ATHLETICS II

UNIT ONE
FUNDAMENTAL TECHNIQUES OF FIELD EVENTS
JUMPING EVENTS
Jumping is an ability that most humans and many animals share to some degree. It is the
process of getting one's body off the ground for a short time using only one's own power,
usually by propelling oneself upward via contraction and then forceful extension of the
legs.
Track and field has several jumping events. The high jump and pole vault test a
competitor's ability to clear a bar at various heights. The long jump and triple jump
determine how far a competitor can jump horizontally after a running start.
Athletes who excel in jumping events have explosive speed over short distances, strong
legs, and good coordination .
All jumping events have a common pattern, with each event having an approach run, in
which optimum speed (high jump) or maximum controlled speed (pole vault, long jump
and triple jump) is required, a take-off, in which each event has its own special
requirements, a flight through the air, in which each event also has its own special
requirements, and a landing, where each event requires either technical efficiency to gain
maximum distance (long jump and triple jump) or safety in landing from a height (pole
vault and high jump).

LONG JUMP
The long jump is an athletic event in which athletes combine speed, strength, and agility
in an attempt to land as far from the take-off point as possible.
The long jump was one of the events of the original Olympics in Ancient Greece. The
athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were called halters. These weights would be
swung forward as the athlete jumped, in order to increase momentum, and then thrown
backwards whilst in mid-air so as to help the jumper propel himself further forward.

The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since the inception of the
Games in 1896. The athlete builds up a short burst of speed with a run on a track before
launching him or her from the take-off board to located directly in front of a large patch
of sand. In competition, an athlete is given several attempts at the long jump, with the
longest legal jump serving as the athlete's final score. The number of attempts can vary,
depending on the venue, but three is typical.

The Fundamental Aspects of the Long jump

The long jump used to be called the broad jump, probably to further distinguish it from
the high jump.

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Competitors sprint down a run way and jump as far as they can off of a wooden board
into a pit fill with finely ground gravel or sand.
The distance traveled by a jumper is often referred to as the "mark," because it is the
distance to which the first mark is made in the sand. A mark is the minimum distance
from the edge of the take-off board, nearest the landing pit, to the first indentation made
by the competitor.
If the competitor starts the leap with any part of the foot in front of the board, the jump is
declared illegal and no distance is recorded. At the elite level, a layer of plasticine is
placed immediately after the board to detect this occurrence.
Generally, competitors will be given three trial jumps with which to make their best
effort. Higher level competitions are split into two rounds: trials and finals. In
competitions containing a final round, only a selected number of competitors are invited
to return for further competition. The number of competitors chosen to return to the final
round is determined prior to the start of the meet by a committee comprised generally of
coaches and officials. It is standard practice to allow one more competitor than the
numbering of scoring positions to return to the final round. The competitor with the
longest legal jump (from either the trial or final rounds) at the end of competition is
declared the winner.
Speed in the run-up (or approach) and a high leap off the board are the fundamentals of
success.
To achieve maximum distance in the long jump, the athlete will have to balance three
components- speed, technique and strength. Long jumpers are sprinters. Athletes who
demonstrate the following would make good candidates: Good leg speed, Good vertical
jump ability and Good standing long jump ability.

PHASES OF LONG JUMP

The long jump is composed of four distinct but continuous phases: approach run, take-
off, flight through the air, and landing.
1. The approach run
 The objective of the approach is to gradually accelerate to a maximum controlled
speed at take-off. Observing the laws of physics, the most important factor for the
distance traveled by an object is its velocity at take-off - as in both the speed and
angle of take-off.
 Elite jumpers usually leave the ground at an angle of 20 degrees or less; therefore,
it is more beneficial for a jumpers to focus on the velocity component of the jump.
The greater the velocity, or speed at take-off, the higher and longer the trajectory
of the center of mass will be.
 The length of the approach is generally a precise distance for each athlete.
Approaches can vary between 12 and 19 strides on the novice and intermediate
levels, while at the elite level they are closer to between 20 and 22 strides. The

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exact distance and number of strides in an approach will depend on the individual
jumper's experience, sprinting technique, and conditioning level. Consistency in
the approach is important as it is the competitor's objective to get as close to the
front of the take-off board as possible without crossing the line with any part of
the foot.
 Rhythm in the approach run is important to ensure the ideal speed achieved at
takeoff and accuracy in hitting the takeoff board.
 The athlete begins the run with a marked forward lean to develop speed but before
they reach the take off board, they should be upright. The athlete should be on the
balls of the feet as in sprinting with a natural head position, the eyes focused
beyond the pit and not at the take off board. It is important to bear in mind that a
head or tail wind will affect the run up. A head wind may mean moving the
marker slightly forward.

The last two strides

 The objective of the last two strides is to effectively prepare the body for takeoff
while conserving as much speed as possible.
 In this phase, the next to last stride from the takeoff is known as the penultimate
stride. This is the longer of the last two strides, where the competitor begins to
lower his or her center of gravity to prepare the body for the vertical impulse.
Directly following the penultimate stride is the final stride, which is markedly
shorter because the body is beginning to raise the center of gravity in preparation
for takeoff.
 The last two strides are an extremely important phase of the jump, as they
ultimately determine the velocity with which the competitor will be entering into
the jump.

2. The Take off

 The objective of the takeoff is to create a vertical impulse through the athlete's
center of gravity while maintaining balance and control.
 This phase is one of the most technical parts of the long jump.
 Jumpers must be conscious to place the foot flat on the ground, because jumping
off either the heels or the toes will have negative effects on the jump. Taking off
from the board heel-first will cause a breaking effect, which will decrease velocity
and put strain on the joints. Jumping off the toes will decrease stabilization.
 While concentrating on foot placement, the athlete must also work to maintain
proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and
up to achieve the maximum distance from board contact to foot release.

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Determining the take off leg for long jump

On the track, have the athlete take three consecutive hops from a standing start, using the
right foot only and measure the distance traveled. Repeat with left foot. The leg that was
used to hop the farthest is probably the favored leg. If a true preference is not shown the
right-handed people probably will want to use their left foot as a takeoff foot.

The optimum take off angle in long jump

The takeoff speed of a male elite long jumper is about 10.5 meters/second in a run
through (take off angle of zero degrees) and 3.5 meters/second for a vertical jump (take
off angle of 90 degrees). This decrease in speed means that the optimum angle of takeoff
is well below 45 degrees. For the elite long jumper, the optimum takeoff angle is between
18 and 25 degrees.
There are four main styles of takeoff: the kick style, double-arm style, sprint takeoff and
the power sprint or bounding takeoff.

3. Flight through the air

 The objective of this phase is to counteract the natural forward rotation of the
body from takeoff while maintaining an effective landing position.
 Once a competitor leaves contact with the ground there is nothing that can be
done to alter the flight path of his or her center of gravity. What will affect the
distance of the jump is the body position at landing.
 If a competitor was to leave the ground without taking any action to prevent
forward rotation in the air, the body would naturally move into a facedown
position as the velocity of the lower half of the body at takeoff is greater than the
upper half due to the contact with the ground.
 The three predominant in-the-air techniques used in the long jump in order of
increasing difficulty of execution are the sail, hang and hitch-kick.
 Speed and lift generated on the runaway and through takeoff can result in a good
distance. After a takeoff , the athlete tends to have forward rotation that, if not
corrected, will result in the feet hitting the sand early and a loss of distance in the
jump. The cyclic forward movement of the legs and arms, as seen in the hitch-
kick for example, will correct this forward rotation.

