generator, such as the devices depicted in Fig. 5.
The motor/generator converts the kinetic energy to electricity and vice versa.
Alternatively, magnetic or mechanical gears can be used to directly couple the
flywheel with the external load. To reduce standby loss, the flywheel rotor
is often placed in a vacuum enclosure. Other auxiliary components include a
vacuum pump, catcher bearings, and a cooling system.

2.2. Flywheel/Rotor

The flywheel (also named as rotor or rim) is the essential part of a FESS.
This part stores most of the kinetic energy during the operation. As such, the

5
 Figure 4: Multi-rim composite flywheel and the shrink-fit process [13]

rotor’s design is critical for energy capacity and is usually the starting point
of the entire FESS design. The following equations[14] describe the energy
capacity of a flywheel:
E
= α0 α00 α000 Kσ/ρ (2)
m
E
= α0 α00 α000 Kσ (3)
v
where α0 is the safety factor, α00 the depth of discharge factor, α000 the ratio
of rotating mass to the total system mass, σ the material’s tensile strength,
K the shape factor , and ρ the density. A rotor with lower density and high
tensile strength will have higher specific energy(energy per mass), while energy
density(energy per volume) is not affected by the material’s density. Typically,
the rotor is carried by a shaft that is subsequently supported by bearings. The
shaft also acts as the rotating part of the motor/generator. The orientation of
the rotor-shaft assembly can be horizontal or vertical. Two kinds of materials
are often chosen in building the rotor: composite and metal.

2.2.1. Composite flywheel

Research in composite flywheel design has been primarily focused on improv-
ing its specific energy. There is a direct link between the material’s strength-to-
mass density ratio and the flywheel’s specific energy. Composite materials stand
out for their low density and high tensile strength. Since they are anisotropic,

6
composite materials have higher longitudinal tensile strength but much weaker
radial tensile strength, the latter of which limits their energy capacity. Shrink-
fitting multiple thin composite rims can improve this shortcoming by reducing
stresses in the radial direction. The popular design criterion for composite
flywheels is the Tsai-Wu failure criterion [15]. A composite flywheel usually
includes several different materials such as carbon fiber, glass fiber, and epoxy.
An optimization process is often carried out to find the optimal design consid-
ering rim thickness, shrink-fit allowances, and different material combinations
[16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Although composite materials can achieve a fairly high spe-
cific energy (50- 100 Wh/kg)[21]. It often needs a metallic shaft to interact with
bearings and motor/generator, resulting in lower specific energy overall. When
considering the whole flywheel, one of the composite prototypes [22] reached
11.7 Wh/kg.

2.2.2. Steel flywheel

Historically, steel flywheel was considered ”low-speed” and ”older” technol-
ogy associated with high-loss mechanical bearing. There is less research in the
steel/isotropic flywheel design [23, 24]. These works focus on improving the
specific energy and energy density by finding the optimal geometric profile or
utilizing a novel configuration. Recently, steel flywheels are regaining many
interests due to their advantages, such as low cost, easy fabrication, and bet-
ter recyclability. Section 4.1.1 gives a more detailed discussion of the recent
development of FESS based on high-strength steel flywheel.

2.3. Operational Bearings

Operational bearings are the set of bearings that support the rotor when it
is under normal operation. One of the features of a modern FESS is the use of
Magnetic Bearings (MB). MB allows the rotor being spinning without physically
contacting any components to eliminate the friction loss, which is inevitable
for mechanical bearings. For mechanical bearings, such as ball bearings, the
power loss is roughly proportional to the rotor’s spinning speed. It prevents the

7
Figure 5: Calnetix/Vycon Flywheel [25], which includes a steel flywheel and an electric
machine, is designed for UPS.

FESS from running at a higher speed. Fluid-film bearings may have less power
loss, but they need an extra lubrication system, making them inapplicable in a
vacuumed FESS. A summary of different FESS bearing technologies is given in
Table 1. Notice that the homopolar AMB in the table refers to the commonly
used, PM-biased homopolar AMB.

2.3.1. Magnetic bearing

The magnetic bearing of a FESS can be either active or passive. An active
magnetic bearing (AMB) requires power electronics and a feedback controller.
It can be homopolar, which means it has permanent magnets (or bias current)
to provide the bias flux, or heteropolar, which does not include bias fluxes.
Many commercial MBs are heteropolar AMBs due to the lower cost. Numerous
research works in AMB have been published over the years. Schweitzer et al.[26]
give a good overview of the magnetic bearing technology. For AMBs, control
is an essential aspect. Control algorithms [27, 28] are used to tackle issues like
system couplings, gyroscopic effects, and synchronous vibrations. Passive mag-
netic bearings do not require a feedback control but have more complex designs
than AMBs [29]. Superconducting magnetic bearings are also extensively stud-
ied for flywheel energy storage [30, 31, 32, 33] for their superior performances.

