Japanese Stage-Step Course Grammar Textbook)

The Japanese Stage-Step Course
Grammar Textbook
An understanding of grammar is essential for students aiming to achieve a high level of proficiency in
Japanese. Written by an experienced teacher, The Japanese Stage-Step Course: Grammar Textbook provides a
step-by-step guide to Japanese grammar. With clear, accessible explanations and relevant examples to put
each grammatical point into context, the Grammar Textbook provides a meaningful framework to develop the
key skills of reading, writing, speaking and listening.
The book is divided into the following four stages:
 Stage 1: Building a foundation

 Stage 2: Towards more complex structures
 Stage 3: Adding sophistication
 Stage 4: Referencing
Each lesson is accompanied by detailed vocabulary, conversation practice and reading and writing exercises
in the two separate workbooks to enable students to put into practice what they have learnt and to consoli-
date their knowledge. The course also includes the Writing Practice Book, audio material on CDs or in MP3
format and a companion website www.routledge.com/textbooks/japanese-stage-step-course.
Wako Tawa is professor and director of the Japanese Language Program in the Department of Asian
Languages and Civilizations at Amherst College, Massachusetts.
The Japanese Stage-Step Course is a fully integrated language course from beginner through intermediate
level, combining cohesive grammar instruction with functional examples and practice to build a solid foun-
dation in the four key skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The course materials consist of:
Grammar Textbook
Workbook 1
Workbook 2
Writing Practice Book
CD 1
CD 2
For more information about The Japanese Stage-Step Course and additional resources, please visit the com-
panion website at www.routledge.com/textbooks/japanese-stage-step-course.
The Japanese Stage-Step Course
Grammar Textbook
Wako Tawa
First published 2009
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Simultaneously published in the UK

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 Wako Tawa
Typeset in Japan by Komiyama Printing Company

Printed and bound by Edwards Brothers, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including pho-
tocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tawa, Wako.
The Japanese stage-step course. Grammar textbook / Wako Tawa.
p. cm.
Includes index.
I 1. Japanese language—Textbooks for foreign speakers—English. 2. Japanese language—
Grammar—Textbooks. I. Title.
PL539.5.E5T3929 2009
495.6'82421—dc22
2008033909
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77605-9 (grammar textbook)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-88285-6 (grammar ebook)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77606-6 (workbook 1)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77611-0 (workbook 2)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-88233-7 (writing practice book)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77603-5 (CD 1)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-77787-2 (CD 2)
To my children, Kiko, John, and Liam,
and to everyone they love.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xiii
Stage 1 Building a Foundation 1
Preparatory Stage Beginning the Study of Japanese 3

Stage 1-1 Basic Structures of Japanese 26
Stage 1-2 Question Sentences 46
Stage 1-3 Aspects of Predicates 65
Stage 1-4 Numbers and Counters 84
Stage 1-5 On Verbs 100
Stage 1-6 The World of Adverbs 120
Stage 1-7 Topic, Subject, and Object 142
Stage 1-8 Plain Forms of Predicates 159
Stage 1-9 Bridging Stage 1 and Stage 2 180
Stage 2 Towards More Complex Structures 199
Stage 2-1 Conjunctive Forms and Their Uses 201

Stage 2-2 Adjectival Clauses 220
Stage 2-3 Adverbial Clauses 234
Stage 2-4 Derived Verbs: Potentials and Passives 250
Stage 2-5 Stems and Their Uses 264
Stage 2-6 Complex Words 279
Stage 2-7 Complex Predicates 294
Stage 2-8 も and は 306
viii Contents
Stage 3 Adding Sophistication 321
Stage 3-1 Objective vs. Personal Expressions 323

Stage 3-2 Making Inferences 338
Stage 3-3 Embedded Information 354
Stage 3-4 Sentences of Causation 370
Stage 3-5 Expressions of Simultaneous Events 384
Stage 3-6 Emotive Expressions 395
Stage 3-7 Requests, Commands, and Imperatives 409
Stage 3-8 Overriding Particles 426
Stage 4 Referencing 439
Stage 4-1 Adverbial Clauses 441

Stage 4-2 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases 448
Stage 4-3 Complex Predicates 454
Stage 4-4 Conjunctions 461
Stage 4-5 Counters 468
Stage 4-6 Honorifics (Summary) 480
Stage 4-7 Media Print Language 493
Stage 4-8 On Words and Vocabulary 497
Grammar Index (Japanese Words) 508

Terminology Index (English) 512
Index of Expressions 515
Conjugations of Verbs, Adjectives, and the Copula 521
Preface
Guide to the Grammar Textbook
This textbook series consists of the following set of texts: the Grammar Textbook (one volume), the
Workbooks (two volumes), and the Writing Practice Book (one volume). The Grammar Textbook and
the Workbooks should be used as follows: before attending class, students should study the
assigned grammatical point in the Grammar Textbook. They can use the Workbooks to confirm
their understanding of the new grammar, asking the instructor for explanation if necessary. They
should then proceed with learning new vocabulary as given in the Workbook. It is important to
maintain the order of this process. If, in the course of the process, it becomes apparent that the stu-
dent does not understand the grammatical points correctly, they should refer back to the Grammar
Textbook to review the explanation.
The grammar and workbooks are presented separately in this course. The Grammar Textbook
should be referred to constantly throughout the learning process; repeated rereading of previously
covered material is very effective in helping to solidify a learner’s understanding of grammar.
Instructors of Japanese tend to teach grammar through verbal explanations in class, but this
encourages passive learning. Presenting grammatical explanations in a form that students can
consult and absorb on their own time is much more beneficial, for student and instructor alike. It
may take practice on the students’ part and patience on the teacher’s, but it will empower students
and allow instructors to use precious class hours for more profitable activities, such as speaking
and reading in Japanese.
A flexible approach should be taken in using the Writing Practice Book. Being able to read as
many kanji as possible in context is important, so Japanese characters—both phonetic syllabaries
(kana) and logographs (kanji)—are used from the very beginning in the Grammar Textbook and
Workbooks. However, writing kanji should be practiced methodically, without rushing; it is also
important to appreciate individual differences in learning when it comes to writing kanji. The
Writing Practice Book is therefore presented as a separate volume from the Workbooks.
Detailed suggestions for using the Workbooks and the Writing Practice Book are included in the
preface of each book. The following is an explanation of the philosophical background behind the
textbook, as well as the “stages” and “steps” referred to throughout the course.
Beliefs underlying foreign language learning

There are many methods of teaching and learning Japanese, and each has its own merits as well
as limitations. In fact, every method can be useful at some point in teaching and learning. In order
to choose the most effective method, learners must clearly understand their goal in studying
Japanese (e.g., for travel, or for scholarly research). For some purposes, learning only spoken
Japanese or expressions used in conversation is sufficient, while for others, learning written
x Preface
Japanese may be a greater priority. At most higher educational institutions, however, students are
expected to learn both spoken and written Japanese.
When it comes to learning, there are always people who excel no matter how they are taught.
There are also some who have a difficult time learning well, no matter who teaches them or what
methods are used. The proficiency level that Japanese learners reach appears to correspond to the
level of grammar they have learned. Even if grammar was not emphasized by the textbook or the
instructor, those who excel seem to have been able to get sufficient grammatical information on
their own to develop the structural foundation necessary for progression to a higher level. Some
educators seem to believe that students can discover the necessary grammar on their own, as they
do when acquiring their first language, but experience shows that such an approach often results
in inaccurate and incomplete learning.
We certainly do not have to explain structures or anything else to children—they simply acquire
language by being exposed to it. Children learn their native language by first developing their own
structures and then adding vocabulary, a process that continues throughout their lifetime.
On the other hand, most adult learners of other languages—especially languages that are distant
from their native tongue—are unable to pick up grammar merely by being exposed to the lan-
guage. Every step of the way must be taught, and intensive training is required for them to gain
any proficiency, though the degree of intensity required seems to vary from individual to individ-
ual. The difficulty in learning increases with the distance of the learner’s native language (assumed
for the purposes of this course to be English) from Japanese. Japanese along with Arabic, Chinese,
and Korean, is one of the most difficult foreign languages for English speakers to learn.1 It is there-
fore important to teach Japanese in an efficient and meaningful way if the goal is to gain a high
proficiency level. For these reasons, this course focuses on structural learning, with other skills
taught alongside.
Grammar
Oddly enough, the word “grammar” is not used uniformly among linguists or instructors. There
is in fact no consensus on the most useful Japanese grammar for teaching Japanese as a foreign
language. The concept of grammar originated in the context of Western languages, and much of
the linguistic research conducted on Japanese has been influenced by Western grammars. In this
textbook, “grammar” refers to systems of all aspects of language, some examples of which are
given below. The goal of this course is to provide these systems for learners of Japanese in ways
that reflect the Japanese language.
This approach includes some challenging factors. For instance, the order in which grammatical
points are introduced matters a great deal in learning Japanese effectively and efficiently. But some
of the structures introduced early in this course are not necessarily the easiest ones to learn from
a structural viewpoint. So at times giving incomplete explanations, or overly simplified descrip-
tions, is necessary. Furthermore, knowing how much information to give at any one time can be a
great challenge. Too much information can sometimes interfere with learning, whereas insuffi-
cient information may lead learners in the wrong direction. Because of these difficulties, some
structures are explained in numerous chapters and stages. It is hoped that this repetition will help
students gain a more complete understanding of these structures.
Preface xi
Goal of this course

This course aims to teach both spoken and written Japanese to students whose goal is to achieve a
high proficiency level. It teaches all four skills—speaking, reading, writing, and listening, placing
emphasis on constructing a solid foundation, so that students will be able to successfully build
upon this foundation. It is designed to inculcate an awareness of the systems and principles of
structures, vocabulary, conversation, and the written language. An understanding of how parts are
put together, both at the sentence and discourse levels, provides the foundation for learning how
to speak, read, write, and listen meaningfully; this knowledge gives the students the ability to be
independent learners.
It goes without saying that neither an awareness of principles, nor simply an understanding of
grammar alone, will enable a person to achieve a high proficiency level in Japanese. Being able to
speak, read, write, and listen involves the learning of skills, and mastering each skill to the point
that it becomes automatic is very important. It is not simple to reach such a level, however; prac-
ticing and overpracticing are essential. This course encourages students to use their voices, listen
to Japanese, and read Japanese constantly from early in the learning process in order to develop
these skills as rapidly as possible.
Stages
The course consists of four stages. Stage 1 introduces most of the basic Japanese structures. Stage
2 introduces complex structures, which are constructed by combining many of the basic elements
introduced in Stage 1, and will therefore involve a certain amount of repetition. This kind of repe-
tition is quite important in fostering a fuller and more complete grasp of grammatical concepts. In
Stage 3, structures containing similar expressions with more nuanced differences in meaning are
introduced. Understanding the differences between similar expressions adds sophistication to the
use of Japanese. Stage 4 should be used for reference purposes.
These stages are not meant to be independent units. For instance, new information in Stage 2
should be linked meaningfully with the information previously covered in Stage 1, not simply piled
up on top of it, so that the learner’s understanding becomes more complete. The books aim to
facilitate this process of continual integration, but instructors should be aware of its importance in
case the students themselves do not succeed in this respect. It is also important to recognize that
repeating information from previous chapters in new chapters makes the acquisition of the cur-
rent material broader, more solid, and more meaningful. Needless to say, the information in new
chapters expands on the material from the previous chapters rather than merely repeating it.
Steps
Learning any kind of skill involves multiple tasks. Consider, for example, what a student must be
able to do merely to play a simple piece of music on the cello. They must know how to read the
music notes on the music sheet, use the fingers of the left hand to press the exact location on the
correct string to produce the desired note, draw the bow in the right direction at the proper time,
and so forth—all done simultaneously. Doing many things at the same time is difficult, especially
in the beginning. The prominent music educator Shinichi Suzuki, founder of the Suzuki Method,
emphasizes the importance of focusing on one thing at a time.2 Cognitive scientists have con-
firmed his view with their discovery that the human brain cannot process two new things simulta-
neously.3 For example, it is very difficult to learn to juggle while riding a bicycle if both skills are
xii Preface
new. Acrobats who can ride a bicycle and juggle at the same time have learned these two skills sep-
arately, to the point where both are automatic. Similarly, a child can play beautiful music on a cello
only after attaining an automatic level of proficiency for each separate task (reading notes, press-
ing the strings, using the bow, etc.).
Learning Japanese involves an analogous multitude of tasks. In order to utter a sentence, the
students must know which structures to use, which words to say and in what order, and how to
pronounce them. They have to be able to judge whether the utterance is appropriate for the situa-
tion. Furthermore, the four skills—speaking, listening, writing, and reading—are all separate:
each one fosters and facilitates the others, but each must be learned independently, especially in
the beginning. Someone who can speak cannot be assumed to have reading ability. Reading must
be taught, and students will gain reading ability only through practice. It is likewise frequently but
mistakenly assumed that students who can read are therefore able to write.
In this textbook, each practice section is separated into three steps. Step 1 presents new struc-
tures. Once understanding of the grammar is confirmed, a set of new vocabulary to be used with
the grammar is introduced. Step 2 focuses on principles of conversation, which are not easily
gained by learning grammar alone. Step 3 is devoted to the written language, particularly reading.
The ultimate goal for any student, of course, is to be able to handle Japanese without separating
it into steps. But until students reach that goal, they should not hesitate to go back to the basics as
many times as they wish to. Pieces of knowledge should not be piled up without being linked to a
bigger unit. Learning should not be done only in one direction. Going backward is perfectly rea-
sonable, as expressed by the Japanese proverb 急がば回れ（いそがばまわれ）: “When you are really
in a hurry, take the long way around.”
1 Jorden, Eleanor H. with Richard D. Lambert. Japanese Language Instruction in the United States: Resources,
Practice, and Investment Strategy. National Foreign Language Center Monograph Series, 1992.
2 Suzuki, Shinichi. Young Children’s Talent Education and Its Method. Translated by Kyoko Selden. Miami,
FL: Warner Brothers Publications, 1996.
3 Anderson, John R. Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman and Com-
pany, 1980.
Acknowledgements
The first version of this textbook series was bound by the printing service at Amherst College in
1997. Since then, I have revised it year after year and have been using each revised version in the
classroom. With every revision the textbook came closer to what I wanted it to be, but each time, I
found some things that I was not satisfied with. Even with this publication, I cannot say that I am
completely satisfied, but I know that its contents have survived the tests of more than ten years of
teaching and learning Japanese. I wish I could work on this textbook a little longer, but I would, no
doubt, have the impulse to go on improving it no matter how many times I revised it.
I would like to thank many more people than I can list here. Space does not allow me to name each
and every student, colleague, family member, and friend to whom I am indebted, so I will mention
only a few names here. My sincere appreciation goes first to all of the students who have taken or
are taking the Japanese language courses at Amherst College. The students in all the classes that
the instructors and I have ever taught in the program are my teachers and friends—every single
one of them. They have shown me where I have succeeded and failed in teaching. They have been
patient with me, with unbelievable faith, diligence, understanding, and humor. This textbook
series could never have been developed without them. The same heartfelt thanks go to my family
members and to my colleagues and friends inside and outside the college. They have listened to
me, at times to the same things over and over again, and still have given their sincere support to
my endeavor. They have been most generous, in the truest sense.
I have also been fortunate to receive a great deal of internal and external help for this project over
the years. Amherst College has unfailingly supported my project and provided generous funding
through various agencies: the H. Axel Schupf ’57 Fund for Intellectual Life, the Senior Sabbatical
Fellowship, the Faculty Research Fund, the Mellon Internship Fund, and the Amherst Academic
Internship Program. The Culpeper Foundation provided the support to complete the groundwork
of this project. The Shoyu Club of Tokyo, Japan assisted the Amherst College Japanese Language
Program on four different occasions, the third of which was directly related to this project. The
Kasumi Kaikan of Tokyo, Japan has provided me with valuable research sources over the years.
Much of this support has allowed me to involve some of my students in this project, who have
helped me in creating the glossaries and indices, adding numbers to indicate the stroke order for
the kanji in the Writing Practice Book, editing, proofreading, scanning, recording and editing sound
files, and much more. Jacob Kahn, Jeff Skiles, Josh Skiles, Gabriel Mattera, Douglas Schrashun,
Lawrence Hamblin, Tiffany Chiang, Romelle Whalen, Charles Hall, and Dang Trinh showed great
intelligence, talent, skill, and patience in this work. I would also like to thank the student artists
David Frankel and Emily Cornell du Houx, who drew the pictures that appear in the Workbooks
and website and have been used in the classroom. Jacquelyn Johnson, Emily Jimenez, Shin
Tanabe, Ritsuko Sakamoto, and Akihiro Maeda have also spent a great amount of time helping
with the development of supplementary materials. I am also very grateful to the many high school
"guinea pigs" who proved to me that high school students indeed can and want to learn grammar
when learning Japanese. Of these students, special thanks go to Tommy Benfey and Liam Hynes,
xiv Acknowledgements
who worked with me patiently for several months. I cannot adequately express my respect and
appreciation to all the students I have mentioned above.
I am blessed with colleagues in the Japanese Language Program at Amherst College who are ded-
icated, professional, warm, and enjoyable to work with, and I have benefited greatly from working
with every one of them. Their questions, comments, and remarks made this textbook series better.
I therefore wholeheartedly thank the following instructors who have taught in the program using
the earlier versions of this textbook series: Mika Harago (now Himeno), Kozue Miyama, Mariko
Yamamura, Yuri Kumagai, Shingo Moriyama, Atsuko Shimizu, Yuko Kawahara, Ikumi Kayama,
Hitomi Sovjani, and Fumiko Brown. I also want to thank Paul Chapin of the Department of
Information Technology of Amherst College for technological assistance on this project over the
past several years.
Andrea Hartill, Senior Commissioning Editor of Routledge Colloquials and Language Learning, is
an amazing woman. Since she first wrote to me in September of 2006, we have exchanged numer-
ous e-mails and even met in person, and she has always been prompt, personable, professional,
and to the point; she deals with everything most efficiently and with a great sense of humor. The
process of preparing the manuscript would certainly have been much more difficult without her
exceptional professionalism, her skill, and, above all, her kindness. My heartfelt thanks also go to
Anna Callander, Senior Textbook Production Editor of Routledge Colloquials and Language
Learning, and Annamarie Kino and Sonja van Leeuwen, assistant editors of Routledge Colloquials
and Language Learning. I am very grateful for their patience, diligence, guidance, and under-
standing. I am greatly indebted to the Tokyo-based copyeditors, Lynne E. Riggs of the Center for
Intercultural Communication and Roo (Katherine) Heins. They have tirelessly proofread and copy-
edited the entire series numerous times. Their questions and comments have undoubtedly made
the series better and more consistent. The comments of the anonymous reviewers have enabled
me to improve this textbook series, and I am very grateful to them. This course has been made
more approachable and meaningful because of the work of the above-mentioned professionals. I
am nevertheless certain that the texts still contain errors, for which I am solely responsible.
My husband, Joseph Hynes, helped me with this long process in so many different ways. He read
all versions of the textbook; he is the only person who has read every page of all versions, and he
did so with the greatest patience and insight. Being a philosopher and a linguist himself, his ques-
tions, when I was not articulate enough, have helped me see things that I would not have seen oth-
erwise. But more than anything, he believed in me and never doubted that I would one day
complete this project.
My children—Kiko, John, and Liam—are my truest friends. Their love and care are much more
than I ever deserve. Their trust in me and openness to me in all things are so genuine and pure
that, without exaggeration, they make my life truly meaningful. This book is therefore dedicated to
my three children and to everyone whom they love and hold close to their hearts. Every person that
these three children love and care for is a friend and family member to me.
Stage 1
Building a Foundation
The aim of this stage is to build a solid foundation of Japanese structures that can be used
for all necessary skills—speaking, reading, listening, and writing. It is strongly suggested
that students master the chapters in this stage sequentially.
Preparatory Stage Beginning the Study of Japanese

Stage 1-1 Basic Structures of Japanese
Stage 1-2 Question Sentences
Stage 1-3 Aspects of Predicates
Stage 1-4 Numbers and Counters
Stage 1-5 On Verbs
Stage 1-6 The World of Adverbs
Stage 1-7 Topic, Subject, and Object
Stage 1-8 Plain Forms of Predicates
Stage 1-9 Bridging Stage 1 and Stage 2
Preparatory Stage
Beginning the Study of Japanese
1. Overview of the Japanese Language

(1) Who speaks Japanese?
(2) Writing systems
(3) Dialects
(4) Characteristics of Japanese
2. Japanese Sound System
(1) 46 basic sounds
(2) Voiced variations
(3) Palatalized sounds
(4) Long vowels
(5) Double consonants
(6) Pitch
(7) Devoicing
3. Useful Expressions
(1) Greetings and farewells
(2) Introducing oneself and others
(3) Running into a friend
(4) Talking about the weather
(5) Thanking and apologizing
(6) Expressions often used in the classroom
(7) Very useful and important expressions
1: Overview of the Japanese Language

(1) Who speaks Japanese?
Unlike English, which, in its various dialects, is the national language of several countries,
Japanese is the principal language of Japan alone. Many books categorize Japanese as an “inde-
pendent language,” which suggests that it does not belong to any family of languages. Some
sources suggest that Japanese (as well as Korean, which is also often categorized as “independent”)
probably belongs to the Altaic language family, which includes Turkish and Mongolian. If
Japanese is related to Altaic languages, it separated from them a very long time ago. It is definite-
4 Preparatory Stage (Grammar Textbook)
ly similar to Korean in structure, and some of its grammatical aspects resemble features of Turkish
and Mongolian.
Many people think that Japanese is related to Chinese, but Chinese is a very different language
belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family. In terms of structure, the two languages are very
different. There are, however, similarities in vocabulary and writing, because Japanese borrowed a
part of its writing system and quite a few words from Chinese.
(2) Writing systems
The Japanese language possesses three different writing systems: two phonetic syllabaries called
kana and a third logographic system called kanji. Kanji, borrowed from China in the fifth century,
represent words in isolation or combination. The two kana systems, hiragana and katakana, which
were created by the Japanese from kanji, have different functions. Logically, it is possible to
express everything in kana, especially hiragana, but—as extended study of the language will make
clear—many words are better expressed in kanji.
The Japanese use Arabic numerals to indicate such things as prices and dates, and when working
in math, science, etc. The Roman alphabet, called romaji, is also occasionally used in advertising,
as well as for indicating places like train stations for people who cannot read Japanese. In this
course, romaji is used only in the Preparatory Stage to explain the Japanese sound system and
to teach certain Japanese expressions before students have learned the Japanese writing system.
Japanese can be written vertically (starting at the upper right-hand corner of a page and proceed-
ing from right to left) or horizontally (left to right).
(3) Dialects
Like most languages, Japanese has many regional dialects. The government has designated
Hyoojungo (standard language) or Zenkoku-kyootsuugo (national common language) for use in
mass communication and educational materials. Hyoojungo, which is not actually a regional
dialect, is closest to the dialects spoken in some areas of Tokyo (the capital of Japan) and Hokkaido
(the northernmost major island). Differences in dialect in Japan are reportedly greater than those
in the United States or Russia, countries whose area is much larger than Japan’s.
4) Characteristics of Japanese
 Sounds
Japanese is relatively easy to pronounce. There are basically five vowels, and the minimum sound
unit is the syllable. This means that a typical Japanese sound may be a single vowel or a sound that
consists of a consonant and a vowel (i.e., a syllable). Proper accentuation of words and intonation
of sentences are attained through pitch: the rising or falling of sounds. In comparison, English
Preparatory Stage (Grammar Textbook) 5
accentuation is performed by the strengthening or weakening of sounds, which is called stress,

rather than by pitch.
 Sentence structure
Any two languages have similarities and differences. Because this course assumes that the user’s
first language is English, or that the user is at least proficient in English, features of Japanese are
compared with those of English. The following are some of the main differences between English
and Japanese in terms of structure:
Word order: Verbal elements come after the object in Japanese. English, on the other hand, puts
the verb before the object. For example, the equivalent of the English sentence “Susan drank cof-
fee,” in which “drank” is the verb and “coffee” is the object, is expressed in the following order in
Japanese: Susan-coffee-drank.
Particles: While the grammatical functions of words (such as the subject and the object) are deter-
mined by the word order of the sentence in English, the Japanese language indicates such func-
tions by the use of particles (sometimes referred to as postpositions or case markers). These words
are placed immediately after nouns, pronouns, or entire sentences to indicate their functions.
Question sentences: In English, words indicating that the sentence is a question are placed in the
initial position. For example, “does” and “what” in the following question sentences are used first,
and the word order is different from a declarative sentence: e.g., “Does Susan drink coffee?” “What
does Susan drink?” In Japanese, the order of words in a declarative sentence and a question sen-
tence is the same. For instance, to form a yes-no question sentence from the declarative sentence
Susan-coffee-drank, the speaker simply adds a question particle at the end of the sentence, as in
Susan-coffee-drank-[question particle]. If the object “coffee” is the focus of the question, then the
word for “what” is placed where the word “coffee” would stand, followed by a question particle at
the end of the sentence, as in Susan-what-drank-[question particle].
Nouns: Japanese nouns are not sensitive to number (singular vs. plural) or gender (masculine vs.
feminine), nor are they marked as to whether they are definite or indefinite (indicated in English
with “the” or “a/an”). This information is obtained through other indicators such as quantifiers,
demonstratives, and context.
Pronouns: A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun when the speaker assumes that the refer-
ent is understood by the addressee. The use of pronouns in Japanese is very different from
English. In Japanese, the tendency is to use the same nouns repeatedly, or to leave out the under-
stood nouns altogether, rather than replacing them with pronouns. For example, if two people are
talking about a book that was assigned for a class they are both taking and one person wants to
learn whether the other has finished reading the book, the speaker probably will say the Japanese
equivalent of “Already read?” deleting the pronoun “you” and the object pronoun “it” (referring to
the book) from the sentence. The use of certain pronouns in Japanese, such as “you,” “she” and
“he,” is quite limited and restricted. On the other hand, the number of first- and second-person
pronouns used to refer to the speaker or the addressee is quite large, depending on the speaking
situation and the gender of the speaker.
Verbs: Verbs in English are conjugated in terms of tense: present, past, past participle (e.g., “go,
went, gone”). Japanese verbs are also conjugated, but in a very different manner. They can be con-
jugated to express aspect, such as perfective (completed) or imperfective (not completed). They
may also be conjugated to express voice (such as passive voice) and mood (such as imperative and
subjunctive); these are expressed in English with certain functional words. For instance, in
English, the verb “drink” is joined with such elements as “can,” “will,” “be,” “not,” “do,” etc. in
order to express different meanings, as in “Susan can drink coffee”; “Susan will drink coffee”;
“Susan does not drink coffee”; “This coffee will be drunk by many people”; etc. In Japanese, these
ideas are built into the conjugated form of the verb, which may consist of several elements to indi-
cate such notions as negation, passive voice, imperative mood, and so forth. Therefore, the English
verbal expression “can drink” would be expressed within a single verbal form in Japanese; “will not
drink” is yet another verb form, and so forth. A single verb, therefore, has a great number of
forms.
 Deletion
As discussed in the section on pronouns, understood elements in sentences are often deleted in
Japanese—not only pronouns, but nouns, verbs, phrases, or even entire sentences may be left out.
Although this aspect of Japanese is not very easy to learn, it is important to note that this tenden-
cy is not unique to Japanese. All languages use deletion in communication, but the elements one
language leaves out may differ from those deleted in another language; this is certainly the case
regarding English and Japanese. If a speaker had to utter every word implied in a certain idea or
thought, communication would be a far slower and more tedious process.
 Speech styles
All languages have different levels of politeness and formality in speech and writing. Speakers of
any language are constantly judging what level of speech to use with the people they are about to
speak to, and will choose different words to express the same thing to different people. A speaker
of English might say “Cool!” to her roommate, but “How wonderful!” to the president of her
school. Japanese also allows many styles of speech, with the main difference from English being
that Japanese has a variety of forms (most often verb forms, but also noun, adjective, and adverb
forms) to indicate the level of respect the speaker wishes to convey with the words that are used.
 Female vs. male language
In most languages, men and women have different ways of speaking. These include differences in
the tone of voice, intonation, word choice, speech and writing styles, and many other aspects of
language. The variation in language used by men and women in casual Japanese can be signifi-
cant, including differences in nouns, verbs, adjectives, personal pronouns, and sentence-final par-
ticles; however, some of these differences are diminished in more formal language.
 Spoken vs. written forms

The spoken and written forms of Japanese, like those of any language, are different, for obvious
reasons. First of all, in spoken language, many things are assumed to be understood and remain
unsaid. This is because the participants in a conversation have other cues by which to process the
language such as body movement, eye contact, and hand motion; interruptions may also cause
sentences to be left unfinished. In written language, on the other hand, ideas tend to be more fully
expressed. The differences between spoken and written languages may also be reflected in varying
choices of words and expressions.
 Discourse
The structure of written discourse in Japanese is quite different from that in English. In Japanese,
with the exception of scientific writing or reports, a stream-of-consciousness approach to writing
essays is acceptable. Moreover, in Japanese the conclusion of a written essay or formal speech is
generally assumed to be reached in the reader’s or the listener’s mind rather than being explicitly
stated. These distinctions will become more apparent when the student is ready to read essays in
their original form written by Japanese authors for Japanese audiences.
s 2: Japanese Sound System
As previously mentioned, the minimum sound unit of Japanese is the syllable, which consists
either of one vowel or a combination of a consonant and a vowel. There are 46 basic syllables; their
romanized forms are shown below. Actual pronunciation is shown in parentheses when it varies
from the romanized form.
(1) 46 basic sounds
In the following chart, hiragana are shown on the left and katakana on the right, with romaji
above. The consonants in the left column are not used in isolation except for the nasal sound N.
a i u e o
vowels a i u e o
あ　アい　イう　ウえ　エお　オ
k ka ki ku ke ko
か　カき　キく　クけ　ケこ　コ
s sa si (shi) su se so
さ　サし　シす　スせ　セそ　ソ
a i u e o
t ta ti (chi) tu (tsu) te to
た　タち　チつ　ツて　テと　ト
n na ni nu ne no
な　ナに　ニぬ　ヌね　ネの　ノ
h ha hi hu he ho
は　ハひ　ヒふ　フへ　ヘほ　ホ
m ma mi mu me mo
ま　マみ　ミむ　ムめ　メも　モ
y ya — yu — yo
や　ヤゆ　ユよ　ヨ
r ra ri ru re ro
ら　ラり　リる　ルれ　レろ　ロ
w wa — — — wo (o)
わ　ワを　ヲ
N — — — — —
ん　ン
(2) Voiced variations
Several of the 46 basic syllables have variations indicating different sounds. One such set of varia-
tions indicates changes from voiceless sounds (which do not cause the vocal cords to vibrate) to the
corresponding voiced sounds (those that do cause the vocal cords to vibrate).
voiceless voiced
k g
s z
t d
*h, p b
* The h-line has two variations: the p-line, voiceless sounds; and the b-line, voiced
sounds. All of these variations will be clearer once kana have been learned.
a i u e o
k→g ga gi gu ge go
が　ガぎ　ギぐ　グげ　ゲご　ゴ
s→z za zi (ji) zu ze zo
ざ　ザじ　ジず　ズぜ　ゼぞ　ゾ
t→d da [di (ji)] [du (zu)] de do

だ　ダ（ぢ　ヂ）（づ　ヅ）で　デど　ド
h→b ba bi bu be bo
ば　バび　ビぶ　ブべ　ベぼ　ボ
h→p pa pi pu pe po
ぱ　パぴ　ピぷ　プぺ　ペぽ　ポ
Di ( ji) ぢ, ヂ and du (zu) づ, ヅ in the d-line are identical in sound to zi ( ji) じ, ジ and zu ず, ズ in the
z-line. In most cases, zi ( ji) じ, ジ and zu ず, ズ in the z-line are used in most words. In Japanese,
some words consist of two or more independent words. In these words, the initial syllable of the
second part of a combined word often becomes voiced. For instance, ti (chi) ち means “blood,” and
hana はな means “nose.” When these two independent words are combined to mean “nosebleed,”
the word is written as hana-di (hana-ji) はなぢ, in which di ぢ is used to indicate that it is the voiced
version of ti (chi) ち. Di ( ji) ぢ, ヂ and du (zu) づ, ヅ are used in such contexts.
(3) Palatalized sound
Another set of variations involves palatalized sounds, which are created close to the roof of the
mouth. These consonants are represented by a consonant and a vowel-like consonant /y/, and are
combined with three vowels, /a/, /u/, and /o/.
a u o
kya kyu kyo

ky
きゃ　キャきゅ　キュきょ　キョ
gya gyu gyo

gy
ぎゃ　ギャぎゅ　ギュぎょ　ギョ
sya (sha) syu (shu) syo (sho)

sy
しゃ　シャしゅ　シュしょ　ショ
a u o
zya (ja) zyu (ju) zyo (jo)

zy
じゃ　ジャじゅ　ジュじょ　ジョ
tya (cha) tyu (chu) tyo (cho)

ty
ちゃ　チャちゅ　チュちょ　チョ
dya (ja) dyu (ju) dyo (jo)

dy
ぢゃ　ヂャぢゅ　ヂュぢょ　ヂョ
nya nyu nyo

ny
にゃ　ニャにゅ　ニュにょ　ニョ
hya hyu hyo

hy
ひゃ　ヒャひゅ　ヒュひょ　ヒョ
bya byu byo

by
びゃ　ビャびゅ　ビュびょ　ビョ
pya pyu pyo

py
ぴゃ　ピャぴゅ　ピュぴょ　ピョ
mya myu myo

my
みゃ　ミャみゅ　ミュみょ　ミョ
rya ryu ryo

ry
りゃ　リャりゅ　リュりょ　リョ
Note that kya きゃ is one syllable, while kiya きや consists of two syllables, ki き and ya や. In this set
of palatalized sounds, the kana for ya や, yu ゆ, and yo よ are used with the i-line of syllables, but
when written, the ya, yu, or yo is half the size of regular kana. When written horizontally, these
half-size kana must be aligned with the bottom line. When written vertically, they are written in the
upper right half of the space.
(4) Long vowels
 Hiragana
In Japanese, vowel length is significant because the meaning of the word may depend on it. For
instance, to と means “door,” but when the vowel is lengthened, as in too とう, the word means
“tower.” In general, hiragana a あ, i い, and u う are added to lengthen vowel sounds: あ for long “a,”
い for long “i” and “e,” and う for long “u” and “o.” Hiragana e え and o お are used to indicate long
“e” and “o” for a small number of words.
There are a few different ways to indicate lengthened vowels in romaji. For instance, they are
ˆ
sometimes expressed by the diacritic “–” or “ ” on top of a character, but in this textbook they will
be represented by doubling the initial vowel, as in the following:
Short vowel Long vowel
obasan “aunt” obaasan “grandmother”

おばさんおばあさん
ki “tree” kii “strange”
ききい
shujin “husband” shuujin “prisoner”
しゅじんしゅうじん
teki “enemy” teeki “regular interval”
てきていき
goi “vocabulary” gooi “agreement”
ごいごうい
 Katakana
In the case of katakana, a long dash is used to indicate all long vowels. This dash should be writ-
ten in the same direction as the text (i.e., horizontally for horizontal writing and vertically for ver-
tical writing), and in the middle of the space regardless of text direction.
Short vowel Long vowel

paN “bread” paaN (sound of something bursting)
パンパーン
biru “building” biiru “beer”
ビルビール
(5) Double consonants
The length of consonants is also significant in Japanese. Like lengthened vowels, lengthened con-
sonants alter the meaning of words, as shown in the following:
Single consonant Double consonants
kaki “persimmon” kakki “energy”

かきかっき
moto “origin” motto “more”

もともっと
isho “will” issho “together”

いしょいっしょ
masatsu “friction” massatsu “erase”

まさつまっさつ
Doubling is possible with the following voiceless consonants: /k/, /s/, /t/, /p/, /sy/ (sh), /ty/ (ch).
Doubling of some voiced consonants is possible with certain loan words. The first pair of examples
in the chart above can be used to explain how double consonants are produced. As an example of
a single consonant, both syllables in the word kaki かき “persimmon” are pronounced with equal
length. In terms of the syllable count, this word has a two-syllable length. In contrast, the word
with double consonants, kakki かっき “energy,” has a three-syllable length. The first syllable ka is
produced followed by the beginning of the second syllable by holding the consonant /k/ for the
length of one syllable, and then releasing it with the last vowel /i/. The word will then have the
length of a three-syllable word. In writing, any consonant doubling is expressed by a half-size tsu
つ, ツ between the preceding syllable and the consonant of the doubling syllable.
(6) Pitch
The cadence of Japanese words and sentences is marked by high- and low-pitched sounds rather
than by stress (the emphasizing of sounds that English relies on). Although pitch, like vowel and
consonant length, is significant, the context of phrases and sentences also plays an important role
in conveying the meaning of words, phrases, sentences, etc. It is important to learn the right pitch
when learning Japanese, but communication will usually not be seriously impaired by pitch errors.
Although many dialects in Japanese vary with regard to pitch, miscommunication resulting from
pitch differences is surprisingly uncommon.
In the following examples, the syllable with a higher pitch is in boldface; if both syllables have the
same pitch, neither is in boldface:
hashi “bridge” hashi “chopsticks”

hashi “edge”
In the first example, the word meaning “bridge,” the second syllable is pronounced with a higher
pitch, whereas in the second example, the word meaning “chopsticks,” the first syllable has a high-
er pitch. The third example, the word meaning “edge,” does not vary in pitch. There are actually
quite a few pitch levels, and, as mentioned above, the use of pitch varies greatly depending on the
geographical area of Japan that the speaker is from. Rather than learning the pitch of each indi-
vidual word, students should focus on the intonation of entire sentences. For instance, sentences
of interrogation, emphasis, and statement all use different pitches.
(7) Devoicing
In speech, some vowels may not be pronounced carefully; to learners of Japanese, especially in the
beginning stage, it may sound as if the vowel is dropped. Many sentences ending with the syllables
desu or ~masu, for example, may sound as if they are pronounced “des” or “~mas” without the final
“u.” This kind of minimization of pronunciation, which is called devoicing, happens often when
speaking at a natural speed. Devoicing can be observed in the middle of a word as well. For
instance, the word suki, which means “to be fond of something,” may sound like “ski” with the
vowel “u” being devoiced. In this course, devoicing will not be pointed out every time it occurs, but
students should be aware of the phenomenon and model their speech on that of the native speak-
ers, especially with the sound “su.” It must be noted, however, that in some dialects the vowel “u”
in the sound “su” is fully pronounced.
s 3: Useful Expressions
The following expressions, which are used often in day-to-day life, are important to learn.
However, the structure of these sentences will not be explained fully in this stage. Structures will
be introduced gradually and explained thoroughly beginning in Stage 1–1.
(1) Greetings and farewells
Expression Meaning
Ohayoo (gozaimasu).* Good morning.