4. The Landing
 When landing, it is the primary objective of the competitor to not fall back in the
landing pit.
 The jump is measured from the location in which the body contacts the sand
closest to the takeoff point. For this reason many jumpers will work on keeping
their feet in front of the body at a maximum distance from the hips. Upon landing,
competitors will often use their arms in a sweeping motion to help keep the legs
up and the body forward.
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 Generally, a jumper will bend the knees upon contacting the ground to cushion
the impact of the body. During the landing, the athlete is aiming to get the heels as
far away from the takeoff board as is possible. The heels will need to land just
before the projected flight path to ensure the athlete does not fall back into the
sand. As the feet make contact with the sand, press the heels downwards and
contract the hamstrings causing the hips to rise. As the hips rise twist them to one
side and allow the forward momentum to carry the body past the landing position.
 There are three basic landing techniques: " buttocks in the hole," "skid out" and
"over the top."

LONG JUMP FLIGHT STYLES

There are three main types of flight styles in long jump: the stride jump, the hang style
and the hitch-kick.

1. The Stride Jump

The stride (sail) technique is one of the most basic long jump techniques practiced by
competitors. After the takeoff phase is complete, the jumper immediately lifts the legs
into a toe-touching position. This is useful for the novice jumper, as it allows the
competitor to move into the competitor to move into the landing position early. The
downside of this technique is that it does not counter the body's natural tendency to rotate
too far forward.
In the stride (sail) jump style the athlete maintains the take off position as long as
possible and only as the athlete comes into land does the takeoff leg join the free leg for a
good landing position.

2. The Hang Style

The hang technique works by lengthening the body to make it as efficiently long as
possible. Here both the arms and legs are extended to reach a maximum distance from the
hips. This position is held until after the jumper reaches the apex of the jump, at which
point the athlete will snap the legs forward into a landing position. This technique helps
to diminish the tendency to tumble forward or lose the extension of the body. Generally
the competitor is encouraged to flex the knees at a 90 degree angle, which enables the
feet to swing with the fastest possible angular momentum when snapping into the landing
position.
On takeoff the athlete drops the free leg to the vertical, which is then joined by the
takeoff leg. The arms go overhead to slow down the rotation about the athlete's center of
gravity. The legs are then lifted upwards and forwards whilst lower the trunk. The arms
swing past the legs during the landing phase to ensure a good leg shoot.

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3. The Hitch-kick
The hitch-kick is also known as "cycling" or "running in the air." As the name might
suggest, this technique relies on a cycling action of the arms and legs through the air to
maintain an upright body position. This technique takes longer to execute and is therefore
generally reserved for more experienced jumpers.
Following takeoff the free leg is straightened and swung back and down as the takeoff leg
folds up beneath the hips and comes forward bent. The takeoff leg then continues
forward, straightening for landing. The free leg completes its backward swing behind the
hip and then folds up and moves forwards bent, to join the takeoff leg ready for landing.

TRIPLE JUMP
The triple jump is one of the most exciting events in modern day track and field. It is an
event that requires great speed, strength and coordination. It is an athletic (track and field)
event, previously also known as "hop, step and jump, " those various names describe the
actions a competitor takes. The athlete runs down a runway until he reaches a designated
mark, from which the jump is measured. The takeoff mark is a board, and in modern
championships a strip of plasticine is attached to the board to record athletes overstepping
the mark. The first landing has to be done with the takeoff foot. The next phase is a step,
landing on the opposite foot, and is followed by the jump, into a sand-filled box, as in the
long jump. A "foul" or missed jump occurs when a jumper oversteps the launch mark,
misses the pit entirely, or does not perform the attempt in the allotted amount of time
(usually about one minute).

The Fundamental Aspects of the Triple Jump

Triple jump is one of the field events in track and field. A triple jump consists an
approach run followed by a hop in which the athlete takes off and lands on the same foot,
a step in which the athletes takes off and lands on different feet, and a jump in which
athletes takes off on one foot and lands on both feet in the sand pit. Unlike other field
events in which only one maximum effort is required, triple jump requires three jumping
efforts at high speed. This makes the triple jump physically and technically very
demanding.
Modern triple jump started in Scotland in the mid 19th century. German Ludwig John did
a jump that is really close to today's technique in the mid 19the century. It is one of the
most demanding and unique events in track and field today; it requires a combination of
balance, strength, rhythm, and speed in order to be successful. The triple jump is
composed of five distinct phases which must flow together in order to achieve a positive
outcome. These phases are the approach run, hop, step, jump and landing phase. The
phases are all easy to master, given the proper coaching and execution of the phases. Of
all the phases the step phase is the most difficult of the five to master.

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Technique of Triple Jump

 The triple jump is a series of three consecutive jumps following a fast approach
run.
 Like the long jump, horizontal velocity is the most influential element of
performance but must be preserved over three consecutive jumps.
 Technique plays a far greater role in the triple jump.
 Some things to remember:
Remember each phase depends on the other
The greatest progress in the triple jump will come from
improving the step phase
Out of the five phases the "step" phase is the most difficult to
master
Always keep your arms back upon contact with the ground: this
will help maintain horizontal speed
Always keep head level and eyes focus straight ahead.

Triple Jump Phases

1. Approach phase
The approach run for the triple jump is similar to that of the long jump and the objective
is to create the greatest amount of speed that can be controlled throughout the triple jump:
hop, step and jump phases. The athlete's strength and technique will determine the
optimal run up distance and speed.
The approach should be long enough for the athlete to accelerate into the run with control
speed to the board. If the approach is too slow, the jumper will lose his or her speed in the
later phase of the approach run. If the approach is too fast, the jumper will be unable to
control his/her hop phase in the triple jump; if this occurs the jumper will collapse
because there is not enough time to set up for the hop phase if the speed is out of control.
This will also affect the step and jump phase. First time triple jumpers should start out
with a four step approach then a six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, sixteen, etc. As the
jumper gets stronger and begins to master the phases and max out at each step, s/he can
then move on to the next steps of the approach. The length of the run for full approach,
which is sixteen (16) steps for collegiate female athletes, is between 83 feet (25.3m) and
100 feet (30.48m). For male athletes, their approach ranges from 103feet (31.39m) to
120feet (36.58m). Over time as the jumper will become stronger and with more
experience, s/he can then lengthen his/ her approach. When coaching a beginner a check
mark can be used, one mark will be placed at the beginning of the approach, and the other
will be placed at the later part of the approach. For example, if the jumper is running
from a ten step approach the coach would put a check mark four steps from the board.

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The coach will also ask the jumper to push out for three, control the next three and
accelerate the last four.

In the overall approach run, there are three phases; the Drive phase, Transition phase, and
the Acceleration phase.

a. Drive phase
This phase is very important, because it set up the whole run. In a ten step approach, a
jumper should drive out for three. In a twelve step approach run, the jumper should drive
out for four. In a fourteen step approach, a jumper should drive out for five. In a sixteen
step approach, a jumper should drive out for six. During each drive phase, the jumper's
stride must remain open and head down as if s/he was running out of the starting block in
a sprint race.

b. Transition phase
The transition phase is used to control the drive phase of the approach; it also allows the
jumper to position his/her body for the final four strides of the approach run.

c. Acceleration phase
The jumper final four stride; each stride should be faster than the previous. By the time
the jumper reaches this phase s/he should have full control of the approach and ready to
take flight.