8
However, most of the designs are complicated and require cryogenic equipment.

2.3.2. Hybrid bearing

Mechanical bearings, such as ball bearings, are rarely used to support a fly-
wheel solely. However, they are used as a part of a hybrid bearing system[34],
together with magnetic bearings. Another typical hybrid bearing system com-
bines passive and active magnetic bearing[35, 36]. Han et al. [37] present a
combination of passive magnetic bearings and active radial magnetic bearings.
The passive magnetic bearings support the flywheel in the axial and provide
stiffness in the tilting motion. In [36], a radial repulsive magnetic bearing with
less power consumption and design complexity, are proposed for a FESS.

Table 1: FESS operational bearing technologies

Types Advantages Disadvantages

Homopolar AMB less loss higher cost
lower current less robust
demagnetization
Heteropolar AMB lower cost higher loss
more rubost higher current
HB less loss complex design
lower cost less mature

2.4. Energy converter

This section will discuss the energy converters for FESSs. For an overview of
electromechanical energy conversion, the readers may refer to [39]. In general, an
electric machine is used to convert electrical energy into kinetic energy and vice
versa. It is acting as a motor and generator. Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors (PMSM) is one of the popular options for flywheel applications because
of their high efficiency, high performance, and compact size. Other electric
machines, such as induction motors (IM) or switch reluctance motors (SRM),
are also used for flywheels. The M/G’s design, including the power density and

9
Figure 6: Ricardo TorqStor [38], which includes a composite flywheel and magnetic gear, is
designed for automotive applications.

current carrying capacity, is crucial for the flywheel’s power rating. Apart from
electric machines, the other option is to use magnetic gears (MGR) to link the
flywheel with the external load. As depicted in Fig. 6, magnetic gears do not
require extra power electronics. They are relatively new for flywheels and will
be covered in Section 4.1.3. A summary of different FESS electric machines is
given in Table 2. A more detailed comparison between PMSM, IM, and SRM
can be found in [40].

2.4.1. Permanent magnet synchronous machine

A permanent magnet synchronous machine has high power density and effi-
ciency. They are popular choices for FESS [41, 42, 43]. Design considerations
include magnet size, grade, number of poles. A significant design factor is that
the machine needs to operate in a vacuum space, with radiation being the only
mean of heat dissipation. One of the early works, Nagorny et al. [44] give an
overview of the design considerations of PMSM for FESS applications. More
recently, Schneider et al. [45] investigate the PMSM iron and copper loss based
on an analytical model. The drawbacks of PMSMs are also related to the use of
permanent magnets, which are subject to demagnetization. PMSM also suffers
from idling losses. A PM machine is less rugged, less robust to temperature,

10
and significantly more expensive than switched reluctance machines and induc-
tion machines. Kesgin et al. [46] discuss the progress and development trends in
electric motor/generators employed in FESS, in which the potential of axial-flux
permanent-magnet (AFPM) machines for FESS is highlighted.

2.4.2. Induction machine

Induction machines have lower costs and high robustness [47]. However,
standard induction machines are less efficient than PMSM. Arani et al. [48]
present the modeling and control of an induction machine-based flywheel energy
storage system for frequency regulation after micro-grid islanding. Mir et al.
[49] present a nonlinear adaptive intelligent controller for a doubly-fed-induction
machine-driven FESS. The control is for mitigating the intermittency in wind
power injection and enhancing the transient stability of the connected power
system thereby. In [50], Soomro et al. give a model to access the operational
and standby losses of a squirrel-cage induction machine-based FESS.

2.4.3. Switch reluctance machine

A Switch reluctance machine[51, 52, 53] (SRM) requires no PM but offers
similar or better efficiency under higher speeds when comparing to induction
machines. According to [54], SRM also has high acceleration capability, no
cogging torque, high efficiency, a simple converter circuit, and having the fault-
tolerant ability. But SRM is considered less mature and unproven than PMSM
and induction machines.

2.4.4. Bearingless machine

FESS may use a bearingless machine that combines two functionalities (MG
and MB) into one device[55, 56, 51, 57]. For bearingless machine design, both
the suspension force and torque performance needs to be considered [56]. In [52],
a five-phase bearingless flux-switching permanent magnet machine is presented.
The machine’s parameters are optimized to improve both torque and suspension
force with increased amplitude and minor fluctuation.

11
 Other design options include brushless direct current machine (BLDC) [58,
59] and AC homopolar machine[60, 61]. BLDC has high power density, high
efficiency, and compact form factor[6]. The homopolar machine has a simple
but robust structure and low idling loss.