おはよう（ございます）。
KoNnichi wa. Good afternoon.

こんにちは。 Hello.
KoNbaN wa. Good evening.

こんばんは。
Expression Meaning
Oyasumi (nasai). Good night.

おやすみ（なさい）。
Sayo(o)nara. Good bye.

さよ（う）なら。
Shitsuree shimasu. Hello, sorry to interrupt you.

しつれいします。 Goodbye.
Ja [dewa]*, mata ne. See you.

じゃ[では]、またね。
Ja [dewa], mata, ashita. See you tomorrow.

じゃ[では]、また、あした。
*A sound or expression in parentheses (i.e., ( )) indicates that its use is optional. An

expression in brackets (i.e. [ ]) indicates an alternative way to say the preceding expres-
sion.
 おはよう（ございます） ohayoo (gozaimasu)

This greeting is used in the morning. The word ohayoo おはよう is made up of a polite prefix o お
and hayai はやい, which means “early.” In this greeting, hayai はやい is changed into another
form, hayoo はよう. This greeting can be used until mid-morning. Adding gozaimasu ございます
makes the greeting more polite. Without it, the greeting sounds casual.
 こんにちは koNnichi wa
This greeting, which is somewhat casual, can be used throughout the day until dark. KoNnichi こん
にち comes from koN こん which means “now” and nichi にち “day,” thus koNnichi こんにち means
“this day.” The は (pronounced “wa” when used in this way, even though the hiragana reading is
“ha”) at the end of this expression is a particle. Particles will be explained in the next chapter.
 こんばんは koNbaN wa
This greeting is used in the evening after dark. The word koNbaN こんばん means “this evening.”
The expression is used only when greeting a person, not when parting.
 おやすみ（なさい） oyasumi (nasai)
This expression is usually used right before going to bed or when closing a telephone conversation
close to bedtime at night. It is not used when parting with an acquaintance or a friend, as “good-
night” is in English. Adding nasai なさい to oyasumi おやすみ makes the expression a little more
polite.
 さよ（う）なら sayo(o)nara
This expression is used when parting. Notice that the second vowel can be either short or long.
Although the difference is small, the expression is slightly less casual when this vowel is long. In
Japanese, a number of farewells can be used depending on the conversational situation, as the fol-
lowing examples show.
 しつれいします shitsuree shimasu
This expression consists of shitsuree しつれい, which means “rude,” and the verb shimasu します “to
do.” Together the words literally mean something like “I will be rude.” This expression is used in
various situations. For instance, this is an appropriate phrase to use before entering or leaving a
professor’s office, or before hanging up the phone. It is a very polite expression that can be used
with people such as teachers or the parents of friends.
 じゃ [では]、またね ja [dewa], mata ne
Ja じゃ is often used when the speaker signals the conclusion of a discussion, a conversation, a
debate, or any exchange of this sort. Ja じゃ is a contracted and slightly more casual form of dewa で
は. Mata また means “again”; the final ne ね indicates that the speaker seeks approval from the
addressee. The entire expression means something like “Well, then, I’ll see you later – OK?”
 じゃ [では]、また、あした ja [dewa], mata ashita
Ashita あした means “tomorrow”; this expression means something like “Well, then, I’ll see you
tomorrow.” Both expressions, this one and the one above, are very casual, so they should not be
used with your teacher(s). The speaker can also add ne ね at the end:
Ja, mata, ashita ne.

じゃ、また、あしたね。
“Well, then, see you tomorrow – OK?”
(2) Introducing oneself and others
Expression Meaning
Watashi wa Tanaka desu. I’m Tanaka.

わたしはたなかです。
Boku wa Tanaka desu.
ぼくはたなかです。
Watashi wa Tanaka to iimasu. I am called Tanaka.

わたしはたなかといいます。 My name is Tanaka.
Boku wa Tanaka to iimasu.
ぼくはたなかといいます。
Watakushi wa Tanaka to mooshimasu.
わたくしはたなかともうします。
Expression Meaning
Hajimemashite. How do you do?

はじめまして。
Doozo yoroshiku (onegaishimasu). I’m glad to meet you.

どうぞよろしく（おねがいします）。
Kochira koso. I feel the same way.

こちらこそ。
Kochira wa Yamada-san desu. This is Yamada-san.

こちらはやまださんです。
 わたしは watashi wa and わたくしは watakushi wa
Watashi わたし or watakushi わたくし is a polite first-person pronoun, one that is used to refer to the
speaker himself or herself. Although watakushi わたくし and watashi わたし mean the same thing, the
former is more polite than the latter. Female speakers tend to use the former more often than male
speakers on formal occasions, but both do use it. In this text, watashi わたし is used rather than
watakushi わたくし most of the time, as watashi わたし is used more often in speech. The polite
watakushi わたくし may be used only when the conversational or writing situation requires it. Ha は,
which should be pronounced “wa” when used as a particle immediately after a word, indicates that
watashi わたし is the grammatical topic of the sentence. The concept of the topic will be explained
more fully in Stage 1–1.
 ぼく boku
Boku ぼく is a first-person pronoun used by male speakers. In formal speech, a male speaker may
also use watashi わたし or even watakushi わたくし. But in most cases, the use of boku ぼく by male
speakers is more appropriate in conversation, even in the classroom.
 です desu
Desu です at the end of a sentence is similar to, but not the same as, “am, are, is” in English. In the
first expressions shown in the chart above, this word equates the two nouns, watashi わたし (or
watakushi わたくし or boku ぼく) and the speaker’s name, Tanaka たなか. Therefore, the sentence
Watashi wa Tanaka desu わたしはたなかです or Boku wa Tanaka desu ぼくはたなかです is equivalent to
the English sentence, “I’m Tanaka.”
 Personal names
In Japan, family names are used in most social situations (schools, companies, etc.). A person’s
given name is used after the family name, as in the following (Yoko is a female given name):
Watashi wa Tanaka Yoko desu.

わたしはたなかようこです。
“I’m Yoko Tanaka.”
 といいます to iimasu and ともうします to mooshimasu

The verbs iimasu いいます and mooshimasu もうします both mean “to say.” Iimasu いいます can be
used in most situations, while expressions with mooshimasu もうします are extremely formal. The to
と before these verbs is a particle that joins the verb and the preceding name. These verbs and this
particle will be introduced in greater detail in Stages 1–6, 1–9, and 2–5, but for now, the sentence
Watashi wa Tanaka to iimasu わたしはたなかといいます literally means “I call myself Tanaka,” or
“My name is Tanaka”; this expression is often used to introduce oneself.
 はじめまして hajimemashite
This greeting is used when meeting someone for the first time. Hajime はじめ means “the first
time,” and ~mashite ~まして is one form of the verb ending ~masu ~ます.
 どうぞよろしく (おねがいします) doozo yoroshiku (onegaishimasu)
This phrase is difficult to translate into a single English sentence. Doozo どうぞ may be used with
any sentence in which the speaker makes a request, although it is not a necessary element of a
request sentence. Yoroshiku よろしく is an adverb meaning “well,” and onegaishimasu おねがいします,
a verb that literally means “I (will) make a request,” is used when asking others to do something
(such as asking a professor to write a recommendation letter). The implication of this entire
expression is something like the following: “I have made a request that might have inconve-
nienced you, but I would truly appreciate your agreeing to my request, and I must humbly depend
on your kindness.” Thus, in meeting someone for the first time, this expression implies the fol-
lowing sentiment: “Now that we have met, I may have to depend on your goodwill someday, and
with regard to that future possibility, I greet you with gratitude.” Of course, this greeting has
become such a fixed expression that the speaker is most likely to be unaware of this kind of mean-
ing when using it, but that is how this expression has come to be. The following variations, with
different degrees of politeness, are possible:
Doozo yoroshiku onegaishimasu. (formal)

どうぞよろしくおねがいします。
Yoroshiku onegaishimasu. (polite)

よろしくおねがいします。
Doozo yoroshiku. (casual)

どうぞよろしく。
Yoroshiku. (very casual)

よろしく。
 こちら kochira
Kochira こちら functions as a personal pronoun that refers to a person who is near the speaker. The
word may be used as an equivalent of the English phrase “this person.”
 こちらこそ kochira koso

In this phrase, koso こそ is a particle that places the focus on the preceding noun phrase. This fixed
expression means something like “I am the one who should mention it” [i.e., what you have just
said].
 やまださん Yamada-saN
Yamada やまだ is a common Japanese family name, and saN さん is similar to Mr., Miss., Mrs., or
Ms., but is used after, not before, the person’s name. The form of saN さん does not change accord-
ing to a person’s gender. SaN さん should never be used when referring to oneself or one’s own
family members.
(3) Running into a friend
Expression Meaning
(O)hisashiburi (desu nee). I haven’t seen you for a long time!

（お）ひさしぶり（ですねえ）。
Yamada-saN, (o)geNki desu ka. How are you, Yamada-san?

やまださん、（お）げんきですか。
Ikaga desu ka. How is everything?

いかがですか。
Doo desu ka.
どうですか。
Okagesama de (geNki desu). I am well, thank you.

おかげさまで（げんきです）。
Maa maa desu. I’m fine; not great, but not too bad.
まあまあです。
 （お）ひさしぶり（ですねえ） (o)hisashiburi (desu nee)

Hisashiburi ひさしぶり conveys the meaning of “seeing someone or doing something after a long
time of not seeing that particular person or doing that particular thing.” The final nee ねえ is a par-
ticle that is used, with a rising intonation, during conversation when the speaker expects the
addressee to agree with the comments the speaker has made. The addressee often responds using
the same particle, but with a falling intonation.
The o お in the word ohisashiburi おひさしぶり is a polite prefix. Women tend to use this prefix more
often than men. Desu nee ですねえ can be added to make speech even more polite.
 （お）げんきですか (o)geNki desu ka

(O)geNki desu ka （お）げんきですか literally means “Are you healthy?” or “Have you been well?” The
o お in the word (o)geNki （お）げんき is a polite prefix. GeNki げんき is a word that means “healthy,”
“cheerful,” or “energetic.” The ka か at the end of the sentence indicates that the sentence is a ques-
tion. This expression is therefore used for a greeting that is equivalent to “How are you?” However,
unlike its English equivalent, (o)geNki desu ka （お）げんきですか is not used with people one sees
often, but rather with people one knows but has not seen for quite some time.
 いかがですか ikaga desu ka and どうですか doo desu ka
Ikaga いかが literally means “how.” Doo どう means the same thing as ikaga いかが, but is less for-
mal. Therefore, both are used as greetings equivalent to “How is everything?” (O)geNki desu ka
（お）げんきですか is a question about a person’s health, while ikaga desu ka いかがですか and doo
desu ka どうですか can refer to things such as someone’s studies or social life as well.
 おかげさまで okagesama de
Okage おかげ consists of the polite prefix o お (not optional in this case) and the noun kage かげ
which means “shadow.” The extended meaning of this word can also be “protection, guidance,
assistance, etc.” Sama さま is a more polite version of saN さん, but in this case, it is used after an
abstract noun, which simply indicates “the guidance, protection, or help [you have given me].” De
で is a particle that indicates instrumentality. The expression okagesama de おかげさまで in the above
situation therefore conveys something like, “I am fine, thanks to your concern [help, guidance, or
protection].”
 まあまあです maa maa desu
This expression, used when the speaker does not want to answer either positively or negatively
when questioned about his or her health or other conditions, means something like “I am not
great, but not too bad, either.” Culturally speaking, many people feel they should respond rather
positively even when circumstances are not very good, so a speaker may use this expression when
the situation is actually pretty bad. But this is an individual choice, and it is difficult to say exactly
what each speaker means by the use of this expression.
(4) Talking about the weather
Japanese people often talk about the weather when they run into a friend. Here are some fre-
quently used comments about weather.
Expression Meaning
Kyoo wa (hoNtoo ni) ii (o)teNki desu nee. (Really) great weather today, isn’t it?
きょうは（ほんとうに）いい（お）てんきですねえ。
Kyoo wa (hoNtoo ni) iya na (o)teNkidesu nee. (Really) terrible weather today,isn’t it?
きょうは（ほんとうに）いやな（お）てんきですねえ。
Expression Meaning
Kyoo wa (hoNtoo ni) atsui desu nee. It’s (really) hot today, isn’t it?
きょうは（ほんとうに）あついですねえ。
Kyoo wa (hoNtoo ni) samui desu nee. It’s (really) cold today, isn’t it?
きょうは（ほんとうに）さむいですねえ。
HoNtoo ni soo desu nee. It really is, isn’t it?

ほんとうにそうですねえ。
 きょうはほんとうにいい（お）てんきですねえ kyoo wa hoNtoo ni ii (o)teNki desu nee

Kyoo きょう, which is used as the topic of the sentence, means “today.” HoNtoo ni ほんとうに, an
adverb meaning “really” or “truly,” may be used to emphasize the adjective that follows. It is in
parentheses because its use is optional. Ii いい means “good.” (O)teNki （お）てんき consists of the
polite prefix o お, which is optional, and the noun teNki てんき which means “weather.”
 Other descriptive words used in comments about weather
Other descriptive words used in the above expressions are iya na いやな “disagreeable,” atsui あつ
い “hot,” and samui さむい “cold.” Nee ねえ, when spoken with a rising tone at the end of a sentence,
implies that the speaker expects the listener to agree with the content of the sentence.
 ほんとうにそうですねえ hoNtoo ni soo desu nee
Soo そう uttered by a speaker means “just as [the addressee] has said.” In this statement the speak-
er agrees with the comment made by the addressee. The expression therefore means something
like “It really is so, isn’t it?” The nee ねえ in the response sentence of agreement is spoken with a
falling intonation and indicates strong agreement with the addressee.
Some speakers may simply repeat the sentence when they agree with another person’s statement,
as in the following exchange:
Kyoo wa hoNtoo ni atsui desu nee.

きょうはほんとうにあついですねえ。d
“It is really hot today, isn’t it?”
HoNtoo ni atsui desu nee.

ほんとうにあついですねえ。e
“It really is hot, isn’t it.”
HoNtoo ni ほんとうに “really” is optional, but the use of this adverb suggests strong agreement with
the comment made by the other person.
(5) Thanking and apologizing
Expression Meaning
(Doomo) sumimaseN. Sorry.

（どうも）すみません。 I appreciate it.
GomeN (nasai). Sorry.

ごめんなさい。
(Doomo) arigatoo (gozaimasu). Thank you very much.

（どうも）ありがとう（ございます）。
Iie, doo itashimashite. You’re welcome.

いいえ、どういたしまして。 Don’t mention it.
Iie, (iie). Don’t mention it.

いいえ、（いいえ）。
 （どうも）すみません (doomo) sumimaseN

Doomo sumimaseN どうもすみません is used for apologizing, but in Japanese it is often used to
express gratitude, indicating that the speaker feels sorry that another person has spent time,
money, energy, etc. for his or her sake. Using doomo どうも is optional; it makes the expression
more emphatic.
 ごめん（なさい） gomeN (nasai)
GomeN nasai ごめんなさい is less formal than sumimaseN すみません. GomeN nasai ごめんなさい is
used mainly to apologize and less often for thanking. When gomeN ごめん is used without nasai な
さい, the expression is quite casual.
 （どうも）ありがとう（ございます） (doomo) arigatoo (gozaimasu)
Doomo arigatoo gozaimasu どうもありがとうございます is an expression of gratitude. Adding gozaimasu
ございます makes the expression very polite. As with other expressions above, the use of doomo どう
も for emphasis is optional.
 いいえ、どういたしまして iie, doo itashimashite
This phrase, a response to an expression of gratitude, indicates that thanks are unnecessary. It is
very formal, however. One may choose to respond instead by simply saying iie いいえ, or repeating
iie いいえ twice (or more), as iie, iie いいえ, いいえ. This repetition emphasizes that there is no need
to give thanks. Ie いえ, a shorter version of iie いいえ, may also be used in more casual situations.
(6) Expressions often used in the classroom
The following common expressions may be heard and used by teachers and students in the class-
room.
1. Teacher-student interaction
Expression Possible user Meaning
Wakarimasu ka. teacher Do you understand?

わかりますか。
Hai, wakarimasu. student Yes, I understand.

はい、わかります。
Ee, wakarimasu.
ええ、わかります。
Iie, (yoku) wakarimaseN. student No, I don’t understand (well).

いいえ、（よく）わかりません。
Ie, (yoku) wakarimaseN.
いえ、（よく）わかりません。
Moo ichi-do onegai shimasu. student Could you please repeat that?
もういちどおねがいします。
 わかりますか wakarimasu ka
Wakarimasu わかります is a verb meaning “to understand,” and ka か is a particle indicating that the
sentence is a question. In the expressions above, the words equivalent to the English “you” or “I,”
and the word for the thing that is understood, are deleted. This kind of deletion is a very common
phenomenon in Japanese, as will be seen throughout the course.
 （よく）わかりません (yoku) wakarimaseN
WakarimaseN わかりません is a negative form of the verb wakarimasu わかります “to understand”; it
means “(I) don’t understand.” Yoku よく is an adverb meaning “well.” The entire sentence therefore
means “(I) don’t understand well.”
 はい、ええ、いいえ、いえ hai, ee, iie, ie
Both hai はい and ee ええ mean “yes.” Since hai はい is more formal than ee ええ, the latter is used
more often in everyday conversations. In the same way, iie いいえ, which means “no,” is more for-
mal than ie いえ.
 もういちどおねがいします moo ichi-do onegaishimasu
This expression would be used when a student wants the teacher to repeat what he or she just said.
Onegaishimasu おねがいします is a generic expression for asking a favor. Moo もう means “more,”
and ichi-do いちど means “one time.” So, the phrase moo ichi-do もういちど means “one more time.”
2. Commands used by teachers
It is not necessary at this point to memorize the following expressions, but the instructor may use
some of them regularly in the classroom.
Expression Meaning
Mina-saN, itte kudasai. Everyone, please say this.

みなさん、いってください。
Moo ichi-do (itte kudasai). (Please say it) once more.

もういちど（いってください）。
YoNde kudasai. Please read this.

よんでください。
Kiite kudasai. Please listen.

きいてください。
Mite kudasai. Please look at this.

みてください。
Hai, tsugi. OK. Next.

はい、つぎ。
 みなさん mina-saN
Before giving a command, a teacher may either call one person by name, e.g. Tanaka-saN たなかさ
ん “Mr./Ms.Tanaka,” or address everyone present by saying mina-saN みなさん. This consists of
mina みな “everyone” and saN さん, normally added after a person’s family name or given name.
 （いって・よんで・きいて・みて）ください [itte, yoNde, kiite, mite] kudasai

The word common to all the above expressions, kudasai ください, indicates that a polite command is
being given. Each of the expressions starts with a verb. Here, the verbs are: itte いって “to say,”
yoNde よんで “to read,” kiite きいて “to listen,” and mite みて “ to see”, “to watch,” or “to look.” The
verb form used here will be explained from Stage 1-3 onward.
 もういちど（いってください） moo ichi-do (itte kudasai)
The expression moo ichi-do itte kudasai もういちどいってください and the previously introduced moo
ichi-do onegaishimasu もういちどおねがいします “May I ask you to say it one more time?” basically
mean the same thing, but they are used in different situations. The latter expression, which is
more polite, is appropriate for a student to use when asking the teacher to repeat. The first one,
which is a polite command, would be used by the teacher. However, the teacher may also simply
say moo ichi-do もういちど “once more” to have the students repeat a phrase. This is a casual way to
direct the addressee to repeat something.
 つぎ tsugi
Tsugi つぎ “next” (referring to a person or an item) is often used when the instructor wants the stu-
dent(s) to move on to the next task, or when the instructor wants the next person to respond or
carry out a task.
3. Feedback used by teachers
Expression Meaning
Hai, soo desu. Yes, that is correct.

はい、そうです。
Iie, chigaimasu. No, that is not what I wanted to hear.

いいえ、ちがいます。
 そうです soo desu

When the teacher uses soo desu そうです, it simply means that the response is what she or he was
expecting.
 ちがいます chigaimasu
Chigaimasu ちがいます is a verb that means that the response is different from what the teacher
wanted the student to say.
(7) Very useful and important expressions
It should not be assumed that the words given in each chapter are the only ones that will be need-
ed. Vocabulary-building based on the speaker’s needs is crucial. Students should ask the instruc-
tor for information about any words or expressions that they feel the need to know. The following
expression may be used for this purpose:
[English word] wa nihoNgo de naN desu ka.

[English word] はにほんごでなんですか。
“What is [English word] in Japanese?” (I.e., “How would you say [English word] in Japanese?”)
Any English word can be put in the brackets. For example, to ask how to say “books” in Japanese,
one would form the following question:
“Books” wa nihoNgo de naN desu ka.

Books はにほんごでなんですか。
“How would you say ‘books’ in Japanese? ”
NihoNgo にほんご means “the Japanese language.” The particle de で expresses the means for some-
one to do something. NaN なん is a question word meaning “what.”
In answering the above question, the most typical short answer would be the following (hoN ほん
is the Japanese equivalent of “books”):
HoN desu.
ほんです。
“It’s hoN.”
Similarly, to ask the English meaning of a Japanese word, one would use this phrase (eigo えいご
means “the English language”):
[Japanese word] wa eigo de naN desu ka.

[Japanese word] はえいごでなんですか。
“What is [Japanese word] in English?” (I.e. “How would you say [Japanese word] in English?”)
The following example asks for the meaning of the word hoN ほん “book”:
“hoN” wa eigo de naN desu ka.

「ほん」はえいごでなんですか。
“How would you say hoN in English?”
Book desu.
Book です。
“It’s book.”
Stage 1-1 Basic Structures of Japanese
Structures
1. Topic and Comment
(1) Schematic composition of the basic sentence
(2) Particles
2. Predicates
(1) The three types of predicate
(2) Nominal predicates
(3) Adjectival predicates
(4) Verbal predicates
(5) The polite vs. plain forms and dictionary forms
3. Pronouns
(1) First-person
(2) Second-person
(3) Third-person
(4) Demonstrative pronouns
(5) Plural pronouns
4. Yes-No Question Sentences
(1) Forming questions
(2) Positive responses
(3) Negative responses
5. Negating Predicates
(1) Negating the nominal predicate
(2) Negating the adjectival predicate
(3) Negating the verbal predicate
6. Particles and Conjunctions
(1) Overriding particle も
(2) Noun phrasal conjunction と
(3) Sentential conjunction そして
(4) Sentential conjunction でも
Conversational Devices
(1) Speech styles
(2) Expressing agreement
(3) Conversational efficiency
(4) Informing others
Stage 1-1 (Grammar Textbook) 27
Structures
1: Topic and Comment
(1) Schematic composition of the basic sentence
The following diagram shows the basic composition of a Japanese sentence:
TOPIC COMMENT
Subject WHOLE PREDICATE
Object CORE PREDICATE
Nominal predicate
Adjectival predicate
Verbal predicate
The basic structure of a Japanese sentence consists of the topic and the comment, which serve as
the foundation for longer and more complex sentences. The chart presented above, and the terms
included in it, may be too abstract for now, but as students learn the various structures one at a
time, these terms as well as the structures themselves will become simpler and clearer. All of the
terms used in the chart above will be introduced and fully explained as they appear in the textbook.
The structure of the comment is very much like the basic structure of English, which consists of a
subject and a predicate. Whole predicates include the optional object of the core predicate, which
has three possible types: the nominal, the adjectival, and the verbal predicate. For the sake of sim-
plicity, when the term “predicate” is used in this text, it will almost always refer to the core predi-
cate. These terms will be explained later when they become more relevant to the discussion.
The main difference between English and Japanese is therefore that Japanese has an extra element
in addition to the comment structure, that element being the topic.
A very rough definition of the topic would be what the speaker (or writer—the term “speaker” in
this text includes both) has chosen to talk about. The speaker states, describes, questions, or fur-
ther explains the topic in the comment.
The topic is described in the comment; within the comment, the subject is described in the predi-
cate.
28 Stage 1-1 (Grammar Textbook)
(2) Particles
Particles are used after a noun or noun phrase, between nouns or noun phrases, or at the end of a
sentence. A noun is a word that refers to a person, a thing, a place, a concept, etc.; a noun phrase
is a noun with other modifying or added elements. A particle essentially provides the preceding
noun, noun phrase, or sentence with a function in the sentence.
There are three kinds of particles in Japanese: linking particles, which link the preceding noun or
noun phrase to the predicate or noun/noun phrase that follows it; sentence-final particles, which
are used at the end of sentences and indicate the speaker’s intent, view, interpretation, etc.; and
overriding particles, which add further meaning to the existing particles.
Some students try to learn Japanese particles by equating them with English prepositions (words
such as “in,” “on,” or “for,”) but this is ineffective because there is no one-to-one correspondence
between Japanese particles and English prepositions. Understanding the underlying meaning of
each particle is the most effective way to learn them.
The following examples use the expressions introduced in the Preparatory Stage to illustrate the
three different kinds of particles. Though the explanations given at this point may seem incom-
plete, particles will gradually be introduced in greater detail in subsequent chapters of the textbook,
so as to give a more complete picture.
 The topic particle は (overriding particle)

Recall the following expression introduced in the Preparatory Stage:
わたしたなか
私は田中です。
topic comment
“I am Tanaka.”
The first word, 私（わたし）, together with the particle は (pronounced “wa” here—the only time that
は is pronounced “wa” is when it is used as a particle) is the topic. The remaining part of the sen-
tence, 田中（たなか）です, is the comment. This particle は is an example of an overriding particle.
That is, whatever the speaker chooses to speak about or to pose a question about can be brought to
the topic position in a sentence by marking it with the particle は. The way は works as an overrid-
ing particle will be explained in greater detail in Stages 1–3 and 1–7.
As seen above, the topic of a sentence in Japanese is made up of a noun or a noun phrase, and is
indicated by the topic particle は.
When speaking, there should be no pause between the noun and the particle that follows. If a
pause between words is needed, it should come after the particle.
 Question particle か and confirmation particle ねえ (sentence-final particle)

The particles か and ねえ, used at the end of sentences, are examples of sentence-final particles. か
is used for question sentences while ねえ is used to confirm the speaker’s understanding or reac-
tion with the addressee.
わ
分かりますか。
“Do you understand?”
きょうあつ
今日は暑いですねえ。
“It’s hot today, isn’t it?”
 Descriptive particle な (linking particle)

Recall the following expression introduced in the Preparatory Stage:
きょうてんき
今日はいやな天気ですねえ。
“Terrible weather today, isn’t it?”
The particle な in the above sentence is an example of a linking particle that is used between two
nouns. The function of the particle な in the above expression is to link a descriptive noun, いや
“disagreeable,” with the noun that follows, 天気 (てんき) “weather.” This particle will be explained
further in Stage 1–2.
s 2: Predicates
(1) The three types of predicate
The comment consists of a subject and a whole predicate; a whole predicate consists of an object
and a type of predicate. The use of a subject and an object depends on the kind of predicate used
in the sentence. In Japanese, the subject and the object are necessary in some, but not all, sen-
tences.
There are three possible predicate types in Japanese: the nominal predicate, the adjectival predi-
cate, and the verbal predicate. Unlike in English, all predicates come at the end of the sentence in
Japanese.
The predicates in the sentences below are 田中（たなか）です and 田中（たなか）さんです. This type
of predicate is called the nominal predicate because it consists of a noun and the copula です.
わたしたなか
私は田中です。
“I am Tanaka.”
たなか
こちらは田中さんです。
“This is Tanaka-san.”
 The copula です
In this textbook, です is termed the copula. です is similar to, but not the same as, the linking verb
“be” in English. In the English sentence “I am Jones,” the subject “I” and the noun “Jones” in the
predicate are equated by means of the be-verb “am,” which is positioned between the two nouns.
です has a few different functions, the first of which is similar to, but again not the same as, the
English be-verb.
Another function of です is to indicate that the sentence is in the polite style. The polite style will
be explained in detail later; for now, it is only necessary to know that this is the most appropriate
style to use in the school classroom.
An adjectival predicate consists of an adjective and です. Adjectives are a class of words that
describe things, people, etc. In the following sentences, the noun 今日（きょう） “today” is used as the
topic, and 寒（さむ）い “cold” and 暑（あつ）い “hot” are adjectives used in the predicate position,
describing the topic 今日（きょう）.
きょうさむ
今日は寒いです。
“It’s cold today.”
きょうあつ
今日は暑いです。
“It’s hot today.”
In English, the abstract subject “it” must be used in the equivalent sentences because the subject
is a necessary element in English.
 Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. They normally express such
concepts as quality, quantity, degree, or manner and are normally placed immediately before the
words they modify. 本当（ほんとう）に “really” and とても “very” modify the adjectives in the following
sentences.
きょうほんとうさむ
今日は本当に寒いです。
“It’s really cold today.”
きょうあつ
今日はとても暑いです。
“It’s very hot today.”
There are other kinds of adverbs that modify entire sentences. One example is the time adverb 今
日（きょう） “today.” In the sentences above, the noun 今日（きょう） “today” is used as the topic of the
sentences; however, this word may also be used as a time adverb.
When 今日（きょう） “today” is used as a time adverb, it is not necessary to follow it with a particle:
きょうにほんあつ
今日、日本はとても暑いです。
“It’s very hot in Japan today.”
In the sentence above, 日本（にほん） “Japan” is the topic of the sentence; 今日（きょう） is used as a
time adverb. The function of the phrase divider 読点（とうてん） [、] between the time adverb and the
topic is to separate the kanji sequence into meaningful word units.
Recall the following sentences from the Preparatory Stage:

わ
分かりますか。
“Do you understand?”
わ
ええ、よく分かります。
“Yes, I understand well.”
分（わ）かります “to understand” in the above sentences is a verb. Verbs are a class of words that
express action, state, movement, etc. The word よく “well” used before the verb is an adverb.
The topics are deleted in the sentences above, but the following sentences show the topic.
たなかわ
田中さんは分かりますか。
“Does Tanaka-san understand?” or “Do you understand, Tanaka-san?”
わたしわ
ええ、（私は）よく分かります。
“Yes, I understand well.”
When the speaker judges that the addressee would know the referent, it is often deleted in
Japanese. The referent can be the topic, the object, or some other noun or noun phrase in the sen-
tence.
 The direct object and the particle が (linking particle)
In the example sentences above, what Tanaka-san understands is not mentioned. The following
sentence includes this element:
すみすにほんごわ
スミスさんは日本語がよく分かります。
“Smith-san understands Japanese well.”
The person who understands something is the topic. What is understood by the topic—日本語（に
ほんご） “the Japanese language” in the above case—is called the direct object.
The particle が is used after a certain kind of direct object to indicate that the preceding noun is the
direct object of the predicate 分（わ）かります “to understand.” In Japanese, the direct object must be
placed before the predicate.
 The direct object and the particle を (linking particle)
There are two particles that mark the direct object of a predicate: one is が, introduced above; the
other is を (pronounced “o” in modern Japanese when used in this way). The verb 勉強（べんきょう）
します means “to study.”
わたしにほんごべんきょう
私は日本語を勉強します。
“I will study Japanese.”
The difference between が and を is that を is used for the direct object of an action predicate such
as 勉強（べんきょう）します “to study,” while が marks the direct object of a non-action predicate such
as 分（わ）かります “to understand.” The predicate 勉強（べんきょう）します “to study” implies some
kind of action because it expresses a person’s movement. On the other hand, 分（わ）かります “to
understand” is non-action because it expresses the person’s ability.
 The directional particles に and へ (linking particles)
Some predicates, such as the verb 行（い）きます “to go,” do not require a direct object, but rather a
word or phrase to indicate the destination.
The destination of the movement is indicated by either the particle に or へ (へ is pronounced “e”
only when it is used as a particle).
ぼくにほんい
僕は日本に（or へ）行きます。
“I will go to Japan.”
The relationship between the predicate and the particle will be discussed in places throughout the
textbook, but Stage 1-5 focuses on this topic.
(5) The polite vs. plain forms and dictionary forms
All predicates have polite and plain forms. Thus far, however, only polite predicates have been pre-
sented. Polite predicates are appropriate in the context of the classroom. A detailed explanation of
these two forms can be found in Stage 1–8, which focuses on the differences between the polite
and plain forms.
Any Japanese predicate has several different forms depending on the desired meaning, but a dic-
tionary gives only one form of each predicate; this form is the dictionary form. At the end of each
chapter in the Workbooks, a summary of new vocabulary is listed. Only dictionary forms are used
in this list. For verbs, however, both the dictionary form and the polite form are listed until Stage
1–8.
3: Pronouns
Pronouns are a class of words used in place of nouns. Until now, first-person pronouns such as 私
（わたし） and 僕（ぼく） for “I” and the third-person pronoun こちら for “this person” have been used.
Japanese pronouns are quite different from English pronouns, both in use and function.
(1) First-person
There are many first-person pronouns in Japanese. Choosing an appropriate pronoun depends on
factors such as the gender of the speaker and addressee, the speech situation, and the region in
which these pronouns are used, among others. For now, knowing 私（わたし） and 僕（ぼく） is suffi-
cient. As mentioned earlier, both 私（わたくし）, the most formal first-person pronoun, and 私（わた
し）, which is also formal, may be used by both genders. 私（わたし） is very frequently used by female
speakers in both formal and casual situations. In very casual circumstances, it may be pronounced
あたし by female speakers rather than わたし. 僕（ぼく）, used exclusively by male speakers of all ages,
is less formal and more conversational than 私（わたし） when used by male speakers. The use of 僕
（ぼく） by male students is quite acceptable in the classroom.
(2) Second-person
As is the case with first-person pronouns, choosing which of the many second-person pronouns in
Japanese to use depends on such factors as the gender of the speaker, the region in which these
pronouns are used, the situation in which conversation takes place, and the relationship between
the speaker and the addressee, among other things.
The following are some common ways to indicate the second person in Japanese:
 Use of the personal name
The personal name is often used instead of a pronoun to refer to the addressee in Japanese.
たなかいちねんせい
田中さんは一年生ですか。
“Are you a freshman, Tanaka-san?”
 Use of deletion
Deletion is also frequently used in addressing someone. When speaking directly to the addressee,
deletion is more common than using a pronoun or a personal name.
さんねんせい
(topic) 三年生ですか。
“Are you a junior?”
 Use of second-person pronouns (e.g., あなた)
Although it is possible to use the personal pronoun あなた, which may be translated as “you,” its
use is quite different from that of the English “you.” As mentioned earlier, あなた is not the only
second-person pronoun in Japanese, but it will be the only one introduced for now.
Most of the time, a speaker should avoid using あなた to address:

 an older person
 a person who holds a professional position
 an older member of the family, relatives, social or school groups
 teachers, doctors, or other professionals, even if they are younger than the speaker
あなた may be used:

 between spouses or people with a close relationship
 between people in a similar social situation (e.g., classmates or club members); in this case using
あなた puts more distance between the two people than using deletion or the personal name of the
addressee
 by a person who has more authority in a society to address someone with less power
In most cases, it is more common to use the name of the addressee with the appropriate ending
such as ~さん or ~先生（せんせい）, or to use deletion, rather than using あなた.
(3) Third-person
In English, once a personal name has been used in a sentence, the person can thereafter be
referred to with a third-person pronoun such as “he” or “she” instead of repeating the personal
name, as in the following example:
“Tanaka-san came to visit me yesterday. He said he wasn’t feeling too well.”
In an equivalent Japanese sentence, the same three possibilities that are available for the second-
person can be used for the pronoun “he” in the above example. These are the use of deletion, the
person’s name, or the third-person pronoun. As with the second-person, the use of deletion or the
personal name is more common than the use of a third-person pronoun.
Like あなた, the use of the third-person pronouns that are equivalent to “he” and “she” is limited in
Japanese. That is, these pronouns are normally not used to refer to those such as elderly or pro-
fessional people. Although the words 彼（かれ） and 彼女（かのじょ） are translated as “he” and “she”
respectively, the English and Japanese words are used in very different ways. The closest equiva-
lents to the English “he” and “she” are either deleted elements or personal names.
Use of the third-person personal pronouns 彼（かれ） for “he” and 彼女（かのじょ） for “she” is more
frequent among younger speakers in informal situations. In general, these pronouns are used:
 to refer to someone in roughly the same age group as the speaker

 to refer to a boyfriend or a girlfriend.
As it is the speaker’s choice to use these pronouns, even to an elderly person—again, in informal
situations—the above statement is not an absolute condition for these pronouns. When used, for
instance, to refer to an elderly person, it does convey some implied messages (such as the age of
the speaker and the relation between the speaker and the referent) to the audience.
 Deleting elements in sentences
From the examples used so far and the explanation of pronouns, it is clear that some words may
be deleted from sentences. The speaker may delete an element, or more than one element, from
sentences when he or she judges that the addressee will be able to identify the deleted element(s).
Deleted elements in this textbook are often (although not always) indicated by parentheses in
example sentences, as follows:
わたしたなか
（私は）田中です。
“I’m Tanaka.”
たなか
（こちらは）田中さんです。
“This is Tanaka-san.”
In the above examples, the topics are deleted, but that is not the only element that may be deleted
from sentences. It is possible to delete more than one element within a sentence.
(4) Demonstrative pronouns
A speaker will use a demonstrative pronoun to point (literally or figuratively) to a particular person
or a thing. Different demonstrative pronouns are used for people and for things.
 For people
The following demonstrative pronouns can be used to refer to people:
Demonstrative pronoun Referent
こちら a person close to the speaker: “this person here”
そちら a person close to the addressee: “that person near you”