Remember the check mark is not for the athlete but the coach. As the young jumper gains
experience s/he should use only the beginning mark. Mastering the beginning of the
approach is very important to the overall approach run. The jumper should practice
her/his approach regularly, which will help the jumper to become more consistent.

2. Hop phase
The hop is the first phase of the triple jump, during this phase the athlete run of the
takeoff board with a hop. The objective in the hop is to achieve horizontal vertical
velocity (going forward and up) of the takeoff board, not vertical horizontal velocity (up
and forward as in the long jump). The jumper should use her/his stronger leg for the hop
phase because the hop leg will be used for two of the three jumps. The horizontal vertical
velocity (forward and up) of the takeoff board is accomplished by keeping the body
upright but in a slightly forward position. The heel of the hop leg should rotate high and
under the hip and then extended it as far forward as possible with the upper body slightly
over the foot on touchdown. This position will make the athlete feels as if s/he is running
off the board. Always remind the jumper to stay upright and never look down or lean
forward, because the body will naturally lean forward when the hands are extended back

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on touchdown. If the athlete leans her/his body too forward it will be difficult to bring the
opposite leg up for the next phase.

Arm action
The two most commonly used method of the arm action in triple jump are: Double-arm
action and Single-arm action.
The use of a single or a double arm action at takeoff depends on the athlete's preference-
the double arm action provides more power.

Single arm action

The single-arm method is simply a running motion off the board, as if the jumper is
taking one more step, the only difference in the running step is the hop phase.
o The arm opposite the free leg drives forward and up to shoulder level
o The angle at the elbow should be between 80 and 110 degrees
Double arm action
o The lead arm crosses slightly in front of the body on the penultimate step of the
approach phase
o As the takeoff step is initiated, the arm pauses next to the body rather than
swinging behind as with a normal stride
o As the takeoff contacts the ground, both arms drive forward and up to shoulder
height

The angle of the arms at the elbows will be greater than 90 degrees in order to create a
more powerful impulse forward arm action.

A combination of a double arm hop and a double arm step, along with a double arm jump
phase are mostly used in triple jumping.
The faster jumper can best use the double arm method, a jumper of average speed can use
whichever method is most comfortable, and the slower athlete usually benefits from the
single arm action.

3. Step phase
It is the middle part of the jump. Just before the athlete completes the hop phase, the arms
should be pulled back to prepare the athlete for her/his step phase. The step phase is
accomplished by bringing the swing leg (opposite of the hop leg) up and forward. The
jumper should strive to get the upper leg perpendicular to the body or parallel to the
ground about 90 degrees. Both arms must come forward to utilize the double arm action.

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Whenever the single-arm action is being used during the step phase, the opposite arm
goes forward like a continuation of the run but never passes the chin.

To execute the proper step phase the jumper should hold her/his leg at 90 degrees for a
split second, then the lower leg must extend ahead of the knee just before landing. The
requirement for holding this position is to keep the torso extended and slightly forward in
order to hold the foot at 90 degree. As the jumper prepares for touchdown and the foot is
extended for touchdown, the jumper must extend her/his hand behind the back to prepare
for the jump phase. The jumpers arm must be slightly ahead of the free leg to execute the
correct jump phase.

4. Jump phase
As the jumper prepares to initiate the jump phase, the arms are interchange if the single-
arm method is used. If the double arm is used, both arm should be back on touchdown
and pulled through aggressively with a punching action. The athlete should execute the
jump phase with a hang style similar to the action of a longer jumper. There is not enough
time to execute the hitch-kick.
In the air the jumper must delay forward rotation to assure a better landing. The reaching
of the arm and the subsequent downward -backward action of the arm will aid in delaying
the forward rotation.

5. Landing phase
The landing should be similar to long jump; the jumper must reach high, drive arm down
and back, back must be parallel to the ground with chin up, the athlete's must arm must
go past the hips prior to the feet touching, at contact bring arms back and forward.
The jumper leg should be bent to bring them through to prepare to land. They must,
however, reach extension again on the way down to landing. Many jumpers leave them
bent and rob themselves of precious inches to their jumps. It is one flowing motion to
throw the arms forward and down, extending the legs bending forward resulting in the
hand being close to ones knee. Every effort must be made to hold this position until the
first contact with the sand.

At contact the jumper knee should bend to help absorb the shock associated with landing.
In order to maintain forward momentum, the arm should be in a position where they are
extended, moving backward and the hands would be next to the buttocks at first contact.
From this position at landing, one can continue the backward motion of the arms and
propel the body forward. This will eliminate the problem of falling back and losing
distance

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Two methods could be used to exit the landing after completing a jump; the techniques
are the straight ahead and side out exit.

Optimum phase ratio in the triple jump

As previously described, the triple jump requires a series of hop, step and jump at high
speed. The shortest distance measured from the front edge of the takeoff board to the
nearest mark the athlete made in the sand pit is referred to as official distance, and used
as the measure of the athlete's performance in a triple jump. The official distance of the
triple jump is mainly determined by the actual distance that is defined as the shortest
distance from the toe of the takeoff foot of the hop to the nearest mark the athlete made in
the sand pit.
 Actual distance is the sum of the hop, step and jump distances.
 Relative phase distances are the ratios of the hop, step and jump distances to the
actual distance.
 Phase ratio is the ratio of the three relative phase distances. The phase ratio is a
key technical factor that affects the performance of the triple jump.
From the point of view of phase ratio, triple jump techniques were divided into three
categories:
1. Hop-dominated technique: in which the relative hop distance is at least 2% of the
actual distance longer than the relative jump distance.
2. Jump-dominated technique: in which the relative jump distance is at least 2% of the
actual distance longer than the relative hop distance, and
3. Balanced technique: in which the difference between the relative hop and jump
distances is no greater than 2% of the actual distance. The appropriate distribution of the
triple jump distance is- Hop 35%, Step 30% and Jump 35%.

HIGH JUMP
The high jump is an athletics (track and field) event in which competitors must jump over
a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without aid of any devices. It is an event in
which the athlete gets a running start and attempts to clear a bar raised at different heights
depending on the athlete's skill level. After jumping over the bar the athlete lands on a
mat located directly behind it to cushion the fall. In the old days of this event, jumpers
used to jump the bar going head first over it. However, all of today's athletes use the
Fosbury flop to maximize their jumping heights. It has been contested since the Olympic
Games of ancient Greece. Over the centuries since, competitors have introduced
increasingly more effective techniques to arrive at the current form.

It is an event that combines ballistic strength with speed, expressed through rhythm and
body control. The key to success is the efficient transfer of speed into vertical lift off the

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ground. Rhythm and technique determine how well the athlete achieves this transfer of
speed. Athletes with long legs and good spring make good candidates for the high jump.
Athletes should wear spikes on grass or in wet conditions because surface can become
slippery.

History of High Jump

High jump is a challenging and is an excellent spectacular event. The sport of high
jumping is one of the oldest track and field events performed as early as the Olympics in
ancient Greece, the first recorded high jump event took place in Scotland in the 19th
century. Early jumpers used either an elaborate straight-on approach or a scissors
technique. In the later, the bar was approached diagonally, and the jumper threw first the
inside leg and then the other over the bar in a scissoring motion. Around the turn of the
20th century, techniques began to modernize, starting with the Irish-American M.F.
Sweeney's Eastern cut-off.