Table 2: FESS electric machine designs

Types Advantages Disadvantages

PMSM higher power density higher cost

high efficiency demagnetization
small form factor less robust
higher idling loss

IM less cost lower power density

more rugged less efficiency
simple construction higher slip ratio

SRM no demagnetization complex control

more rugged less mature
simple construction

BM high integration level higher cost and complexity

complex control

MGR no power electroniccs less power density

more rugged no active control
simple construction less mature

2.4.5. Power electronics

Power electronics can be viewed as an interface between the electric ma-
chine and the electrical load/supply. Different designs and control methods are
proposed to achieve high power/current capability with fewer disturbances for
the grid. A typical design is using a back-to-back converter that includes two

12
voltage source controllers (VSC). The VSCs switch their roles between rectifiers
and inverters to realize the transformation between charge and discharge modes.
The current carrying capacity of the VSC is also a critical factor in determining
the FESS’s power rating. Bernardinis et al.[62] design a high-efficiency inverter.
The inverter is tested at 20kHz and achieved 98.8% efficiency at 60kW. In [63],
a new topology for a bidirectional converter is presented. This converter targets
zero switching power loss for the buck and boost modes. The scheme is verified
by a 4kW, 340V prototype flywheel, where a 2.5-3.5% power saving is observed.
Controller design for power converters is also a major topic. Zhang et al.[64]
propose a method using direct voltage control for the DC-link without the inter-
mediate current loop. Testing results show reduced tracking error and steady-
error at different spinning speeds. In [65], an Input-Output Linearization (IOL)
AC voltage controller is presented for a FESS supplied by an AC-AC matrix
converter. The system can compensate for the critical load voltage without
noticeable delays, and voltage undershoots/overshoots. It also overcomes the
input/output coupling problem of matrix converters. Multilevel converters are
proposed for FESS as well. Murayama et al. [66] present a modular multi-
level cascade converter (MMCC) for FESS. The converter is intended to achieve
rapid current control without creating a significant disturbance on the grid.
Applications are plasma control, particle accelerators, or medical use.

2.5. Auxiliary components

2.5.1. Catcher bearing

Catcher Bearings (CB) are sometimes referred to as touchdown or backup
bearings. They are auxiliary bearings used as a backup in case of MB fail-
ures caused by power shortage or excessive external disturbances. CBs are not
designed to provide operational support in place of MBs. Ball bearings are
typically used as CBs. In [67], Jin et al. analyze the thermal structure of two
types of catcher bearing. Both theoretical and experimental results show that
the double-decker catcher bearing (DDCB) is more resistant to temperature rise
than the single-decker catcher bearing (SDCB).

13
2.5.2. Other components
Many of the housing/casing designs of FESSs also include a vacuum enclo-
sure to reduce the windage loss when the flywheel is rotating at high speed.
For mobile applications, the housing structure needs to be optimized to reduce
its overall weight. It also needs to provide vibration adsorptions to prevent the
FESS from failures caused by excessive external vibrations. The flywheel that
operates in a vacuum enclosure may also include other components such as an
air pump for maintaining its vacuum status and an active cooling system for
the MB and M/G.

3. Applications

The applications of FESSs can be categorized according to their power ca-

pacity and discharge time. Recently developed FESSs have lower costs and lower
losses. They can work for multiple hours [68] instead of just several minutes or
seconds. Besides, FESSs boast advantages like long life cycles, fast responses,
and less sensitivity towards temperature and humidity. This gives FESSs the
potential to replace electrochemical batteries in the grid and renewable energy
applications. This section will focus on the systems that have been commis-
sioned or prototyped. We have summarized a list of FESSs research groups in
Table 3. The list of commercial flywheel systems is given in Table 4.

3.1. Utility application

3.1.1. Frequency regulation

Frequency regulation is one of the driving forces for FESS research and de-
velopment. Most utility electricity is generated by gas turbines operating at a
specific speed range for high efficiency. However, the load of a power grid is not
constant. Minute-to-minute variability is caused by the random turning on and
off of millions of individual loads. It is challenging to balance the generation and
load in real-time [69]. Whenever the load exceeds the generation, more kinetic
energy is drawn from the turbine, causing it to slow down. Subsequently, the

14
grid frequency deviates from its nominal value. Only a few tenths of a hertz
of frequency deviation can cause damage to valuable equipment. Energy stor-
age systems act as virtual power plants by quickly adding/subtracting power
so that the line frequency stays constant. FESS is a promising technology in
frequency regulation for many reasons. Such as it reacts almost instantly, it
has a very high power to mass ratio, and it has a very long life cycle compared
to Li-ion batteries. The main advantage is the long life cycles, which signifi-
cantly lowers the long-term operational cost. Beacon Power [12] is one of the
early companies that focuses on FESS technology for grid applications. They
have successfully commissioned a 20 MW FESS plant in Pennsylvania. The
rotor is made of carbon fiber, which operates at 16,000 RPM. It also has a
175,000 life cycle. Helix Power [70] is developing 1-MW and 90s FESS for grid
application. The flywheel’s steady-state power loss is less than 1% of the rated
power. Many research works focus on control. Mahdavi et al. [71] presents an
enhanced frequency control system and its experimental verification for a FESS
to reduce the frequency variations of the microgrid. In [72], a fuzzy, PD-based
frequency regulation control strategy for wind-power and FESS system pro-
posed to enhance the frequency regulation capability of direct-drive permanent
magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)-based wind-power generation system.