あちら a person far from both the speaker and the addressee:
“that person over there”
 For things
Demonstrative pronouns that refer to things, but not to people, are: これ, それ, あれ. While the
English demonstrative pronouns “this” and “that” make a two-way distinction, Japanese demon-
strative pronouns make a three-way distinction, as follows:
Demonstrative pronoun Referent
これ thing(s) close to the speaker: “this thing”

それ thing(s) close to the addressee: “that thing”
あれ thing(s) far from both the speaker and the addressee:
“that thing over there”
の “one(s)” is another pronoun to refer to things. See Stage 2–2.
(5) Plural pronouns
Number (i.e., whether a noun is plural or singular) is normally not indicated in regular nouns. In
personal pronouns, however, it is indicated by ~達（たち） and ~ら. The use of ~達（たち） is more for-
mal than the use of ~ら. Though it is not obligatory, ~ら can also be used with demonstrative pro-
nouns for things.
Noun/Pronoun ~達（たち） ~ら Meaning

わたしわたしたちわたし
私私達私ら we
たち
あなたあなた達あなたら you
ぼくぼくたちぼく
僕僕達僕ら we (male speaker)
かれかれたちかれ
彼彼達彼ら they (female or
male or mixed group)
かのじょかのじょたちかのじょ
彼女彼女達彼女ら they (females)
たなかたなかたちたなか
田中さん田中さん達田中さんら Tanaka-san and
her/his group
これ、それ、あれ — これら, それら, あれら these (those)

things
regular nouns not used regularly (see below)
 Plural markers with regular nouns

As mentioned above, plural markers are used mainly for pronouns, but they can be used for some
nouns (for animate things) as well: 学生達（がくせいたち） or 学生ら（がくせいら） “students,” for
example. In 友達（ともだち） “friend,” the second kanji 達 is the same as the plural marker 達（たち）,
but the word 友達（ともだち） is not a plural noun, nor can another 達（たち） be added to make it
plural. Some nouns may be repeated to indicate that they are plural (see Step 3 of Stage 1–6 of
Workbook 1), but for the most part, nouns do not indicate number. Whether a noun is singular or
plural is inferred from the use of words that indicate quantity and/or the context.
s 4: Yes-No Question Sentences
(1) Forming questions
In English, to form a yes-no question sentence (that is, a sentence that questions whether the
speaker’s assumption is true or false), the subject and the predicate in a statement sentence are
reversed. For example:
Is this a book?
What is this?
In Japanese, no such reversal of word order occurs in any kind of interrogative (that is, question)
sentences. A yes-no question sentence is formed by adding the sentence-final particle か to a state-
ment sentence. The word order of the statement sentence remains unchanged. Yes-no question
sentences should be spoken with rising intonation.
The following are examples of yes-no question sentences with the three types of predicate. (In the
first example, 一年生（いちねんせい） means “first-year student” or “freshman.”)
A question sentence with a nominal predicate:

田中さんは一年生ですか。d
“Is Tanaka-san a freshman?” or “Are you a freshman, Tanaka-san?”
A question sentence with an adjectival predicate:

きょうさむ
今日は寒いですか。d
“Is it cold today?”
A question sentence with a verbal predicate:

すみすにほんごわ
スミスさんは日本語が分かりますか。d
“Do you understand Japanese, Smith-san?” or “Does Smith-san understand Japanese?”
(2) Positive responses
 Responding positively by repeating the predicate

One way to respond positively to a question is simply to repeat the predicate following the positive
acknowledgement, はい or ええ, both of which mean “yes.” はい is more formal than ええ, but ええ
is more commonly used in conversation. The topic is often deleted in responses.
たなかいちねんせいわたしいちねんせい
田中さんは一年生ですか。はい、（私は）一年生です。
“Are you a freshman, Tanaka-san?” “Yes, I am a freshman.”
きょうさむきょうさむ
今日は寒いですか。ええ、（今日は）寒いです。
“Is it cold today?” “Yes, it’s cold today.”
すみすわぼくわ
スミスさんは分かりますか。ええ、（僕は）分かります。
“Do you understand, Smith-san?” “Yes, I understand.”
 The generic positive response そうです
そうです may be used as the generic positive response for the nominal predicate.
たなか
（あなたは）田中さんですか。
“Are you Tanaka-san?”
ええ、そうです。
“Yes, that’s right.”
そう, which literally means “that way,” should be used alone without a topic. そうです can be used
only when responding to questions with nominal predicates, unless ねえ rather than か is used at
the end of the predicate. (For more information, refer to the Conversational Devices section at the
end of this chapter.)
(3) Negative responses
 The generic negative response 違（ちが）います

The expression 違（ちが）います is a verb that means “to differ from something.” It can be used as
a generic negative response to a question using the nominal predicate.
たなか
あなたは田中さんですか。
ちが
いいえ（いえ）、違います。
“No, I am not.”
Like そうです, 違（ちが）います should be used without a topic. It should only be used to respond a
question with a nominal predicate. This response may not be used when the predicate is either
adjectival or verbal.
 Giving the correct information
Another option in responding to a question that implied a wrong assumption is to give the correct
information.
たなか
ちがわたしやまだ
いいえ（いえ）、違います。（私は）山田です。
“No, I’m not. I’m Yamada.”
One can even respond without 違（ちが）います, as in the following:

たなか
わたしやまだ
いいえ。（私は）山田です。
“No. I’m Yamada.”
 Negating predicates
Negative responses, of course, may be given by negating predicates. In English, the word “not” is
used to negate predicates, as in the following:
I am not a freshman.
It is not cold today.
I do not understand.
In Japanese, instead of using the equivalent word for “not,” the negative form of the predicate is
used. The following section explains negative predicates.
s 5: Negating Predicates
(1) Negating the nominal predicate
To express such aspects as negation, the noun in a nominal predicate must rely on the copula,
which is able to conjugate—that is, the form of the predicate can change.
The negative form of the copula is:
です →　では (or じゃ) ありません

Because は here is a particle, では is pronounced “dewa.” じゃ, a contracted form of では (just as

“isn’t” is a contracted form of “is not”), may be used instead of the more formal では. Using the
contracted じゃ is more conversational than では. For negation, ありません must follow both では or
じゃ.
田中さんは一年生です。
“Tanaka-san is a freshman.”
田中さんは一年生ではありません。
“Tanaka-san is not a freshman.”
田中さんは一年生じゃありません。
“Tanaka-san is not a freshman.”
(2) Negating the adjectival predicate
Unlike nouns, adjectives in Japanese conjugate, and therefore have negative forms. To form a neg-
ative adjectival predicate, change the final syllable い of an adjective to く and add ありません.
~い　です →　 ~く　ありません

きょうさむ
今日は寒いです。
“It’s cold today.”
きょうさむ
今日は寒くありません。
“It’s not cold today.”
It should be noted that the original form of the adjective いい “good” is よい; all conjugations of this
adjective are therefore based on よい. The adjective いい is negated as follows:
いいです→よいです→よくありません
これはいいです。
“This is good.”
それはよくありません。
“That is not good.”
 A nominal predicate with an adjective
A predicate containing an adjective that modifies a noun within that predicate is a nominal predi-
cate, not an adjectival predicate. The negation is that of a nominal predicate rather than an adjec-
tival predicate.
たなかがくせい
田中さんはいい学生ですか。
“Is Tanaka-san a good student?”
いいえ、（田中さんは）いい学生じゃありません。
“No, he/she is not a good student.”
(3) Negating the verbal predicate
Like adjectives, verbs also conjugate. A verbal predicate is made negative by changing the latter
part of a verb, ~ます, to ~ません.
~ます　 →　 ~ません
すみすわ
スミスさんは分かりますか。
“Do you understand, Smith-san?”
ぼくわ
いえ、（僕は）よく分かりません。
“No, I don’t understand very well.”
6: Particles and Conjunctions
(1) Overriding particle も
In Japanese, there is a group of particles that override the original particles. In the example below,
も in the second sentence overrides the topic particle は.
たなかいちねんせいきむいちねんせい
田中さんは一年生です。キムさんも一年生です。
“Tanaka-san is a freshman. Kim-san is also a freshman.”
The two topics in the sentences above may be merged into a compound topic. The number of
nouns (or noun phrases) is not limited to two; it can be any number.
たなかきむいちねんせい
田中さんもキムさんも一年生です。
“Both Tanaka-san and Kim-san are freshmen.”
The following shows a negative sentence with a compound topic using も.

ぶらうんたなかきむいちねんせい
ブラウンさんも田中さんもキムさんも一年生ではありません。
“Neither Brown-san, nor Tanaka-san, nor Kim-san is a freshman.”
も also overrides other particles. See the following example in which も overrides the object particle
が (in the example, 中国語（ちゅうごくご） means “Chinese language”):

すみすにほんごわすみすちゅうごくごわ
スミスさんは日本語が分かります。（スミスさんは）中国語も分かります。
“Smith-san understands Japanese. He understands Chinese, too.”
(2) Noun phrasal conjunction と
Conjunctions are a class of words that connect two or more elements. The conjunction と may be
used to join two nouns or noun phrases, but not predicates or sentences. The order of the nouns
connected by と does not affect the meaning of the phrase.
すみすきむがくせい
スミスさんとキムさんは学生です。
“Smith-san and Kim-san are students.”
きむすみすがくせい
キムさんとスミスさんは学生です。
“Kim-san and Smith-san are students.”
(3) Sentential conjunction そして
The sentential conjunction そして may be used to connect two separate sentences. そして is used
when the speaker decides to add another piece of information to the preceding sentence. It may be
used either with two different topics or a single topic, as in the following:
わたしたなかやまだ
私は田中です。そして、こちらは山田さんです。
“I’m Tanaka. And this is Yamada-san.”
ぼくやまだぼくがくせい
僕は山田です。そして、（僕は）学生です。
“I am Yamada. And I am a student.”
(4) Sentential conjunction でも
The sentential conjunction でも may be used between two separate sentences. Like そして, this con-
junction is used between sentences, but never between nouns, phrases, or clauses (clauses are
almost like sentences, but they are not used independently like sentences; they will be further
defined in later chapters).
でも has two functions. Firstly, it is used to give the second sentence some kind of contrastive sense
to the first sentence.
すみすいちねんせいきむいちねんせい
スミスさんは一年生です。でも、キムさんは一年生ではありません。
“Smith-san is a freshman, but Kim-san is not.”
Secondly, でも can be used to give information in the second sentence that might seem to be con-
tradictory to an assumption made in the first sentence. (日本人（にほんじん） in the next sentence
means “Japanese person.”)
わたしたなかわたしにほんじん
私は田中です。でも、（私は）日本人じゃありません。
“I’m Tanaka; however, I am not Japanese.”
The first sentence introduces the speaker’s name. Since, on hearing the name, the listener might
assume that the speaker is Japanese, the second sentence corrects this assumption.
(1) Speech styles
There are a few different speech styles in Japanese. For now, the polite style of speech will be used.
Polite speech, used in most classrooms, is indicated by certain predicate forms such as the use of
です with nominal and adjectival predicates and the verb ending ~ます.
(2) Expressing agreement
すみすやまだ
スミス：山田さん！とってもひさしぶりですねえ。
やまだほんとう
山田：ええ、そうですねえ。本当にひさしぶりですねえ。
Smith: Yamada-san! It’s been a while, hasn’t it?
Yamada: It really has. It’s been a long time.
 Emphatic device とっても

For the adverb とても, at times the speaker may hold the second syllable て for quite some time,
depending on the degree of emphasis the speaker wants to add. とっても is used only when speak-
ing.
 Sentence-final particle ねえ
In the Preparatory Stage, the following expressions were introduced:
きょうほんとうあつ
今日は本当に暑いですねえ。d
“It’s really hot today, isn’t it?”
ほんとう
本当にそうですねえ。e
“It’s really true, isn’t it?”
ねえ in the above sentences is a sentence-final particle. This particle is used only in conversation.
When the speaker uses this particle with a rising intonation, he or she is expecting the addressee
to confirm his or her impression. The addressee, therefore, often confirms the comment by also
adding ねえ, but with a falling intonation to indicate his or her agreement.
When agreeing with a comment made with ねえ, そうです may be used in responses to all types of
predicates. Remember, however, that for yes-no questions with the final particle か, そうです may be
used to respond only if the question uses the nominal predicate.
(3) Conversational efficiency
やまだすみすげんき
山田：スミスさん、お元気ですか。
すみすげんきやまだ
スミス：ええ、おかげさまで、とっても元気です。山田さんは？
やまだげんき
山田：おかげさまで、元気です。
Yamada: How have you been, Smith-san?
Smith: Quite well, thank you. How about you, Yamada-san?
Yamada: I’m quite well, thank you.
 Deletion of the predicate

As mentioned earlier, the speaker deletes elements that he or she judges to be redundant or under-
stood by the addressee. At times, the entire predicate may be deleted.
In the sentence above, 山田（やまだ）さんは？, the entire predicate, （お）元気（げんき）ですか, is delet-

ed. The abbreviated sentence would be uttered with a rising intonation. A question mark is used,
as there is no other way to tell that the written sentence is a question.
(4) Informing others
やまだ
 そちらは山田さんですか。
たなか
 いいえ、こちらは田中さんですよ。
 Is that Yamada-san?
 No, actually, it’s Tanaka-san.
 Sentence-final particle よ
The sentence-final particle よ at the end of the second sentence is used when the speaker assumes
that the addressee does not possess the information the speaker is providing. Though it is often
used in conversation, it is seldom used in an impersonal written sentence unless the written sen-
tence is in an e-mail message or something that involves an interpersonal situation.
Because of its assumption that the addressee may not have the information, this particle can sound
a little condescending to the addressee if used inappropriately, and may even sound insulting at
times.
Stage 1-2 Question Sentences
Structures
1. Alternative Questions
(1) The three types of question sentences
(2) Forming an alternative question sentence
(3) Responses to alternative questions
(4) Negating both predicates
2. Information-Seeking Question Sentences
(1) だれ（どなた） “who?”
(2) なに（なん） “what?”
(3) どこ “where?”
(4) どう “how?”
(5) いつ “when?”
(6) どうして（なぜ） “why?”
(7) が in the topic position
3. Modifying Nouns
(1) Modifying a noun with an adjective
(2) Modifying a noun with another noun
4. Adjectival Nouns
(1) Two types of adjectives
(2) Interrogative pronouns どれ（どの） and どんな
5. Conjunctions
(1) Clausal conjunction が
(2) Sentential and clausal conjunction けれども
6. Adverbs with Negative Predicates
(1) Backchanneling
(2) Location or the name?
(3) Changing the topic or making a conclusion
(4) Repeating the question before answering
Structures
1: Alternative Questions
(1) The three types of question sentences
There are three types of question sentences: yes-no question sentences, introduced in Stage 1–1;
alternative question sentences; and information-seeking question sentences.
Yes-no questions are asked to confirm a belief or assumption. Alternative question sentences are
either-or questions. Information-seeking questions are asked in order to obtain specific answers to
such questions as who, what, where, when, why, etc.
(2) Forming an alternative question sentence
In this type of question, the two predicates are listed one right after another, separated by a 読点
（とうてん）, or phrase divider. Elements like the topic, if it is the same in both clauses, need not be
repeated in the second question.
たなかやまだ
あなたは田中さんですか、（あなたは）山田さんですか。
“Are you Tanaka-san or Yamada-san?”
 Clausal and sentential conjunction それとも
It is possible to use the conjunction それとも between the two clauses of an alternative question.
たなかやまだ
あなたは田中さんですか、（それとも）（あなたは）山田さんですか。
As indicated by the parentheses, the use of the conjunction それとも in alternative questions is
optional. Using それとも makes the question sound more formal, so in a casual conversation, this
conjunction is often omitted.
 Noun phrasal conjunction か
Compare the following two sentences:
すみすさんねんせいすみすよねんせい
スミスさんは三年生ですか、（それとも）（スミスさんは）四年生ですか。
“Are you a junior or a senior, Smith-san?”
すみすさんねんせいよねんせい
スミスさんは三年生か四年生ですか。
“Are you something like a junior or a senior, Smith-san?”
The first-type of alternative question is used when the speaker is fairly certain that スミス（すみす）さ
ん is either a junior or a senior.
The second question indicates that the speaker is making an approximate guess that スミス（すみす）
さん looks as if he is around the age of a junior or a senior. In this case, the noun phrases are joined
by the noun phrasal conjunction か rather than by それとも, which should be used between two
clauses. The second question sentence above contains only one predicate, compared to the two
predicates used in the first question sentence.
Here is another example with the conjunction か:

きょうあしたい
今日か明日、行きます。
“I will go today or tomorrow.”
(3) Responses to alternative questions
 Choosing one predicate

If one of the options given in an alternative question is the correct answer, it should be used in the
response.
たなかやまだわたしたなか
あなたは田中さんですか、山田さんですか。（私は）田中です。
“Are you Tanaka-san or Yamada-san?” “I’m Tanaka.”
きょうあたたすずきょうあたた
今日は暖かいですか、涼しいですか。（今日は）とても暖かいです。
“Is it warm or cool today?” “It’s very warm (today).”
あめりかいかえあめりかい
アメリカに行きますか、日本に帰りますか。アメリカに行きます。
“Will you go to America or return to Japan?” “I will go to America.”
(4) Negating both predicates
If neither of the options stated in the question is true, give the correct response or state it after
negating both options of the question.
 Nominal predicates
Recall that ではありません is the negative form of the copula. When negating both options, the over-
riding particle も replaces は in both predicates, resulting in でもありません.
たなかやまだ
あなたは田中さんですか、山田さんですか。
The following two responses to the above question are possible.

ぼくすみす
いいえ。（僕は）スミスです。
“No. I’m Smith.”
ぼくたなかやまだぼくすみす
（僕は）田中でも山田でもありません。（僕は）スミスです。
“I’m neither Tanaka nor Yamada. I’m Smith.”
 Adjectival predicates
As explained in Stage 1–1, the negative adjectival predicate is obtained by changing the final ~い of
an adjective to ~く and adding ありません. To negate both adjectival predicates of an alternative ques-
tion, insert も between ~く and ありません in both predicates.
きょうあたたすず
今日は暖かいですか、涼しいですか。
“Is it warm or cool today?”
あたたすずあつ
暖かくも涼しくもありません。とても暑いです。
“It’s neither warm nor cool. It’s very hot”
As a generic negative response, the following structure may be used for both nominal and adjecti-
val predicates. どちら is an interrogative pronoun meaning “which of the two”:
どちらでもありません。
“Neither is the case.”
 Verbal predicates
When verbs in an alternative question consist of a noun with します, as in 勉強（べんきょう）します, the
following structure may be used to negate both predicates.
あしたべんきょううんどう
明日、勉強しますか、運動しますか。
“Will you study tomorrow, or exercise?”
べんきょううんどう
勉強も運動もしません。
“I will neither study nor exercise.”
When the verbs in an alternative question contain other types of verbs, the following generic neg-
ative response may be used to negate both predicates: the interrogative pronoun どちら, followed by
the particle も and the negative verb しません. There are other ways to negate both verbs of an alter-
native question, but they will not be introduced until Stage 2–5.
うちかえべんきょう
家に帰りますか、勉強しますか。
“Will you go home or study?”
どちらもしません。
“I will do neither.” [Literally, “I won’t do either one.”]
s 2: Information-Seeking Question Sentences
While yes-no questions are formed simply by adding the question particle か, information-seeking
question sentences need to use interrogative pronouns. These are pronouns that function like such
words as what, who, where, etc., in English.
Information-seeking question sentences are interrogative sentences that seek specific responses
rather than simply “yes” or “no.” As is the case with yes-no questions, the word order is the same
as in a declarative sentence.
(1) だれ（どなた） “who?”
Both だれ and どなた are interrogative pronouns that mean “who,” but どなた is more polite than だ
れ. In order to ask for the name of a person, the question sentence is formed based on the follow-
ing structure:
やまだ
こちらは山田さんです。
“This is Yamada-san.”
The element being questioned is the second noun, as in:
こちらは（？）ですか。

“This is (?).”
An information-seeking question sentence is formed by filling this position with a proper inter-
rogative pronoun, だれ “who” or どなた “who.” In an answer, it is most common to delete the
repeated element, as it is understood (in the following examples, the topic こちらは is deleted):
こちらはだれですか。
“Who is this person?” [Literally, “This person is who?”]
こちらはどなたですか。
“Who is this person?” [Literally, “This person is who?”]
やまだ
（こちらは）山田さんです。
“This is Yamada-san.”
(2) なに（なん） “what?”
なに is used when asking about things.

なにわ
スミスさんは何が分かりますか。
“What does Smith-san understand?”
にほんごわ
スミスさんは日本語が分かります。
“Smith-san understands Japanese.”
An interrogative pronoun may be used for a part of the word.

なにごわ
スミスさんは何語が分かりますか。
“What language does Smith-san understand?”
にほんごわ
スミスさんは日本語が分かります。
“Smith-san understands Japanese.”
This interrogative pronoun can also be used to question the number of something. In questioning
the number, the pronunciation of this pronoun must be なん rather than なに.
すみすなんねんせい
スミスさんは何年生ですか。
“What class is Smith-san in?” [Literally, “What year student is Smith-san?”]
すみすいちねんせい
スミスさんは一年生です。
“Smith-san is a freshman.”
To know whether to use なに or なん, remember the following:
 なん should be used when asking about a number with a counter or a part of a series (e.g., ~曜日).
 なに should be used to ask what things. However, when なに is followed by a word that begins
with /t/, /d/, /r/ or /n/, then なん should be used. An exception to this is that before the particle
に, either なん or なに can be used.
In the following question sentence, なん rather than なに is used because the word following なん
begins with /d/ （です）:
なん
それは何ですか。
“What is that?”
ほん
（これは）本です。
“This is a book.”
(3) どこ “where?”
どこ is an interrogative pronoun that asks for a location. See the following:

すみすい
スミスさんはどこに行きますか。
“Where will Smith-san go?”
すみすにほんい
（スミスさんは）日本に行きます。
“Smith-san will go to Japan.”
どこ is not always equivalent to the English interrogative pronoun “where.” See the Conversational
Devices section at the end of this chapter for more details.
(4) どう “how?”
どう is an interrogative pronoun that asks for a description. (In the following example, 難（むずか）し
い means “difficult.”)
えいご
英語はどうですか。
“How is English?” [ = What is English like?]
えいごむずか
英語は難しいです。
“English is difficult.”
(5) いつ “when?”
 Time adverbs
No particle is necessary after time adverbs such as 明日（あした） “tomorrow.” This does not mean
that a particle is never used with time adverbs (for instance, see Stage 1–4 for the use of the parti-
cle に with certain time adverbs). Furthermore, overriding particles may be used with any words,
including time adverbs (see Stage 1–3). At this point, however, it is sufficient to remember that
time adverbs such as 明日（あした） “tomorrow” do not require a particle.
A time adverb may be used anywhere except at the end of a sentence.

あしたぼくべんきょう
明日、僕は勉強します。
“I will study tomorrow.”
ぼくあしたべんきょう
僕は明日、勉強します。
 Interrogative pronoun for time adverbs

The interrogative pronoun いつ is used to ask for the time of an event. Since no particle is needed
for time adverbs, いつ is not accompanied by a particle either. The location of this interrogative
pronoun is the same as time adverbs—that is, anywhere but the end of a sentence.
すみすにほんごべんきょう
いつスミスさんは日本語を勉強しますか。
スミスさんはいつ日本語を勉強しますか。
スミスさんは日本語をいつ勉強しますか。
“When will you study Japanese, Smith-san?”
あしたにほんごべんきょう
明日、（日本語を）勉強します。
“I will study Japanese tomorrow.”
(6) どうして（なぜ） “why?”
どうして or なぜ may be used to ask for the reason for something. どうして is more conversational,
while なぜ sounds more formal. See the following examples:
あしたにほんい
どうして（or なぜ）明日、日本に行きますか。
“Why will you go to Japan tomorrow?”
To respond to “why” questions, からです is added at the end of the response. In addition, the pred-
icate before からです must be in the plain form (for now, use the dictionary forms, which are given
in the vocabulary list at the end of each chapter in the Workbooks).
For instance, 勉強（べんきょう）する is the plain form of 勉強（べんきょう）します. To respond to the

question above, one can give the following response:
べんきょう
勉強するからです。
“It is because I will study.”
This way of responding to a “why” question is quite conversational. More complete structures
related to this point will be introduced in Stages 1–9 and 2–3.
(7) が in the topic position
First, see the following situations.
Situation (1): What language does Tanaka-san understand?

He understands Japanese.
Here, the question pertains to the predicate (as opposed to the subject). The question and its
response are expressed in Japanese as follows. (In this case, the topic—marked by は—may be
deleted in the response because it is not an important part of the answer.)
たなかなにごわ
Question: 田中さんは何語が分かりますか。
たなかにほんごわ
Response: （田中さんは）日本語が分かります。
Compare this to a different question:
Situation (2): Who understands Japanese?

Tanaka-san does.
In situation (2), the question pertains to the subject. In Japanese, the particle が, for the topic
rather than は, with the proper interrogative pronoun must be used. In responding to the question,
the same particle, が, must be used. Of course, the topic will not be deleted, since it is the focus of
the question.
にほんごわ
Question: だれが日本語が分かりますか。
たなかにほんごわ
Response: 田中さんが（日本語が）分かります。
s 3: Modifying Nouns
There are a few different ways to modify a noun in Japanese.
(1) Modifying a noun with an adjective
As shown earlier, when an adjective modifies a noun, no particle is used between the adjective and
the noun it modifies.
きょうてんき
今日はいい天気です。
“The weather is good today.”
(2) Modifying a noun with another noun
 Modifying particle の
A noun can modify another noun. In this case, the particle の must be placed between the two
nouns. In this structure, the first noun always modifies (that is, explains, describes, or qualifies)
the second noun.
わたしせんせい
私の先生
“my teacher”
あめりかがくせい
アメリカの学生
“students who are from or in America”
がくせい
こちらの学生
“students who are here”
たなかせんせいがくせい
田中先生の学生
“Professor Tanaka’s students”
As the above examples demonstrate, the particle の does not correspond exactly to any particular
English preposition. It is often said that の is a possessive particle, but the possessive function is
only one of many functions that の has.
Since the first noun modifies the second noun, reversing the order of the nouns changes the
meaning of the sentence. See the following:
田中さんの学生
“Tanaka-san’s students”
がくせいたなか
学生の田中さん
“Tanaka-san, who is a student”
More than two nouns may be used to modify a noun. In all cases, the last noun is the main noun
and all nouns preceding it modify it.
わたしがくせいたなか
私の学生の田中さん
“Tanaka-san, who is my student”
にほんごがくせいすみす
日本語の学生のスミスさん
“Smith-san, who is a student of Japanese”
 の and demonstrative pronouns
In English, the demonstrative pronoun “this” can be used in two ways: it can be used in isolation
as a pronoun, or it can be used to modify the noun that follows it.
This is a big book.

This book is big.
In Japanese, the demonstrative pronouns これ, それ, and あれ must be used in isolation as pro-
nouns; they may not be used to modify a noun. The particle の must be placed after these demon-
strative pronouns if they are followed by a noun. However, the pronoun and の have been con-
tracted to make the demonstrative pronouns この, その, and あの.
ほん
これは本です。
“This is a book”
ほんたなかほん
この本は田中さんの本です。
“This book is Tanaka-san’s book.”
These demonstrative pronouns are also used for personal pronouns, as in the following.
ひと
この人 the person close to the speaker
ひと
その人 the person close to the addressee
ひと
あの人 the person far from both the speaker and the addressee
These personal pronouns are less formal than こちら, そちら, and あちら. Furthermore, こちら, そちら,
and あちら are used when the person the speaker refers to is physically present at the time of
speech; この人（ひと）, その人（ひと）, and あの人（ひと） do not have the same requirement.
 Deletion of a noun after の
The noun after の can be deleted if it is understood, especially when it is inanimate.
わたしほん
これは私の本です。それはあなたの (deleted noun) です。
“This is my book. That is yours.”
わたし
それは私の (deleted noun) ではありません。
“That is not mine.”
It is awkward to use this construction when the deleted noun is animate.

やまだかあすみす
こちらは山田さんのお母さんです。*そちらはスミスさんの (deleted noun) です。
“This person here is Yamada-san’s mother. [intended meaning] That person there is Smith-san’s.”
Note: An asterisk (*) next to a sentence indicates that the sentence is unacceptable.
4: Adjectival Nouns
(1) Two types of adjectives
In Japanese there are two types of adjectives: adjectives and adjectival nouns. Adjectives always end
with a hiragana い (although not all words that end in い are adjectives).
Recall the following expressions:

げんき
（topic）元気ですか。
“How are you?” [Literally, “Are you healthy?”]
げんき
（topic）元気です。
“I am fine.”
The word 元気（げんき）, which means “healthy” or “energetic,” in these sentences is a noun in
terms of its form but an adjective in meaning. This type of adjective is called an adjectival noun.
The predicate with an adjectival noun is a nominal predicate. So, when a predicate with an adjec-
tival noun is negated, the negative form of the copula is used, as seen below.
げんき
（topic）元気ですか。
“How are you?”
げんき
（topic）元気では（or じゃ）ありません。
“I am not well.”
 Descriptive particle な
Recall that the function of adjectives is to describe nouns; they can be used immediately before the
nouns that they modify, as in the following sentence:
きょうてんき
今日はいい天気です。
“It’s really nice weather today.”
In the same way, adjectival nouns also modify nouns. See the following sentence that was intro-
duced in the Preparatory Stage:
きょうてんき
今日はいやな天気ですねえ。
“It’s really bad weather today, isn’t it?”
In the above sentence, いや “disagreeable,” which is an adjectival noun, modifies the noun 天気（て
んき）; the particle な is used between them.
When an adjectival noun modifies a noun, the particle な must be placed between the two words:
たなかげんきがくせい
田中さんは元気な学生です。
“Tanaka-san is an energetic student.”
When the adjectival noun is used in the predicate alone without a noun following it, な should not
be used.
がくせいげんき
あの学生は元気です。
“That student is full of energy.”
 Can a verb modify a noun?
A clause that contains a verbal predicate may also modify a noun. See the following example:
The book [that I read] is a good book.
In the example above, the clause “that I read” modifies the noun “book.” In English, this kind of
modifying element comes after the noun it modifies, but in Japanese, anything that modifies a
noun comes before the noun it modifies. When the English sentence above is expressed in an
equivalent sentence in Japanese, the verb in the modifying clause must be in the plain form. The
kind of structure illustrated here requires additional information that will be introduced later (in
Stages 1–9 and 2–2).
 Summary of how to modify nouns
A noun may be modified by a noun, an adjective, an adjectival noun, or a verb (not covered in this
chapter). The following is a summary of ways to modify a noun. In all cases, the modifier must be
placed before the noun it modifies:
 When an adjective modifies a noun, use nothing between them;

 When an adjectival noun modifies a noun, use な between them;
 When a noun modifies another noun, use の between them;
 When a verb modifies a noun, the verb must be in the plain form (see Stages 1–9 and 2–2), and
the noun follows immediately, with no particle between them.
(2) Interrogative pronouns どれ（どの） and どんな
 Interrogative pronoun どんな

どんな is an interrogative pronoun related to the pronouns こんな, そんな, and あんな, meaning “this
kind of,” “that kind of,” and “that kind of.” どんな therefore means “what kind of.” They must be
followed by nouns. な in this set is the same な that joins adjectival nouns and nouns. こん, そん, and
あん, of course, cannot be used without な.
ほんたかたか
こんな本は高いですか。ええ、とても高いです。
“Is this kind of book expensive?” “Yes, it is very expensive.”
ほんほん
あの本はどんな本ですか。
“What kind of book is that book over there?” [Literally, “That book over there is what kind of
book?”]
 Differences between どれ, どちら, and どの
どれ “which one” is the interrogative pronoun related to the pronouns これ, それ, and あれ. Likewise,
どの “which (noun)” is the interrogative pronoun related to the pronouns この, その, and あの. As
with the related pronouns, a noun must follow どの, while どれ is used in isolation. In both cases,
the question focuses on isolating one of many options.
あなたのかばんはどれですか。
“Which one is your backpack?”
あなたのかばんはどのかばんですか。
“Which backpack is your backpack?”
If there are only two options (rather than many), どちら should be used rather than どれ. To follow
どちら with a noun, use の between the pronoun and the following noun.
あなたのかばんはどちらですか。
“Which one is your backpack?”
あなたのかばんはどちらのかばんですか。
“Which backpack is your backpack?”
 The difference between どんな and どの
Both どんな and どの must be followed by a noun. However, どんな asks for a description, whereas
どの only asks for an identification.
きむひと
キムさんはどんな人ですか。
“What kind of person is Kim-san?”
きむげんき
（キムさんは）元気な人です。
“Kim-san is a cheerful person.”
どの asks the listener to identify a specific thing or person out of the available options.
きむひと
キムさんはどの人ですか。
“Which person is Kim-san?”
きむひと
（キムさんは）あの人です。
“Kim-san is that person over there.”
s 5: Conjunctions
(1) Clausal conjunction が
The conjunction が joins clauses, rather than sentences. The conjunction が must be accompanied
by a 読点（とうてん）, or phrase divider, rather than a period. A 読点（とうてん） must be used after が,
but not before it.
This conjunction is used for the following two purposes:

 Contrast: when the speaker wishes to contrast an element in each of the two clauses:
わたしにほんじんすみすあめりかじん
私は日本人ですが、スミスさんはアメリカ人です。
“I am Japanese, and (but) Smith-san is American.”
In this sentence, the nationality of the two topics is being contrasted.