Another American, M.F. Horine, developed an event more efficient technique, the
'Western roll.' In this style, the bar again is approached on a diagonal, but the inner leg is
used for the takeoff, while the outer leg is thrust up to lead the body sideways over the
bar. Horine increased the world standard to 2.01m in 1912. His technique predominated
through the Berlin Olympics of 1936.

American and Russian jumpers held the playing field for the next four decades, and they
pioneered the evolution of the straddle technique. Straddle jumpers took off as in the
Western roll, but rotated their (belly-down) torso around the bar, obtaining the most
economical clearance to date. Straddle jumpers Charles Dumas broke the elusive 2.13m
barrier in 1956, and American wunderkind (high flier) John Thomas pushed the world
mark to 2.23m in 1960. Valeriy Brumel took over the event for the next four years. The
elegant Soviet jumper radically speed up his approach run, took the record up to 2.28m,
and won the Olympic gold medal in 1964.

Fosbury added a new twist to the outmoded Eastern cut-off. He directed himself over the
bar head and shoulders first sliding over on his back and landing in a fashion which
would likely have broken his neck in the old sawdust landing pits. After he used this
Fosbury flop to win the 1968 Olympic gold medal, the technique began to spread around
the world, and soon floppers were dominating international high jump competitions.
The Fosbury flop is the most popular technique in which the athlete does a backward
rotation during flight. The Scissor kick is a more basic jump in which the athlete lifts legs
sequentially over the bar, remaining facing the same direction. Regardless of the jump
style, all jumps must be made off of one foot only.

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Technique of High Jump

In strict biomechanical terms, the high jump is a controlled acceleration using centripetal
force to put the body in position to convert horizontal speed into vertical velocity,
propelling the center of mass over the crossbar. The unique quality of the flop is that it
enables the athlete to fulfill the biomechanical demands of the event precisely. These
demands require the execution of skills which can be discussed in terms of phases. The
high jump has an approach that contains a transition from linear to curve. The approach
portion of the high jump is the most important aspect of the entire event. It consists of a
straight run-up, perpendicular to the plane of the stands, followed by a curved section
during the last four to six steps before the take off. It has a takeoff that is similar to the
long jump, employing a penultimate and takeoff step. The transition from approach run to
takeoff is the most complex portion of the high jump. The takeoff phase is defined as a
period of time between the instant when the takeoff foot first touches the ground and the
instant when it loses contact with the ground. During this phase, horizontal velocity and
angular momentum are converted to accelerate the athlete's body off the ground. Lastly, it
has bar clearance and landing in the pit.

The method of clearing the bar is largely pre-determined by:

 The angle of takeoff,
 The degree of extension in the lead leg,
 The degree of forward inclination of the head, arms and shoulders, and
 The extent to which the powerful takeoff leg extension is diminished by a twisting
attempt to aid body rotation.

Landing is a problem of reducing the energy of falling by continuing to roll as contact is

made with the pit, or by presenting as much body surface to the pit as possible. The
ability to relax and to maintain body balance is the factors that make for easy landing.
These phases are somewhat artificial, however, the high jump flows from the first step,
and each step is dependent on the one before it.

There are several high jump techniques: Eastern cut-off, Scissors, Western roll, Straddle
and Fosbury flop. All attack the bar from the side or face on and use the inner foot to
takeoff.

The Fosbury Flop Style High Jump

Fosbury flop is named after its originator, the 1968 Olympic champion, Dick Fosbury. In
the present day high jumping, the Fosbury flop is the sole technique used by all world
class high jumpers throughout the world. Dick Fosbury, the gold medal high jump winner
at the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico city, introduced a completely new style of

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jumping to the world of athletics, a style that rapidly became known as the Fosbury flop.
In this style, the jumper takes off from the foot farthest from the cross rather than from
the foot nearest the crossbar as is the case in both the western and the dive straddle style
and turns his body in such a way that his body is perpendicular to the crossbar. This form
of clearance enables him to pass over the crossbar while raising his center of gravity as
short a distance above the ground as possible. The flop has become the universal method
of high jumping. A high jumper must be explosive, fluid, controlled and consistent.

1. The Approach
The flop approach in the high jump consists of 8 to 12 steps, not taking into account the
rather varied preliminary phase. The last three to five steps are run in the form of a curve
with a radius of approximately 8 to 12 meters.
The jumper approaches the bar rapidly along a circular path. By so doing, he is forced to
lean toward the center of the circle. In the same way that a sprinter rounding a curve on
the track must lean toward the center of the curve. This lean is important, because at
takeoff the jumper invariably leans towards the crossbar, which in the Fosbury style
brings his body in to an erect position directly above his takeoff foot. This erect position
is essential to an efficient takeoff. Furthermore; the motion from the leaning position to
the erect position provides a length wise rotary motion of his body, which assists him in
revolving about the crossbar as he pass over it. It is a general principle that the higher the
approach velocity the greater the radius. The first steps of the approach are run on a
tangent which then leads into the so-called "impulse curve."

Factors to look for in the approach: 2 or 4 stride lead into a checkpoint, non takeoff foot
hits this checkpoint, followed by a curved 5 stride approach to the takeoff point, in the
last 3 to 4 strides the athlete is inclined away from the bar, and final strides to be fast and
hips kept high.

There are three types of approach run

a. The Arch type approach run
b. Curved type approach run
c. J shaped approach run
The J type of approach allows for:
1. More horizontal speed
2. The ability to turn in the air (centripetal force)
3. Places athlete in a good takes off position

In the Fosbury flop, the athlete runs up in a curve, jumps by taking off from his outer foot
and twists his body to clear the bar with his back. He finishes the movement by lifting his
legs over the bar and landing on a mattress. The curved run-up allows the high jumper to

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reach the bar with more speed and to do a more powerful jump. The body arches over the
bar and the center of gravity is underneath, which is undisputable mechanical advantage.

2. Takeoff
The take off takes place close to the upright at the side of the free leg. The jumping foot
is planted at angle of approximately 30° to the plane at the uprights. The speed flopper
has approximately 120 to 170 milliseconds of time available for the takeoff.
At first, the active use of the arms and the free leg increases the pressure on the takeoff
leg even further. Only the subsequent locking of these parts of the body with the
explosive final extension makes it possible to reduce some of the load.

Factors to look for on takeoff:

o Takeoff point is approximately 0.5 meters to 0.75 meters from the near upright
along the bar and out from the bar
o Takeoff foot is slightly ahead of the athlete's body
o Takeoff foot plant is heel first to provide the maximum lever
o Takeoff foot is pointing towards a position halfway between the middle of the bar
and the far upright (10° to 20°)
o Takeoff foot is in alignment with the takeoff leg
o Hips are forward
o Inside shoulder is high
o The trunk is upright and leaning slightly back- not leaning towards the bar
o Hips are at 45° to the bar and shoulders at 90°
o There is quick and vigorous movement of free limbs
o The inside shoulder does not drop in towards the bar
o Rotation comes from the non jumping side, i.e., the free leg and shoulder pulling
across the body
o The leg nearest the bar is driven up bent and high at the opposite upright, thigh
and foot parallel with the ground and lower leg vertical
o Both arms are swung forwards and upwards with the free leg

3. Flight and bar clearance

If the takeoff has been properly executed, the jumper will be in position to clear the bar.
The knees will be slightly spread with the heels together. The head will be turned to the
inside with the eyes looking over the shoulder and at the cross bar. The arms will come
alongside the body.
As the jumper reaches height on top of the bar, the jumper should straighten the back leg
and tuck the chin in to the chest. This will cause the legs to rise. The feet will be extended
out and up. The landing is executed by landing on the upper back area, not the neck.