3.1.2. Renewable energy integration

Renewable energy is another area with high research activities. Since wind
is unpredictable, a wind turbine has fluctuating power output. For solar PVs
(Photovoltaics), sun radiation varies within the daytime and is not available
during the night. Many FESSs have been proposed to smooth the output and
increase a wind turbine or solar farm’s efficiency. Here, we do not intend to give
yet another comprehensive survey in this field, which already has abundant re-
views [7, 73, 6]. More recently, Gayathri et al. [74] present a nonlinear controller
for smoothing the power output from a wind turbine. Azizimoghaddam et al.
[75] proposes a model that includes an integrated model including both power
network and FESS parameters. The model is used for optimization to achieve

15
optimum dynamic performance. Hitachi ABB has installed a 2 MW flywheel
system for 15,000 inhabitants on Kodiak Island, which plans to run entirely on
renewable energy. It was reported [76] that the flywheel system is ”the first line
of defense against varying power flows from wind turbines, relieving a 3-MW
battery system that is wearing out faster than expected”. In [77], a flywheel is
used to store excess energy from a PV-diesel hybrid energy system. Its economic
and environmental benefits are studied.

3.1.3. Uninterruptible power system

Many of the commercial flywheel systems are developed and marketed for
UPS applications. The key advantages of flywheel-based UPS include high
power quality, longer life cycles, and low maintenance requirements. Active
power Inc. [78] has developed a series of flywheels capable of 2.8 kWh and
675 kW for UPS applications. The flywheel weighs 4976 kg and operates at
7700 RPM. Calnetix/Vycons’s VDC [79] is another example of FESS designed
for UPS applications. The VDC’s max power and max energies are 450 kW
and 1.7 kWh. The operational range is between 14,000 RPM and 36,750 RPM.
Lashway et al. [80] have proposed a flywheel-battery hybrid energy storage
system to mitigate the DC voltage ripple. Interestingly, flywheels are also used
to provide backup power for nuclear power plants [81].

3.2. Transportation application

3.2.1. Automotive
The FESSs are used in both vehicular and transportation applications. M.
Hedlund et al. [8] gives a review of FESS applications in automobiles. Its high
power to mass ratio enables the FESS to replace conventional powertrain sys-
tems [21]. In [82], an energy buffer storing up to 867 Wh is presented. It is
primarily for utility vehicles in urban traffic. R. A. Smith and K. R. Pullen
[83] present the optimization of a flywheel designed for braking energy recovery
and acceleration for hybrid vehicles. The result is optimal flywheel size and
depth-of-discharge for a particular vehicle to achieve a balance between high

16
transmission efficiency and low system mass. In [46], a simulation model is pro-
posed to evaluate the dynamic qualities and efficiency of a heavy-duty transport
vehicle equipped with a mechanical transmission, using a combined power plant
with a FESS. Ershad et al. [84] propose a flywheel-based four-wheel-drive, a
full-electric powertrain that significantly increases the overall performance and
battery lifespan.

3.2.2. Locomotives/trains
Notable early work includes The University of Texas 2MW flywheel sys-
tem as a part of the advanced locomotive propulsion system[22]. More recent
developments include the REGEN systems [25]. The REGEN model has been
successfully applied at the Los Angeles (LA) metro subway as a Wayside Energy
Storage System (WESS). It was reported that the system had saved 10 to 18%
of the daily traction energy. The LA metro Wayside Energy Storage Substation
(WESS) includes 4 flywheel units and has an energy capacity of 8.33kWh. The
power rating is 2 MW. The analysis [85] shows that ”the WESS will save at
least $99,000 per year at the Westlake/MacArthur Park TPSS”. The FESS is
made of steel. The flywheel is also designed to be fully levitated by magnetic
bearings. Its operational speed range is from 10,000 to 20,000 RPM. Flywheel
is often applied in heavy-haul locomotive [86, 87]. For example, Spiryagin et
al. [86] propose a simplified control strategy for a FESS-assisted heavy haul
locomotive. The study concludes that ”FESS can be a very good solution ”
because battery’s limits on ”specific power, cost efficiency and service lifetime”.