 Contradiction: when the second clause makes a statement that disagrees in sense with what can
be inferred from the first clause:
私は田中ですが、（私は）日本人じゃありません。
“I am Tanaka, but I am not Japanese.”
The inference made from the first clause is that the speaker is Japanese because of the name. The
second clause, however, gives information that may seem contrary to the expectation of the listen-
er.
(2) Sentential and clausal conjunction けれども
Another conjunction, けれども, is very similar to が. For instance, the example sentences above with
が can be rephrased using けれども as follows without changing the meaning.
私は日本人ですけれども、スミスさんはアメリカ人です。
私は田中ですけれども、（私は）日本人じゃありません。
けれども can also function like でも, because it can join two separate sentences. Each of the example
sentences above may be changed to two separate sentences joined by けれども; the meaning, how-
ever, is the same.
私は日本人です。けれども、スミスさんはアメリカ人です。
私は田中です。けれども、（私は）日本人じゃありません。
More casual forms of けれども delete certain syllables: they are けれど, けど, and (less frequently) け
ども. The fewer the number of syllables this conjunction has, the less formal it sounds.
 Summary of でも, が, and けれども
These conjunctions have the following structural differences:
でも： must be used between two separate sentences
が： must be used between two separate clauses
けれども： may be used between two separate sentences or between two clauses
There are also some differences in formality among the three conjunctions:
が is more formal than けれども. Likewise, けれども is more formal than でも, especially when all four
syllables are used. When the number of syllables of けれども is reduced, as in けど, it is less formal
than でも.
6: Adverbs with Negative Predicates

Adverbs give a sense of the degree of the description or the degree of the negation that the speak-
er wishes to convey to the addressee in the predicate.
In Japanese, a speaker must in some cases use different adverbs for positive and negative sen-
tences. Some adverbs are therefore used only with negative predicates. The use of adverbs is par-
ticularly important in negative predicates, as they communicate the degree of negation the speaker
wishes to convey. That is, adverbs can soften or strengthen the negation.
 あまり
Compare the following two responses. とても is used with a positive response while あまり is used
with a negative one.
せんせいせんせい
あの先生はいい先生ですか。
“Is that teacher a good teacher?”
せんせい
とてもいい先生です。
“She is a very good teacher.”
せんせい
あまりいい先生では（or じゃ）ありません。
“She is not a very good teacher.”
There are cases in which あまり is used with positive predicates, but the meaning is quite different
from the one presented above. For more details on this usage, see Stage 3–5.
 そんなに
This adverb, which is used with a negative predicate, corrects the degree to which a description is
assumed or presented to be true. For example, suppose someone made the following comment:
たなかほんとうがくせい
田中さんは本当にいい学生ですねえ。
“Tanaka-san is really a good student, isn’t she?”
If the speaker does not agree with the degree of the quality attributed to the student, he or she can
negate this assumption by using そんなに.
田中さんはそんなにいい学生じゃありません。
“Tanaka-san is not that good.” [or “not as good as you believe”]
そんなに therefore refers back to some previously mentioned, or simply assumed, evaluation. This
assumption may be made by the addressee as well as by the speaker. あまり does not imply such ref-
erence.
 全然（ぜんぜん）
The adverb 全然（ぜんぜん） negates the description in the predicate completely.
にほんさむ
日本は寒いですか。
“Is it cold in Japan?”
ぜんぜんさむ
全然、寒くありません。
“It is not cold at all.”
(1) Backchanneling
せんせいたちにねんせいさんねんせい

先生：あなた達は二年生ですか、三年生ですか。
がくせいたちにねんせいさんねんせいいちねんせい
学生達：二年生でも三年生でもありません。一年生ですよ。
せんせいいちねんせい
先生：一年生ですか。
Teacher: Are you sophomores or juniors?
Students: Neither. Actually, we’re freshmen.
Teacher: You’re freshmen, are you?

 一年生（いちねんせい）ですか
It is known that the Japanese use voicing for acknowledgement much more frequently than the
speakers of Western languages. Expressions such as 一年生（いちねんせい）ですか in the exchange
above may be translated as “oh, I see” rather than retaining their literal meaning (in this case, “are
you a freshman?”). The function of this kind of repeated sentence is to give the addressee an
acknowledgement that one is listening; very similar expressions to “oh?” “I see,” or “uh-huh” in
English. This communication device is called backchanneling.
(2) Location or name?
きむやまだだいがく
キム：山田さんの大学はどこですか。
やまだきょうとだいがく
山田：京都の大学です。
Kim: Which university do you go to?
Yamada: I go to a university in Kyoto.
 The meaning of どこ
どこ should not always be translated as “where.” It is sometimes used differently from the English
where. In the following situation, what is being asked about is either the name of the school or
country, or the specific location of a university if the speaker chooses not to give the name. In
either case, the speaker will not explain where the location of the school is for this question:
やまだだいがく
山田さんの大学はどこですか。
“Where is your university [i.e., what is the name of your university], Yamada-san?”
だいがく
[name] 大学です。
“It is [name] University.”
(3) Changing the topic or making a conclusion
たなかなん
田中：それは何ですか。
りいぼく
リー：かばんです。でも、僕のじゃありません。
たなか
田中：じゃ、これは？
りいぼく
リー：ああ、それは僕のです。
Tanaka: What is that?
Lee: It’s a backpack. But it’s not mine.
Tanaka: How about this one, then?
Lee: Oh, that one’s mine.
 じゃ
To change the topic or make a conclusive statement, a speaker may use じゃ ( or では in a more for-
mal situation). In the exchange above, this can be seen in Tanaka-san’s question, じゃ、これは？
(4) Repeating the question before answering
きむすみすせんこうなん
キム：スミスさんの専攻は何ですか。
すみすせんこうにほんご
スミス：専攻ですか。日本語です。
Kim: What is your major, Smith-san?
Smith: My major? It’s Japanese.
 専攻（せんこう）ですか
As the 専攻（せんこう）ですか in the above exchange shows, Japanese people tend to repeat a word,
a phrase, or sometimes even an entire sentence from the question that was asked before giving a
response. This is not rude; it is just a way to confirm that the speaker is responding to the right
question. It also provides an extra moment to think about the response to the question.
Stage 1-3 Aspects of Predicates
Structures
1. Four Aspects
(1) Tense and aspect
(2) Positive and negative imperfectives
(3) Aspects of nominal predicates
(4) Aspects of adjectival predicates
(5) Aspects of verbal predicates
2. Other Aspects
(1) Continuous aspect
(2) Volitional aspect
(3) Summary of aspectual forms
3. Conjunctions
(1) Sentential conjunctions その前に, その後で, and その時に
(2) Sentential conjunction だから
4. Joining Predicates with Conjunctive Forms
(1) Limitations of と
(2) First predicate as nominal predicate
(3) First predicate as adjectival predicate
(4) First predicate as verbal predicate
5. Particles
(1) Thematic について
(2) Accompaniment と
(3) Instrumental で
6. Topic and Contrastive は
(1) Topicalizing an element
(2) Contrastive は
(1) Confirming with ね
(2) Indirectness in conversation
(3) Confirming with か
(4) Confirming with ねえ
(5) Avoiding bluntness
Structures
1: Four Aspects
(1) Tense and aspect
Different languages express tense, i.e., time (such as past, present, or future), differently. In
English, tense is expressed by the use of the past and present forms of verbs (as in “talk” and
“talked”). The concept of future is expressed in English with auxiliary verbs such as “will,” “shall,”
and be-verbs (e.g., “I will (or shall) go to school tomorrow,” or “I am going to school tomorrow.”).
The tense of adjectives and nouns are also expressed via the present and past forms of be-verbs in
English (e.g., “It is interesting.” “I was a teacher before.”).
In Japanese, the forms of the predicate indicate aspect rather than tense. Rather than referring to
the time of an action or event, aspect refers to such things as whether an action or event is com-
pleted, continuous, etc.
Time in Japanese is expressed and interpreted by way of the use of an aspectual form of the pred-
icate together with other elements such as a time adverb and/or context.
In Japanese, all predicates have two aspectual forms: imperfective and perfective.1 Both imperfec-
tive and perfective forms of predicates have positive and negative forms as well. The following
chart shows the four basic aspectual forms of verbs, adjectives, and the copula.
Positive imperfective Positive perfective
Negative imperfective Negative perfective
The imperfective form is used to express (1) an action that is not completed (for action verbs), or
(2) the current state (for non-action predicates).
The perfective form is used for (1) an action that is or has been completed (for action verbs), or (2)
the past state (for non-action predicates).
Other aspects besides these four basic ones also exist. Some of them will be introduced later in this
chapter.
1The terms imperfective and perfective are adopted from Japanese: The Spoken Japanese by Eleanor Harz
Jorden (1987). Yale University Press: New Haven, CT.
(2) Positive and negative imperfectives
Positive and negative imperfective aspects have been used from the first chapter; the following
summary explains the different meanings these forms convey. The meaning differs depending on
the nature of the predicate.
 Action verbs
The imperfective form of an action verb indicates that the action has not been completed.
Therefore, this form can be used for future action, as in the sentence “I will read a book tonight.”
It is also used to express habitual action with no specific time reference, as in “I usually read a
book before I go to bed.” The difference between future and habitual actions is indicated by the use
of certain time adverbs or by the context.
わたしあしたほんよ
私は明日、本を読みます。
[future reading] “I will read a book tomorrow.”
わたしまいにちほんよ
私は毎日、本を読みます。
[habitual reading] “I read books every day.”
The imperfective positive form does not indicate ongoing action that is currently taking place: “I’m
reading a book now.” The way to express this continuous aspect of a verb will be introduced shortly.
Just as the positive imperfective forms express future as well as habitual aspects, the use of nega-
tive imperfective forms also indicates negation of either habitual or future actions. Here, too, the
key to distinguishing the habitual from the future sense is the use of time adverbs or context.
わたしあしたほんよ
私は明日、本を読みません。
[future reading] “I will not read a book tomorrow.”
わたしまいにちほんよ
私は毎日、本を読みません。
[habitual reading] “I don’t read books every day.”
 Non-action predicates
Nominal, adjectival, and some verbal predicates do not refer to actions. For these predicates, the
imperfective forms indicate the current state rather than future or habitual.
ぼくいちねんせいぼくいちねんせい
僕は一年生です。僕は一年生じゃありません。
“I am a freshman.” “I am not a freshman.”
きょうさむきょうさむ
今日は寒いです。今日は寒くありません。
“It is cold today.” “It is not cold today.”
にほんごはなにほんごはな
スミスさんは日本語が話せます。スミスさんは日本語が話せません。
“Smith-san can speak Japanese.” “Smith-san cannot speak Japanese.”
(3) Aspects of nominal predicates
Imperfectives, both positive and negative, have already been discussed above. The following expla-
nation focuses on the perfective, both positive and negative, of nominal predicates.
 Positive perfective forms
Aspects of the nominal predicate are expressed by the forms of the copula. The polite positive per-
fective form of the copula is:
です → でした
わたしがくせいわたしがくせい
私は学生です。私は学生でした。
“I’m a student.” “I was a student.”
 Negative perfective forms
The following rule applies to all predicate types for the negative perfective forms:
Add でした to the negative imperfective predicate
Change the predicate to the negative imperfective form first, and then add でした.
わたしいちねんせい
私は一年生では（じゃ）ありませんでした。
“I wasn’t a freshman.”
(4) Aspects of adjectival predicates
Imperfectives, both positive and negative, have been addressed above. The following discussion
focuses on the perfective, both positive and negative, of adjectival predicates.
As in negation (see Stage 1–1), it is the final ~い of an adjective that changes when forming the pos-
itive perfective.
~い → ~かった and add です
Because the adjective in an adjectival predicate has its own perfective form with which to express
the perfective aspect, it does not need the help of the copula です to express that aspect. です there-
fore remains です, and functions as the marker for the polite form.
おおおお
大きいです。大きかったです。
“[topic] is big.” “[topic] was big.”
いいです。よかったです。
“[topic] is good.” “[topic] was good.”

As mentioned earlier, the following rule applies to all predicate types for the negative perfective
forms:
Change the predicate to the negative imperfective form first, and then add でした.
きのうさむ
昨日は寒くありませんでした。
“It wasn’t cold yesterday.”
(5) Aspects of verbal predicates
Positive and negative imperfectives have already been addressed above. The following discussion
focuses on the perfective, both positive and negative, of verbal predicates.
The positive perfective form is derived by changing the final ~ます of a verb into ~ました, as in the
following (the verb in the first example is an action verb, while the verb in the second is a non-
action verb):
~ます → ~ました
きのうにほんごべんきょう
昨日、私は日本語を勉強しました。
“I studied Japanese yesterday.”
にほんごはな
日本語が話せました。
“I used to be able to speak Japanese.”
As mentioned above, the following rule applies to all predicate types for the negative perfective
forms:
Change the predicate into the negative imperfective form first, and then add でした.
きのうべんきょう
昨日、勉強しませんでした。
“I didn’t study yesterday.”
にほんごはな
日本語が話せませんでした。
“I wasn’t able to speak Japanese.”
s 2: Other Aspects
(1) Continuous aspect
Recall that the following sentence has only future or habitual meanings; it does not have a contin-
uous aspect indicating “I am reading a book now.”
ぼくほんよ
僕は本を読みます。
“I will read a book.” or “I normally read a book.”
The continuous aspect of action verbs is constructed by combining what is called the conjunctive
form of a verb and another verb, います (see Stages 1–9 and 2–1 for more detailed explanation). The
conjunctive form of the verb 読（よ）みます is 読（よ）んで. In meaning, this construction conveys any
continuous aspect of action verbs. Different meanings of the continuous aspect will be dealt with
in detail in Stage 2–1. For now, simply note that each of the following examples has two different
meanings.
ぼくほんよ
僕は本を読んでいます。
“I am reading a book (now).” or “I have been reading a book.”
Aspectual changes such as negation of the above structure are reflected by the final verb います.
ぼくほんよ
僕は本を読んでいません。
“I’m not reading a book now.” or “I have not been reading a book.”
ぼくほんよ
僕は本を読んでいました。
“I was reading a book then.” or “I had been reading a book.”
ぼくほんよ
僕は本を読んでいませんでした。
“I wasn’t reading a book then.” or “I had not been reading a book.”
 Conjunctive forms of predicates
The conjunctive forms such as 読（よ）んで for the verb “to read” are derived from the base forms
(forms on which all derived forms are based). The conjunctive forms have many different uses;
their meaning depends on the combination of the conjunctive form with additional elements. For
instance, the continuous aspect is formed by combining the conjunctive form and the verb います.
Other meanings are obtained by adding different elements to the conjunctive forms.
While the rules for deriving the conjunctive forms from the base forms of the nominal and adjec-
tival predicates are simple (they will be introduced later in this chapter), the rules for deriving the
conjunctive forms of verbs are quite complex. Rather than introducing them piecemeal, it will be
more efficient to present all the rules for deriving the conjunctive forms of verbs at once. The com-
plete rules will be formally and comprehensively introduced in Stages 1–9 and 2–1 (interested
learners may read about them, but it is not mandatory at this point). That being the case, for the
time being students should learn the conjunctive forms of verbs provided in the new vocabulary
lists in the Workbook. Partial rules governing some verbs are given in the section of the Workbook
that corresponds to this chapter. Since conjunctive forms of all predicates are used very frequent-
ly in Japanese, it is worth using them before learning the complete rules.
(2) Volitional aspect
 The volitional forms of verbs

The volitional form of a verb is used when the speaker wants to suggest some action to the
addressee(s) that would include the speaker himself or herself, as in “Let’s do such-and-such.” The
following is the rule for changing a verb into the volitional form:
~ます → ~ましょう
い
行きましょう。
“Let’s go.”
When the question particle か is used, the speaker asks if the addressee as well as the speaker
would like to act together in some way.
い
行きましょうか。
“Shall we go?”
Certain verbs, such as non-action verbs, cannot be used to mean “let’s do such-and-such,” but
every verb has a volitional form because the volitional forms are used in other constructions for
different meanings.
 The volitional form of the copula
The volitional form of the copula is the following:
です → でしょう
The volitional form of the copula may be used with all predicate types: nominal, adjectival, and ver-
bal predicates. The copula です is used when the speaker is certain about the content of a sentence.
When the speaker is not absolutely certain, but fairly sure, about the content expressed in the pred-
icate, then the volitional でしょう is used. The adverb 多分（たぶん） “perhaps, probably” is often used
in a sentence with でしょう, although it is not an obligatory element.
ひとがくせい
あの人は学生でしょう。[nominal predicate]
“That person is probably a student.”
たぶんたか
多分このかばんは高いでしょう。[adjectival predicate]
“This backpack is probably expensive.”
For verbal predicates, the plain form of the verb must be used before でしょう. The use of the plain
forms will be explained after the entire set of plain forms is introduced in Stage 1–8. For now, use
the dictionary form of a verb (the difference between the plain forms and the dictionary forms will
be explained in Stage 1–8.).
A similar requirement can be observed when constructing a response to a why-question with ~か

らです. As detailed in Stages 1–9 and 2–3, the plain form (for now, the dictionary form) should be
used before ~からです for this construction. This is because the polite form is normally not used if
the predicate is placed in the non-final position in a sentence.
にほんごわ
スミスさんは日本語が分かるでしょう。[verbal predicates]
“Smith-san probably understands Japanese.”
(3) A summary of aspectual forms
Aspect Examples Meaning

いちねんせい
Imperfective Positive 一年生です。 I’m a freshman.
Negative 一年生では（じゃ）ありません。 I’m not a freshman.
Perfective Positive 一年生でした。 I was a freshman.
Negative 一年生では（じゃ）ありませんでした。 I wasn’t a freshman.
Volitional Positive 一年生でしょう。 [Someone else] is

probably a freshman.

きょうさむ
Imperfective Positive 今日は寒いです。 It is cold today.
Negative 今日は寒くありません。 It is not cold today.
Perfective Positive 今日は寒かったです。 It was cold today.
Negative 今日は寒くありませんでした。 It was not cold today.
Volitional Positive 今日は寒いでしょう。 It is probably cold today.

 Verbal predicates (non-action verbs)

にほんごはな
Imperfective Positive 日本語が話せます。 I can speak Japanese.
Negative 日本語が話せません。 I can’t speak Japanese.
Perfective Positive 日本語が話せました。 I could speak Japanese.
Negative 日本語が話せませんでした。 I couldn’t speak Japanese.
Volitional Positive 日本語が話せるでしょう。 [Someone] can probably

speak Japanese.
 Verbal predicates (action verbs)

にほんごべんきょう
Imperfective Positive 日本語を勉強します。 I (will) study Japanese.
Negative 日本語を勉強しません。 I don’t (won’t) study

Japanese.
Perfective Positive 日本語を勉強しました。 I studied Japanese.
Negative 日本語を勉強しませんでした。 I didn’t study, Japanese.
Volitional Positive 日本語を勉強しましょう。 Let’s study Japanese.
Continuous Positive 日本語を勉強しています。 I’m (have been)

Imperfective studying Japanese.
Negative 日本語を勉強していません。 I’m not (have not
Imperfective been) studying
Japanese.
Positive 日本語を勉強していました。 I was (had been)

Perfective studying Japanese.
Negative 日本語を勉強していませんでした。 I wasn’t (had not been)

Perfective studying Japanese.
s 3: Conjunctions
(1) Sentential conjunctions その前（まえ）に, その後（あと）で, and その時（とき）に
When nouns such as 前（まえ） “before,” 後（あと） “after,” and 時（とき） “time,” are used with the
demonstrative その, they function as sentential conjunctions (i.e., conjunctions that connect two
sentences). With each conjunction, a different particle, preferred but optional, is used.
きょねんにほんいまえにほんごべんきょう
私は去年、日本に行きました。その前（に）、日本語を勉強しました。
“I went to Japan last year. Before that, I studied Japanese.”
えいがみあとた
映画を見ました。その後（で）、ハンバーグを食べました。
“I watched a movie. After that, I ate a hamburger.”
きょねんにほんいときにほんごべんきょう
去年、日本に行きました。その時（に）、日本語を勉強しました。
“I went to Japan last year. At that time, I studied Japanese.”
 Noun with 前（まえ）, 後（あと）, and 時（とき）
Instead of using the demonstrative pronoun その, as in the above examples, a noun may also be
used, as shown in the examples below. 朝ご飯（あさごはん） in the examples means “breakfast.”
あさはんまえべんきょう
朝ご飯の前（に）、勉強しました。
“Before breakfast, I studied.”
あさはんあとべんきょう
朝ご飯の後（で）、勉強しました。
“After breakfast, I studied.”
あさはんときべんきょう
朝ご飯の時（に）、勉強しました。
“During breakfast, I studied.”
(2) Sentential conjunction だから
だから is used at the beginning of a second sentence to indicate a consequence that follows from
the first sentence. The first sentence shows the reason for the consequence expressed in the sec-
ond sentence.
わたしにほんごわえいごはな
私は日本語が分かりませんでした。だから、英語を話しました。
“I didn’t understand Japanese, so I spoke English.”
s 4: Joining Predicates with Conjunctive Forms
(1) Limitations of と
As discussed in Stage 1–1, the conjunction と joins only nouns and noun phrases, but may not be
used to join predicates or sentences. In the following example, the intent is to join a predicate, ス
ミスさんです and another predicate 一年生（いちねんせい）です. と may not be used here because two
predicates are joined, rather than two nouns.
いちねんせい
*こちらはスミスさんと一年生です。
[intended meaning] “This is Smith-san, and he is a freshman.”
Compare the above sentence with the sentence below. The reason と is acceptable in the following
sentence is that the two nouns are joined in one predicate.
せんせいたなかせんせいやまだせんせい
先生は田中先生と山田先生です。
“The teachers are Tanaka-sensei and Yamada-sensei.”
In the following two examples, which involve other predicate types (adjectival and verbal predi-
cates), と is used incorrectly in attempting to join the two predicates.
にほんごじゅぎょうむずかおもしろ
*日本語の授業は難しいと面白いです。
[intended meaning] “My Japanese class is difficult and interesting.”
*私は勉強しますと運動します。
[intended meaning] “I will study and exercise.”
The correct way to join such predicates is to use the conjunctive form in the first predicate. This
will be explained below.
(2) First predicate as nominal predicate
The conjunctive form of the copula is で. Use で to join a nominal predicate to another predicate:
ぼくにほんごがくせい
僕はスミスで、日本語の学生です。
“I’m Smith, and I’m a student of Japanese.”
This is also true with a nominal predicate that consists of an adjectival noun and the copula.
げんき
ブラウンさんは元気で、きれいです。
“Brown-san is cheerful and pretty.”
(3) First predicate as adjectival predicate
The conjunctive form of an adjective is obtained by changing the final ~い to ~くて, as in the fol-
lowing:
おおおお
大きい→大きくて
いい→よい→よくて
In the following example, the conjunctive form is used for the first adjectival predicate.
ちゅうごくおおとお
中国は大きくて、遠いです。
“China is large. It’s also far away.”
にほんごじゅぎょうたの
日本語の授業はよくて、楽しいです。
“My Japanese class is good as well as fun.”
(4) First predicate as verbal predicate
 Action verbs
The conjunctive form of the verb します is して. See the following example.
私は勉強して、運動します。
“I will study and then exercise.”
When two action verbs are joined by the conjunctive form, the order of the actions is expressed by
the order of their presentation. That is, in interpreting the sentence, the listener understands that
the action expressed first will be completed before the action expressed second.
The time of action is expressed only by the final predicate. In the following example, both actions,
studying and exercising, are completed, but the completion of the first action is indicated by the
perfective form of the last predicate. The conjunctive form does not change to reflect aspect.
私は勉強して、運動しました。
“I studied and then exercised.”
 Non-action verbs
In sentences with non-action verbs, the meaning is not affected by the order of the predicates.
ひとえいごはなかんじよ
あの人は英語も話せて、漢字も読めます。
“That person can speak English as well as read kanji.”
Since the sentence order does not assume an order of events, it is possible to reverse the order of
the above sentence without changing the meaning:
ひとかんじよえいごはな
あの人は漢字も読めて、英語も話せます。
“That person can read kanji as well as speak English.”
 When the topics are different
When the topics of the two predicates to be joined are different, the order of the predicates does
not imply the order of the actions, even if action verbs are used.
きのうぼくべんきょうやまだうんどう
昨日、僕は勉強して、山田さんは運動しました。
“I studied yesterday, but Yamada-san exercised.”
In the examples thus far, only two predicates are joined. In a real situation, any number of predi-
cates may be joined. In this case, all except the final predicate are joined by using the conjunctive
form.
When two or more different predicates are joined into one sentence, use the conjunctive form of
each predicate except the final one.
りょうへやちい
寮の部屋はきれいで、小さいです。
“The dorm room is clean and small.”
s 5: Particles
(1) Thematic について
The structure of について consists of the particle に and the conjunctive form of a certain verb.
However, over time this combination has come to be used as a single particle indicating that the
preceding noun is the theme of speaking, reading, writing, and so forth.
あしたにほんはな
私は明日、日本について話します。
“I will talk about Japan tomorrow.”
(2) Accompaniment と
と used as a particle indicates accompaniment.

わたしえいがい
私はスミスさんと映画に行きます。
“I will go to a movie with Smith-san.”
きのうぼくたなかせんせいはな
昨日、（僕は）田中先生と話しました。
“I talked with Tanaka-sensei yesterday.”
(3) Instrumental で
The particle で gives the instrumental function to the preceding noun, which means that the noun
preceding the particle refers to the means by which the event described in the verb is accomplished
or carried out. In the following examples, はし “chopsticks” and バス “bus” are referred to as instru-
ments (or means) for eating or going.
にほんじんた
日本人ははしで食べます。
“Japanese people eat with [ = using] chopsticks.”
ぼくがっこうい
（僕は）学校にいつもバスで行きます。
“I always go to school by [ = riding] bus.”
When the means refers to an action, as in “by walking,” the conjunctive form of a verb is used. The
base form of the verb “to walk” is 歩（ある）く; its conjunctive form, 歩（ある）いて, is used as follows
to mean “by walking”:
わたしがっこうあるい
私は学校にいつも歩いて行きます。
“I always go to school on foot.”
 The place particle で marking the place of action
で is used with a place noun to indicate that the action of the verb in the sentence occurs in that
place. で here is also instrumental, expressing the use of a place for the action.
しんぶんとしょかんよ
チャンさんは新聞を図書館で読みます。
“Chang-san will read the newspaper at the library.”
Compare this with the directional particle に:

としょかんい
チャンさんは図書館に行きます。
“Chang-san will go to the library.”
s 6: Topic and Contrastive は
(1) Topicalizing an element
In Japanese, the speaker can make any element the topic of a sentence by bringing it to the sen-
tence-initial position and marking it with は. This process is called topicalization.
らいねんにほんごべんきょう
来年もスミスさんは日本語を勉強しますか。
“Smith-san, will you study Japanese next year as well?”
にほんごべんきょうちゅうごくごべんきょう

日本語は勉強しませんが、中国語を勉強します。
“[As for Japanese,] I will not study it, but I will study Chinese.”
In the question sentence above, を is used because 日本語（にほんご） is the object of the verb 勉強
（べんきょう）します. In answering the question, the speaker wants to make a comment concerning
the object 日本語（にほんご）, and therefore moves it from the object to the topic position. The
speaker also wants to add a new piece of information that he or she will study Chinese rather than
Japanese. Offering additional information is not necessary, but many speakers do so in order to
give the reason for making a negative response.
This topicalization phenomenon happens often when a question is answered in the negative,
because the speaker feels the need to highlight the element that he or she negated (which is done
by using は) and to offer further explanation regarding the negative response.
(2) Contrastive は
は also has another function: that is, the contrastive function. The topic can be inherently con-
trastive. Since the speaker has chosen one element as the focus of his or her comments, that topic
is implicitly or explicitly contrasted with some other elements. In the following example, the two
topics are contrasted.
わたしほん
これは私の本ですが、あれはリーさんのです。
“This book is mine, but that one is Li-san’s.”
In the following examples, the objects 本（ほん） and 新聞（しんぶん）, which are contrasted, are
marked by は even though they are not the topics of the clauses.
わたしほんよしんぶんよ
私は、本は読みますが、新聞は読みません。
“I will read a book, but not a newspaper.”
The meanings of “topic” and “contrast” overlap, and they may in fact be the same thing when
arguing academically. But for learning purposes, topic and contrast in this textbook are defined as
follows: when two or more noun phrases are marked by は in a sentence, the first noun (or noun
phrase) marked by は is usually the topic of the sentence; any subsequent ones are contrastive ele-
ments.
With the exception of particles that are conjunctive in nature such as の, and overriding particles,
the same particle may not be used for the same function more than once in a clause or a sentence.
Because it is common for a single particle to have multiple functions, as long as the function of
the particle is different each time it is used, the same particle may be used multiple times in a sen-
tence.
は, used contrastively and for topicalization, is an overriding particle. Generally speaking, overrid-
ing particles replace the particles が and を, and are used together with other particles. In the fol-
lowing example, the particle に is used with the contrastive は:
きょうにほんごじゅぎょうい
今日は、日本語の授業には行きません。
“I will not go to Japanese class today.”
In some cases, the counterpart of the contrasted element may not be overtly articulated. In the
example above, the place where the speaker doesn’t intend to go to is contrasted with another
(implied) place where he or she may go; the speaker will not go to Japanese class, but she or he
may go elsewhere.
(1) Confirming with ね
にねんせい
スミス：キムさんは二年生ですね。
キム：ええ、そうです。
Smith: Kim-san, you’re a sophomore, right?
Kim: Yes, I am.
 Sentence-final particle ね
See Stage 1–1 (Conversational Devices) for a review of ねえ with a lengthened vowel. The use of ね
with a short vowel indicates that the speaker is confirming his or her understanding of a situation
with the addressee.
(2) Indirectness in conversation
にねんせい
スミス：キムさんは二年生ですね。
ぼくさんねんせい
キム：いえ、僕は三年生ですが・・・。
Smith: Kim-san, you’re a sophomore, right?
Kim: No, I’m a junior, but . . . [why do you ask?]
 Incomplete sentences in conversation

The conjunction が at the end of the second sentence in the example above indicates that the sen-
tence is not quite finished, but the speaker has decided not to continue. This kind of unfinished
sentence marked by が happens quite often in conversation in Japanese. Though it sounds very
vague, sometimes not finishing a sentence is more polite than saying everything.
(3) Confirming with か
 Example 1:
やまだにほんごむずか
山田：日本語は難しくありませんか。
むずか
ブラウン：ええ。難しいです。
Yamada: Isn’t Japanese hard for you?
Brown: You’re right. It is difficult.
 Example 2:
やまだにほんごむずか
山田：日本語は難しくありませんか。
ブラウン：いいえ。やさしいです。
Yamada: Isn’t Japanese hard for you?
Brown: I don’t think so. It’s easy.
 Negative questions with か

A question is often asked with a negative predicate when the speaker is fairly certain about some-
thing but not 100 percent certain.
ほんたか
この本は高くありませんか。
“This book is expensive, isn’t it?” [ = It must be very expensive.]
In this case, the addressee uses ええ to agree with the assumption that the book may be expensive.
The second sentence simply confirms it.
たか
ええ。高いです。
“You’re right [in assuming that it is expensive]. It is expensive.”
いいえ is used to show that the addressee’s assumption is somewhat different from the reality. So,
the actual fact is added after indicating that the addressee’s assumption is incorrect by the use of
いいえ.
たか
いいえ。高くありません。
“You are incorrect [in assuming that it is expensive]. It is not expensive.”
(4) Confirming with ねえ
にほんご
リー：日本語はやさしくありませんねえ。
ほんとう
ブラウン：ええ、本当にやさしくありませんねえ。
Lee: Japanese isn’t easy—don’t you think so?
Brown: You’re right—it’s not easy.
 Negative questions with ねえ

When the speaker is trying to convey his or her impression with a negative predicate and wants to
confirm that impression with the addressee, the sentence-final particle ねえ is often used in a ques-
tion, as follows:
ほんたか
この本は高くありませんねえ。
“This book is not expensive—don’t you agree?”
If the addressee agrees with the above impression, that is, “the book isn’t expensive,” he or she
would use ええ to indicate agreement.
たか
ええ。そんなに高くありませんねえ。
“You are right. It is not that expensive.”
If the addressee does not agree with the first speaker’s impression, he or she might say the fol-
lowing: See the following dialoge for the use of そうですか.
たか
そうですか。高いですよ。
“Really? (I don’t agree with your impression.) It is expensive.”
(5) Avoiding bluntness
にほんご
リー：日本語はやさしくありませんねえ。
むずか
ブラウン：そうですか。あんまり難しくありませんが・・・。
Lee: Japanese isn’t easy—don’t you think so?
Brown: Really? It’s not that difficult, but . . .
 そうですか
At times, giving a negative response with いいえ or いえ may be too blunt. In this case, it is possi-
ble to acknowledge the question by saying そうですか, which softens the bluntness of the response.
 あんまり
あんまり is a spoken form of あまり.
Stage 1-4 Numbers and Counters
Structures
1. Numbers
(1) Native Japanese and Sino-Japanese numbers
(2) Counting from 11 onward
2. Counters
(1) What are counters?
(2) Time
(3) Telephone numbers
(4) Money
(5) People
(6) Things generically
(7) Long things and bound things
(8) Flat things and pages
3. Using Numbers in Sentences
(1) Adverbial use
(2) Adjectival use
(3) Joining more than one number in a sentence
(4) The use of ずつ
(1) Getting someone’s attention
(2) Expressing surprise
(3) At a store
Structures
1: Numbers
(1) Native Japanese and Sino-Japanese numbers
For the numbers 1 through 10, there are two systems of counting. One is the native Japanese num-
ber system; the other, the Sino-Japanese number system, is borrowed from the Chinese.
Sino-Japanese Native Japanese
Kanji Kana Kanji Kana
1 一いち一つひとつ
2 二に二つふたつ
3 三さん三つみっつ
4 四し四つよっつ
5 五ご五ついつつ
6 六ろく六つむっつ
7 七しち七つななつ
8 八はち八つやっつ
9 九きゅう or く* 九つここのつ
10 十じゅう十とお
*The number 9 above has two different Sino-Japanese pronunciations.
When reciting a series of numbers from 1 to 10, the two systems may be mixed, giving よん for 4
and なな for 7, both words from the native Japanese. This kind of mix is fairly common. The fol-
lowing chart shows a common way to recite a set of numbers from 1 to 10.
1 いち 2 に
3 さん 4 し or よん
5 ご 6 ろく
7 しち or なな 8 はち
9 きゅう or く 10 じゅう
(2) Counting from 11 onward
From 11 on, only the Sino-Japanese system is used except in some isolated instances (particularly
with the pronunciations of 4 and 7, which are often based on the native Japanese numbers).
 From 11 to 19
11 十一じゅういち 12 十二じゅうに
13 十三じゅうさん 14 十四じゅうし or じゅうよん
15 十五じゅうご 16 十六じゅうろく
17 十七じゅうしち or じゅうなな 18 十八じゅうはち
19 十九じゅうきゅう or じゅうく 20 二十にじゅう
 From 20 to 90
20 二十にじゅう 30 三十さんじゅう
40 四十よんじゅう 50 五十ごじゅう
60 六十ろくじゅう 70 七十しちじゅう or ななじゅう
80 八十はちじゅう 90 九十きゅうじゅう or くじゅう*
*くじゅう for 90 is not very common.

 From 100 to 900

The hundred unit is pronounced ひゃく. The hiragana ひ has variations of び and ぴ that appear with
the numbers 3, 6, and 8. Notice the contraction (merging of two sounds) that occurs between the
numbers 6 and 8 and ひゃく. Also, the number “1” in 100 is neither pronounced nor written.
Kanji Kana Kanji Kana Kanji Kana
100 百ひゃく 200 二百にひゃく 300 三百さんびゃく
400 四百よんひゃく 500 五百ごひゃく 600 六百ろっぴゃく
700 七百ななひゃく 800 八百はっぴゃく 900 九百きゅうひゃく
 From 1,000 to 9,000

As is the case with 100, the “1” in 1,000 is normally neither pronounced nor written.
1,000 千せん 2,000 二千にせん 3,000 三千さんぜん
4,000 四千よんせん 5,000 五千ごせん 6,000 六千ろくせん
7,000 七千ななせん 8,000 八千はっせん 9,000 九千きゅうせん
 From 10,000 to 90,000

In English, units of a thousand and beyond are expressed in tens (such as “ten thousand”) and
hundreds (“a hundred thousand”) before moving to the next unit (e.g., millions). Japanese has one
more unit to express the decimal place after 1,000. That unit, 万（まん）, is indicated by four zeros.
Unlike the hundred and thousand units, the “1” indicating a single 万（まん） unit is pronounced.
For numbers beyond those introduced here, refer to the Supplementary Vocabulary section in
Workbook 1.
10,000 一万いちまん 20,000 二万にまん 30,000 三万さんまん
40,000 四万よんまん 50,000 五万ごまん 60,000 六万ろくまん
70,000 七万ななまん 80,000 八万はちまん 90,000 九万きゅうまん

s 2: Counters
(1) What are counters?
Counters are used in both English and Japanese, but the use of counters is more extensive in
Japanese than in English. For example, in English, if bread is sliced, the counter “slice” is used, as
in “one slice of bread, two slices of bread,” etc. If, on the other hand, bread is not cut, the counter
“loaf” is used, as in “one loaf of bread, two loaves of bread,” etc.
In Japanese, counters are expressed by suffixes used immediately following the numbers.
Counters are thus not independent words and cannot be used in isolation. Logically, all numbers
must be used with appropriate counters depending on what is being counted. Since the counters
are categorized by broad features such as shape or size, however, knowing a dozen or two will
enable the speaker to count most inanimate and animate things. The counter often determines the
pronunciation of the preceding number (especially 4, 7, and 9). Selected counters, not all of which
are introduced in the chapters of this textbook, are listed in Stage 4-5. This chapter introduces
some of the most commonly used counters.
(2) Time
 時（じ） for the specific hour

The following is a chart for the counter 時（じ）, which is used to indicate specific time.
1:00 一時いちじ 2:00 二時にじ 3:00 三時さんじ
4:00 四時よじ 5:00 五時ごじ 6:00 六時ろくじ
7:00 七時しちじ 8:00 八時はちじ 9:00 九時くじ
10:00 十時じゅうじ 11:00 十一時じゅういちじ 12:00 十二時じゅうにじ
? 何時なんじ
 分（ふん・ぷん） for minutes

Both specific minutes and the duration of minutes are expressed with the counter 分（ふん・ぷん）.
1 一分いっぷん 2 二分にふん
3 三分さんぷん 4 四分よんぷん（よんふん）
5 五分ごふん 6 六分ろっぷん
7 七分ななふん 8 八分はっぷん
9 九分きゅうふん 10 十分じゅっぷん
? 何分なんぷん
 Asking and telling time

The following is a typical sentence for asking the time. 今（いま） is a time adverb meaning “now.”
いまなんじ
今、何時ですか。
“What time is it now?”
いまにじ
今、二時です。
“It’s 2:00.”
The adverb ちょうど “exactly” is used to express the precise time.