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Once off the ground factors to look for in the flight: inside knee stays up at bar level,
heels are pulled back towards the head (arching the back), knees bent and wide apart,
arms in a crucifix position or held by the side, head back and looking towards the far
back corner of the mat (forces the hips to stay high), once the hips are over the bar the
legs are snapped straight from the knees and landing on the shoulders.

The Straddle Technique

The straddle technique was the dominant technique in the high jump before the
development of the Fosbury flop, which is used by today's jumpers. There existed two
variants of the straddle: the parallel straddle and a more diving version. With the parallel
straddle head and trunk passed the bar at the same time.

1. The Run
The specific techniques of the run are just as crucial to excellent high jumping as are
those of bar clearance, and must be practiced as often and as attentively to exact details.
The run sets the basic pattern for the jump; if it is ill-done or ill-timed, bar clearance will
be equally so. At least one accurately placed check-mark is mandatory.

a. Angle of run: The greater the angle of run, the more the crossbar forces an athlete
to jump up vertically, but the more difficult it is to drive a straight leg up from a
close takeoff, and the greater the lateral distance over which arms and legs must
clear the bar. The smaller the angle of run, the shorter the lateral distance
becomes, bur the greater the tendency to dive and slide along the bar. Most great
straddle jumpers have run at angles of 30 to 40 degrees.
b. Length of run: The run must be long enough to give gradual and smooth
acceleration to the desired speed at the takeoff. If such speed is slow, the run need
to be no longer than 7 (seven) strides; if fast, 13 strides may be found to be
effective.
c. Speed of run: If a jumper has the leg power and conversion technique to use it, the
greater the speed of the run, the greater the body momentum that can be converted
upward. It is suggested that a jumper's speed should be their natural fast rhythm.
This may be too fast for best jumping now.
2. The Takeoff
The takeoff has one goal one all-out objective: jumping high! To jump ones highest
requires an ignorance of all caution, a desperate, reckless explosion upward, without
regard for possible muscle or tendon strain, with no thought of an economical clearance
of the bar, or any other aspect of technique.

To achieve a maximal takeoff, everything must be right. The takeoff foot must be
extended well forward of the COM (center of mass); the line of the body must angle

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backward at about 45° (assuming a fast run); the takeoff leg must be strongly braced
momentarily so as to block all forward progress. With such a takeoff, the jumper is
forced upward, even without jumping. To understand this better, one might relate the
action to the last two strides in the javelin throw.

3. Clearing the Bar

The method of clearing the bar is largely pre-determined by: the angle of takeoff, the
degree of extension in the lead leg, the degree of forward inclination of the head, arms
and shoulders, and the extent to which the powerful takeoff leg extension is diminished
by a twisting attempt to aid body rotation.

THROWING EVENTS
Events that test an athlete's abilities to put (heave), hurl and throw certain objects are
known as the throwing events. These events are the shot-put, discus, hammer and javelin,

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which are collectively called the weights. An athlete wins a throwing event by propelling
the object the farthest.
Despite the greatly varying weights and shapes of the implements and the different
throwing actions involved, there are features common to them all. Each of the throws has
the start, movement or momentum building, throwing or power position, delivery and
recovery.
Using the example of a right handed thrower, the basic principles involved in throwing
are: Transfer of weight - from right leg/foot to left leg/foot, build up of speed, slow to
fast/ low to high; starting low by bending the legs allow the large powerful leg muscles to
operate first, gradually building up to an explosive release by arms, extension of body
from ankle ------legs------hips----back----chest----arms; work in sequence, each adding
speed to the throw, and rotation of right knee/ hip towards the direction of throw. In the
completion of every run up, glide, spin or turn, the athlete must get into a position to
throw. This balanced position is a preparation to throw, with both feet contact with the
ground and the weight over the ball of the right foot. For each of the throws the right foot
will vary in angle, but the general rule is that the right heel and left toe will lineup.
Viewed from the side, the athlete in the power position would show a vertical alignment
of chin, knee and toe. The aim of the throw is to propel the implement as far as possible
to land within the designated sector. Quite simply, the distance covered by any projectile
is a function of five factors:
1. The implements speed at release
2. The angle of release
3. The height of the implement at release (relative to the landing area)
4. The angle of attack (the difference between the angle of release and the discus'
horizontal axis)
5. Atmospheric conditions (including humidity, wind, temperature...)

SHOTPUT
Field event in which a metal ball is heaved for distance. It is an athletics (track and field)
event involving "putting" (throwing in a pushing motion) a heavy metal ball, also called
the shot, as far as possible. It derives from the ancient event of putting the stone; later a
shot was substituted. A 7.26 (7.3)kg shot was adopted for men in the first modern
Olympic Games (1896); 4kg weight is used by women. The aim in shot-putting is to
propel a solid metal ball through the air for a maximum distance.

Shot put competitions have been held at the Summer Olympic Games since their
inception and are also included as an event in the indoor world championship. It
originates from Highland games 'stone put' where Scottish people put a rounded, cube
stone or metal form of considerable weight from behind a given line. The throw is made
from a 2.135meter diameter circle with a 1.22meter wooden stop board 10cms high at the

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front. The thrower must commence the throw from a stationary position and leave the
circle under control from the rear half after completing the throw. The shot must fall
within a 40degree sector at the front of the circle. The shot must be put from the shoulder
with one hand only and be kept in close proximity to the chin during any preceding
movements. Shot put is not merely heaving a metal ball but requires immense strength,
power, grace and balance.

Basic Technique of Shot put

The shot should be placed over the head balancing the shot on all four fingers. The left
arm should then be raised above the head. Both hands are turned so that the palm of each
hand is looking down at each ear. In that position the arms are lowered to rest on the
shoulder. Then both hands are squeezed to the neck. The rhythm for shot placement is
described as "up, turn, down, squeeze."

The most descriptive word for the action of the shot putter's arm is punch. The motion of
the arms should be like punching towards a tall person. The legs of the putter should
move in a violent manner and the right heel should get around the right knee. The
throwing motion of the shot then begins. In the up position the athlete will then balance
the shot on the base of the fingers. In the turn position, the athlete faces his/her palms to
the ears, and then lowers his arms to prepare for the squeeze. In the squeeze phase, the
ball is nestled against the neck. The left arm is then relaxed to become an extension of the
left shoulder.

Techniques of shot put

1. Shot grip and placement
a. Holding the shot
The shot should be placed at the base of the first three fingers, which should be
evenly spread but not stretched, with the little finger and thumb supporting the
shot. The shot is then being placed under the chin with the elbow held high.
b. Neck placement
The thrower starts by placing the shot against the neck and just under the edge of
the jawbone. The right elbow should out at a 90 degree angle from the body.
2. The stance
The athlete should take up position, with the weight over the right foot and should be
encouraged to think of "chin-knee-toe" being vertically in line. The feet and hips should
be facing the side (at right angles to the shoulders) and the shoulder "cocked" to the rear.