3.2.3. Marine
FESSs have been designed as auxiliary parts of electrified ships to improve
their power qualities [88, 89, 90, 91]. As one of the early works, Huynh et al.[88]
proposed a FESS design with low-loss magnetic bearings and a high-efficiency
motor/generator. The FESS can output 500kW for 30s in high-duty mode and
up to 2MW in pulse mode. More recently, Kumar et al. [89] present the usage
of a 50 kWh flywheel for a diesel-mechanical propelled tugboat. Test results

17
show that with the adoption of variable speed operation of diesel generators,
the flywheel offers 25.6% fuel reduction. In [91], Hou et al. present a Battery-
flywheel hybrid ESS to isolate load fluctuations from the shipboard network.
Pulsed power applications on ships will be discussed in the following section.

3.3. Defense and aerospace

3.3.1. Pulsed power

Owing to their high power density, FESSs have been used in Electromag-
netic Launching systems (EMALS) and laser systems. As one of the early works,
Swett et al.[92] proposed a FESS for EMALS application. The system is de-
signed to have a peak power output of 84.3 MW and an energy capacity of 126
MJ, equivalent to 35 kWh. In [93], a simulation model has been developed to
evaluate the performance of the battery, flywheel, and capacitor energy storage
in support of laser weapons. FESSs also have been used in support of nuclear
fusions. Rendell et al. [94] give a review of two Flywheel Generator Converters
(FGCs) used by Joint European Torus (JET), each flywheel supply 2600MJ (722
kWh) to their respective magnet load coils to supplement the 575MW (pulsed)
grid supply. These flywheels have been in service for 30 years since 1983 and
provided for approximately 85,000 JET pulses.

3.3.2. Aerospace
Many of the FESS research work in aerospace focus on replacing lion bat-
teries with astronautical FESSs. Satellites or space stations benefit from the
flywheel’s high-power rating and long life cycle. The International Space Sta-
tion has investigated the use of FESS by carrying out flight tests [95]. FESS
applications in satellite attitude control are a major topic in this field and will
be covered in 4.2.3. Although the high power density also gives FESS potentials
in aeronautical applications, the authors have not noticed any research activity
where FESSs are directly applied to an aeronautical aircraft. Consider the low
specific energy, flywheel are not suitable to be used onboard. But they can be
used as an ESS for aircraft take-off and landing.

18
3.4. Research and industrial groups

Various flywheel energy storage research groups[96, 13, 97, 98, 33, 99, 100,
101, 102, 82, 22, 103] and industrial products [104, 78, 34, 12, 105, 106, 25, 107,
70, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114] are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4,
which include the rotor materials, energy & power density, storage duration,
and applications.

Table 3: A summary of FESS research groups

Groups rotor E P ∆t application

Beihang [96] cm - - - Space
Hanyang U [13] cm 35 kWh - - -
London U [97] st 5 kWh 10 kW 30 min -
Sheffield U [98] - 10 kWh 500 kW - Grid
Railway Tech. Res. Ins,t. [33] cm 100 kWh 300 kW 20 min Renew
U of Alberta [99] - - - - Train
Technische U Wien [100] cm 5k Wh - - -
Texas A&M U [101] st 100 kWh 100 kW 1hr Grid
UC-Berkeley [102] st 140 Wh 30 kW 16.8 s -
Uppsala U [82] cm 867 Wh - - -
UT-CEM [22] cm 130 kWh 2 MW 3 min Train
Virginia U [103] cm 1 kWh - - -

∆t is based on reference or caculation when the rated power is given

Rotor materials: cm - Composite; st - Steel; cn - Concrete; eg - E-glass

19
 Table 4: A summary of commercial FESS systems

manufacturer rotor E P ∆t stage application

Hitachi ABB [104] - - 2 MW - X Wind
Active Power [78] st 2.83 kWh 675 kW 15 s X Various
Amber Kinetics [34] st 32 kWh 8 kW 4 hrs ⇑ Various
Adaptive Balancing Power [115] cm 12 kWh 400 kW 1.8 min ⇒ Auto
Beacon Power [12] cm 25 kWh 100 kW 15 min X Grid
Boeing [105] cm 5 kWh 3 kW 1.7 hr ⇑ -
Caterpillar [106] - 5 kWh 675 kW 15s X UPS
Calnetix/Vycon [25] st 0.52 kWh 125 kW 15s X UPS
Dynamic Boosting System [116] st - - - - -
Gerotor [107] - 0.065 kWh 50 kW - X -
Kinetic Traction [117] cm - 333 kW - ⇑ Various
GKN Hybrid Power [112] cm 0.44 kWh 120 kW 13.2 s ⇑ Auto
Helix Power [70] cm 25 kWh 1 MW 90 s ⇒ Grid
Levistor Flywheel [118] st 5 kWh 100 kW 3 min ⇒ -
Oxto Energy [119] - 7.5 kWh 65 kW 7 min ⇑ Various
Piller Group [108] st 2.9 kWh 625 kW 15 s X Various
Punch Flybrid [120] st 0.167 kWh - - ⇑ Various
Powerthru [109] cm .53 kWh 101 kW 10 - 25s X Defense
Ricardo TorqStor [121] cm .056 kWh 101 kW - ⇑ Auto
Rotonix [111] cm 12 kWh 1.1 MW - X Various
Stornetic [110] cm 3.6 kWh 80 kW 260s X Grid
Velkess* [113] eg 15 kWh 3 kW - ⇓ Grid
Energiestro* [114] cn - - - ⇒ Grid