いまじ
今、ちょうど二時です。
“It’s exactly 2:00.”
The following may be used to ask for the exact time including the minutes:
なんじなんぷん
今、何時何分ですか。
[literal translation] “What hour and minute is it now?”
In telling time, the hour should be mentioned first, followed by the minute.
いまさんじじゅうごふん
今、三時十五分です。
“It’s 3:15 now.”
Some people may add the word すぎ, which means “past,” after the minutes. But adding すぎ is
optional unless there is some uncertainty whether the time mentioned is “past” or “before.”
さんじじゅうごふん
三時十五分すぎです。
“It’s 15 minutes past 3:00.”
The term to indicate the half hour is 半（はん）. Japanese has no term to indicate a quarter hour, as
English does. When using 半（はん） “half,” the word すぎ “past” or the counter 分（ふん） may not
be added.
くじはん
九時半です。
“It’s nine-thirty.”
In Japanese, “a.m.” and “p.m.” must be used before the time rather than after. The terms for
“a.m.” and “p.m.” are 午前（ごぜん） (literally “before noon”) 午後（ごご） (“after noon”) respectively.
ごぜんさんじ
午前三時です。
“It’s three o’clock a.m.”
ごごはちじはん
午後八時半です。
“It’s eight-thirty p.m.”
To express an approximate time, 頃（ごろ） “approximately” is used after the time rather than before
the time.
ごぜんさんじごろ
午前三時頃です。
“It’s about 3:00 a.m.”
When the time is close to the next hour, 前（まえ）, which means “before,” can be used, as below:
じゅういちじじゅっぷんまえ
十一時十分前です。
“It’s 10 minutes before 11:00.”
 Specific time particle に
While no particle is needed for time adverbs such as 今日（きょう） and 明日（あした）, the adverbs that
indicate specific time—such as the hours and minutes on a clock or watch, or a date—must be
marked by the particle に. This specifies the time that the event occurs or occurred.
Compare the following sentences:

ぼくあしたべんきょう
僕は明日、勉強します。
ぼくさんじべんきょう
僕は三時に勉強します。
“I will study at 3:00.”
ぼくあしたさんじべんきょう
僕は明日、三時に勉強します。
“I will study tomorrow at 3:00.”
 Beginning point particle から and ending point particle まで

The particles から (which denotes the starting point) and まで (denoting the end point) are used for
both places and times, as shown in the following sentences:
わたしうちだいがくうんてん
私は家から大学まで運転します。
“I’ll drive from home to college.”
あしたわたしあさばんべんきょう
明日、私は朝から晩まで勉強します。
“Tomorrow I’ll study from morning until night.”
(3) Telephone numbers
The counter 番（ばん） is normally used for ordinal numbers. It is therefore used for such things as
ranking. This counter is also used to indicate telephone numbers.
1 一番いちばん 2 二番にばん
3 三番さんばん 4 四番よんばん
5 五番ごばん 6 六番ろくばん
7 七番なな（しち）ばん 8 八番はちばん
9 九番きゅうばん 10 十番じゅうばん
? 何番なんばん
Telephone numbers are normally read one number at a time in Japanese. For example, the four-
digit number 4982, if it were a telephone number, would probably not be read “four-thousand
nine-hundred and eighty-two.” Rather, it is read “four-nine-eight-two （よん・きゅう・はち・に）.”
Between the area code and the local number, as well as between the local number and the person-
al number, the particle の is inserted.
The term for “telephone” is 電話（でんわ） and the term for “number” is 番号（ばんごう）. Thus the
word for “telephone number” is 電話番号（でんわばんごう）.
でんわばんごうなんばん
あなたの電話番号は何番ですか。
“What’s your telephone number?”
An example of a telephone number in Tokyo, 東京（とうきょう） might be: 03-3334-1234 (03 being the
area code for Tokyo, 3334 the local code, and 1234 the personal number). For the number “zero,”
either れい（零） or the word ゼロ is used. The latter is used much more frequently in telephone
numbers. The Tokyo number above would be read as follows:
わたしでんわばんごうとうきょうばん
（私の電話番号は）東京03（ゼロ・さん）の 3334（さん・さん・さん・よん）の 1234（いち・に・さん・よん）番で
す。
“My phone number is Tokyo 03-3334-1234.”
When mentioning a phone number, some people may not use the counter 番（ばん）; this is per-
fectly acceptable. Likewise, before the area code, there is no need to always mention the name of
the area (here, 東京（とうきょう）).
(4) Money
The counter for Japanese currency is 円（えん）. There are too many currencies to represent here,
but “dollars,” ドル, and “cents,” セント in addition to “yen” 円（えん）, are illustrated below.
1 一円いちえん一ドルいちドル一セントいっセント
2 二円にえん二ドルにドル二セントにセント
3 三円さんえん三ドルさんドル三セントさんセント
4 四円よ（ん）えん四ドルよんドル四セントよんセント
5 五円ごえん五ドルごドル五セントごセント
6 六円ろくえん六ドルろくドル六セントろくセント
7 七円ななえん七ドルななドル七セントななセント
8 八円はちえん八ドルはちドル八セントはっセント
9 九円きゅうえん九ドルきゅうドル九セントきゅうセント
10 十円じゅうえん十ドルじゅうドル十セントじゅっセント
? 何円なんえん何ドルなんドル何セントなんセント

 The interrogative pronoun いくら

いくら is the interrogative pronoun used to ask the price of something.
ほんさんぜんえん
この本はいくらですか。三千円です。
“How much is this book?” “It’s 3,000 yen.”
When asking for a specific amount of currency, for instance for exchange purposes, 何円（なんえ
ん） “how much in yen,” 何ドル “how many dollars,” or 何セント “how many cents” are used.
いまなんえん
今、一ドルは何円ですか。
“How many yen to the dollar right now?”
 ぐらい for approximation
The word ぐらい (some people may pronounce it くらい; however, they are not always interchange-
able) indicates that the number given is approximate. It should be used after the number rather
than before it.
ほんにせんえん
あの本は二千円ぐらいです。
“That book is about two thousand yen.”
ぐらい is a functional noun (a noun that has certain functions in sentences but is not normally used
in isolation) that means degree. ぐらい in the following response illustrates this function.
ほんにせんえん
あの本は二千円ぐらいでしょうか。
“Is that book about two thousand yen?”
ほん
ええ、（あの本は）そのぐらいです。
“Yes, it’s around that price.”
 The difference between ごろ and ぐらい
Both 頃（ごろ） and ぐらい are translated as “approximately” or “about.” The difference is that 頃（ご
ろ） is an approximation of a point of time, whereas ぐらい is an approximation of the duration of
time or of the amount of something.
えきさんじごろつ
駅には三時頃に着きます。
“We will arrive at the station about 3 o’clock.”
のものさん
この飲み物は三ドルぐらいです。
“This drink costs about 3 dollars.”
(5) People
When counting one person or two people, the native Japanese numbers are used. In those cases
the counter 人 is pronounced り. When counting three or more people, however, the number is
based on the Sino-Japanese numbers, and the counter 人 is pronounced にん.
1 一人ひとり 2 二人ふたり
3 三人さんにん 4 四人よにん
5 五人ごにん 6 六人ろくにん
7 七人なな（しち）にん 8 八人はちにん
9 九人きゅう（く）にん 10 十人じゅうにん
? 何人なんにん
(6) Things generically
The numbers 1 to 9 of the native Japanese number system contain the ending ~つ, which can be
considered a counter as well. The native Japanese numbers can be used to count things like pieces
of furniture, or fruit, vegetables, etc. that are more or less round. In general, things that do not
have specific identifiable shapes or sizes can be counted with the native numbers (there are plen-
ty of cases to which this statement may not apply, however). In this case, when counting beyond 9,
use the numbers with no specific counter. The way counters are used in a sentence will be
explained in the next section of this chapter.
きのうとおか
昨日、りんごを十、買いました。
“I bought 10 apples yesterday.”
This counter is also used for counting abstract things, as in “there are two readings for this kanji,”
or “there are three meanings of this word.”
らいしゅうあたらかんじにじゅうべんきょう
来週、新しい漢字を二十、勉強します。
“We will study 20 new kanji next week.”
(7) Long things and bound things
 本（ほん） for long objects

Although the kanji 本（ほん） can mean “book,” when this kanji is used as a counter, it is not used
to count books. Rather it is the counter for long objects such as pencils, pens, bottles, trees, flow-
ers, etc.
1 一本いっぽん 2 二本にほん 3 三本さんぼん
4 四本よんほん 5 五本ごほん 6 六本ろっぽん
7 七本ななほん 8 八本はっぽん 9 九本きゅうほん
10 十本じゅっぽん ? 何本なんぼん
 冊（さつ） for bound objects

The counter for bound objects such as books, magazines, dictionaries, etc. —not newspapers,
since they are not bound—is 冊（さつ）.
1 一冊いっさつ 2 二冊にさつ 3 三冊さんさつ
4 四冊よんさつ 5 五冊ごさつ 6 六冊ろくさつ
7 七冊ななさつ 8 八冊はっさつ 9 九冊きゅうさつ
10 十冊じゅっさつ ? 何冊なんさつ
(8) Flat things and pages
 枚（まい） for flat things

The counter 枚（まい） is used to count flat objects (paper, shirts, sweaters, CDs, DVDs, disks,
pieces of toast, plates, etc.). Envelopes may be counted with 枚（まい） if nothing is enclosed, as may
pieces of writing paper or stationary; however, this counter may not be used for envelopes in which
letters are enclosed. See Stage 4–5 for the proper counter for letters.
1 一枚いちまい 2 二枚にまい 3 三枚さんまい
4 四枚よんまい 5 五枚ごまい 6 六枚ろくまい
7 七枚ななまい 8 八枚はちまい 9 九枚きゅうまい
10 十枚じゅうまい ? 何枚なんまい
 ページ for the specific page number and the number of pages
The counter 枚（まい） introduced above is not used to count the pages of books, magazines, etc.
The counter for pages is ページ（the kanji 頁, pronounced ページ, may be used for this counter）.
1 一ページいっページ 2 二ページにページ
3 三ページさんページ 4 四ページよんページ
5 五ページごページ 6 六ページろくページ
7 七ページななページ 8 八ページはち（はっ）ページ
9 九ページきゅうページ 10 十ページじゅっページ
? 何ページなんページ
s 3: Using Numbers in Sentences
(1) Adverbial use
Numbers can function adjectivally or adverbially. In Japanese, for instance, in the sentence “I
bought two pens,” the number “two” expresses how many pens the topic bought (that is, the num-
ber modifies the verb). Since it is used adverbially, the number should be used before the verb and
without any particle.
わたしにほんか
私はペンを二本、買いました。
“I bought two pens.”
Like other adverbs, this counter can be used in any position except at the end of the sentence,
although the sentence above is most typical. Still, no particle should be used in these cases:
私は二本、ペンを買いました。
(2) Adjectival use
A number can also modify a noun. When a number is used adjectivally, it must be placed imme-
diately before the noun it modifies. The particle の must be placed between them.
When a number modifies a noun, the meaning of the phrase is quite different from the structure
in which a number is used adverbially.
In the following example, the number 一本（いっぽん） modifies the noun ペン. The speaker is refer-
ring only to a specific pen. After saying the sentence above, the speaker may explain for whom
he/she bought the pens. In this case, the noun modified by the number can be deleted.
ぽん
一本（のペン）はルームメートのです。
“One (of the pens) is my roommate’s.”
(3) Joining more than one number in a sentence
When more than one number is used adverbially, how should the numbers be joined? Suppose the
speaker wants to say that he or she bought five pens and three books. One way is to make two sep-
arate sentences joined by a sentential conjunction.
ごほんかほんさんさつか
ペンを五本、買いました。そして、本を三冊、買いました。
“I bought five pens. Also, I bought three books.”
When the predicate is the same, another way is to join the noun phrases (the numbers and the
nouns) with the conjunction と, as in the following. Since the numbers in the sentence above fol-
low the particle を, を must be used twice.
ごほんさんさつか
ペンを五本と本を三冊、買いました。
“I bought five pens and three books.”
(4) The use of ずつ
When the number and the counter are the same for two different objects (e.g., three pens and
three pencils), there is no need to repeat the number twice. Instead, the word ずつ, which means
“each,” should be used after the counter, as in the following example:
えんぴつさんぼんか
ペンと鉛筆を三本ずつ買いました。
“I bought three pens and three pencils.”
(1) Getting someone’s attention
いまなんじ
 あのう、すみません。今、何時ですか。
なんじ
 さあ、何時でしょうか。
 Uh . . . excuse me, but what time is it now?
 Let’s see . . . I wonder what time it might be?
 Hesitation sound あのう

あのう is an utterance used when the speaker wants to hesitate a bit before speaking. This may also
be a way to gain the attention of the addressee before starting to speak.
 Indicating uncertainty with さあ
さあ indicates that the speaker is unsure of the response to the question asked.
(2) Expressing surprise
 これ、いくらでした？
ごまんえん
 ちょうど五万円でした。
ずいぶんたか
 へえ、随分、高いですねえ。
 How much was this?
 It was exactly 50,000 yen.
 Are you serious? That’s a lot more than I thought.

 Omission of a particle
In the first sentence, は after これ is omitted. This happens often in conversation.
 A question without か
When speaking colloquially, the sentence-final particle か may be omitted. In this case, the sen-
tence must be uttered with a rising intonation.
 Using へえ when an unexpected response is given
The utterance へえ indicates that the speaker did not expect the answer that was given. へえ thus
expresses surprise. This must be said with a rising intonation.
(3) At a store
Store Clerk: いらっしゃいませ！

むっねが
Customer: このみかん、六つお願いします。
Store Clerk: はい。りんごもいかがですか。おいしいですよ。

むっ
Customer: じゃ、りんごも六つください。
Store Clerk: Welcome!
Customer: I’d like six of these tangerines.
Store Clerk: All right. How about some apples, too? They’re really good.
Customer: OK, then. Give me six apples as well.
 いらっしゃいませ
いらっしゃいませ is a common way to welcome customers to any shop or restaurant. The ませ at the
end may be omitted.
 お願いします and ください
When a customer asks a store clerk to wrap things that he or she wants to purchase, either お願（ね
が）いします or ください is used. The former is more polite.
 いかがですか
いかがですか is used when offering or suggesting something to someone, e.g., inviting someone to
have tea or suggesting that they buy something, among many other situations.
Stage 1-5 On Verbs
Structures
1. Verbs of Existence
(1) Expressing existence in English and Japanese
(2) Word order and particles
(3) The honorific いらっしゃる（いらっしゃいます）
2. Transitivity of Predicates
(1) Transitive
(2) Intransitive
(3) Semi-transitive
3. Verbs of Giving and Receiving
(1) うち vs. そと
(2) Verbs of giving
(3) Verbs of receiving
4. Particles
(1) の with other particles
(2) Overriding particles だけ and しか
5. Interrogative Pronouns with も and か
(1) A phone conversation
(2) Before and after eating
(3) Colloquial expressions
(4) Inviting
Structures
1: Verbs of Existence
(1) Expressing existence in English and Japanese
The verb “to be” (am, are, is) in English is used to indicate two different meanings: that of identifica-
tion and that of existence. Compare the following two sentences, both of which use the same be-verb,
“am”:
I am a student. (am = identification)

I am at home. (am = existence)
In Japanese, identification and existence must be expressed by separate predicates: the copula だ
（です） is used for identification, and the verbs いる（います） and ある（あります） are used for exis-
tence.
Which verb to use when expressing existence depends on the topic. When the topic is animate
(people, animals, etc.), the verb いる（います） should be used; when the topic is inanimate, the verb
ある（あります） should be used.
The student is at home. (animate topic)

The book is at home. (inanimate topic)
In Japanese, いる（います） would be used for the animate topic “student,” and ある（あります） would
be used for the inanimate topic “book.” The Japanese equivalent of the two English sentences
above would be as follows (see below for an explanation of the particle に):
がくせいうち
学生は家にいます。
“The student is at home.”
ほんうち
本は家にあります。
“The book is at home.”
 Animate vs. inanimate
The parameters defining animate and inanimate may be fuzzy. Basically, living things that can
move on their own (such as people and animals) are considered animate; anything, living or not,
that cannot move on its own (such as plants and household objects) is considered inanimate. So,
even though plants are alive, the verb ある（あります） is used to express their existence. The existence
of animals that do not move, such as clams, is expressed with ある（あります） as well.
 Place pronouns
Recall the following pronouns: これ（この）, それ（その）, あれ（あの）, and どれ（どの）, and こちら, そちら,
あちら, and どちら. Related to these are the following pronouns, used to indicate place:
ここ refers to a place close to the speaker;

そこ refers to a place close to the addressee;
あそこ refers to a place far from both the speaker and addressee;
どこ is an interrogative pronoun used to make an inquiry regarding place.
 Location particle に
The location of existence is marked by the particle に, as in the following examples:
がくせい
学生はここにいます。
“The student is here.”
ほん
本はあそこにあります。
“The book is over there.”
 The particle で with the verb ある（あります）
Compare the following two sentences:
しけん
試験はあそこにあります。
“The exam paper is over there.”
しけん
試験はあそこであります。
“The exam will be held over there.”
When the sentence implies some action, the particle で must be used along with the place noun,
even with the verb ある（あります）. See another example:
へや
パーティーはあの部屋であります。
“The party will be held in that room.”
 Specific locations
Specific locations are expressed with nouns such as 前（まえ） “front” and 後（うし）ろ “back.” These
specific locations are usually modified by a reference point. いす “chair” in the following examples
is the reference point. The particle の is used between the two nouns, with the modifying noun fol-
lowed by the modified noun.
まえうし
いすの前いすの後ろ
“in front of the chair” “behind the chair”
わたしまえ
私のかばんはいすの前にあります。
“My backpack is in front of the chair.”
Stage 1-5 (Gramr Textbook) 103
Note that the meaning of the phrase is different when the order of the words is reversed: e.g., 前
（まえ）のいす “chair in front.”
(2) Word order and particles
 Definite vs. indefinite nouns

In English, definite nouns (those that refer to a specific item) and indefinite nouns (those that refer
to a non-specific item) can be identified by the use of the definite article “the” and the indefinite
articles “a” and “an”:
There is a book in my bag.

The book is in my bag.
Japanese does not have articles to indicate whether a noun is definite or indefinite. Both sentences
above express the existence of a book, but they are not identical in meaning. The first sentence
emphasizes what exists in the bag, namely “a book,” which is indefinite—the book is not known
to the addressee. In the second sentence, “the book” —a definite noun phrase—is known to both
the speaker and the addressee; the location of the book is new information. Interpreting what is
definite and indefinite is therefore related to what is known and new information.
 Known vs. new information
The equivalent Japanese sentences for the English sentences above are as follows. In Japanese,
newer information (from the addressee’s point of view) tends to be placed at a later point in the
sentence.
ほん
かばんに本があります。
“There is a book in my bag.” [Literally, “A book exists in my bag”]
ほん
本はかばんにあります。
“The book is in the bag.”
In the first sentence, the known fact between the speaker and the addressee is the bag, which is
used first in the sentence. The speaker informs what exists in the bag by the use of が. Recall that
が is used when the topic is questioned; likewise, the same particle が is used in the answer. Here,
the use of が indicates the topic is new information.
In the following question, かばんに is a known element.

なに
かばんに何がありますか。
“What’s in the bag?”
In the following response, 本が is new information.

ほん
（かばんに）本があります。
“There is a book in the bag.”
In the following sentences, the topic 本（ほん） is known to both the speaker and the addressee; the
speaker is informing the addressee of the book’s location. 本（ほん） is therefore used as the known
(definite) topic, while the location of the book is the new information.
In the following question, 本は is a known element.

ほん
本はどこにありますか。
“Where is the book?”
In the response below, かばんに is new information.

ほん
（本は）かばんにあります。
“The book is in the bag.”
Indicating whether nouns are definite or indefinite in other grammatical structures may be accom-
plished by other means, such as the use of demonstrative pronouns （e.g., その本） or the context in
which the nouns are used.
 Noun phrasal conjunction や
と is used to join two or more nouns or noun phrases. The conjunction や functions in the same
way; however, the implication when や is used is different than when と is used. When two or more
nouns are joined by や, the implication is that more things are involved than those mentioned in
the sentence.
ちゃ
ここにコーヒーとお茶があります。
“There is coffee and tea here (but only these two things).”
ちゃ
ここにコーヒーやお茶があります。
“There is coffee and tea here (and other things as well).”
 だ（です） as the abbreviated predicate
The three functions of the copula include (1) equating the topic and the predicate; (2) providing the
conjugations for the nominal predicate; and (3) marking the speech style for the nominal and
adjectival predicates.
In addition to these three functions, the copula can also be used as a substitute for the understood
predicate. In conversation, one-word responses are quite common. The predicate may be deleted
in these cases, but in place of the predicate, the copula can be used. A particle will normally not be
used between the single word and だ（です）.
わたしほん
私の本はどこにありますか。ここです。
“Where’s my book?” “It’s here.”
きのうい
昨日、どこに行きましたか。ニューヨークです。
“Where did you go yesterday?” “New York.”
(3) The honorific いらっしゃる（いらっしゃいます）
敬語（けいご） is the term for “honorifics” in Japanese. The honorific system in Japanese is very
complex, and it is not reasonable to expect anyone to learn the system in a short period of time.
Therefore, it is best to learn honorifics gradually.
Politeness, as it relates to the relationship between speaker and addressee, is expressed through
the use of the verb ending ~ます in the verbal predicate, or です in the nominal and adjectival pred-
icates.
The use of an honorific predicate reflects the respect felt by the speaker toward the person in the
topic position in a sentence. The honorific predicate is never used when a member of the speak-
er’s family or immediate circle is the topic. いらっしゃる（いらっしゃいます） is the honorific form of the
verb いる（います）.
はは
母はアメリカにいます。
[talking to a stranger, for example, about the speaker’s family member] “My mother is in America.”
せいせい
ブラウン先生はアメリカにいらっしゃいます。
[talking to a stranger about Brown-sensei] “Brown-sensei is in America.”
In the second sentence, the choice of いらっしゃいます shows the speaker’s respect toward ブラウン先
生（せんせい）; the use of ~ます at the end of the verb indicates that the speaker and the listener are
in a formal setting, or that they are not close acquaintances.
Because the entire honorific system is rather complex, for now, use いらっしゃいます rather than い
ます when the topic is someone to whom the speaker needs to show respect. Such individuals may
be a teacher, a friend’s parent, or a high-ranking person in the speaker’s social circle.
This honorific verb いらっしゃる（いらっしゃいます） is used as the verb for existence, as well as for the
verbs “to come” and “to go.” The following sentence therefore may have three different meanings;
context will assist in determining the precise meaning.
せんせいだいがく
先生は大学にいらっしゃいました。
“The teacher went to the college.”
“The teacher came to the college.”
“The teacher was at the college.”
Honorifics will be dealt with in more detail in Stages 2–6 and 4–6. Other honorific words and
expressions are also introduced throughout the text.
2: Transitivity of Predicates
The three types of predicates have been introduced and used, but a formal overview has not yet
been provided. This section will introduce the overall categorization of predicates. In this course,
they are categorized as transitive, intransitive, and semi-transitive predicates. There is an impor-
tant relationship between the transitivity of the predicates and the use of particles.
(1) Transitive
A transitive predicate requires a direct object in a sentence. The use of a transitive predicate indi-
cates that the topic is acting physically or mentally upon, or is moving, the direct object. This kind
of predicate therefore expresses actions. The direct objects of non-action predicates will be pre-
sented later in this section.
As explained in Stage 1–1, the direct object of a transitive verb is marked by the particle を. It is
important to note that classification of transitivity between two languages such as Japanese and
English does not correlate directly.
まいにちがくせいほんよ
毎日、学生は本を読みます。
“Students read books every day.”
 Two-object transitive predicates
Some transitive predicates require two objects for a concept to be complete, as in the English sen-
tence “I wrote a letter to my mother.” In such a case, what the subject wrote—a letter—is the direct
object, because the subject operates on it directly. The person to whom the letter was addressed,
“my mother,” is the indirect object; it receives the direct object and is thus affected indirectly by the
action of the subject.
 Indirect object particle に
In Japanese, the indirect object is marked by the particle に. This is similar to the directional parti-
cle に. The direct object, (“an e-mail message” in the example below) goes, physically or metaphor-
ically, to a certain person or place; thus the indirect object is related to destination.
The order of the two objects may be changed without affecting the meaning of the sentence (except
for the newness of information provided by the speaker) as long as the correct particles are used:
ははか
私は母にメールを書きました。
私はメールを母に書きました。
“I wrote an e-mail message to my mother.”
(2) Intransitive
Unlike the topic of a transitive predicate, the topic of an intransitive predicate is itself what under-
goes the action, carries out the movement, or experiences the emotions expressed by the predicate.
An intransitive predicate does not have a direct object, but may contain other elements, such as the
destination of a movement.
ブラウンさんは明日、日本に行きます。
ブラウンさんは明日、日本へ行きます。
“Brown-san will go to Japan tomorrow.”
Although に and へ may be used interchangeably with directional verbs, に is preferred when the
verb is 来（く）る（きます） “to come.”
きのうき
ブラウンさんは昨日、ここに来ました。
“Brown-san came here yesterday.”
 を with intransitive verbs
The particle を has been introduced as the direct object marker of transitive verbs. This particle is
also used with intransitive verbs that express movement from the topic’s original location to anoth-
er place (either outside of the original place or within that space).
This function of を in this case is to mark where the topic “passes through the place.” Thus, the
verbs associated with this particle are those that express directional movement, such as “to pass,”
“to walk,” “to run,” “to go out,” “to drive,” etc. Compare the particles used after the place noun 町
（まち） “town” in each of the following sentences:
わたしまちある
私は町まで歩きました。
“I walked to town.” [The topic did not necessarily go into town, at least on foot.]
私は町で歩きました。
“I walked in town.” [The topic used the town for a certain purpose: e.g., walking as an exercise.]
私は町を歩きました。
“I walked through town.” [The topic is in the town, moving in one direction.]
In the third sentence, the topic is in town; he or she moves in one direction within that space. Of
course, “one direction” should not be interpreted too strictly here; it simply indicates the basic idea.
The particle を is also used with verbs such as 卒業（そつぎょう）する（します） “to graduate,” 出（で）る
（でます） “to leave” (a place), and 休（やす）む（やすみます） “to rest.” The nuance is that the topic
goes out from a location after passing through the space enclosed by the location, as illustrated by
the following picture:
きのううちで
昨日、家を出ました。
“He left home yesterday.”
きょねんこうこうそつぎょう
去年、高校を卒業しました。
“I graduated from high school last year.”
A common mistake is to use the particle から with the verb 卒業（そつぎょう）する（します） because of
the English sentence “I graduated from high school.”
きょねんこうこうそつぎょう
*去年、高校から卒業しました。
[intended meaning] “I graduated from high school last year.”
The verb 休（やす）む（やすみます） means “to rest.” When used in the context of class or school,
however, it indicates that the topic is not attending school or class (i.e., the topic slips out of the
space that he or she is supposed to be in).
あしたがっこうやす
明日、学校を休みます。
“I will not come to school tomorrow.” [Literally, “I will go out of school and rest.”]
(3) Semi-transitive
The predicates categorized as semi-transitive share characteristics of both transitive and intransi-
tive predicates. They resemble transitive predicates because they require a direct object. Unlike
transitive predicates, however, the topic of a semi-transitive predicate does not move or operate on
the object. Instead, it experiences or goes through a stative condition such as the possession of a
thing, ability, or emotional need. In this way, semi-transitive predicates resemble intransitive pred-
icates. The direct object of a semi-transitive predicate must be marked by が rather than を.
Compare the following two sentences with different verbs: 話（はな）す（はなします） “to speak” is a
transitive verb, which indicates the action of speaking. 話（はな）せる（はなせます） “to be able to
speak” is a semi-transitive verb that indicates one’s ability to speak.
たなかにほんごはな
スミスさんはいつも田中さんに日本語を話します。
“Smith-san always speaks Japanese to Tanaka-san.”
にほんごはな
スミスさんは日本語が話せます。
“Smith-san can speak Japanese.”
As illustrated below, other kinds of predicates may have direct objects marked by が as well. Here
are two examples with adjectival predicates:
わたしじかん
私はもっと時間がほしいです。
“I want more time.”
ぼくいぬ
僕は犬がこわいです。
“I’m afraid of dogs.”
In English, “want” is a verb, but in Japanese, it is expressed by an adjective, ほしい. こわい “to be
afraid of” is also an adjective. Neither of these adjectives may be used without an additional ele-
ment after the predicate if the topic is the third-person pronoun. These adjectives may be used,
however, when asking the addressee directly. See Stages 1–7 and 3–6 for further explanation.
The following sentence is an example of a sentence with an adjectival noun, which is also semi-
transitive. 好（す）き, which means “to like” or “to be fond of,” is an adjectival noun.
す
私はすしが好きです。
“I like sushi.”
s 3: Verbs of Giving and Receiving
(1) うち vs. そと
Vocabulary items are normally dealt with in the Workbooks, but verbs of giving and receiving have
special properties in the Japanese language, and it is worthwhile to discuss them here.
Before introducing verbs of giving and receiving, the following two terms are helpful: “in-group”
（うち） and “out-group” （そと）. These two terms may be defined as follows: 1
うち (in-group): A group to which the speaker belongs: this group can be a family, a company, a
club, etc. The in-group may change from situation to situation.
1 These terms, うち and そと (or よそ by other scholars), are widely used by educators and scholars in describ-
ing the Japanese language and Japanese society. The definitions provided here are my own.
そと (out-group): A group to which the speaker does not belong. The out-group may change from
situation to situation.
(2) Verbs of giving
For the following verbs, the person who gives is always in the topic position.
 上（あ）げる（あげます）
上（あ）げる（あげます） is used when the topic gives something to someone who is not of a higher
social status and is not substantially older than the topic of the sentence. This restriction does not
apply to the topic’s own family members, regardless of age. The following examples illustrate this
with a first-person topic and a third-person topic.
わたしともだちほんあ
私は友達に本を上げます。
“I will give my friend a book.”
やまだたろうかねあ
山田さんは太郎さんにお金を上げます。
“Yamada-san will give Taro some money.”
The verb 上（あ）げる（あげます） may not be used when the receiver is the speaker or a member of
the speaker’s うち-group. The following sentence is incorrect:
やまだかねあ
*山田さんは私にお金を上げました。
[intended meaning] “Yamada-san gave me some money.”
In this case, the following verb must be used.