3. Glide position
a. Body position in the glide

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Stand at the back of the ring facing away from the throwing direction. Place shot
against your neck, put your body in an athletic position facing away from the
sector, extend your left arm out-relaxed, extend the left leg back towards the toe
board, and most of the body weight should be on the right leg.
b. Gliding into the power position
Tap your left leg for balance, draw up the left knee even with the right knee,
remember to keep the left leg straight. Do not allow your left leg to curl behind
the right leg. Allow your hips to start to fall, violently extend your left leg towards
the toe board, do not lift up with your back, and push and then pull your right leg
underneath you, it will look like the last part of your body leaving the circle is
your right heel.
4. Power position
a. Body position in the power position
The thrower will stand perpendicular to the throwing direction, the feet position
will be shoulder width apart or a little wider with left foot slightly behind the right
foot (toe heel relationship), the right foot will be perpendicular to the throwing
direction, the thrower needs to be in an athletic position, the thrower will shift
80% of his/her weight onto the right leg, the thrower will twist his/her upper body
completely opposite the throwing direction, this position from up above will look
like an X, the chest, knee and toe should be in line with each other, the thrower
places the shot into his/her neck, and the left arm will be extended and out from
the body with a right angle relationship to the right elbow.
b. Throwing from the power position
Over exaggerate the use of the legs in the throw specially the hips, sequence of
the throw will be legs - hips - back - arm, push the weight from right leg to the left
leg in an upwards direction, when driving up with your legs, your right heel (hips)
needs to be turned out, there will be a stretch reflex reaction between your upper
body and lower body, the upper body will start coming around, as your upper
body comes around sweep the left arm around and then bring it tight to your body,
stop the left side of your body to aid in accelerating the shot, and deliver the shot
as mentioned above.
5. The put
From the standing position the movement should be initiated by the right leg driving the
right hip to the front, transferring the body weight from the right leg to the left leg. At the
same time, the left arm comes forward and up pointing along the trajectory line the shot
will take (approximately 45° to the horizontal). During this action, the emphasis should
be on a fast right hip, keeping the elbow up behind the shot.

As the hips face the front and forward, then the right shoulder is driven to the front and
the left arm swings to the left side to balance the movement. When the chest is facing

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forward then the right arm punches the shot out, keeping the elbow high. The left
shoulder must not be allowed to drop during any part of this movement and the athlete
should think of keeping the left side braced.

6. Recovery
After delivery stepping outside the circle is prevented by the recovery. It is managed by a
springing reversal of the feet. In this phase the reverse takes place by approaching the
right leg to the left and allowing the left leg to move backward.

Putting Styles of Shot-put

There are standing put, sliding put, gliding put, and the reverse (spin) put. Two putting
styles are in current general use by shot put competitors: the glide and the spin.

The glide was invented in the United States in 1876. With this technique, a right-hand
thrower begins facing the rear of the circle and kicks to the front with the left leg while
pushing off forcefully with the right. The key is to move quickly across the circle with as
little air under the feet as possible, hence the name glide. As the thrower crosses the
circle, the hips twist towards the front, followed by the shoulders and strikes in a putting
motion with his arm.

The origin of the spin dates to 1951, when Parry O'Brien of the United States invented a
technique that involves the putter facing backwards rotating 180 degrees across the circle,
and then tossing the shot. In the spin, the thrower faces the rear, and begins to spin on the
ball of the left foot. The thrower comes around and faces the front of the circle and steps
the right foot into the middle of the circle. Finally, the thrower reaches for the front of the
circle with the left foot, twists his hips and shoulders like in the glide, and puts the shot.

With all putting styles, the goal is to release the shot with maximum forward velocity at
an angle of approximately 40 degrees. Currently, most top male shot putters use the spin,
but the glide remains popular, especially at the amateur level and among women, since
the technique breeds higher consistency for the athlete as opposed to the rotational
technique.
Measuring which technique can provide the most potential is difficult, as many of the
best throws recorded with each technique. Selecting the right technique differs on an
individual basis, with almost all throwers first developing the glide technique.
Smaller(size) throwers may benefit from the spin technique, which compensates for the
lack of long levers with superior speed generated by the spinning motion. Throwers who
are adept at pivoting or spinning may be candidates for the spin technique; however, for
high school throwers, the glide is a more consistent technique.

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The glide technique is usually favored by larger throwers who have trouble spinning
within the small shot circle. They also benefit from the longer pull gained from the power
position of the glide technique. Long throws have been achieved with both styles, but all
beginning throwers should learn a little about the glide before even attempting the spin.

The Gliding Shot put

The movement of the rear foot is a "glide" forward across the ring by the rear foot and
not a hopping or jumping action. The rear foot does not lose contact with the surface of
the ring. The only reason to use other than the standing throw technique is to increase the
speed of the shot as it leaves the hand. Therefore, if there is any pause or stop in the
movement of the upper-body, throwing shoulder and arm during the process, all benefit
of using the glide is lost. The motion/action must be continuous. Remember, it is the
continuous horizontal displacement of the shot across the ring that is important.
The glide technique is usually favored by larger throwers who have trouble spinning
within the small shot circle.

Phase Action
Preparation  Shot rests on fingers and their bases
 Shot held against neck under chin
 Elbow at 40° angle to body
 Thrower starts at rear of circle, back to the throw
 Trunk bent forward, weight balanced on right leg
Momentum building i  Free leg is bent and drawn to the back
 Weight moves to heel of left foot
 Free leg is driven towards the stop board
 Support leg keeps contact for most of glide
 Right foot dives off the heel
 Shoulders kept square to the rear of the circle
Momentum building ii  Right foot is actively placed in center of the circle
 Landing on the ball of the foot
 Left foot lands immediately afterwards
 Upper body remains behind the legs
 Shoulders kept square to back
 Left toe in line with right ankle on landing
Transfer  Body weight starts on ball of right foot
(power position)  Chin, knee and toe are aligned on landing
 Shot is behind the base of support
 Shoulders separated from the hips

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 Right foot turns out commencing delivery

 Right hip is driven around to the front

Delivery  Right leg extends explosively

 Left side braces and left leg extends
 Body weight transfers from right to left leg
 Shoulders remain horizontal
 Arm strikes after full extension of legs
 Double foot contact is kept as long as possible
 Head is kept up watching shot go

Recovery  Legs are changed quickly after the release

 Right leg bends to aid balance
 Upper body is lowered
 Left leg swings backwards

Spin Shot put

Development of a modified standing put in which the athlete takes a narrow delivery
position with the back turned to the direction of delivery. Every technique in every event
has advantages and disadvantages. The major advantage that the spin possesses over
other techniques is that both the thrower and the shot travel a much greater distance in the
shot ring, thereby resulting in the potential to accelerate the shot to greater velocity than
when using the glide. There is also the potential for greater, more efficient use of body
levers to accelerate by both the body and the shot as they travel through the circle.
Smaller throwers may benefit from the spin technique, which compensates for the lack of
long levers with superior speed generated by the spinning motion.