∆t is based on reference or caculation when the rated power is given

* unproven design, readers are suggested to view them with discretion.
Rotor materials: cm - Composite; st - Steel; cn - Concrete; eg - E-glass
Development stage : Xcommissioned; ⇑ prototyped; ⇒ conceptual ; ⇓ discontinued

20
4. Trends and future topics

The current FESSs are not yet widely adopted as a popular energy storage
solution. They have higher capital costs than electrochemical batteries [122, 3].
For instance, Beacon Power’s flywheel costs almost ten times higher than a
Li-ion battery system with similar energy capacity even though it can provide
competitive cost per (kWh*cycles) considering the higher charge/discharge cy-
cles. Compared to other technologies like batteries or supercapacitors, FESSs
have “moving” parts, thus are considered to have higher uncertainty in failure
modes. Composite flywheels are particularly susceptible to this shortcoming be-
cause of higher operational speeds and less predictable mechanical properties.
Almost all the existing flywheel systems are designed for specific applications
such as frequency regulation or UPS. They require specialized knowledge and
techniques for manufacture, assembly, and maintenance, which prevents them
from being produced in large quantities to reduce cost per unit. To address
these issues, new efforts are made in different aspects of the technology. In the
following, we discuss the emerging fields and potential opportunities for FESS
technology.

Table 5: Comparison of different flywheel materials[123, 124]

Materials Density Tensile strength Specific Energy Material cost

3
(kg/m ) MPa W h/Kg $/Kg
Steel 4340 7700 1520 50 1
E-glass 2000 100 1520 14 11
S2-glass 1920 1470 210 24.6
Carbon T1000 1520 1950 350 101.8
Carbon AS4C 1510 1650 300 31.3

21
4.1. New Technologies

4.1.1. The comeback of high strength steel flywheels

Steel flywheels are often categorized as old and less efficient. It is no longer
the case. Many recently developed FESSs, both by academia and the industry,
are based on high-strength steel for competitive cost and broader availability.
Composite materials are often chosen to make FESS flywheels for their low
density and high tensile strength. Light-weight composite materials have a
very high specific energy, which is crucial in aerospace or mobile applications
research works [13, 125, 21] have claimed high specific energies between 50 to
150 Wh/kg. However, only the composite rim was included in the calculation.
The metallic shaft, which is an essential component and has considerable mass,
is normally neglected. Other components are also not considered. One of the
composite-based FESS being successfully developed [22], For example, it has a
specific energy of 42KJ/kg, equivalent to only 11.7Wh/kg. The specific energy
drops to 5.6Wh/kg when the whole system weight is included.
The cost of composite materials is significantly higher than steel too. The
comparison of density, tensile strength, and costs between composite and steel
is summarized in Table 5. While T1000 has a lower density ( 20% of steel’s)
and higher tensile strength (26% higher than steel), its cost is almost 100 times
more. From the standpoint of cost, FESSs based on high-strength steels are
more suitable for massive productions. More recently, there are several new
flywheel prototypes made in high-strength steel [101, 34, 78, 79]. A comparative
study [24] also concluded that ”for applications where the energy-per-cost is to
be maximized, metals are superior to composite rotor materials.” ground-based
ESS applications are more sensitive to system space than weight. High-strength
steel flywheels have a high energy density (volume-based energy) due to their
high mass density. Furthermore, they are superior to composite ones regarding
thermal conductivity and design data availability, such as SN curves and fracture
toughness. Therefore, High-strength steel flywheels are very suitable for fixed,
ground-based, and large-capacity applications.