 くれる（くれます）
くれる（くれます） is used when the topic of the sentence, who is neither substantially older nor of a
higher status, gives something to the speaker, or to a member of the speaker’s うち-group.
ともだちほんわたし
友達は本を（私に）くれました。
“My friend gave me a book.”
ともだちほんいもうと
友達は本を妹にくれました。
“My friend gave my younger sister a book.”
When the receiver is the speaker rather than a member of the speaker’s うち-group, the use of 私
（わたし）に or 僕（ぼく）に is optional, as indicated by the parentheses in the example above. The verb
makes it clear that the speaker is the receiver.
When the receiver is not the speaker or a member of the speaker’s うち-group, the verb くれる（くれま
す） may not be used.
たなかほん
*キムさんは田中さんに本をくれました。
[intended meaning] “Kim-san gave Tanaka-san a book.”
上（あ）げる（あげます） rather than くれる（くれます） is used when a member of the speaker’s family
gives something to another member of the family, as long as the receiver is not the speaker.
いもうとあねあ
妹は姉にセーターを上げました。
“My little sister gave my big sister a sweater.”
When asking the addressee directly about something given to him or her, the speaker should use
くれる（くれます） rather than 上（あ）げる（あげます）. See the following:
たなかたんじょうびなに
田中さんは誕生日に何をくれましたか。
“What did Tanaka-san give you for your birthday?”
 やる（やります）
やる（やります） is often used when the topic gives something to an inanimate thing or to an animal.
This verb is also sometimes used when a family member, the topic of the sentence, gives some-
thing to a younger member of the same family. Using this verb with a human being is not con-
sidered insulting to the receiver in the context of Japanese culture.
わたしまいしゅうはなみず
私は毎週、花に水をやります。
“I give the flowers water every week.”
ぼくおとうとほん
僕は弟に本をやりました。
“I gave my younger brother a book.”
 差（さ）し上（あ）げる（さしあげます）
差（さ）し上（あ）げる（さしあげます） is used when the topic gives something to someone who is sub-
stantially older and/or of higher status. This verb is sometimes also used for the sake of politeness
when the topic gives something to someone who is a member of the そと-group, regardless of that
person’s social status or age. This verb is never used to talk about giving between the speaker’s
family members.
わたしせんせいほんさあ
私は先生に本を差し上げました。
“I gave the teacher a book.”
たろうせんせいはなさあ
太郎さんは先生に花を差し上げました。
“Taro gave his teacher some flowers.”
 下（くだ）さる（くださいます）
下（くだ）さる（くださいます） is used when the topic of the sentence—either someone of higher social
status and/or of greater age, or a person in the そと-group—gives something to the speaker or to a
member of the speaker’s うち-group. As with くれる（くれます）, when the receiver is the speaker, the
use of 私（わたし）に or 僕（ぼく）に may be unnecessary.
せんせいわたしはなくだ
ブラウン先生は（私に）花を下さいました。
“Brown-sensei gave me some flowers.”
せんせいいもうとはなくだ
ブラウン先生は妹に花を下さいました。
“Brown-sensei gave my younger sister some flowers.”
As in the case of くれる（くれます）, when the topic gives something to someone who is not the speak-
er or a member of the speaker’s うち-group, this verb may not be used. The following sentence is
incorrect:
せんせいやまだほんくだ
*リー先生は山田さんに本を下さいました。
[intended meaning] “Lee-sensei gave Yamada-san a book.”
When asking the addressee directly about what was given, the speaker can use 下（くだ）さる（ください
ます）. See the following:
たなかたんじょうびなにくだ
田中先生は誕生日に何を下さいましたか。
“What did Tanaka-sensei give you for your birthday?”
(3) Verbs of receiving
For the following verbs, the receiver is always in the topic position.
 もらう（もらいます）
もらう（もらいます） is used when the topic of the sentence receives something from someone who is
neither higher in social status nor an older member of the そと-group. The particle that indicates
the source from whom something was received can be either に or から.
はないもうと
私は花を妹に（から）もらいました。
“I received some flowers from my younger sister.”
Using もらう（もらいます） to express that the third person receives something from the speaker
sounds awkward, and should be avoided.
わたしはな
*ブラウンさんは私に花をもらいました。
[intended meaning] “Brown-san received some flowers from me.”
 いただく（いただきます）
いただく（いただきます） is used when the topic of the sentence receives something from someone in
the そと-group, from someone higher in social status, or from someone who is substantially older
than the topic (any of these combinations). This verb is not used when the topic receives some-
thing from a family member, even when the member is older than the topic.
わたしせんせいはな
私はスミス先生に花をいただきました。
“I received some flowers from Smith-sensei.”
As is the case with もらう（もらいます）, the use of いただく（いただきます） to express that the third per-
son receives something from the speaker sounds awkward even when the speaker is in a higher
position than the topic. This can be seen in the following incorrect sentence:
わたしはな
*田中さんは私に花をいただきました。
[intended meaning] “Tanaka-san received some flowers from me.”
 A summary of giving/receiving verbs
When the topic is the giver:
さしあげる
Giver あげる
やる
When the topic is the giver and the receiver is the speaker or うち-group:
Giver くださる
くれるうち as
Giver Receiver
When the topic is the receiver:
いただく
Receiver もらう
4: Particles
(1) の with other particles
As explained in Stage 1–2, the particle の joins two nouns or noun phrases, in which the first noun
modifies the second.
ともだちてがみ
友達の手紙
“my friend’s letter”
The phrase above is ambiguous, however. It can refer to a letter that is written by the speaker’s
friend, or a letter that came to his/her friend, or something else. When such ambiguity exists in a
phrase, another particle may be used immediately before の to clarify this ambiguity.
友達からの手紙
“a letter from my friend”
友達への手紙
“a letter to my friend”
友達についての手紙
“a letter about my friend”
(2) Overriding particles だけ and しか
 だけ
だけ makes the noun that precedes it exclusive. だけ overrides the particles は, が, and を, although
this rule is not as strict for だけ as it is for the overriding particles は and も. That is, だけ may be
used along with the original particles, but this usage is optional, as seen below:
わたしにほんい
私だけ（が）日本に行きました。
“Only I (and no one else) went to Japan.”
わたしの
私はコーヒーだけ（を）飲みました。
“I drank only coffee (and nothing else).”
However, だけ is normally used with other particles such as に or で. The order of the two particles
is flexible.
私は日本にだけ行きました。
“I went only to Japan (and nowhere else).”
私は日本だけに行きました。
“I went only to Japan (and nowhere else).”
 しか
The overriding particles だけ and しか share a similar meaning, but when しか is used, the predicate
must be in the negative form. The sentence with しか emphasizes the negative aspect of the sen-
tence, while だけ highlights the positive aspect.
Compare the following two example sentences:

わたしあさの
私は朝、コーヒーだけ飲みます。
“I drink only coffee in the morning.”
わたしあさの
私は朝、コーヒーしか飲みません。
“I don’t drink anything but coffee in the morning.”
Unlike だけ, しか must follow the original particle; it may not precede it.
わたしい
私はニューヨークにしか行きません。
“I don’t go anywhere except to New York.”
わたしい
*私はニューヨークしかに行きません。
[intended meaning] “I don’t go anywhere except to New York.”
Unlike だけ, しか is never used with は or が. It is possible, though not very common, to use it with
を, especially with intransitive predicates.
ひとこうこうそつぎょう
あの人は高校をしか卒業していません。
“That person only graduated from high school.”
Note, however, that the order is never しかを:

ひとこうこうそつぎょう
*あの人は高校しかを卒業していません。
[intended meaning] “That person only graduated from high school.”
5: Interrogative Pronouns with も and か

Adding the particles も and か to the interrogative pronouns, such as だれ and どこ, results in the
following meanings:
Pronoun Meaning Pronoun Meaning
だれも no one だれか someone/anyone
なにも nothing なにか something/anything
どこも nowhere どこか somewhere/anywhere
（いつも） (always) いつか sometime/anytime
どれも not one thing どれか one of the things
どちらも neither one どちらか one of the two
Except for いつも, which does not have a negative meaning, the above pronouns formed with も
require the predicate to be in the negative form. As might be expected, も replaces は, が, or を, but
is used along with other particles.
ちゃの
だれもお茶を飲みませんでした。
“No one drank tea.”
けさわたしなにた
今朝、私は何も食べませんでした。
“I didn’t eat anything this morning.”
The order of に and も is fixed—they cannot be reversed.
どこにも行きませんでした。
“I didn’t go anywhere.”
はな
それはだれにも話していません。
“I haven’t told anyone about it.”
The final か of these pronouns can—but does not have to—replace the particles を and が.
きのうなに
昨日、何か（を）しましたか。
“Did you do anything yesterday?”
だれか（が）いますか。
“Is anyone here?”
The order of か and に is normally not reversed. The following example shows the preferred order:
きのう
昨日、どこかに行きましたか。
“Did you go anywhere yesterday?”
き
だれかに聞きます。
“I’ll ask someone.”
Because the pronouns with か indicate indefinite pronouns, they are not used with the topic は,
which refers to something known.
(1) A phone conversation
もりせんせい
スミス：　もしもし、こちらはスミスですが、森先生、いらっしゃいますか。
もりせんせいくんもり
森先生：ああ、スミス君、森ですが・・・。
(at the end of the conversation)

しつれい
スミス：　それでは、失礼します。
Smith: Hello, this is Smith. Is Mori-sensei home?

Mori-sensei: Oh, Smith-kun. This is Mori. (Can I help you?)
(at the end of the conversation)
Smith: Well, then, goodbye.
 Answering calls
もしもし is used by both the party who receives and the one who initiates calls.
 Signaling a conclusion politely
それでは is a polite way to signal the conclusion of a conversation (the casual way is それじゃ). 失礼
（しつれい）します, which was introduced in the Preparatory Stage, is a polite phrase that can be used
when saying goodbye to someone, both in person or over the phone.
(2) Before and after eating
なにめあ
Host: 何もございませんが、どうぞお召し上がりください（ませ）。
Visitor: ありがとうございます。いただきます。
（after eating）ごちそうさまでした。
Host: We don’t have much, but please do help yourself.
Visitor: Thank you. It looks wonderful.
(after eating) That was delicious.
 何（なに）もございませんが . . .
When offering food to a guest, this phrase is often used. It literally means “there is nothing, but. .
. .” with the implication being that the food being offered is unworthy of the guest.
 どうぞ、お召（め）し上（あ）がりください（ませ）
When お, the stem of a verb, and ください are combined, the phrase is a polite way to suggest or
invite someone to do a certain thing. Adding ませ makes the speech more polite. See Stage 2–6 for
further explanation. 召し上がる（めしあがる）（めしあがります） is used as the honorific form of the
verbs 食（た）べる（たべます） and 飲（の）む（のみます）.
 いただきます
The verb いただく（いただきます） introduced in this chapter is also used as the humble verb for the
verbs 食（た）べる（たべます） and 飲（の）む（のみます）. This expression may also be used when the
speaker has just received a gift or an offer. One is expected to say いただきます before beginning to
eat or drink.
 ごちそうさま（でした）
This expression is used when the speaker is done eating, no matter how small the portion of food
was. Deleting the final でした and simply saying ごちそうさま gives the expression a more casual tone.
(3) Colloquial expressions
 Example 1:
 それ、ものすごくきれいですねえ。
ほんとう
 本当にすごくきれい！
 That’s very pretty, isn’t it?
 It really is very pretty!
 Example 2:
 （もの）すごく
ものすごく and すごく are intensifying adverbs similar in meaning to とても, but with a more colloqui-
al nuance. すごく may be used alone; it is a little less intense without もの.
やまだ
・山田さんはものすごいですねえ。
ほんとう
・ええ、本当にすごいですねえ。
・Yamada-san is quite a person, isn’t she?

・Yes, she certainly is.
 （もの）すごい
The adjectives ものすごい and すごい (which is less intense without もの) cover a wide range of mean-
ings. They are used very often in conversation whenever the speaker wants to indicate that some-
thing is beyond his or her expectations, either in a negative or positive direction.
(4) Inviting
あしたいっしょえいがい
 明日、一緒に映画に行きませんか。
い
 いいですね。ええ、行きましょう。
 Would you like to go to a movie together tomorrow?
 Sounds great. Sure, let’s go.
 行（い）きませんか
Negative question sentences are a very common way of inviting or asking whether the addressee
would like to do something.
Stage 1-6 The World of Adverbs
Structures
1. Adverbs
(1) Words that are inherently adverbs
(2) Nouns used as time adverbs
(3) Adverbs derived from adjectives
(4) Nouns or adjectival nouns with the particle に
(5) Numbers as adverbs
(6) Demonstrative adverbs
(7) Other facts about adverbs
2. Onomatopoeia
(1) What is onomatopoeia?
(2) Types of onomatopoeia
(3) The use of hiragana and katakana for onomatopoeia
(4) Examples of different onomatopoeia
3. Focus on Person or Situation
(1) Person vs. situation
(2) The verb する（します）
(3) The verb なる（なります）
(4) Transitive-intransitive pairs of verbs
4. Counters
(1) Years
(2) Months
(3) Dates
(4) Ages
(5) Durational time
(6) Time words with 前（まえ） and 後（あと）
(1) Giving compliments
(2) Good wishes for birthdays
(3) Look-alike
Structures
1: Adverbs
Adverbs are created in different ways in Japanese. The following introduces some of the most com-
monly used adverbs.
(1) Words that are inherently adverbs
Some words such as とても and もっと are inherently adverbs.

おおちゅうごくおお
アメリカはとても大きいです。中国はもっと大きいです。
“America is very big. China is bigger.”
(2) Nouns used as time adverbs
Some nouns that indicate time, such as 今日（きょう） and 明日（あした）, may also be used as time
adverbs.
ぼくあしたじゅぎょうい
僕は明日、授業に行きます。
“I will go to class tomorrow.”
(3) Adverbs derived from adjectives
Adverbs may be derived from adjectives by changing the final ~い of an adjective into ~く.
せんせいじゅぎょうはや
あの先生の授業は早いです。
“That teacher’s class is early.”
あしたはやお
明日、ルームメートは、早く起きます。
“My roommate will get up early tomorrow.”
 Adverbs derived from adjectives used as nouns
Some adverbs derived from adjectives, such as 近（ちか）く from 近（ちか）い, and 遠（とお）く from 遠
（とお）い, have a nominal function.
For example, the adjective 近（ちか）い is not normally used to modify a noun.
いもうとちかだいがくい
* 妹は近い大学に行きます。
[intended meaning] “My younger sister goes to a nearby college.”
In this case, 近（ちか）く, the adverbial form of 近（ちか）い, is used. This form 近（ちか）く functions
as a noun here.
いもうとちかだいがくい
妹は近くの大学に行きます。
“My younger sister goes to a nearby college.”
Using this kind of adjective in the predicate position is correct.

いもうとだいがくうちちか
妹の大学は家に近いです。
“My sister’s college is close to home.”
Other examples of adverbial forms having a nominal function are 遅（おそ）く from 遅（おそ）い and
早（はや）く from 早い.
まいにちあさはやばんおそべんきょう
毎日、朝、早くから、晩、遅くまで勉強します。
“I study from early in the morning until late at night every day.”
(4) Nouns or adjectival nouns with the particle に
One of the adverbs already introduced, 本当（ほんとう）に, consists of 本当（ほんとう）, a noun mean-
ing “truth,” and the particle に. Adjectival nouns may also be used adverbially by adding に to them.
For instance, the adjectival noun 元気（げんき） may be used adverbially when joined with に.
たなかげんきはな
田中さんは元気に話します。
“Tanaka-san speaks cheerfully.”
ほんとうひと
スミスさんは本当にいい人です。
“Smith-san is really a good person.”
(5) Numbers as adverbs
Numbers can function adjectivally or adverbially, as detailed in Stage 1–4. The following is an
example of an adverbial use of a number:
私はペンを二本、買いました。
Like other adverbs, the number and counter can be used in any position except at the end of a sen-
tence. But no particle should be used in these adverbial cases:
私は二本、ペンを買いました。
(6) Demonstrative adverbs
Certain expressions such as そうです and どうですか use the demonstrative adverbs そう and どう. The
complete series includes こう, そう, ああ and the interrogative pronoun どう.
た
すしはどう食べますか。
“How does one eat sushi?”
た
こう食べます。
“We eat it this way.” [The speaker actually shows how to eat it.]
どう cannot always be translated as “how.” See the following:

あした
明日、どうしましょうか。
“What shall we do tomorrow?”
どうしましたか。
“What happened?”
どうしましょう literally means something like “in what way shall we deal with (things)?” The meaning
of the expression どうしましたか comes from “how did (something) happen?”
The following chart summarizes the demonstrative pronoun series. Pronouns are used in isola-
tion, while pre-nominals must be used immediately before the nouns they modify.
Pronoun Pre-nominal
thing place adverbial way, person thing, person kind of
close to the speaker これこここうこちらこのこんな
close to the addressee それそこそうそちらそのそんな
far from both あれあそこあああちらあのあんな
question どれどこどうどちらどのどんな

(7) Other facts about adverbs
 もう with numbers and もっと

Both もう and もっと are translated into English as “more.” もう is used with a word or a number to
indicate an additional number or degree of something. もっと is used to modify adjectives, adverbs,
and verbs to indicate a greater amount or degree of something.
すこ
もう少し、ください。
“Please give me a little more.”
With たくさん, もっと is used to express a greater amount. もう may not be used here.
*もうたくさん、ください。
[intended meaning] “Please give me a lot more.”
もっとたくさん、ください。
“Please give me a lot more.”
もう rather than もっと must be used before specific numbers.

ひとか
りんごをもう一つ買いました。
“I bought one more apple.”
じゅぎょうごじゅうにんき
授業にもう五十人、来ました。
“Another fifty students came to class.”
 Using the conjunctive form adverbially
The adverbial use of the conjunctive form was introduced in Stage 1–3.
ぼくあるがっこうい
僕は歩いて学校に行きます。
“I go to school on foot.”
The above use of the conjunctive form is adverbial because it expresses how the topic’s action is
achieved.
 The conjunctive form with ください
Another example of the conjunctive form used adverbially is a fixed phrase consisting of a con-
junctive form and ください (a form of the verb くださいます, which was introduced in Stage 1–5). This
construction expresses a polite command. Depending on the situation, it may also be used for
making a request. This structure will be discussed in more detail in Stages 1–9 and 2–1.
にほんごはな
日本語で話してください。
“Please speak in Japanese.”
き
ここに来てください。
“Please come here.”
s 2: Onomatopoeia
(1) What is onomatopoeia?
The term onomatopoeia refers to words that originate in imitation of actual sounds. In Japanese,
onomatopoeic words, which often contain repeated syllables, are usually written in katakana. For
instance, the sound of heavy rain is written ザーザー. Onomatopoeic words are often used adver-
bially.
あめふ
雨がザーザー（と）降ります。
“It’s raining heavily.”
In the example above, the quotative particle と connects the verb and the content of the quote,
thoughts, or sounds. The use of this particle is optional when the onomatopoeia contains repeated
syllables.
 Quoting
Although this structure will be covered in detail in Stages 1–9 and 2–5, it may be useful to know that
in this quotation structure, と connects what someone has said and the verb 言（い）う（いいます） “to
say.”
たなかい
田中さんは「このすしはおいしいです。」と言いました。
“Tanaka-san said, ‘This sushi is delicious.’”
Since the speaker is directly quoting what 田中（たなか）さん has said, Japanese quotation marks
(「as the opening mark, and 」 as the closing mark) are used.
When reporting only the content rather than something verbatim, remove the quotation marks
and use the plain form for the content.
たなかい
田中さんはこのすしはおいしいと言いました。
“Tanaka-san said the sushi was delicious.”
 Expressing thoughts
Using a structure similar to the one above, the speaker may express an opinion or idea by connect-
ing his or her own thought with と and the verb 思（おも）う（おもいます） “to think.” See Stages 1–9
and 2–5 for a more detailed explanation.
わたしおも
私はこのすしはおいしいと思います。
“I think that this sushi is delicious.”
In this case, the predicate form before と must be in the plain form. This verb is used to express
the speaker’s own thought; it is not used when the topic is in the third person. When questioning
the addressee directly for his or her opinion, the second person may be used in the topic position.
(2) Types of onomatopoeia
Besides the onomatopoeia that originate in imitation of actual sounds, there are also other types of
onomatopoeia in Japanese: e.g., onomatopoeia of manner and description, which mimic the man-
ner of some activity or the quality of something.
While there are numerous words used for conventional onomatopoeia, it is entirely possible for
people to create their own idiosyncratic onomatopoetic words. This is especially true in highly
casual speech. Onomatopoeia are in general most often used in conversation.
(3) The use of hiragana and katakana for onomatopoeia
While it is common to use katakana for sound onomatopoeia, onomatopoeia of manner and
description are often written in hiragana, like the word きちん “properly” (manner) in the following
sentence. The rules governing the use of katakana and hiragana for sound, manner, and descrip-
tive onomatopoeia are not rigid, however. Variations in the use of these two kana in expressing
onomatopoeia in writing may be observed.
The quotative particle と is necessary when the onomatopoeic word has no repeated elements.
ひとはな
あの人はいつもきちんと話します。
“He always speaks properly.”
Descriptive onomatopoeic words, like ぼろぼろ “old” in the following example, may be used in a
predicate:
ふく
この服はぼろぼろです。
“This outfit is very old.”
(4) Examples of different onomatopoeia
 Examples of sound onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia Sounds
ワンワン a dog barking
ニャーニャー a cat meowing
ザーザー the sound of heavy rain
シトシト the sound of quiet rain
ペラペラ the sound of a foreign language spoken fluently
ガヤガヤ the noise made by a crowd of people
ぼくいぬそと
僕の犬は外でワンワン（と）ほえています。
“My dog is barking outside.”
ひとにほんごはな
あの人は日本語をペラペラ（と）話します。
“That person speaks Japanese fluently.”
 Examples of manner onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia Manner
そ（う） quietly; soundlessly
じろじろ（ジロジロ） staring
When the onomatopoeia そ（う） is combined with the particle と, the small つ is needed, forming
either そうっと or そっと.
かれへやはい
彼は部屋にそ（う）っと入ってきました。
“He entered the room quietly.”
かのじょぼくみ
彼女は僕をじろじろ（と）見ました。
“She stared at me.”
 Examples of descriptive onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia Description
ぼろぼろ（ボロボロ） very old
ぴかぴか（ピカピカ） very shiny
In addition to being used in the predicate, descriptive onomatopoeia may be used to modify nouns,
as in the following examples:
ふくわたし
あのボロボロの服は私のです。
“That old outfit is mine.”
ひとくるまうんてん
あの人はいつもピカピカの車を運転します。
“That person always drives a shiny car.”
 Descriptive onomatopoeia with する（します）
Descriptive verbs may be created by adding する（します） to onomatopoeia.
どきどきする “to be nervous” （どきどき is the sound of someone’s heart pounding）
わくわくする “to be excited” （わくわく describes the feeling of being excited）
おろおろする “to be confused, be lost” （おろおろ describes the feeling of being lost）
めそめそする “to be sad” （めそめそ describes someone being weepy）

しけんまえ
試験の前はいつもどきどきします。
“I always get nervous before examinations.”
3: Focus on Person or Situation
(1) Person vs. situation
In any language, there are innumerable ways to express an event. For instance, to express that
something is difficult, one may say, “It’s so hard!” while another may say, “It’s impossible!” or per-
haps “Why do you think I can do this?”
The two broad categories to be introduced in this section are person-focused expressions and situ-
ation-focused expressions.1 In person-focused expressions, “who will do/does/did something” is
1 The terms situation vs. person focus are adopted from Situation vs. Person Focus by John Hinds. Tokyo:
Kurosio Publishing, 1986.
explicitly stated. In situation-focused expressions, by contrast, the event is expressed without

explicitly indicating “who will do/does/did something.” For instance, if someone spills some milk,
the person-focused expression would be “I spilled the milk” while the situation-focused expression
might be “The milk spilled.”
Within the context of Japanese culture, in some cases it is preferable to use situation-focused
expressions because they are more indirect than person-focused expressions.
(2) The verb する（します）
The verbs する（します） and なる（なります） are often contrasted for person-focused and situation-
focused expressions: する（します） for the person-focused and なる（なります） for the situation-
focused.
 する（します） for making a choice or decision
The verb する（します） may be used to talk about making a choice or decision. In this case, the par-
ticle に is used for the thing the speaker will choose (decide) or has chosen (decided). Chosen
things are expressed adverbially.
For example if two people are in a restaurant, the following exchange may occur:
なに・なん
（あなたは）何にしますか。
“What will you have?” [ = what will you choose]
わたし
（私は）すしにします。
“I’ll have sushi.” [ = I will choose sushi]
The following may be used to talk about one’s chosen major:

ぼくせんこうにほんご
僕は専攻を日本語にしました。
“I chose Japanese as my major.”
 する（します） for making A into B
The following structure is related to the one explained above. This one expresses changing the
function of a certain thing into another, or changing from one state to another. Changed functions
or states are expressed adverbially.
しけん
試験をもっとやさしくしました。
“I made the exam easier.”
きょうしつ
教室をきれいにしましょう。
“Let’s make the classroom beautiful.” [ = clean]
ほんきょうかしょ
この本をこのクラスの教科書にします。
“I have selected this book as the textbook for this class.”
(3) The verb なる（なります）
Contrasting with する（します）, the verb なる（なります） is used for situation-focused expressions. The
verb なる（なります） expresses a change of situation. The situation that will be or has been changed
into is expressed adverbially.
The examples below illustrate different adverbs and adverbial phrases used before the verb なる（な
ります）. None of the examples indicates who will change or has changed the situation; they express
situations to be changed or situations that have changed.
 When a change is expressed with an adjective or a nominal element
そとさむ
外は寒くなりました。
“It’s gotten cold outside.”
げんき
ジョンさんは元気になりました。
“John has gotten healthy.”
せんせい
メアリーさんは先生になります。
“Mary is going to be a teacher.”
がくせいにほんご
あの学生は日本語がペラペラになりました。
“That student has become very fluent in Japanese.”
 When a change is expressed with a verb
When a verb is used to express a change, the following structure should be used. The verb must
be in the plain form, and ように must be added before なる（なります）.
きょねんかんじよことしよ
去年は漢字が読めませんでしたが、今年、読めるようになりました。
“I could not read kanji last year, but this year, I’m able to read it.”
こべんきょう
うちの子は勉強するようになりました。
“Our child studies now.” [The implication is that he or she did not study at all before.]
(4) Transitive-intransitive pairs of verbs
 What are transitive-intransitive verb pairs?

There are quite a few transitive-intransitive verb pairs in Japanese. As is clear from examples like
始（はじ）まる（はじまります） and 始（はじ）める（はじめます）; and 開（あ）ける（あけます） and 開（あ）く（あき
ます）, transitive-intransitive pairs are very similar in sound. The following chart shows a few tran-
sitive and intransitive counterparts. More pairs will be introduced a few at a time throughout this
course. See Stage 4–8 for an expanded chart and some rules.
Transitive Meaning Intransitive Meaning

ああ
開ける（あけます） open something 開く（あきます） something opens
しし
閉める（しめます） close something 閉まる（しまります） something closes
はじはじ
始める（はじめます） begin something 始まる（はじまります） something begins
おお
終える（おえます） finish something 終わる（おわります） something ends
In the following example of a transitive sentence, the topic is the person who opens the store, while
the topic of the intransitive sentence is the store. Transitive verbs are used for person-focused sen-
tences, while the intransitive verbs are used for situation-focused sentences.
 Transitive (person-focused)
まいあさわたしみせくじあ
毎朝、私は店を九時に開けます。
“I open the store at 9 o’clock every morning.”
 Intransitive (situation-focused)
まいあさみせくじあ
毎朝、この店は九時に開きます。
“This store opens at 9:00 every morning.”
s 4: Counters
(1) Years
年（ねん） is a counter for years. This counter cannot be used for age, but it can be used to indicate
a specific calendar year or a duration of years, as in “I was in Japan for three years.”
1 一年いちねん 2 二年にねん
3 三年さんねん 4 四年よねん
5 五年ごねん 6 六年ろくねん
7 七年ななねん（しちねん） 8 八年はちねん
9 九年きゅうねん 10 十年じゅうねん
? 何年なんねん
Both the Western and Japanese calendar years are used in Japan. For example, the Western calen-
dar year is expressed as follows.
ことしなんねん
今年は何年ですか。
“What year is it this year?”
ことしねん
今年は２００９年です。
“This year is the year 2009.”
In English, the year can be read by breaking the four-digit number into two two-digit numbers. For
instance, “1998” is read “nineteen ninety-eight.” This is not an option in Japanese.
The Western calendar is referred to as 西暦（せいれき）. To avoid confusion in situations where the
year may be ambiguous, 西暦（せいれき）２００９年, which means “the year 2009 in the Western cal-
endar,” may be used.
The Japanese calendar years are referred to by the year of the current emperor’s reign, the whole
of which is referred to as 時代（じだい） “era.” For instance, the current era is the Heisei Era (平成
時代；へいせいじだい), the era of the Emperor Akihito. It began with the year 1989 when Emperor
Hirohito, who was the emperor of the Showa Era （昭和時代；しょうわじだい）, passed away.
The following chart (for reference only) shows the names of eras in modern Japan:
Kanji Kana Western calendar
江戸時代えどじだい 1600 – 1868
明治時代めいじじだい 1868 – 1912
大正時代たいしょうじだい 1912 – 1926
昭和時代しょうわじだい 1926 – 1989
平成時代へいせいじだい 1989 –
Therefore 1989 by the Western calendar is 平成（へいせい）一年（いちねん） in the Japanese, 1990

is 平成（へいせい）二年（にねん）, and so on. The Japanese calendar years are still commonly used
on various occasions in Japan. For international purposes, many people find it more convenient to
use the Western calendar system.
ことしへいせいなんねん
今年は平成何年ですか。
“What year of the Heisei era is this?”
ことしへいせいねん
（今年は平成）２１年です。
“It’s Heisei 21 this year.”
(2) Months
The following are used only to name each month. They cannot be used to indicate duration in
months (as in “for three months,” “two months ago,” etc.).
January 一月いちがつ February 二月にがつ
March 三月さんがつ April 四月しがつ
May 五月ごがつ June 六月ろくがつ
July 七月しちがつ August 八月はちがつ
September 九月くがつ October 十月じゅうがつ
November 十一月じゅういちがつ December 十二月じゅうにがつ
What month? 何月なんがつ
(3) Dates
Saying dates in Japanese is rather complex (they are simpler to write in kanji). The first to the tenth
days of the month are based on the native Japanese numbers with the counter 日; the counter is
pronounced か except in the case of the first day of the month, which has a special name, ついたち.
1st 一日ついたち 2nd 二日ふつか
3rd 三日みっか 4th 四日よっか
5th 五日いつか 6th 六日むいか
7th 七日なのか 8th 八日ようか
9th 九日ここのか 10th 十日とおか

The counter 日 after the 10th is pronounced にち except for the 14th, the 20th, and the 24th. The
14th and the 24th use a combination of both number systems. The 20th day of each month has a
special name, はつか.
11th 十一日じゅういちにち 12th 十二日じゅうににち
13th 十三日じゅうさんにち 14th 十四日じゅうよっか
15th 十五日じゅうごにち 16th 十六日じゅうろくにち
17th 十七日じゅうしちにち 18th 十八日じゅうはちにち
19th 十九日じゅうくにち 20th 二十日はつか
21st 二十一日にじゅういちにち 22nd 二十二日にじゅうににち
23rd 二十三日にじゅうさんにち 24th 二十四日にじゅうよっか
25th 二十五日にじゅうごにち 26th 二十六日にじゅうろくにち
27th 二十七日にじゅうしちにち 28th 二十八日にじゅうはちにち
29th 二十九日にじゅうくにち 30th 三十日さんじゅうにち
31st 三十一日さんじゅういちにち ? 何日なんにち
The above numbers, with the counter 日（か・にち）, may be used both to name a specific date (such
as “April 3rd”), and to describe the duration of time in days (such as “three days”). The only excep-
tion is when talking about something that lasts one day:
一日（ついたち） means only “the first day of the month.”

一日（いちにち） means “for one day” or “all day long.”
The order of mentioning a date must be from the bigger time unit to the smaller. Sometimes, peo-
ple connect these times with the particle の, although it is more common to say dates without の.
ねんがつか
1982年（の）6月（の）10日
“June 10th, 1982”
(4) Ages
There are two ways to count people’s age. The first uses the native numbers with the counter つ;
the other uses the Sino-Japanese numbers with the counter 才（さい） or 歳（さい）.
 Ages with the native numbers
Recall that the numbers one to nine in the native Japanese number system end with つ. This
counter may be used with children’s ages. The interrogative pronoun for this counter is いくつ.
こども
あの子供はいくつですか。
“How old is that child?”
なな
（topic）七つです。
“He’s seven.”
 Ages with the counter 才（さい）
The counter 才（さい） for ages may be used for all ages, including children.
1 一才いっさい 2 二才にさい
3 三才さんさい 4 四才よんさい
5 五才ごさい 6 六才ろくさい
7 七才ななさい（しちさい） 8 八才はっさい
9 九才きゅうさい 10 十才じゅっさい
20 二十はたち（にじゅっさい） ? 何才なんさい
 About “twenty years old”

Notice that there is a special term for the age of twenty. Twenty is a special age in Japan, as it
marks the beginning of adulthood. It is written either 二十 or 二十歳, and pronounced either はた
ち or にじゅっさい, both of which are used commonly.
 Asking “how old are you?”
To ask someone’s age, either 何才（なんさい） or いくつ may be used, but いくつ is normally used for
asking children their age. This does not mean that いくつ is not used to ask adults their ages. When
asking adults, the polite prefix お is often used, as in おいくつですか.
It is also common to drop the counter 才（さい） when saying a person’s age. This is not true when
using the native numbers (for children): the counter つ must always be used with the native num-
bers 1 to 9 when referring to age.
いもうとなんさい
妹さんは何才ですか。
“How old is your sister?”
じゅうはち
（topic）十八です。
“She’s 18 years old.”
The question of whether it is taboo to ask someone’s age, as it is in some situations in Western
countries, is very difficult to answer. It is indeed sometimes inappropriate to ask someone’s age in
Japan as well, but probably not in the same way as in the West. The law prohibits age discrimina-
tion in hiring and so forth in some Western countries, but this is still not the case in Japan. In fact,
it is not unusual to find age limitation statements on documents such as job application forms and
fellowship application forms.
(5) Durational time
The counters for specific time and for durational time may be different. The endings, 時（じ）, 曜日
（ようび）, and 月（がつ）, are only for specific time. The following counters are used for durational
time.
Hours Weeks Months
1 一時間いちじかん一週間いっしゅうかん一ヶ月* いっかげつ
2 二時間にじかん二週間にしゅうかん二ヶ月にかげつ
3 三時間さんじかん三週間さんしゅうかん三ヶ月さんかげつ
4 四時間よじかん四週間よんしゅうかん四ヶ月よんかげつ
5 五時間ごじかん五週間ごしゅうかん五ヶ月ごかげつ
6 六時間ろくじかん六週間ろくしゅうかん六ヶ月ろっかげつ
7 七時間しちじかん七週間ななしゅうかん七ヶ月ななかげつ
8 八時間はちじかん八週間はっしゅうかん八ヶ月はっかげつ
9 九時間くじかん九週間きゅうしゅうかん九ヶ月きゅうかげつ
10 十時間じゅうじかん十週間じゅっしゅうかん十ヶ月じゅっかげつ
? 何時間なんじかん何週間なんしゅうかん何ヶ月なんかげつ
*ヶ月 is also written 箇月, which is an old way of writing it. か月 is also used for this counter.
 Specific vs. durational counters

The counters for minutes, days, and years cover both the specific and durational time. For these
counters, 間（かん）, which means “interval,” may be added to these counters to indicate the dura-
tion, but its use is optional:
Specific Time Durational Time
Minute 分（ふん・ぷん）分（ふん・ぷん） or 分間（かん）
Day 日（か・にち）日（か・にち） or 日間（かん）
Year 年（ねん）年（ねん） or 年間（かん）
 The verb かかる（かかります）

The verb かかる（かかります） literally means “it requires (someone) a certain amount of time or
money.” For examples, see the following sentences:
とうきょうきょうとでんしゃさんじかん
東京から京都まで電車で三時間ぐらいかかります。
“It takes about three hours to get from Tokyo to Kyoto by train.”
にほんにせん
日本まで二千ドルぐらいかかります。
“It costs about 2,000 dollars to go to Japan.”
 どのぐらい with かかる（かかります）
The generic interrogative pronoun どのぐらい may be used with the verb かかる（かかります） to ask
either about duration of time, or amount of money (cost).
にほんひこうき
日本からアメリカまで飛行機でどのぐらいかかりますか。
“About how long does it take to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
“About how much does it cost to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
If the meaning is not clear from context, more specific question words such as いくらぐらい “about
how much does it cost” or 何時間（なんじかん）ぐらい “about how many hours” may be used in place
of どのぐらい.
にほんひこうきなんじかん
日本からアメリカまで飛行機で何時間ぐらいかかりますか。
“About how many hours does it take to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
にほんひこうき
日本からアメリカまで飛行機でいくらぐらいかかりますか。
“About how much does it cost to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
The specific thing that is required, such as 時間（じかん） or お金（かね）, is seldom expressed,
although it may be explicitly stated if the sentence is ambiguous without it.
にほんひこうきじかん
日本からアメリカまで飛行機で時間はどのぐらいかかりますか。
“About how much time does it take to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
にほんひこうきかね
日本からアメリカまで飛行機でお金はどのぐらいかかりますか。
“About how much money does it cost to go from Japan to the United States by airplane?”
(6) Time words with 前（まえ） and 後（あと・ご）
When words that indicate time and 前（まえ） and 後（あと or ご） are used, the following time
adverbs result. For 後, あと is less formal than ご. See the examples below:
二年前（にねんまえ） “two years ago”

二年後（にねんあと・ご） “two years later”
二日前（ふつかまえ） “two days ago”
二日後（ふつかあと・ご） “two days later”
(1) Giving compliments
ごろずいぶんにほんごじょうず
 スミスさん、この頃、随分、日本語が上手になりましたねえ。
 いえいえ、まだまだです。
 Smith-san, your Japanese has gotten much better lately!
 Oh, no. I still have a long way to go.
 この頃（ごろ）
This time adverb means “these days” or “recently.”
 日本語（にほんご）が上手（じょうず）になりましたねえ
Literally this sentence means something like “you have become skillful with Japanese.” However,
the sentence does not imply that the speaker thought that the addressee’s Japanese was bad before,
so such a literal translation might cause some misunderstanding. Another commonly misunder-
stood sentence is the following, often used with young women: とてもきれいになりましたねえ, [literal
translation] “You have become very pretty.” Once again, this sentence does not imply that the
addressee was ugly earlier. These comments should be interpreted only as compliments.
 いえいえ、まだまだです
As introduced in Stage 1–2, まだ is an adverb meaning “not yet.” By repeating まだ twice, the speak-
er emphasizes the imperfection of the skill of speaking Japanese. When given a compliment, it is
better, culturally, to give a humble response such as いえいえ、まだまだです, meaning “I still have a
long way to go” than to agree to the compliment.
(2) Good wishes for birthdays
たなかたんじょうび
スミス：田中さん、誕生日はいつですか。
たなかじつきょう
田中：実は、今日なんです。
たんじょうび
スミス：そうなんですか。お誕生日、おめでとうございます。
Smith: When is your birthday, Tanaka-san?
Tanaka: Actually, it’s today.
Smith: Is that so? Happy birthday!
 実（じつ）は
実（じつ） is a noun that means “truth.” One can start a sentence with 実（じつ）は to signal that the
speaker is about to explain something.
 ~（な）んです
~なんです used after the nominal predicate; this combination adds the nuance that the speaker is
giving her or his own account of a certain situation to the addressee. When used with other pred-
icates, な is dropped . Use the plain form before ~んです. See Stage 2–7 for a more detailed account
of this structure.
たか
これは高いんです。
“Let me tell you, this is expensive.”
明日、日本に行くんです。
“You may not know this, but the truth is I am going to Japan.”
 そうなんですか
A speaker uses そう with なんですか to acknowledge what he or she has just heard, usually regard-
ing some unexpected information. ~（な）んですか is used to confirm the speaker’s understanding
of certain circumstances or facts. See Stage 2–7 for a more detailed explanation of this structure.
せんせい
先生がこわいんですか。
“Am I right in interpreting that you are afraid of the teacher?”
あしたべんきょう
明日も勉強するんですか。
“Are you saying that you are studying again tomorrow?”
 おめでとう（ございます）
おめでとうございます (ございます may be omitted in a less formal setting) is used to congratulate a per-
son on many different occasions (a birthday, anniversary, graduation, or a positive achievement,
among others).
たんじょうび
（お）誕生日、おめでとう（ございます）。
“Happy birthday!”
そつぎょう
（ご）卒業、おめでとう（ございます）。
“Congratulations on your graduation.”
(3) Look-alike
おとうと
 そちら、弟さんですか。
たろうい
 ええ、太郎と言います。
 おいくつですか。
らいげつさい
 来月、15才になります。
 あなたにそっくりですねえ。
 そうでしょうか・・・。
 Is that your brother?
 Yes. His name is Taro.
 How old is he?
 He’ll be 15 next month.
 He looks just like you!
 Do you think so?