The disadvantages of using the rotational(spin) technique are:

 The shot circle is somewhat smaller than the discus circle, and the turn performed
must be tighter;
 The discus, at the end of an extended throwing arm, acts as a counterbalance to
the actions of the rest of the body, whereas the shot must remain close to the neck,
at the center of rotation, and offers little help in balancing the athlete; and
 The glide and other techniques are relatively simple in their basic form, while the
spin has more movements and shifts from differing support positions, thus
requiring more balance and body control.
However, the major advantage that the spin offers the thrower is far greater ability to
produce speed traveling into the power position, both in the body itself in rotary
movement and in the shot itself. If this speed can be controlled and channeled into the
delivery, the potential for greater distance is obvious.
 Increased acceleration path
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 Increased acceleration over power position

 Increased velocity of shot at delivery phase
 Narrower base of power position
 Longer extension/reach into the throwing sector

Optimum Projection angle

With ballistics, the initial speed is applied to the projectile regardless of the angle of
projection. The athlete can not throw at the same speed for all angles of projection, as the
angle increases so the speed decreases. This decrease in speed is a result two factors:
 As the angle increases the athlete must expend more energy in overcoming the
weight of the shot and so less effort is available to develop the release speed of
the shot
 The structure of the body favors a throw in the horizontal direction- most athletes
can bench press more than they can shoulder press.
The focus for the shot-putter must be on projection speed and not the release angle. For
elite shot-putters it appears that the optimum release angle lies between 30 and 40
degrees. The release angle for the discus and javelin has to take into consideration
aerodynamic lift and drag. The optimum angle for the javelin is about 33 degrees and 35
degrees for the discus.

DISCUS THROW
The discus throw is an ancient sport. In the 5th century BC, the sculptor Myron made a
statue of a discus thrower (Discobolus), which is world famous today, found in Greece.
The object to be thrown is a heavy lenticular disc with a diameter of 220mm and a weight
of 2 kilograms for the men's event, and 1 kilogram for the women's, with a smaller
diameter of 182mm. The discus usually has sides made of rubber, plastic, wood or metal
with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight. A discus with more weight in the
rim, produce greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability,
although they are more difficult to throw.

The discus is spun off the index finger or the middle finger of the throwing hand,
spinning clockwise when viewed above for a right-handed thrower, and vice versa. As
well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus's distance is
also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic
behavior of the discus. To achieve maximum distance in the discus, the athlete will have
to balance three components: speed, technique and strength.

Techniques of Discus Throw

The primary body movements of discus technique are essentially the same as the
rotational technique for the shot put. The ideal athlete for discus throwing is tall with long

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arms and legs and quick feet. Successful discus throwers have come in all shapes and
sizes, but this body type seems to have the most successful in the event.

The complete discus throw should have a distinct rhythm, building from slow to fast. The
discus thrower should start in the back of the ring with a nice, relaxed wind of the discus
to start the rhythm as the weight stays evenly distributed over both feet. The wind should
not be too fast or dramatic.
As the thrower "unwinds," the legs should bend and the center of mass should shifted
over the ball of the left foot. The shoulders should remain parallel to the ground with the
left arm extended straight in front of the body.
As the center of mass moves over the left foot, the thrower should drive off that foot
immediately. This movement is referred to as drop and go. As the left foot pushes, the
right foot sweeps around underneath the left armpit and the thrower rotates out of the
back of the ring. The combination the left leg drive and the right leg sweep gives the
thrower good linear impulse across the ring.
Hip-shoulder separation is also established at this point, as the right leg sweeps
underneath the armpit to get ahead of the upper body. The head should look straight away
from the chest, as the discus is wound, and then turned to look at the left arm as the
thrower comes out of the back of the ring.
Once linear drive has been established across the ring, the thrower should actually be
airborne. At this point, the right leg will be tucked in, beneath the upper body, and the
knees brought together to increase the speed of the left foot coming back to the ground.
After the initial drive out of the back, the right leg will be the first to contact the ground
at the center of the ring. The left leg should touchdown as soon after the right as possible
to create the longest arm pull possible on the discus.
As the thrower reaches the stand-throw position, the shoulders should remain parallel to
the ground with no dipping whatsoever. The right foot should also continue to pivot and
should continue to do so until the discus is released.
When the athlete is pulling the discus around the release point, the right foot must
continue to pivot in order to maintain the hip-shoulder separation attained at the initial
turn. If separation is not maintained, an arm throw will result and much power lost. The
discus throw is actually a sling, aided by a stretch-reflex reaction prior to release. The left
side of the body should remain firm, with the left leg (the block leg) blocking as the right
side rotates through release. At release, the head should be thrown back allowing the
chest and hip to rise and give lift to the discus. After the discus is released, a reverse can
be added to avoid fouling.

Sequences of Throwing
1. The Hold

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o The discus can be held with either a split (with even space between all fingers) or
a grip where the index and middle finger are touching and even spacing exists
between the rests of the fingers. Either way the discus should rest on the last joints
(closest to the fingernails). The fingers should be barely over the edge of the
discus and not wrapped around the discus.
o Delivery will be against and from the index finger joint with discus spinning
clockwise for a right-handed thrower. The thumb should rest on top of the discus.
When the discus is delivered, it will leave the athlete's hand at shoulder height.
o The discus is not held in the hand by wrapping the fingers around the edge. It is
held in by the centrifugal force created by the swing. If held stationary at arm's
length with the discus facing down, the discus should fall out of the hand.
2. The Turn
o The aim of the discus turn is to gather speed in the circle. This is achieved by
performing a rather complicated running rotation across the circle. To master this
action it is recommended to learn the one and a half turn.
3.The Release
o The discus comes out of the front and not the back of the hand. At release, the
angle of the hand/wrist is changed with the little finger coming back toward the
elbow. The wrist is "flicked" and the discus is in effect pushed out by the last two
fingers.
4. The Throw
o The throw, actually a slinging action, is the most important part of the event. It
begins immediately after completing the turn.
o There should be no pausing in the center of the circle. As soon as the right leg
has landed, it should start driving the right hip around and forward. The hip drive
is combined with the lifting and rotation of the trunk.
o While all this is happening, the right shoulder and right arm with the discus must
be kept back. They come into action only after the trunk rotation has been
completed and the body has unwound itself. The shoulders are now square to the
direction of the throw allowing for a powerful straight-arm sling of the discus.

Styles of Discus Throw

1. The Standing Throw
During the stand, an athlete winds the discus into delivery position and delivers it. From
the ground up key areas for the stand are feet wider than shoulder width with an instep
toe-toe relationship for the right and left feet. Line up with shoulders square to the back
of the circle. Right foot will be in the center of the ring closer to the front of the ring.
Right toe will aim about 90° away from the front of the ring. Left toe will aim at right
instep. Discus should be wound once and put over the athlete's right shoulder. Virtually
all bodyweight will be on the right foot.

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Initiate action by turning both feet to get body weight over the left leg. Feet should
continue to turn until right ankle is near the ground and discus is delivered. Left arm
action will start long and continue until hand is aiming in the direction of the throw. At
this point, bend the arm and bring the elbow to the left side of the body. Ultimately this
action should be well timed and occur together with the bracing of the entire left side
(shoulder to foot). This is commonly referred to as blocking. The right side will then
accelerate around the stopped left side transferring momentum to the discus.
At release, it is critical that the body is standing tall, the throwing arm fully extended, the
knees locked and the hips rotated such that they are ahead of the throwing shoulder.