22
 Figure 7: Shape factors of typical flywheel designs[14, 126]

4.1.2. New flywheel designs

Apart from pursuing higher spinning speed, raising the shape factor K can
also achieve higher specific energy and energy density. The shape factors of
different flywheel designs are depicted in Fig. 7. Conventional flywheels include
an annulus rotor (thick rim in Fig. 7). A shaft is shrink-fitted into its borehole,
which increases the stress concentration. As a result, a conventional flywheel
only has a shape factor of up to 0.3. A Laval disc [123] boasts an ideal shape fac-
tor of one. However, the geometry profile makes it very difficult to manufacture
or suspend magnetically. Instead, a shaftless flywheel, which can be made in a
single piece, has a shape factor close to 0.6, giving it almost a doubled specific
density than the conventional design [101, 127]. With the shaft eliminated, there
is also no detrimental stress caused by shrink-fit. This flywheel type requires
specialized magnetic bearing and control that does not rely on a shaft[27]. A
thin rim flywheel (shell flywheel) can also achieve a theoretical limit of 0.5. It
is more compact since many system components like bearings and M/G can be
integrated inside the rotor. A shell flywheel also requires specialized MB and
MG since it has no shaft [103, 21].

23
4.1.3. Compact and integrated FESS
Researchers have sought different means to reduce the system component
and make FESSs more compact. Such design is vital to transportation appli-
cations, which are sensitive to space and weight. Kailasan et al. [103] give the
design for a 1 kWh inside-out integrated FESS. The rotor is shell-like and made
of steel/composite materials. It allows the other components to be installed
inside the shell flywheel. Many researchers also [128, 129, 130] focus on the
design of combined radial and axial magnetic bearings that bring the three-
bearing configuration down to a two-bearing configuration. Recently, Li et al.
[101, 131] present a combination magnetic bearing for a shaftless flywheel. The
single magnetic bearing can provide full levitation control [27]. Basaran et al.
[132] present radial repulsive magnetic bearings that reduce power consumption
with less complexity. Andriollo et al. [133] discuss an integrated, axial hybrid
magnetic bearing with a steel flywheel. In [134], an active electromagnetic slip
coupling is developed to make a more compact and cost-effective flywheel-based
powertrain. A bearingless electric machine, which is also reviewed in 2.4.4, can
act as the magnetic bearing and motor-generator at the same time, making the
system more compact. For example, Yang et al. [57] propose a bearingless
flywheel motor to achieve a high integration level for vehicle applications.
Magnetic gears also make the FESS more compact by reducing the need for
extra power electronics. Ricardo [38] developed a FESS with magnetic gear for
automotive application. As depicted in Fig. 6, the system is compact and free
of extra power electronics. In [135], an axial flux magnetic gear is designed to
directly couple a FESS with a motor for recharging a heavy-duty electric bus.
In general, more studies are needed to understand how the magnetic gear can
meet the power, torque, speed, and efficiency requirements for FESSs.

4.1.4. New materials

Apart from steel and carbon-fiber-based composite, some interesting pro-
posals use new materials. One of the most promising materials is Graphene.
It has a theoretical tensile strength of 130 GPa and a density of 2.267 g/cm3,

24
which can give the specific energy of over 15 kWh/kg, better than gasoline(13
kWh/kg) and Li-air battery (11 kWh/kg), and significantly higher than regular
Li-ion batteries. In [136], graphene flakes are levitated and spun at rotational
speeds of up to 60 million rpm. Unfortunately, it is unclear how the energy can
be harvested. Sandia National Lab [137, 138] is working on improving flywheel
energy density with Graphene to increase the flywheel’s strength. Circosta et
al. [139] present a semi-hard magnetic FeCrCo 48/5 rotor that enables the use
of bearingless hysteresis drives. Martin et al. [140] developed a new magnetic
composite material that can be used for magnetic bearing and the rotor shaft.
Magnetic permeability, saturation magnetism, mechanical stiffness, tensile elas-
ticity, and electrical resistivity are considered. The use of new materials, both in
flywheel rotor and subsystems like the magnetic bearing, will enable the FESS
to reach higher specific energy with a lower cost. Ideal materials for FESS rotor
should have the following properties:

• high tensile strength

• low cost

• low density

• magnetically permeable

• recyclable

• predictable fatigue life

• easy to monitor stress crack

Several less-proven concepts use low-cost materials. Energiestro [114] pro-

motes a flywheel made of concrete, claims that it ”will decrease by a factor of
ten the cost of energy storage.” Similarly, Velkess [113] has proposed a flywheel
made of e-glass. However, both materials have very low tensile strength, it is
not clear how they can be competitive in terms of costs and performance.

25
4.1.5. Flywheel loss, failure modes, and containment
Considering that Li-ion batteries have a low self-discharge rate, reducing the
standby loss is crucial for making FESSs competitive [11]. FESS losses come
from the rotor (windage loss), the electric machine (core loss, copper loss), the
AMB (eddy current loss and hysteresis loss), and the converter. There is some
research activity on the standby and operational loss of FESS [124, 97, 141].
But most of them focus on windage loss or motor-related losses. There are
fewer works on AMB or converter-related loss. Also, there is a lack of work on
loss-reducing methods [142].
More importantly, flywheels must be kept free from failures, which could end
catastrophically [143]. There is some work in failure mode analysis and prog-
nosis. But most of them focus on the composite rotor [144, 145] or traditional
mechanical bearings [146]. As flywheels are such complicated electro-magneto-
mechanical devices, it is necessary to include other components and systemati-
cally investigate the failure mode and its containment. Recently, Buchroithner
et al. [147] developed a test rig for the systematical investigation of burst con-
tainments under rotor failure. The goal is to investigate the performance of
different containment structures and materials systematically.