 そっくり
そっくり is an onomatopoetic adjectival noun used to express that someone looks quite a bit like
someone else. The person one looks like is marked with the particle に.
にい
あなたはお兄さんにそっくりですね。
“You look just like your older brother!”
Stage 1-7 Topic, Subject, and Object
Structures
1. Subject が
(1) The subject and its use
(2) Adverb position
2. Subject and Object
(1) が for the subject and object
(2) Direct objects of adjectives and adjectival nouns
(3) Emotive words
3. Making Verbs into Nouns
(1) Nominalizing verbs with こと
(2) Expressing a desire to do things
(3) Expressing the speaker’s plan
4. は and が
(1) The topic は
(2) The subject が
(3) Comparing sentences with the topic and the subject
(4) The topicalized subject
5. Comparisons
(1) Comparing two things
(2) Comparing more than two things
(1) Comparing
(2) Health talk
(3) When the speaker does not know the answer
Structures
1: Subject が
(1) The subject and its use
Recall the following basic schematic structure of Japanese:
TOPIC COMMENT
Subject WHOLE PREDICATE
Object CORE PREDICATE
Nominal Predicate
Adjectival Predicate
Verbal Predicate
Up to this point, only structures without subjects have been introduced. The grammatical terms
“topic” and “subject” are not used consistently in the field of Japanese linguistics or Japanese lan-
guage instruction, but in this course, the following distinction is made between the two.
 The topic is described in the comment.
 The subject is described in the predicate.
This chapter introduces structures that use both topic and subject. Such a structure must be used,
for instance, when the speaker wants to describe チャンさん by saying that she or he is smart. The
speaker wants to describe チャンさん so that is the topic of the sentence. The structure of the com-
ment consists of the subject, あたま “head,” and the predicate, いい “good.” The predicate, いい,
describes the subject, あたま, not the topic, チャンさん. The comment—which consists of the subject
and the predicate, and means, literally, “the head is good”—describes the topic.
TOPIC COMMENT
Subject Adjectival Predicate
チャンさんはあたまがいいです

 The subject particle が

Like other particles (e.g., に and を), が has quite a few different functions. So far, が has been intro-
duced as:
 a clausal conjunction;
 the marker for the topic when it is being questioned;
 the marker for the direct object of the semi-transitive predicate;
 the marker for the subject.
Let’s look at another example. To describe リーさん as being tall, the following construction is used:
the topic is リーさん because the speaker wants to talk about her or him. The comment consists of
the subject, 背（せ） “height” (literally meaning “spine”), and the predicate, 高（たか）い “high.” The
predicate describes the subject, not the topic. It is the comment, which means (literally) “the spine
is high,” that describes the topic, リーさん.
TOPIC COMMENT
Subject Adjectival Predicate
リーさんはせがたかいです
(2) Adverb position
When adverbs are used in structures like those above, the natural place to use them is before the
comment, rather than immediately before the predicate. This is because the comment, rather than
the predicate alone, comprises a complete entity.
あたま
ブラウンさんはとても頭がいいです。
“Brown-san is very smart.”
ほんとうせたか
パクさんは本当に背が高いです。
“Park-san is really tall.”
However, it is not incorrect to use these adverbs right before predicates, especially when the speak-
er wants to put a great emphasis on the predicate that the adverb modifies.
あたま
ブラウンさんは頭がとてもいいです。
“Brown-san is very smart.”
せほんとうたか
パクさんは背が本当に高いです。
“Park-san is really tall.”
2: Subject and Object
(1) が for the subject and object
When が is used to mark the subject as well as the object of semi-transitive predicates, it is easy to
become confused as to which noun is the subject and which the object. For instance, compare the
following two sentences. In the first sentence, 目（め） “eyes” is the subject, while in the second
sentence it is the object. 自分（じぶん） in the second sentence means “self.”
めおお
スミスさんは目が大きいです。
“Smith-san has large eyes.”
じぶんめきら
スミスさんは自分の目が嫌いです。
“Smith-san doesn’t like his [own] eyes.”
The assignment of the grammatical function (such as the subject and the object) is determined by
the predicate.
In the first sentence, the predicate 大（おお）きい describes the subject, 目（め） “eyes,” rather than
the topic (スミスさん). The topic, スミスさん, is described by both the subject and the predicate, i.e., by
the comment.
めおお
スミスさんは目が大きいです。
In the second sentence, the predicate 嫌（きら）い “to dislike” is semi-transitive. That is, what the
topic dislikes is the object, 目（め） “eyes.” (The phrase 自分（じぶん）の, which modifies 目（め）, is
not used in the following sentence for the sake of simplicity).
めきら
スミスさんは目が嫌いです。
(2) Direct objects of adjectives and adjectival nouns
Some adjectives and adjectival nouns are classified as semi-transitive predicates, because they
require a direct object for the notion to be complete. As is the case with all semi-transitive predi-
cates, the objects of these adjectives and adjectival nouns are marked by が.
Adjectival nouns Meaning Adjectives Meaning

すほ
好き be fond of (something) 欲しい be in need of (=want)
(something)
きらこわ
嫌い dislike (something) 怖い be afraid of (something)
じょうず
上手 be skilled at (something)
へた
下手 be unskilled at (something)
Although 嫌（きら）い in the chart above ends in い, it is an adjectival noun. The word 怖（こわ）い,
however, is an adjective.
The following examples show cases where these words modify nouns:
す
好きな本 “my favorite book ( = the book that I like)”
じょうず
上手な人 “a person who is good at something”
ほ
欲しい本 “the book that I want”
こわ
怖い先生 “the teacher I am scared of”
好（す）き “to be fond of” and 嫌（きら）い “to dislike” can be modified by the adverbial prefix 大,
which means “big” and is pronounced だい (on-reading). This prefix may not be used for other
adjectives or adjectival nouns in the list. Its use is quite limited.
わたしだいす
私はすしが大好きです。
“I love sushi.”
わたしだいきら
私はすしが大嫌いです。
“I can’t stand sushi.”
In colloquial speech, the prefix 大 is often emphatically uttered by prolonging the first vowel, as in
だあい. The degree of prolongation depends on how much emphasis the speaker wants to add.
Even though the words 嫌（きら）い and 下手（へた） carry a negative meaning, they may not be used
with the adverb あまり because the structures in which they are used are positive.
わたしほんきら
*私はこの本があまり嫌いです。
[intended meaning] “I don’t like this book very much.”
To convey the intended meaning above, use the following sentence:

わたしほんす
私はこの本があまり好きではありません。
“I don’t like this book very much.”
(3) Emotive words
Words such as 欲（ほ）しい and 怖（こわ）い, known as emotive words, express the speaker’s emo-
tional state. Such words are only used in the predicate when the speaker is the topic, or when
directly questioning the addressee. They may not be used to describe a third person’s emotional
state.
わたしいぬこわ
私は犬が怖いです。
“I am afraid of dogs.”
なにこわ
あなたは何が怖いですか。
“What are you afraid of?”
いぬこわ
*リーさんは犬が怖いです。
[intended meaning] “Lee-san is afraid of dogs.”
This does not mean that the speaker can never describe a third person’s emotional state. There are
other structures to express this. One way is to report what the third person has said.
いぬこわい
リーさんは犬が怖いと言いました。
“Lee-san said that she (or he) is afraid of dogs.”
Another way is for the speaker to report his or her own inference based on direct observation by
adding ようだ（です） to the perceived emotion of the third person. This construction will be intro-
duced in detail in Stage 3–2.
こわ
りーさんは犬が怖いようです。
“It looks to me like Lee-san is afraid of dogs.”
Many other structures can be used to express others’ emotional state, depending on the source of
information. See Stages 1–9, 2–5, 3–2, and 3–6 for details.
3: Making Verbs into Nouns

In the structures introduced above, the objects are nouns, as shown below:
がくせいにほんごじょうず
あの学生は日本語が上手です。
“That student is good at Japanese.”
わたしほ
私はすしが欲しいです。
“I want some sushi.”
The next natural question might be how one can include a verb in the object position, as in the fol-
lowing: “That student is good at speaking Japanese” or “I want to eat some sushi.”
(1) Nominalizing verbs with こと
For the sentence, “that student is good at speaking Japanese,” the phrase with a verb, “speaking
Japanese,” must be used in the object position.
Because the element before a particle must be in a nominal form, using a verb alone in the object
position would not make an acceptable sentence.
The following example shows that adding こと immediately after the plain form of the verb changes
the verb to a nominal form.
がくせいにほんごはなじょうず
あの学生は日本語を話すことが上手です。
“That student is good at speaking Japanese.”
There are two things to remember for now about nominalizing verbs in general. First of all, verbs
that are used in the middle rather than the end of a sentence are normally in the plain form.
Second, こと must be used immediately after the verb to give this verb a nominal function. こと here
has no meaning except its grammatical function of turning a verb into a nominal form. の instead
of こと is also possible, although they are not completely interchangeable. See Stages 1–9, 2–2, and
3–1.
(2) Expressing a desire to do things
The adjective 欲（ほ）しい is used to express the speaker’s desire for a thing. 欲（ほ）しい can take a
noun, but not a verb (even a nominalized verb), as its object in a sentence. For example, the fol-
lowing sentence may not be used to express the notion “I want to eat some sushi,” even with the
use of こと.
わたしたほ
*私はすしを食べることが欲しいです。
[intended meaning] “I want to eat some sushi.”
Instead, the following structure must be used:

た
私はすしが食べたいです。
“I want to eat some sushi.”
食（た）べたい in the above sentence is a derived adjective which expresses that the speaker wants to
eat something.
To derive this type of adjective, drop ~ます from the polite form of the verb and add ~たい (e.g. た
べます to たべたい). The derived form expresses the speaker’s desire to do something. The newly
derived form is an adjective, and is therefore conjugated as an adjective:
た
私はすしが食べたくありません。
“I don’t want to eat sushi.”
た
私はすしが食べたかったです。
“I wanted to eat sushi.”
た
私はすしが食べたくありませんでした。
“I did not want to eat sushi.”
Like 欲（ほ）しい, this predicate may be used to express the speaker’s desire to do something, as well
as to ask another person directly about his or her desire, but it may not be used to express desire
on the part of a third person.
なにた
あなたは何が食べたいですか。
“What do you want to eat?”
た
*リーさんはすしが食べたいです。
“Lee-san wants to eat sushi.”
The following structures may be used to express the third-person’s desire:

たい
リーさんはすしが食べたいと言いました。
“Lee-san said that she (or he) wants to eat sushi.”
た
リーさんはすしが食べたいようです。
“It looks to me like Lee-san wants to eat sushi.”
This structure with ~たい will be discussed again in Stages 1–9 and 2–5.
(3) Expressing the speaker’s plan
This structure will be explained in more detail in Stages 1–9 and 2–7, but it is useful to know how
to express the speaker’s plan or to ask directly about the addressee’s plan. This structure may not
be used to talk about a third person’s plan. As in a few other structures that have been already
introduced （e.g., ~からです, ~ようです, と思（おも）います）, the verb before つもり must be in the plain
form.
あしたなに
リーさんは明日、何をするつもりですか。
“What do you plan to do tomorrow, Lee-san?”
うちかえ
家に帰るつもりです。
“I plan to go home.”
For the third person’s plan, the following structure may be used.
うちかえ
チャンさんは家に帰るつもりだと言いました。
“Chan-san said that she plans to go home.”
4: は and が
The particles は and が have been a controversial topic for many linguists over the years, and it is
not the purpose of this textbook to enter the controversy. It is, however, important for learners to
understand the differences in how these two particles are used as clearly as possible.
In this discussion, the comparison between は and が is made only for the subject が and the topic
は. The object が for semi-transitive predicates and the contrastive は will not be addressed here.
(1) The topic は

 The speaker may signal what she or he wants to talk about by bringing it into the topic position,
marked by は. Just about anything can be brought to the topic position of a sentence.
 When the speaker brings the topic into the sentence, the assumption is that the speaker knows
that the audience or addressee understands the referent of the topic.
 What the speaker wants to convey to the audience or the addressee is the content described in the
comment. In other words, the comment is the new information, and the topic is the information
in the sentence that is understood.
(2) The subject が

In some expressions, the subject and the predicate together constitute a complete unit, called a
comment. Some of these have been introduced in this chapter, such as expressions stating that
someone is “tall” or “smart.”
In these structures, the predicate describes the subject, not the topic. The subject and the predi-
cate together form a single entity, the comment, which describes the topic.
 When the subject is used in a sentence, the new information is the subject; the predicate is the
given (known) information in the sentence.
In this context, in the question about the topic, as well as in the response (that is, when new infor-
mation is asked for and provided) the noun phrase with が may be called the subject.
きのうじゅぎょうき
昨日、だれが授業に来ませんでしたか。
“Who did not come to the class yesterday?”
たなかき
田中さんが来ませんでした。
“Tanaka-san is the one who did not come.”
(3) Comparing sentences with the topic and the subject
Recall the transitive-intransitive verb pairs that were introduced in Stage 1–6:
にほんごせんせいくじじゅぎょうはじ
日本語の先生はいつもちょうど九時に授業を始めます。
“The Japanese teacher always begins the class exactly at 9:00.”
The sentence above, using the transitive verb, conveys what the teacher does (the new information
is in the comment).
Given information New information

にほんごせんせいくじじゅぎょうはじ
日本語の先生はいつもちょうど九時に授業を始めます
じゅぎょうくじはじ
授業が九時に始まりました。
“The class began at 9:00.”
The sentence above with the intransitive verb says what it was that began at 9:00 (the new infor-
mation is the subject).
New information Given information

じゅぎょうくじはじ
授業が九時に始まりました
 Other intransitive predicates

In fact, the difference noted above can occur with any type of predicate, not just with transitive-
intransitive verb pairs.
In the following sentence, what the speaker conveys is when the teacher came, but not who came:
たなかせんせいくじ
田中先生は九時にいらっしゃいました。
“Tanaka-sensei came here at 9:00.”
In the next sentence, what the speaker wants to convey is who came, not what that person did:
たなかせんせい
田中先生がいらっしゃいました。
“Tanaka-sensei was the one who came here.”
It is common to use the subject が with any kind of intransitive verb, not just the intransitive form
of a pair verb, especially when the verb is used with no other information provided.
あめふ
雨が降っています。
“It’s raining.”
じゅぎょうはじ
授業が始まります。
“The class will begin.”
When asking for other information, such as the time when the class begins, the new information
is in the predicate.
じゅぎょうなんじはじ
授業は何時に始まりますか。
“What time will the class begin?”
じゅぎょうじはじ
（授業は）九時に始まります。
“It will begin at 9:00.”
(4) The topicalized subject
As pointed out earlier, any element may be brought to the topic position and marked with the par-
ticle は. This includes the subject.
In the sentence above asking what time the class begins, the subject is considered to be topicalized.
In fact, subjects are often topicalized both in speaking and in writing.
The following examples show how the subject is topicalized in a series of questions.
き
だれが来ましたか。
“Who came?”
せんせい
先生がいらっしゃいました。
“The teacher was the one who came.”
せんせい
先生はどこからいらっしゃいましたか。
“Where did the teacher come from?”
せんせいきょうと
（先生は）京都からいらしゃいました。
“The teacher came from Kyoto.”
What this means is that:
 Any subject may be topicalized;

 Not all topics are derived from subjects.
5: Comparisons
(1) Comparing two things
 Reference particle より
The particle より indicates that the preceding noun is an item or person being compared to the
topic:
にほんおお
アメリカは日本より大きいです。
“America is bigger than Japan.”
The adverb もっと may also be used in comparisons, although it is redundant. It need not be includ-
ed for the sentence to have a comparative meaning.
にほんおお
アメリカは日本よりもっと大きいです。
“America is bigger than Japan.”
Using もっと does not change the meaning of the sentence, but it may make the comparative mean-
ing stronger.
 Adverb ずっと
When the speaker needs to strongly emphasize the degree of the description in the predicate, as in
“America is much bigger than Japan,” the adverb ずっと “far more” may be used.
にほんおお
アメリカは日本よりずっと大きいです。
“America is much bigger than Japan.”
ずっと and もっと are generally not used together.

 Comparative question sentences
When asking a question about the two items, the two things to be compared should be listed
before forming the question. There are a few different ways to list the items to be compared. For
example:
にほん
アメリカと日本と（とは・で・とで・では・とでは）
“between America and Japan”
The question sentence that follows the list includes the pronoun どちら, which is used only to mean
“which of the two.” This pronoun can refer to things, people, or events.
にほんおお
アメリカと日本と、どちらが大きいですか。
“Which is bigger, America or Japan?” [Literally, “America and Japan, which of the two is big?”]
The noun 方（ほう） “side” is often added with の after どちら when comparing two things.
にほんほうおお
アメリカと日本とでは、どちらの方が大きいですか。
“Which is bigger, America or Japan?” [Literally, “America and Japan, which side is big?”]
 Answering comparative questions
When answering a question about a comparison, it is best to use a structure that parallels the
structure of the question. In answering a question that compares two items, the use of 方（ほう） is
required, although it is optional in the question sentence.
ちゅうごくほうおお
アメリカと中国とでは、どちら（の方）が大きいですか。
“Which is bigger, America or China?”
ちゅうごくほうおお
中国の方が大きいです。
“China is bigger.”
どちらも “both” may be used when the answer does not favor one over the other:
にほんごえいごほうむずか
日本語と英語と、どちらの方が難しいですか。
“Which is more difficult, Japanese or English?”
むずか
どちらも難しいです。
“They’re both difficult.”
むずか
どちらも難しくありません。
“Neither of them is difficult.” [Literally, “Both are not difficult”]
 Comparative sentences with negative predicates
If a negative predicate is used in a statement that compares two things, the compared referent is
marked by ほど rather than より, as in the following:
にほんおお
日本はアメリカほど大きくありません。
“Japan is not as big as America.” [Literally, “Japan is not big to the degree of America.”]
In the above sentence, ほど literally means “degree.” The negative sentence 日本は大きくありません
“Japan is not big” is therefore given a reference point by inserting the phrase アメリカほど “to the
degree of America.”
 The experience particle に
The particle に has many functions, several of which have been introduced. に is also used to refer
to a person who directly experiences a certain feeling described in the predicate. The contrastive は
is often used with this に to indicate that this experience is limited to that person (i.e., the one indi-
cated by に).
わたしかんじむずか
私にはカタカナは漢字よりもっと難しいです。
“Katakana is more difficult for me than kanji.”
ひとはなしわ
あの人の話は私にはよく分かりません。
“That person’s talk is quite incomprehensible to me.”
(2) Comparing more than two things
In comparing more than two things or people, the adverb 一番（いちばん） is placed immediately
before the descriptive word. The particle で indicates the boundary of comparison.
だいがくにほんいちばんおおだいがく
この大学は日本で一番大きい大学です。
“This university is the biggest one in Japan.”
 Forming and responding to a question comparing more than two items
When listing things at the beginning of a sentence, the following structures may be used:
なかいちばんやす
これとそれとあれの中（or うち）で、どれが一番、安いですか。
“Out of this one, that one, and that one over there, which is the cheapest?”
The list can be summarized with either ~の中（なか）で or ~のうちで. It is also possible to provide the
category in which a comparison will be made. In this case, the particle で alone or の中（なか）で is
used:
のものなかなにいちばん
飲み物（の中）で、何が一番おいしいですか。
“Among all drinks, which is the most delicious?”
ちゃいちばん
お茶が一番、おいしいです。
“Tea is the most delicious.”
The interrogative pronoun in this construction varies depending on what it refers to (どれ, だれ, ど
こ, なに, etc). どちら cannot be used in this construction; it is used only when two items are being
compared.
いちばんしんせつ
クラスでだれが一番、親切ですか。
“Who is the nicest person in class?”
いちばんしんせつ
キムさんが一番、親切です。
“Kim-san is the nicest.”
Particles also vary, depending on what part of the sentence is being questioned:
ともだちいちばんはな
友達で、だれに一番よく話しますか。
“Which of your friends do you talk to most often?”
やまだいちばんはな
山田さんに一番よく話します。
“I talk to Yamada-san most often.”
(1) Comparing
かとうちゅうごくごはなにほんごちゅうごくごむずか

加藤：チャンさんは中国語も話せますね？すごいですねえ。でも、日本語と中国語とどっちが難しいです
か。
むずか
チャン：どっちも難しいですね。
Kato: You can speak Chinese, too, right? Wow! But which is more difficult, Japanese or
Chinese?
Chan: They’re both difficult.
 どっち
どっち is a colloquial spoken form of どちら.
(2) Health talk
なかだ
中田：ジョーンズさん、どうしましたか。
あたまいた
ジョーンズ：ちょっと、頭が痛いんです。
なかだだいじ
中田：それはいけませんね。お大事に。
Nakada: What’s wrong, Jones-san?
Jones: I have a bit of a headache.
Nakada: Oh, dear, that’s too bad. Do take care.
 どうしましたか
As briefly explained in Stage 1–6, どうしましたか is a fixed expression used for an equivalent expres-
sion in English, “What happened?” In Stage 1–6, it was mentioned that the English interrogative
word “what” and the Japanese equivalent 何（なん・なに） do not always correspond directly with
each other. In Japanese, 何（なん・なに） is used for a very specific thing, but for a vague or open-
ended thing, どう is used. So, even though “what” is used in English, it should not be always trans-
lated as 何（なん・なに） in Japanese.
 ちょっと
ちょっと is a colloquial expression of 少（すこ）し, “a little.”
 それはいけませんね
それはいけませんね expresses that the speaker feels badly about the addressee’s poor condition.
 お大事（だいじ）に
お大事（だいじ）に expresses the speaker’s hope that the addressee will take care of him/herself,
because the speaker knows the addressee is not feeling well.
(3) When the speaker does not know the answer
せたかひとひくひとやまなか
 あの背が高い人と低い人と、どちらが山中さんですか。
ぼくわ
 ええと・・・。さあ、僕にはよく分かりません。すみません。
だいじょうぶき
 ああ、大丈夫ですよ。スミスさんに聞きますから。
 Which of those people is Yamanaka-san, the tall one or the short one?
 Let’s see… Uh, it’s hard for me to tell. I’m sorry.
 Oh, that’s all right. Don’t worry, I’ll ask Smith-san.
 ええと
ええと is a vocalization that indicates that the speaker is trying to decide or recall what to say. In this
case, the speaker is trying to come up with the correct answer. The first syllable of the word may
be drawn out while the speaker tries to find the answer or something to say.
 大丈夫（だいじょうぶ）です
This is one of the most frequently used expressions. When used in a question as in 大丈夫（だいじ
ょうぶ）ですか “Are you all right?” the speaker asks if the addressee is all right (health, general cir-
cumstances, current state, etc.). 大丈夫（だいじょうぶ）です may either be the response to this ques-
tion (“I’m OK”), or an expression used by the speaker to ease the worry of the addressee (“That’s
OK”).
 スミスさんに聞（き）きますから
This is almost like giving a reason as an afterthought. から is the conjunction used to give a reason,
but the way it is used here is incomplete. If this clause came before 大丈夫（だいじょうぶ）です, it
would mean “Because I’ll ask Smith-san, I’ll be all right.” See Stages 1–9 and 2–3 for a more com-
plete explanation of から. Note that the polite form rather than the plain form is used before から.
When using this structure as an afterthought, this is not uncommon.
Stage 1-8 Plain Forms of Predicates
Structures
1. Different Speech Styles of Predicates
(1) The goal of this section
(2) Polite forms
(3) Plain forms
2. Preparation for Conjugating Plain Predicates
(1) Base forms
(2) Verb grouping
3. Plain Positive Imperfectives
4. Plain Negative Imperfectives
5. Plain Positive Perfectives
6. Plain Negative Perfectives
7. Plain Volitional Forms
8. Speech Levels
(1) Politeness and honorifics
(2) Different politeness degrees of negative predicates
9. Overall Review
(1) Casual speech: asking a question and responding
(2) Female and male casual conversation
(3) Responses by male and female speakers
(4) Urging the other
Structures
1: Different Speech Styles of Predicates
(1) The goal of this section
Any speaker or writer (the writer is also assumed here, although this will not be mentioned each
time) of Japanese should use a speech style that is appropriate to his or her circumstances. In
Japanese, verbs, adjectives, and the copula conjugate, and all predicates have both plain and polite
forms. Everything that can be expressed in the polite form can be expressed in the plain form and
vice versa.
In this section, the focus will be to learn the aspectual plain forms of all predicate types. The sys-
tem is quite regular, but there is a great deal to learn. It is therefore essential to study the content
of this section thoroughly; however, it is also important not to get discouraged by the amount of
information presented. This content should be revisited as often as needed, and it must be prac-
ticed frequently for solid learning over time.
(2) Polite forms
 In speaking
Polite forms are used in formal situations such as classrooms, conferences, speeches, etc., in
which the speaker judges it appropriate to maintain some kind of social or psychological distance
between him/herself and the addressee(s). These forms are also used to address people whom the
speaker does not know well, even when the situation is not that formal.
 In writing
The polite form is used in personal writing such as letters, postcards, or e-mail messages, although
the plain form may also be used in these cases (see below). The polite form may be used in letters,
etc. even when the writer knows the receiver of the mail quite well. This may be because things
such as letters and postcards put some distance between the two parties involved. Novels or essays,
which are normally written in an impersonal style by employing the plain form, may use the polite
form in some cases. The use of the polite form in such works conveys the sense that the author is
talking directly to the readers (i.e., narratives).
(3) Plain forms
 In speaking
Plain forms are used in casual conversations: when speaking to one’s family members and close
friends, for instance. The use of the plain form indicates that there is little to no personal distance
between the two parties involved. In some cases, an individual who is in an authoritative position
may use the plain forms to her or his subordinates. This is particularly true of male speakers.
 In writing
The plain form is used in places where little to no personal relation is considered. It can be used
in impersonal writing such as newspapers, essays, journals, etc. E-mail messages, or at times let-
ters and postcards, to close friends and family members are like talking, so the plain form may be
used.
 Structural requirement
Using the plain form in some structures may be grammatically required regardless of the speech
style. For instance, predicates used in the non-final position are normally in the plain form even
when the speech is in the polite style. This point will be discussed in detail from Stage 1–9 onward.
かれにほんごはなじょうず
彼は日本語を話すことが上手です。
“He is good at speaking Japanese.”
s 2: Preparation for Conjugating Plain Predicates
(1) Base forms
All conjugations are based on certain predicate forms, which are termed base forms in this course.
Some—not all—base forms have the same form as the dictionary forms, but differ in purpose, as
defined below:
 Plain forms: these forms have different aspectual forms.
 Dictionary forms: these forms are used to represent each predicate in dictionaries and citations.
They thus have no aspectual forms, as plain forms do. Derived forms cannot be dictionary forms.
 Base forms: these forms are the base for all predicate conjugations. Like dictionary forms, base
forms do not have aspectual forms. But unlike dictionary forms, derived forms (potential, passive,
causative, たい-forms, etc.) are the base form for further conjugations.
 The copula
The base form of the copula is だ. The copula is needed for conjugations of all nominal predicates.
ぼくいちねんせい
僕は一年生だ。
“I am a freshman.”
へや
この部屋はきれいだ。
“This room is clean.”
 Adjectives
Since adjectives conjugate (the last ~い being the element that goes through the changes), the cop-
ula is not needed for conjugation in the plain form. The base form of an adjective is that adjective
without the copula.
たか
この本は高い。
“This book is expensive.”
Derived adjectives such as the たい-form (indicating the speaker’s desire) are also base forms.
日本に行きたい。
“I want to go to Japan.”
 Verbs
Some base forms are the same as the dictionary forms, but not all base forms are dictionary forms.
For instance, some base forms are derived by adding or inserting suffixes; these derived forms are
the base forms for conjugations, but they are not dictionary forms. Several derived forms will be
introduced from Stage 1–9 on.
私は毎日, 日本語を話す。
“I speak Japanese every day.”
(2) Verb grouping
Verbs are classified into three different groups according to the final syllable of the base form. In
order to be able to conjugate verbs in different aspects and forms, it is necessary to learn which of
these groups a given verb belongs to. Once this is understood, it is then possible to derive differ-
ent forms.
The verb conjugations are very regular, so learning the rules thoroughly will establish a powerful
basis for learning Japanese independently.
Never rely on rote memory for any conjugations. There are far fewer rules than there are different
derived forms. Trying to learn conjugations by rote is highly inefficient and often leads to inaccu-
racy.
Rules Examples
Group 1 The verbs in this group always end with る. The syllable たべる, みる,
immediately before る contains the vowels i or e. おきる, ねる
Group 2 All verbs that end with a syllable other than る are in かく, およぐ,
this group （く, ぐ, す, む, ぬ, ぶ, つ, う）はなす, よむ,
しぬ, よぶ,
まつ, かう
There are some verbs that end with る in this group. In わかる, おこる,
this case the syllable immediately before る contains the うる
vowels u, o, or a
There are a small number of verbs that end with る and かえる, はしる
contain the vowels i or e in the syllable before る (same
as Group 1), but nevertheless are Group 2 verbs
Group 3 The two verbs する and くる and compound verbs with する, くる
する and くる all belong to this group
 Points to remember about verb grouping

Although the information given below is included in the chart above, it is repeated here to confirm
and solidify the learner’s understanding of the following important points:
 There are no exceptions to Group 3. The verbs that contain する and くる are always in Group 3.
 There are also no exceptions for verbs ending with a syllable other than る. These verbs are always
in Group 2.
 When verbs end with る and the syllable immediately before る contains the vowels u, o, or a, they
are always in Group 2. There are no exceptions to this rule. For instance, the following verbs are
in Group 2: わかる, おこる, うる
 When a verb ends with る, and the syllable immediately before る contains the vowels i or e, then
the verb is most likely in Group 1. For example, the following verbs belong to Group 1: たべる,
みる, おしえる
 There are a few verbs ending in る that belong to Group 2, even though the syllable immediately
before る contains the vowels i or e. There is no system for determining which of these verbs are
in Group 2. For instance, きる “to wear” is a Group 1 verb, while きる “to cut” belongs to Group 2.
In the same way, いる “to exist” is a Group 1 verb, but いる “to need” is a Group 2 verb. Because
of these variations, the group number of each verb is given in the summary of the new vocabu-
lary at the end of each chapter in the Workbooks from this chapter onward.
3: Plain Positive Imperfectives

The plain positive imperfective forms have the same form as the base forms. This particular aspect
of these forms is called the “positive imperfective form.”
Since nouns cannot change forms, the aspectual differentiation of the nominal predicate must
rely on the conjugation of the copula. For the nominal predicate, therefore, use the base form of
the copula, which is だ, to indicate the positive imperfective aspect.
わたしがくせい
私は学生だ。
“I am a student.”
Use the same structure when an adjectival noun is used in the predicate.
へやしず
この部屋は静かだ。
“This room is quiet.”
While the copula だ in the nominal predicate is required for the plain positive imperfective aspect,
it is not a necessary element in the adjectival predicate for this aspect. Since adjectives do conju-
gate for aspects, adjectival predicates do not need to rely on the conjugation of the copula. The cop-
ula in the adjectival predicate is necessary only for the polite form.
ほんおお
この本は大きい。
“This book is big.”
The predicate of the following sentence is a derived adjective.
すしが食べたい。
“I want to eat sushi.”
When an adjective modifies a noun in the predicate, it belongs to the nominal predicate. だ, there-
fore, is necessary in this case.
おおほん
これは大きい本だ。
“This is a big book.”
As mentioned above, the plain positive imperfective aspect of a verb in the predicate appears to be
the same as the base form.
わたしまいにちみ
私は毎日テレビを見る。
“I watch TV every day.”
パクさんは明日、日本に行く。
“Park-san will go to Japan tomorrow.”
4: Plain Negative Imperfectives

The rule for changing the base form of the copula to the plain negative imperfective aspectual
form is as follows. As in the polite form, the use of じゃ here is a little more colloquial than では.
だ　 →　ではない or じゃない
ぼくがくせい
僕は学生では（じゃ）ない。
“I am not a student.”
When an adjectival noun is used in the predicate, use the same structure.
これは大切では（じゃ）ない。
“This is not important.”
To change the base form of an adjective to the plain negative imperfective aspectual form, use the
following rule:
~い　 →　 ~く　ない
ほんたか
この本は高くない。
“This book is not expensive.”
だいがく
この大学はあまりよくない。
“This college is not very good.”
See the following example with a derived adjective:

日本に行きたくない。
“I don’t want to go to Japan.”
The following are the rules for changing the base form of a verb to its plain negative imperfective
aspectual form. The verb group must first be identified before applying these rules.
Rules Examples
た
Group 1 る→ない食べない
か
Group 2 change the final vowel of 書かない
the last syllable u to a and then add ない*
Group 3 くる→こない, する→しないこない, しない
* Verbs that end with う belong to Group 2. This う comes from the w-line of the hiragana chart. Recall that the only
sounds in the w-line currently used in Japanese are わ and を. Therefore, the plain negative imperfective of a う-ending
verb is as follows: かう→かわない; つかう→つかわない
み
テレビは見ない。
“I won’t watch TV.”
かねつか
お金を使わない。
“I won’t use any money.”
 The verb ある
The verb ある has a somewhat modified conjugation. Although ある is a Group 2 verb, its plain neg-
ative imperfective form is ない rather than あらない (the form that would result if ある followed the
rule).
いまぼくかね
今、僕はお金がない。
“I don’t have any money right now.”
5: Plain Positive Perfectives

The following rule changes the base form of the copula into the plain positive perfective form:
だ　 → だった
私は学生だった。
“I was a student.”
くるま
あの車はきれいだった。
“The car was clean.”
The following rule changes the base form of an adjective into the plain positive perfective form:
~い　 →　 ~かった
ほんたか
あの本は高かった。
“That book was expensive.”
えいが
あの映画はよかった。
“That movie was good.”
日本に行きたかった。
“I wanted to go to Japan.”
The plain positive perfective forms of verbs have more rules than most other forms. However,
since these same rules can be applied to other forms, it is very useful to learn them.
Rules Examples
た
Group 1 る→た食べた
か
Group 2 く→いた* 書いた
およ
ぐ→いだ泳いだ
はな
す→した話した
よしあそ
む, ぬ, ぶ→んだ読んだ, 死んだ, 遊んだ
まつかかえ
つ, う, る→った待った, 使った, 帰った
Group 3 する→した, くる→きたした, きた
* The only exception to the rule above is the verb 行（い）く. Although this verb ends with く, the plain positive perfective
form is 行（い）った.
あさはんた
朝ご飯にパンを食べた。
“I ate a piece of bread for breakfast.”
かとうえいがい
加藤さんと映画に行った。
“I went to a movie with Kato-san.”
There is only one verb that ends with ぬ. That verb is 死（し）ぬ, which means “to die.” 泳（およ）ぐ,
used for the example of the ~ぐ ending verb above, means “to swim.”
6: Plain Negative Perfectives

There is only one rule for this form; it applies to all predicate types.
First change the base form of the predicate to the plain negative imperfective form, which always
ends in ない. Then change the final ~い to ~かった.
私は学生じゃなかった。
“I wasn’t a student.”
へや
部屋はきれいじゃなかった。
“The room was not clean.”
ほんたか
あの本は高くなかった。
“That book wasn’t expensive.”
ほん
あの本はよくなかった。
“That book wasn’t good.”
日本に行きたくなかった。
“I didn’t want to go to Japan.”
きのうみ
昨日はテレビを見なかった。
“I didn’t watch TV yesterday.”
きょねんにほんい
去年、日本に行かなかった。
“I didn’t go to Japan last year.”
7: Plain Volitional Forms

As introduced in Stage 1–3, sentences with the volitional copula express that something is highly
probable. See Stage 1–3 if review is necessary.
だ　 →　だろう
ひとにほんじん
あの人は日本人だろう。
“That person is probably Japanese.”
しんせつ
あの人は親切だろう。
“That person is probably kind.”
 Adjectival predicates (reference only)
The plain volitional forms of adjectives derived from base forms are not commonly used except for
in some fixed expressions.
The plain volitional form of adjectives is nevertheless introduced here to make its existence
known, but this form need not be practiced, at least for the time being.
い　 →　かろう
おおおお
大きい大きかろう
“big” “probably big”
いいよかろう
“good” “probably good”
 Sentences with the plain volitional form of the copula
A sentence followed by the plain volitional form of the copula expresses the speaker’s inference of
a high possibility:
ほんたか
この本は高いだろう。
“This book is probably expensive.”
Different aspects are indicated in the predicate before だろう. See the following examples:
スミスさんはアメリカ人じゃないだろう。
“Smith-san is probably not an American.”
スミスさんは日本に行かなかっただろう。
“Smith-san probably did not go to Japan.”
The plain volitional verb forms have other uses in addition to the meaning of “Let’s do such-and-
such.” All verbs therefore have the volitional forms, although in some cases the volitional forms
may not be used for the meaning of “Let’s do such-and-such.”
Rules Examples
み
Group 1 る→よう見よう
い
Group 2 change the final vowel u to the double o (oo) 行こう
Group 3 する→しよう, くる→こようしよう, こよう
み
テレビを見よう。
“Let’s watch TV.”
いっしょべんきょう
一緒に勉強しよう。
“Let’s study together.”
8: Speech Levels
(1) Politeness and honorifics
As noted in Stage 1–5, the honorific system in Japanese is very complex, and it is not reasonable to
expect anyone to learn it in a short period of time. Therefore, it is introduced gradually throughout
the course. See particularly Stages 2–6 and 4–6.
Knowing when to use honorifics is not as straightforward as one might imagine. Some use of hon-
orifics is socially expected from everyone, but in some cases, the speaker chooses to use honorifics
simply to be polite regardless of the situation.
There are certain tendencies—and these are only tendencies—concerning the use of honorifics:
 Women tend to use honorifics more frequently than men;

 The use of honorifics, especially among young people, seems to be decreasing recently in daily
life, although people are still expected to use them once they become adults or enter the work-
place;
 Honorifics may sometimes be used solely for the purpose of politeness rather than to acknowl-
edge the superior position of the topic; for example, when addressing a stranger.
At this level of study, the goal is to learn the principles underlying the system. The honorific sys-
tem affects verbs most noticeably, but other parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives, and the cop-
ula are also affected.
Do not confuse politeness, 丁寧語（ていねいご）, with honorifics, 敬語（けいご）. They are related,
but the following difference must be noted.
Politeness has to do with the relationship between the speaker and the addressee. The use of hon-
orifics, on the other hand, has to do with the relationship between the speaker and the topic of the
sentence.
The use of ~ます or です at the end of a sentence indicates the polite form. The use of an honorif-
ic verb indicates the speaker’s respect towards the topic, which may or may not be the person the
speaker is addressing. Honorific verbs therefore have polite forms and plain forms.
The diagram below illustrates the relationship between the speaker and either the topic or the
addressee.
いらっしゃるいらっしゃいます
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
topic addressee topic addressee
These structures can be seen in the following examples:

けんきゅうしつ
先生は今日は研究室にいらっしゃる。
“The teacher is in her office today.”
先生は今日は研究室にいらっしゃいます。
“The teacher is in her office today.”
In both sentences above, the honorific verb is used to show the speaker’s respect towards 先生.
The difference is the verb ending, ~る or ~ます. The use of the plain form in the first sentence indi-
cates that the speaker is talking with someone close about 先生 while the use of the polite form in
the second sentence suggests that the speaker is talking about 先生 with someone who is higher
in social status or someone who the speaker does not know well.
 Talking with and about family members

When a speaker talks to a close friend or a family member, the plain form should be used. All fam-
ily members are considered to be うち-group, so neither the polite form nor honorifics are used
when talking to them or about them.
(2) Different politeness degrees of negative predicates
There are two ways to make negatives polite. The first way is to use the polite negatives, as follows:
なかだ
Nominal predicate: 私は中田では（じゃ）ありません。
ほん
Adjectival predicate: この本はよくありません。
かね
Verbal predicate: 私はお金がありません。
The second way to make negatives polite is simply to add です to the plain negative form. Since this
negative form is less formal than the polite form, it is called the casual-polite form. See the follow-
ing examples:
なかだ
Nominal predicate: 私は中田では（じゃ）ないです。
ほん
Adjectival predicate: この本はよくないです。
かね
Verbal predicate: 私はお金がないです。
The degrees of politeness of these negative forms are as follows (in order from most to least polite):
Nominal predicate: ではありません→じゃありません→ではないです→じゃないです
Adjectival predicate: よくありません→よくないです
Verbal predicate: ありません→ないです
~ないです is not used as often for verbal predicates as it is for nominal and adjectival predicates.
The use of ないです to mean “I don’t have” (as in 私はお金（かね）がないです, above) is more fre-
quent than the use of ~ないです with other verbs, however.
9: Overall Review
 Summary of the conjugations of the five aspects (plain forms)
Aspect Nominal Adjectival Verbal

(Copula)
Positive だい (1) る
Imperfective (2) く, ぐ, す, む, ぬ, ぶ, つ, う, る
(3) する, くる
Negative では（じゃ）ないい→くない (1) ない
Imperfective (2) u→a ない
(3) しない, こない
Positive だったい→かった (1) た
Perfective (2) いた*, いだ, した, んだ, った
(3) した, きた
Negative では（じゃ）なかったい→くなかったない→なかった
Perfective
Volitional だろうい→かろう (1) よう
(2) u→oo
(3) しよう, こよう
* Exception: positive perfective （いく→いった）

 Summary of a nominal predicate (polite and plain forms)

(upper = polite; lower = plain)
いちねんせい
Imperfective Positive 一年生です。 I’m a freshman.
一年生だ。
Negative 一年生では（じゃ）ありません。 I’m not a freshman.