2. The Spin or Rotational Throw

Stand at the rear of the ring facing the front of the ring without a discus or other item in
the throwing hand. A taller person will probably be standing just outside of the ring,
while the shorter person will be standing inside. From this position, extend the throwing
side leg (right) forward, planting the ball of the foot in the center of the remaining portion
of the ring. Push off or drive with the other (left) foot, shifting the body's position so that
the COM (center of mass) is directly above planted (right) foot. Continue the rotation or
spin so that the push off foot (left) lands at the front of the ring with proper alignment
with the rear foot (toe of front foot to heel of rear foot).
During the spin, the arms should be extended in the normal position and the head should
be turned toward the non-throwing (left) arm and the eyes should be focused on wrist of
that arm. Do not look at the feet; looking down will cause a slowdown in rotational
speed.
The next step is to replicate the full spin. To do this, start by standing while facing the
rear of the ring. Again, the actual front to rear position in the ring will be governed by the
size of the steps taken in the spin. The start location should be adjusted to ensure that at
release the front foot is near the inner edge of the front of the ring.
In the starting position, the toes, knees and shoulders should be in line with the knees
slightly bent. The back should be flat, the body bent slightly at the waist. The arms are
fully extended to the front, the discus gripped by the upper (right) hand while being
supported by the lower hand.
In one continuous motion, the arms are spread with the discus being drawn back to the
right side and the weight shifted over the right foot. The body is then pushed or driven to
the left with the weight shifting to the left foot. In this "swing step", the swinging foot
(right) should be kept relatively low, from 6 to 12 inches above the ring. This is a driven
step and not a hop. The body/shoulders should be held level with the COM remaining
low.
The landing is on the ball of the left foot in the center of the ring with the COM directly
over the foot. The arms are fully extended with the discus located behind the shoulder

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and midway between the belt line and the shoulders. The angle of the discus should be at
the release angle of about 36°.
The release or throw: the front/left leg is extended and serves as the brake in the throw.
The end of the throw is the same in both the spin and the standing throw. The action
starts at the rear foot and moves up as the hip is rotated. It progresses into the trunk and
shoulders. To increase rotational speed, the lead arm is collapsed with the thumb being
brought back to upper chest area. The release point is beyond the shoulder axis.
The head should be turned in the direction of the spin and the eyes fixed on the lead
hand/wrist through the entire spin and release.

JAVELIN THROW
The javelin is a steel-tipped wood or metal spear with a minimum length of 260cm
(2.6m) for men and 220cm (2.2m) for women, and a minimum weight of 800g for men
and about 600g for women. The javelin has a whipcord grip about 15cm long, which is
located at the center of gravity.

The javelin throwing is perhaps one of the oldest athletic events. The javelin was
invented primarily used as a weapon of war. However, there is evidence of the javelin
being competitively known from as early as the 8th century B.C. Javelins used for war
were generally heavier than those used for competition. However, over the years there
have been many technological advances in the design of the javelin. Modern days
javelins are made out of aluminum or graphite. Aerodynamics as well as many
biomechanical principles must be considered in determining the optimal method of
throwing to achieve the greatest distance. To achieve maximum distance in the javelin,
the athlete will have to balance three components- speed, technique and strength.

Basic Technique of the Javelin Throw

The good throw is based on speed of approach, speed of release and a stabilized flight.
The throw is made off a long base with the feet in line with the direction of the throw and
the throwing arm extended backwards and parallel to the ground. The rear leg drives the
hips to the front. The arm strikes very fast with the elbow close to the javelin to produce a
forearm whiplash effect. The javelin lies flat on the palm supported by the finger and the
fingers are behind the ledge formed by the binding.

The Grip (holding)

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The javelin three grip styles are: the Finnish, Fork and American. The commonalities
among all three styles are that the palm should be kept up from the crossover steps
through the delivery. The javelin will rest across the palm in all three styles.
1. Gripping the cord between the thumb and index finger: American style.
2. Gripping the cord between the thumb and middle finger :Finnish style. The index
finger can either be pointed towards the tail of the javelin or wrapped around the
javelin.
3. Gripping the cord between the index and middle finger: Fork style. It is a 'V' grip.

The 'V' grip (Fork style) is probably the most efficient for the novice thrower as it
emphasizes the supporting role of the palm. The Finnish style is the one used by most
experienced throwers.

Phases of the Javelin Throw

Throwing the javelin comprises of the following phases: start and carry, withdrawal,
transition, pre-delivery stride, delivery and recovery.

1. Start and Carry

The aim is to carry the javelin to allow the muscles of the right shoulder, arm and wrist to
relax and also to allow an easy running action.
2. Approach run
The approach helps the thrower create linear velocity which can later be transferred into
the throw. The run up should be rhythmic and relaxed, allowing the athlete to accelerate
into the crossover steps. The approach speed should be such that the thrower is in control
at all times. Experienced throwers will use an approach run of 13 to 17 strides-
inexperienced throwers will use fewer strides.
3. Withdrawal
The aim is to ensure the withdrawal movement does not affect the thrower's momentum.
A checkmark can be used to indicate start of the withdrawal phase that commences with
the right foot and lasts for two strides.
 At the checkmark the thrower accelerates ahead of the javelin rather than
physically pushing the shoulders and javelin back
 Head remains facing in the direction of throw
 Maintain hips at right angles to the direction of running

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 Drive the right leg forwards and upwards to help maintain the correct position of
the hips
4. Transition
The aim of the transition phase, also known as the cross-over is to place the right foot
ahead of the athlete's center of gravity so as to produce the characteristics lean back. This
must be achieved by advancing the right foot forward and not by leaning back. Although
these cross-over steps tend to be slightly slower than the linear steps taken in the run-up,
they allow the athlete to carry their feet ahead of their center of mass, putting the thrower
in a position in which s/he can exert the maximum amount of force on the javelin over
the longest period of time, or get a long pull on the javelin, therefore increasing impulse.

There are a 3-step, a 5-step, or 7-step rhythm. The number of steps refers to the number
of ground contacts that a thrower makes after the initial run-up and before the delivery.
Suggest that a 5-step rhythm is perhaps the most efficient choice to carry momentum into
the throw and generate maximum throwing velocity. The last stride in the transition is
known as the penultimate crossover. During this step, the athlete should drive the right
knee (for the right handed throwers) out and low to maintain horizontal velocity, and
should be placed out in front of the throwers center of gravity to maintain the backward
lean, thereby putting the athlete in a position that increases the amount of time the athlete
has to apply force on the javelin, and consequentially increasing the amount of impulse
the thrower can generate on the javelin.
5. Pre-delivery Stride
 The left leg reaches forward
 Shoulders and hips now in line with the direction of throw
 The athlete waits for the ground to come up and meet the left foot
 Trunk is upright
 Head facing direction of throw
 Shoulders and javelin parallel
 Throwing hand above the level of the shoulder
6. Delivery
Because of the nature of the implement itself, the thrower must maintain the proper body
position during delivery to gain optimal release angles and a smooth transition into flight.
The term is called throw through the shaft, which basically translates to keeping the angle
consistent during release.
 Following contact of the left foot with the ground, the left side must brace against
a thrusting right leg action
 Right leg drives upwards and forwards bringing the hips at 90° to the direction of
throw
 Hip thrust is followed with the shoulders and chest turning square to the front and
lining up with the hips and brining the elbow of the throwing arm forward

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 The throwing shoulder is brought over the left leg

 The left leg should lift as the athlete rides over it and the throwing arm now
comes into play
 Arm strikes fast with the elbow high and close to the midline
 The release angle (angle between the horizontal and the javelin) for the javelin
has to take into consideration aerodynamic lift and drag. The optimum angle for
the javelin is about 33°.
7. Recovery
The final consideration in the throwing mechanics is the recovery (follow through). This
has no impact on the distance of the throw as the javelin has already left the throwers
hand; however it is essential due to the rules of the javelin, that the thrower stops his/her
momentum before going over the foul line.
The left foot remains grounded and the right leg is brought past it to halt the thrower. The
amount of space needed to stop before the scratch line depends on the amount of
horizontal momentum. This is typically 1.5 to 2 meters.

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