4.2. New Application

4.2.1. Energy-saving/harvesting
Many of the industrial devices repeat certain motions. For example, a
crane/truck lifts a heavy object and relocates it to a different place. A robot arm
follows the planned motion trajectory and accelerates and decelerates to meet
the speed and acceleration profiles. If the energy during these repeated motions
can be harvested and reused for the next cycle, the efficiency can be improved.
These charge/discharge cycles frequently occur with high power requirements,
making the FESS a good candidate. We have noticed some commercial products
deployed for large industry devices such as cranes [148, 149]. However, there is
less research work for smaller devices like robot arms [150], automation devices,
and tooling machines. As for energy harvesting, Yang et al.[151] present an in-

26
 Figure 8: Harvest foot motion energy to a flywheel, from [151]

teresting approach of storing energy harvest from triboelectric nanogenerators

(Tengs) in a flywheel so that it can capture intermittent excitation (depicted in
Fig. 8). Such integration opens a new opportunity for FESSs. Future research
topics in this area include the following:

• energy source and FESS integration topology

• control scheme for optimal energy-saving and harvesting

• cooperation strategy between multiple FESSs

4.2.2. Energy buffer and hybrid storage system

An excellent analogy for the relationship between flywheels and Li-ion bat-
teries is the computer’s memory architecture. A computer has multiple layers of
memory devices. Fast memories such as cache and RAM (random access mem-
ory) are similar to FESS: fast-responsive and higher power/speed ratings. The
slower device such as hard drives offers abundant storage at a low cost, similar
to Li-ion batteries. Therefore it makes sense for an energy storage system to
use a cascaded architecture that incorporates different technologies. The FESS
should act as a buffer layer to provide a high-quality power output. In the mean-
time, it protects the batteries from being regularly charged/discharged so that
the battery life is prolonged. This approach increases performance and lowers

27
Figure 9: Increase for LFP internal resistance in hybrid and non-hybrid configurations, from
[152]

overall costs. For example, Barelli et al.[152] investigated the effects of integrat-
ing FESS with battery packs. As depicted in Fig. 9, the hybrid configuration
greatly slowed the battery aging process by a factor of 300%.
While many papers compare different ESS technologies, only a few research
[153, 152] studies design and control flywheel-based hybrid energy storage sys-
tems. Recently, Zhang et al. [154] present a hybrid energy storage system based
on compressed air energy storage and FESS. The system is designed to mitigate
wind power fluctuations and augment wind power penetration. Similarly, due
to the high power density and long life cycles, flywheel-based fast charging for
electric vehicles [155, 156, 157] is gaining attention recently. Other advantages of
flywheel-based supercharging include operability under low/high temperatures,
state-of-charge precision, and recyclability [158].

4.2.3. Beyond energy storage

FESS has a unique advantage over other energy storage technologies: It can
provide a second function while serving as an energy storage device. Earlier
works use flywheels as satellite attitude-control devices. A review of flywheel
attitude control and energy storage for aerospace is given in[159]. Superconduct-
ing magnetic bearings [96] are proposed for satellite attitude control. In [160], a
full state-feedback control method is proposed to increase the satellite attitude
performances. Simulation shows the attitude accuracy can be controlled up to

28
0.001°.
Furthermore, flywheel attitude control has been applied to robotics and ve-
hicles. Hockman et al. [161] propose three spinning flywheels to internally-
actuator a rover for low gravity planetary bodies. In [162], a flywheel for bal-
ancing control of a single-wheel robot is presented. In [163], two flywheels are
used to generate control torque to stabilize the vehicle under the centrifugal
force of turning.

5. Conclusion

In this paper, state-of-the-art and future opportunities for flywheel energy

storage systems are reviewed. The FESS technology is an interdisciplinary,
complex subject that involves electrical, mechanical, magnetic subsystems. The
different choices of subsystems and their impacts on the system performance
are discussed. Owing to its unique advantages, many different FESS systems
have been built and applied to a wide range of applications, including renew-
able energies, transportation, utilities, and more. This review focuses on the
recently developed FESSs, such as the utility-scale and low-cost steel flywheels.
Finally, we identify the future development for the FESS technology. The use of
new materials and compact designs will increase the specific energy and energy
density to make flywheels more competitive to batteries. Other opportunities
are new applications in energy harvest, hybrid energy systems, and flywheel’s
secondary functionality apart from energy storage.

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