一年生では（じゃ）ない。
Perfective Positive 一年生でした。 I was a freshman.

一年生だった。
Negative 一年生では（じゃ）ありませんでした。 I wasn’t a freshman.

一年生では（じゃ）なかった。
Volitional Positive 一年生でしょう。 (Someone) is

一年生だろう。 probably a freshman.
 Summary of an adjectival predicate (polite and plain forms)

きょうさむ
Imperfective Positive 今日は寒いです。 It’s cold today.
今日は寒い。
Negative 今日は寒くありません。 It’s not cold today.

今日は寒くない。
Perfective Positive 今日は寒かったです。 It was cold today.

今日は寒かった。
Negative 今日は寒くありませんでした。 It wasn’t cold today.

今日は寒くなかった。
Volitional Positive 今日は寒いでしょう。 It will probably be cold

今日は寒いだろう。 today.
 Summary of a verbal predicate (polite and plain forms)

にほんごべんきょう
Imperfective Positive 日本語を勉強します。 I will study Japanese.
日本語を勉強する。 I study Japanese (regularly).
Negative 日本語を勉強しません。 I won’t study Japanese.

日本語を勉強しない。 I don’t study Japanese.
Perfective Positive 日本語を勉強しました。 I studied Japanese.

日本語を勉強した。
Negative 日本語を勉強しませんでした。 I didn’t study Japanese.

日本語を勉強しなかった。
Volitional Positive 日本語を勉強しましょう。 Let’s study Japanese.

日本語を勉強しよう。
 The verb ある
Polite forms Plain forms
Positive imperfective ありますある
Negative imperfective ありませんない
Positive perfective ありましたあった
Negative perfective ありませんでしたなかった
(1) Casual speech: asking a question and responding
All of the following examples are casual conversations between people who know each other very
well. They are either close friends or family members.
It is not easy to master casual speech. The difficulty lies in the judgment which each speaker must
make—determining the appropriate speech style and sentence ending for each conversational sit-
uation.
す
 すし、好き？
だいす
 （う）ん、もちろん、大好き。
 You like sushi?
 Yeah, of course, I love it.
 Particle deletion in casual speech

Particles are often deleted in conversation, but they are deleted even more frequently in casual
speech. Particles such as the topic は, the subject が, the object が, and the object を are deleted
much more often than others such as に, で, and から.
 Question sentences: absence of the copula and the question particle

For both female and male speakers, the use of the copula or the question particle か is not neces-
sary in question sentences.
 うん、ん
うん or ん is a very casual way to indicate agreement. You may not even hear the first う in some
cases. You may hear only the sound ん. The actual sound is difficult to describe, so it is important
to hear a native speaker say it, either personally or via sound files.
 もちろん
もちろん is a conversational word that means “of course.”
(2) Female and male casual conversation
In casual speaking, the differences between male and female speakers surface more prominently
than in formal conversation. Such differences are usually in word choice, sentence-final particles,
and the use of the copula.
おんながくせいずいぶんたか

女の学生：このかばん、随分、高いわねえ。
おとこがくせいほんとうたか
男の学生：本当に高いねえ。これ、どこのかばん？
おんながくせい
女の学生：アメリカのじゃない？
おとこがくせい
男の学生：(after confirming) うん。そうだよ。アメリカのだよ。
Female student: This bag is pretty expensive, isn’t it?
Male student: It sure is. Where was it made?
Female student: Isn’t it American?
Male student: [after confirming] Yeah, you’re right. It’s American.
 The sentence-final particle わ

The sentence-final particle わ is used only in conversation by female speakers. This particle con-
veys that the assertion of the speaker is a new discovery. In the case of a nominal predicate, だ must
be used with わ.
ひとせんせい
あの人は先生だわ。
“That person is the teacher.” [The implication is that the speaker didn’t know it before.]
ほんほんとうむずか
この本は本当に難しいわ。
“This book is really difficult.” [The implication is that she didn’t know until she started reading it.]
あしたい
明日、行くわ。
“I want to tell you that I will be going tomorrow.”
 じゃない？
じゃない？ at the end of a sentence indicates that the speaker is fairly sure, but not 100% certain,
that the information is correct. Therefore, じゃない is used to obtain a confirmation from the lis-
tener. A rising intonation should be used.
 Presence of だ
だ is used after a nominal predicate when another particle is present (よ in this case). The use of だ
in the last line indicates that the speaker is a male. A female speaker would normally not use だ if
it is the last element of a sentence (e.g. そうだ). A female speaker uses だ followed by a particle, as
in そうだわ.
(3) Responses by male and female speakers
 Male speaker’s responses
た
 チャンさん、これ、食べない？
いま
 ううん。今はいらないよ。
 これは？
 それもいらないよ。
 Chang-san, won’t you eat this?
 No, thanks. I don’t want it right now.
 How about this?
 I don’t want that, either.

 Female speaker’s responses

た
 ジョーンズさん、これ、食べない？
 ううん。今はいらないわ。
 これは？
 それもいらないわ。
 Jones-san, won’t you eat this?
 No, thanks. I don’t want it right now.
 How about this?
 I don’t want that, either.
 ううん
ううん is a very casual way of saying “No.” It is often accompanied by a quick side-to-side head move-
ment. This response is especially difficult to transcribe, so it is important for the learner to hear
native speakers (like those in the sound files) utter this response and not to depend on the written
representation alone. Imitating the native speaker’s intonation of this response is important.
(4) Urging the other
い
 さあ、行こうか。
いまいちじい
 今？一時に行かない？
いちじ
 一時？いいよ。
 OK. Shall we go now?
 Now? How about at 1:00?
 1:00? All right.

 さあ with a falling tone

さあ here indicates that the speaker is suggesting, or even urging, the addressee to do a certain
thing, “going” in the above case, at the time of the speech. さあ, in this case, must be pronounced
with a short falling tone.
さあ spoken with a longer rising tone is used while trying to think of an answer (one which the
speaker probably does not know), as pointed out in the Conversational Devices section of Stage
1–4.
Stage 1-9 Bridging Stage 1 and Stage 2
Structures
1. When to Use Plain Forms
(1) Plain forms in the final and non-final positions
(2) Examples of predicates in the non-final position
2. Complex Structures
(1) About complex sentences
(2) Adjectival clauses
(3) Adverbial clauses joined by から
(4) Adverbial clauses joined by 時（とき）, 前（まえ）に, and 後（あと）で
3. Complex Predicates
(1) What are complex predicates?
(2) つもりだ
(3) だろう
(4) かもしれない
4. New Forms
(1) Conjunctive form
(2) Stems
5. Derived verbs
(1) About derived verbs
(2) Potential verbs
(3) Passive verbs
(4) Causative verbs
This chapter prepares the students for a smoother transition from Stage 1 to Stage 2. Most struc-
tures introduced in Stage 1e are basic, simple sentences. In Stage 2, more complex structures will
be introduced, but many of the structures introduced in Stage 2 include structures already intro-
duced in Stage 1. The aim of this chapter is to show how the pieces of information from Stage 1 can
fit into a more global mapping of Japanese grammar. Many of the structures summarized in this
chapter have already been introduced. Such an overall summary, together with a couple of new ele-
ments, should give learners a more comprehensive view. This chapter does not follow the typical
organization of a chapter (for example, it lacks a section covering Conversational Devices).
Structures
s 1: When to Use Plain Forms
In Stage 1–8, the plain form of all basic aspectual forms was introduced. In this section, some of
the uses of plain forms, especially in non-final positions, are reviewed and explained.
 Final positions
Plain forms are used for different functions. In speaking, they are used in the final position of a
sentence to indicate that the speaker and the addressee are in a close relationship (e.g., close
friends, family members).
When plain forms are used in the final position of a sentence in writing, it indicates that the writ-
ing is impersonal. That is, the writer is not addressing any particular individual (e.g., newspaper
articles, essays).
 Non-final positions
For predicates in the non-final position of a sentence, the plain predicate is used in most cases,
regardless of the speech (or writing) style. Some examples are given below.
(2) Examples of predicates in the non-final position
 Nominalizing verbs
As discussed in Stage 1–7, when a verb is used in a non-final position—such as the topic or object
position of a sentence—it must be in the plain form with the functional noun こと (this noun is
therefore called a nominalizer). Review the following examples, which have no verbs in the topic
or object positions:
ぼくごす
私（僕）は日本語が好きです。
“I like the Japanese language.”
私（僕）は日本語ができます。
“I have some ability in Japanese.”
日本語はやさしいです。
“Japanese is easy.”
Now look at how the verb 話（はな）す is used in a non-final position in the same sentences. In the
following examples, こと follows the verb 話（はな）す to nominalize it:
ぼくごはなす
私（僕）は日本語を話すことが好きです。
“I like to speak Japanese.”
はな
私（僕）は日本語を話すことができます。
“I can speak Japanese.”
はな
日本語を話すことはやさしいです。
“Speaking Japanese is easy.”
 Reporting what others have said
When reporting what others have said, the verb 言（い）う “to say” is used, as in the following exam-
ples. The particle と connects the content of the quote and the final verb, 言（い）う. This was covered
briefly in Stage 1–6. If it is not a direct quote, the content of the quote should be expressed in the
plain form. The following examples illustrate the different predicate types and aspectual forms
used in the content of the quote.
やまなかごすい
山中さんは日本語が好きだと言いました。
“Yamanaka-san said that she likes the Japanese language.”
い
山中さんは日本語はやさしくないと言いました。
“Yamanaka-san said that Japanese isn’t easy.”
い
山中さんは日本語ができたと言いました。
“Yamanaka-san said that he once was able to speak Japanese.”
To ask what another person said, use the following structure:

やまなかなんい
山中さんは何と言いましたか。
“What did Yamanaka-san say?”
 Conveying the speaker’s thought
As mentioned in Stage 1–6, the speaker’s opinion can be conveyed by the verb 思（おも）う “to think.”
The content of the speaker’s thought must be in the plain form. Remember that this verb, 思（おも）
う “to think,” is used by the speaker only to express his or her own thoughts or to ask another per-
son directly about their opinion. 思（おも）う may not be used to express a third person’s thoughts.
Because of this, even when the first-person pronoun is not used in the topic position, it should be
understood that the topic of the sentence is the speaker.
ぼくおも
私（僕）はあの人は日本人だと思います。
“I think that that person is Japanese.”
おも
日本語はやさしいと思います。
“I think that Japanese is easy.”
なかだあしたい
中田さんは明日、日本に行くと思います。
“I think that Nakada-san will go to Japan tomorrow.”
To ask for an opinion, どう is used rather than 何（なん）, as shown below. どう is normally used for
general information while 何（なに・なん） is used for specific information. Compare the following
two question sentences:
なかだ
中田さんは日本語についてどう思いますか。
“What do you think of Japanese, Nakada-san?”
やまなかなんい
山中さんは何と言いましたか。
“What did Yamanaka-san say?”
 Hearing
The verb 聞（き）く has two meanings, “to hear” (or “to listen”) and “to ask.” When discussing some-
thing he or she heard, the speaker can report the content in the plain form.
ぼくき
私（僕）はあの人は日本人だと聞きました。
“I heard that that person is Japanese.”
しけん
日本語の試験はやさしかったと聞きました。
“I heard that the Japanese examination was easy.”
なかだきのうい
中田さんは昨日、日本に行かなかったと聞きました。
“I heard that Nakada-san didn’t go to Japan yesterday.”
To ask about what the addressee has heard, どんなこと is used. In this case, the particle を is used,
but not と.
き
あなたはどんなことを聞きましたか。
“What did you hear?”
When asking the exact content of what the addressee has heard, 何（なん） is used. Here, too, を, not
と, is used:
なにき
あなたは中田さんに (or から) 何を聞きましたか。
“What did you hear from Nakada-san?”
In responding to the two questions above, と is placed between the content and the verb 聞（き）く.
しけん
日本語の試験はやさしかったと聞きました。
“I heard that the Japanese examination was easy.”
 Asking
When reporting what one has asked others, the reported content must be in the form of a question
sentence ending in the particle か. In this case, the use of the particle と between the content of the
question and the final verb 聞（き）く becomes unnecessary.
しけん
私はルームメートに日本語の試験はやさしかったか聞きました。
“I asked my roommate if the Japanese examination was easy.”
あしたい
私（僕）は中田さんに明日、日本に行くか聞きました。
“I asked Nakada-san if she would go to Japan tomorrow.”
The copula should not be used after the noun in the nominal predicate of the question clause:
ぼくき
私（僕）は中田さんにあの人は日本人か聞きました。
“I asked Nakada-san whether that person is Japanese.”
Sentences with and without と differ slightly in meaning when reporting questions. When と is
used, the sentence reports how the question was posed.
To ask exactly what question was posed to another person, use 何（なん）. In this case, the particle
と is used after 何（なん）
なん
あなたは中田さんに何と聞きましたか。
“How did you ask Nakada-san?”
しけん
私は中田さんに日本語の試験はやさしかったかと聞きました。
“I asked Nakada-san, ‘Was the Japanese exam easy?’”
To ask for the content of what the addressee asked, use どんなこと. In this case, the particle を is
used for どんなこと
あなたはどんなことを聞きましたか。
“What kinds of things did you ask?”
日本について聞きました。
“I asked him about Japan.”
Please see Stage 3–3 for a more detailed account of the questions used in the non-final position.
2: Complex Structures
(1) About complex sentences
A sentence that contains only one predicate is called a simple sentence. A complex sentence con-
sists of at least two clauses. These two clauses form a relationship, with one being the independent
clause (also called the main clause) and the other being the dependent clause (or subordinate
clause).
An independent (main) clause is one that would function as a complete sentence even if the depen-
dent (subordinate) clause were not joined to it. Unlike independent clauses, dependent clauses
cannot be used in isolation. They depend on the presence of independent clauses to complete their
meaning.
The following are some examples from English. The clauses in bold type are dependent (subordi-
nate) clauses.
I read the book that Nakada-san bought yesterday.

I did not go to school today because I was not feeling well.
When I was not feeling well, I did not go to school.
The function of a dependent clause is similar to that of an adjective or adverb, though on the level
of a clause rather than a word or a phrase. Therefore, dependent clauses are classified either as
adverbial or adjectival clauses.
(2) Adjectival clauses
A noun or noun phrase may be modified by an adjective, an adjectival noun, or a noun, as

explained earlier (see Stages 1–1 and 1–2). A noun (phrase) can also be modified by a clause. In
Japanese, the element modifying a noun (phrase) is always placed before the noun (phrase) that it
modifies.
A clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase is called an adjectival clause because of its function.
The first of the three English sentences above, “I read the book that Nakada-san bought yesterday,”
is an example of a sentence with an adjectival clause. The clause “that Nakada-san bought yester-
day” modifies the noun phrase, “the book.”
 Two topics in one sentence
A sentence that contains an adjectival or an adverbial clause consists of at least two clauses, one of
them dependent and the other independent. Each of these clauses may have the same topic (sub-
ject, in the case of English) or a different one, as seen in the following English sentences:
I read the book that I bought yesterday.

I read the book that Nakada-san bought yesterday.
In Japanese, when the dependent and independent clauses have different topics, が is used for the
topic of the dependent clause and は for the topic of the independent clause. When the topics are
identical, は is used once, and the topic is not repeated.
The equivalent Japanese sentence of the first English sentence above is therefore:
きのうか
私は[昨日、買った]本を読みました。
“I read the book that I bought yesterday.”
The clause marked by brackets is the adjectival clause. No particle is needed between the verb in
the adjectival clause and the noun it modifies.
The Japanese equivalent of the second English sentence above would be:
きのうか
私は[昨日、中田さんが買った]本を読みました。
“I read the book that Nakada-san bought yesterday.”
Note that が is used after the topic in the adjectival clause, and は after the topic of the main clause.
(3) Adverbial clauses joined by から
The conjunction だから was introduced earlier as a sentential conjunction.

きのうびょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は病気でした。だから、授業を休みました。
“I was sick yesterday. Therefore, I didn’t go to class.”
These two separate sentences can be joined into a single sentence that consists of a dependent
clause and an independent clause. The function of this dependent clause is adverbial, because it
gives the reason for the independent clause; it is therefore an adverbial clause. The predicate in an
adverbial clause is normally in the plain form. The two clauses are joined by the clausal conjunc-
tion から.
きのうびょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は病気だったから、授業を休みました。
“I was sick yesterday, so I didn’t go to class.” or “Because I was sick yesterday, I didn’t go to class.”
In the above sentence, the first clause, 私は病気（びょうき）だった “I was sick” provides the explana-
tion for the main clause, 授業（じゅぎょう）を休（やす）みました “I didn’t go to class.”
When two clauses are joined by the conjunction から, the first clause always indicates the reason
for the consequence expressed in the main clause.
The adverbial clause must come before the independent clause, just as an adverb must be used
before the word it modifies. Reversing the order of the two clauses is unacceptable in Japanese.
As discussed earlier, the interrogative pronouns どうして and なぜ may be used to ask the reasons
for certain consequences. When used in this way, なぜ is more formal than どうして. Very colloqui-
ally, なんで may be used as well. Since these interrogative pronouns have an adverbial function, no
particle is necessary. Although the interrogative pronouns in the examples below are in the sen-
tence-initial position, they may be used anywhere in the sentence except at the end.
きのうじゅぎょうやす
どうして（なぜ・なんで）、（あなたは）昨日、授業を休みましたか。
“Why were you absent from class yesterday?”
びょうきじゅぎょうやす
（私は）病気だったから、（授業を）休みました。
“I was sick yesterday, so I didn’t go to class.”
As in sentences with adjectival clauses, when the two clauses have different topics, the topic in the
adverbial clause is marked by が. The main topic marked by は may be used in the sentence-initial
position, as in the sentence below, or after the conjunction から:
こどもびょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は、子供が病気だったから、授業を休みました。
“My child was sick, so I didn’t go to class yesterday.”
 Clauses in conversation
In responding to a question in actual conversation, the main clause is often deleted since it would
be a repetition of the question. です in the second response abbreviates the entire independent
clause.
きのうじゅぎょうやす
どうして、昨日、授業を休みましたか。
こどもびょうき
子供が病気だったからです。
“Because my child was sick.”
 In a more polite situation
In a very polite situation, it is not incorrect to use the polite form of the predicate in the adverbial
clause, as shown below. However, this would be too polite for normal conversation.
こどもびょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は、子供が病気でしたから、授業を休みました。
“I didn’t come to class yesterday because my child was sick.”
(4) Adverbial clauses joined by 時（とき）, 前（まえ）に, and 後（あと）で
The following examples review the use of sentential conjunctions その時（とき）, その前（まえ）に, and
その後（あと）で:
きのうかとうあときりゅうがく
昨日、私は加藤さんに会いました。その時に、私は留学について話しました。
“I met Kato-san yesterday. At that time, I told him about my study-abroad.”
きのうかとうあまえわたしちゃか
昨日、私は加藤さんに会いました。その前に、私はお茶を買いました。
“I met Kato-san yesterday. Before that, I bought tea.”
かとうああとか
私は加藤さんに会いました。その後で、先生にメールを書きました。
“I met Kato-san. After that, I wrote an e-mail message to my teacher.”
The sentences joined by each conjunction above may be changed into complex sentences by using
時（とき）, 前（まえ）に, and 後（あと）で as clausal conjunctions.
The use of particle に after the conjunction 時（とき） is optional.

かとうあときりゅうがく
私は加藤さんに会った時（に）、留学について話しました。
“When I ran into Kato-san, I told him about my study-abroad.”
Before the conjunction 前（まえ）に, the verb must always be in the imperfective form, regardless of
the aspect of the main clause.
かとうあちゃか
私は加藤さんに会う前に、お茶を買いました。
“I bought tea before I met Kato-san.”
かとうあちゃか
私は加藤さんに会う前に、お茶を買います。
“I will buy tea before I meet Kato-san.”
Before the conjunction 後（あと）で, the verb must always be in the perfective form, regardless of the
aspect of the main clause.
かとうああとか
私は加藤さんに会った後で、先生にメールを書きました。
“After I met Kato-san, I wrote an e-mail message to my teacher.”
かとうあか
私は加藤さんに会った後で、先生にメールを書きます。
“After I meet Kato-san, I will write an e-mail message to my teacher.”
3: Complex Predicates
(1) What are complex predicates?
One of the defining features of Japanese sentence structure is the use of the complex predicate to
express the speaker’s intention, view, etc. by adding another element to the existing predicate.
Properly used, complex predicates add important nuance to sentences and discourses. For
instance, in the Conversational Devices section of Stage 1–6, ~んだ was introduced. As noted,
adding ~んだ to a statement sentence indicates that the sentence explains either a previously men-
tioned sentence or one that will follow. And adding ~んだ to a question sentence changes the
nuance to indicate that the speaker wants to confirm a certain assertion or inference with the
addressee.
In Stage 1–7, it was briefly mentioned that adding ~ようだ to an existing predicate indicates that the
idea in that predicate is the speaker’s inference drawn from his or her observations. Stage 1–7 also
introduced another complex predicate, つもりだ, which expresses the speaker’s intention to do
something.
Such elements are added to existing predicates to construct complex predicates. There are quite a
few of these in Japanese.
Only a few commonly used complex predicates will be reviewed and introduced in this section.
Additional complex predicates will be introduced throughout the course.
(2) つもりだ
As briefly introduced in Stage 1–7, adding the functional noun つもりだ to the existing predicate
expresses the speaker’s intent. つもりだ may only be used to express the intent of the speaker or that
of an addressee if used as a direct question. つもりだ may not be used in the complex predicate to
express a third person’s intention.
あしたなにしゅくだい
チャンさんは明日、何をするつもりですか。宿題をするつもりですか。
“What are you planning to do tomorrow, Chang-san? Are you going to do your homework?”
かもの
宿題はしないつもりですが、買い物に行くつもりです。
“I’m not planning to do my homework, but I’m going to go shopping.”
One way to ask about or state a third person’s intention is to use the verb 思（おも）う.
やまだあしたなにおも
山田さんは明日、何をすると思いますか。
“What do you think Yamada-san will do tomorrow?”
しゅくだいおも
宿題をすると思います。
“I think he’ll do his homework.”
(3) だろう
As introduced in Stage 1–3, the volitional form of the copula is used to express the speaker’s view
that the content preceding だろう（でしょう） is likely to be true. The following examples are with the
verbal, adjectival, and nominal predicates, in that order. Aspectual differences are expressed in the
predicate before だろう.
たぶんじょうず
チャンさんは日本語が多分、上手に話せたでしょう。
“Chang-san could probably speak Japanese well.”
らいねんじゅぎょう
来年の日本語の授業はやさしくないでしょう。
“Next year’s Japanese class will probably be not easy.”
When だろう（でしょう） is used following a nominal predicate, the copula だ is not used:
たぶん
多分、あの学生は三年生でしょう。
“That student is probably a junior.”
(4) かもしれない
Complex predicates with かもしれない（かもしれません） convey less certainty than those using だろう.
For sentences with かもしれない, the adverb もしかしたら “by chance” may be used, although it is
optional. As with だろう（でしょう）, the nominal predicate should not be accompanied by だ. Aspectual
differences are expressed in the predicate before かもしれない.
あの学生はもしかしたら、三年生かもしれません。
“Perhaps that student is a junior.”
じょうず
もしかしたら、チャンさんは日本語が上手に話せないかもしれません。
“Chang-san may not be able to speak Japanese well.”
きょねんじゅぎょう
去年の日本語の授業はもっとやさしかったかもしれません。
“The Japanese class last year might have been easier.”
4: New Forms
(1) Conjunctive forms
The conjunctive form, also called the て-form because of its ending, has been used from early on
in this course, although the rules for its use were not explained in detail. The rules governing the
conjunctive form are exactly the same as those for the plain positive perfective form, except for the
last syllable: instead of ending the form with た or だ, as in the plain positive perfective, the ending
should be て or で.
Rules Examples
Copula だ→で先生だ→先生で
Adjective い→くてたかい→たかくて
Verb Group 1 る→てたべる→たべて
Group 2 く→いてかく→かいて
ぐ→いでおよぐ→およいで
す→してはなす→はなして
む,ぬ,ぶ→んでよむ→よんで
しぬ→しんで
あそぶ→あそんで
つ,う,る→ってまつ→まって
かう→かって
かえる→かえって
Exception いく→いって
Group 3 する→して same as at left

くる→きて
*Negative ~ない→~なくて先生じゃなくて
よくなくて
たべなくて
Vない→Vないでたべないで
* The negative imperfectives of predicates, all of which end with ない, are formed in the same way as
adjectives. Verbs have two different negative conjunctive forms (see Stage 2–1 for further explanation).
The conjunctive form is used with various elements; each combination has its own meaning. The
following summarizes the combinations that have already been introduced in the earlier chapters.
 Use of the conjunctive form 1
Because the conjunction と may not be used to join predicates, the conjunctive form of the predi-
cate is used instead. The following examples illustrate the use of the conjunctive form in nominal,
adjectival, and verbal predicates, in that order.
私（僕）はこの大学の学生で、二年生です。
“I am a student at this college and a sophomore.”
やす
このコンピュータは安くて、とてもいいです。
“This computer is cheap and also very good.”
あさはやおしゅくだい
私は朝、早く起きて、宿題をしました。
“I got up early in the morning and did my homework.”
A construction consisting of the conjunctive form and いる is used to express a continuous aspect
of the predicate.
こんがっきべんきょう
今学期、日本語を勉強しています。
“I’ve been studying Japanese this semester.”
“I’m studying Japanese this semester.”
The conjunctive form can be combined with ください to express a polite command and request.
あしたあさじき
明日の朝、九時にここに来てください。
“Please come here at 9:00 tomorrow morning.”
(2) Stems
Stems are used with many different words, particles, or suffixes to express various things. In fact,
the very first verbal predicate form that was introduced in this course—the polite form–consists of
the stem of a verb and the suffix ~ます.
The following illustrates how to derive the stem of a verb from its base form:
Rules Examples
Group 1 Drop る from the base form. たべる→たべ
Group 2 Change the vowel of the last syllable, u, to the vowel i. かく→かき
Group 3 Drop る and change the vowel u of the remaining する→し

syllable to the vowel i. くる→き
The three different ways of using the stem are reviewed and introduced below.
 Use of the stem 1
The polite form of a verb is created by combining the stem and the suffix ~ます.
Meaning Base form Groups Stem Polite form
be (animate) いる 1 いいます
た
eat 食べる 1 たべたべます
わ
understand 分かる 2 わかりわかります
い
go 行く 2 いきいきます
よ
read 読む 2 よみよみます
か
buy 買う 2 かいかいます
べんきょう
study 勉強する 3 べんきょうしべんきょうします
く
come 来る 3 ききます

When the stem is joined with the suffix ~たい, the combined form is an adjective that expresses the
speaker’s desire. This was introduced in Stage 1–7. Like the complex predicate with つもりだ, the
newly formed adjective can be used only to express the speaker’s own desire or to ask another per-
son directly about their desire. If may not be used to express a third-person’s desire.
まち
明日、どこに行きたいですか。町に行きたいですか。
“Where do you want to go? Would you like to go to town?”
としょかん
町には行きたくありませんが、図書館に行きたいです。
“I don’t want to go to town; I want to go to the library.”
Since this form is an adjective, it follows the rules for conjugating adjectives: the negative imper-
fective is 行きたくありません “I don’t want to go”; the positive perfective is 行きたかったです “I wanted
to go”; and the negative perfective is 行きたくありませんでした “I did not want to go.”
The stem and the particle に can be combined to express the topic’s purpose for going somewhere
to do something. This construction is used as an adverbial phrase.
たちぼくたちまちた
私達（僕達）はあの町にすしを食べに行きました。
“We went to that town to eat sushi.”
しんぶんよとしょかんい
新聞を読みに図書館に行きました。
“I went to the library to read the newspaper.”
This structure may only be used if the final verb indicates direction (i.e. going, coming here, going
home, etc.). When the final verb is not a verb of movement, this construction may not be used. See
Stage 2–5 for this construction.
5: Derived Verbs
(1) About derived verbs
This section introduces three types of verbs that are derived from base verbs. These derived verbs,
which are further used as the base forms for aspectual conjugations, include potential, passive,
and causative verbs. All three types of derived verbs will be introduced later in greater detail (they
are all addressed in Stage 2–4, and causatives are further explained in Stage 3–4), but it may be
beneficial to know that these three derived verbs exist, and that they function as independent
verbs.
The purpose of introducing all three of these forms in one section is to show how derived verbs
work and how they are used. The goal is not to master each and every form at this point. These
forms will be introduced along with guided practice in later chapters. Understanding that this sys-
tem exists is the primary purpose at this point.
At this point, only a few related exercises will be given in Workbook 1. Detailed exercises on these
three forms will be given in Stage 2–4 and on causatives again in Workbook 2, Stage 3–4.
(2) Potential verbs
Verbs that express the ability of the topic to do something have been introduced as independent
words up until this point. These include 話（はな）せる “to be able to speak,” 書（か）ける “to be able
to write,” and 読（よ）める “to be able to read.” In addition to indicating ability, potential verbs also
express possibility. Their active counterparts are 話（はな）す “to speak,” 書（か）く “to write,” and 読
（よ）む “to read.”
In English, a potential expression consists of the auxiliary verb “can” or “be able to” and a verb
such as “speak,” as in “I can speak Japanese” or “I am able to speak Japanese.”
In Japanese, instead of being formed by adding an element to a verb, the potential verb (also called
the potential form of a verb) is derived from the base verb. The rules for forming potential verbs
were not introduced along with the verbs above. Of course, knowing how to derive potential verbs
from the base forms is much more efficient than trying to learn them as separate verbs, so the
rules are explained here.
 Potential verb formation
Rules Examples
Group 1 る→られるたべる→たべられる
Group 2 Change the final u to e and add るかく→かける
Group 3 くる→こられる see left
There is no potential form for する; the corresponding verb that expresses ability and possibility is
できる.
 Verb grouping of potential verbs
All derived potential verbs conjugate as Group 1 verbs. For instance, the conjunctive form is con-
jugated from potential verbs as follows: たべられる→たべられて, はなせる→はなせて, こられる→こられ
て.
 が or を as the direct object marker with potential verbs
The use of が as the object marker of a potential verb has already been pointed out.
はな
パクさんは日本語が話せます。
“Park-san can speak Japanese.”
All potential verbs derived from transitive verbs become semi-transitive, because they have a non-
action meaning. Therefore, が is used to mark the direct object. In actual use, however, を may
sometimes be used to mark the direct object rather than が. This happens when the potential form
is derived from a verb with a strong inherent transitive meaning, and thus を is almost considered
an inseparable part of the verb.
(3) Passive verbs
In English, a passive verb is constructed by combining an auxiliary verb such as “is” or “are” with
a past participle such as “eaten” and “taken.” The thing or person who does the action is preceded
by the preposition “by.” In Japanese, passive meanings are expressed with derived passive verbs,
just as potential meanings are expressed with derived potential verbs.
Passive sentences are often contrasted with active sentences, as in the following.
Active sentence: A famous professor wrote this book.

Passive sentence: This book was written by a famous professor.
In the English examples above, the direct object of the transitive verb in the active sentence
(“book”) is the subject of the passive sentence. Passive sentences in English and Japanese are used
quite differently. In this chapter, however, only passive sentences with a similar usage in the two
languages will be introduced. See Stage 2–4 for a more complete explanation of passive verb use.
 Passive verb formation
Rules Examples
Group 1 Change the final vowel u to the たべる→たべられる, みる→みられる

vowel a and add れる
Group 2 かく→かかれる, かう→かわれる
Group 3 する→される, くる→こられる same as at left
Like derived potential forms, all derived passive forms are Group 1 verbs. The following examples
show how the conjunctive form is conjugated: たべられる→たべられて, かかれる→かかれて, こられる
→こられて
 Example sentences
At this point only one kind of passive sentence will be introduced. Different and more detailed
uses of passive verbs will be introduced in Stage 2–4.
In passive sentences, the agent (the person or thing doing the action) is marked by the particle に.
だいがくおおべんきょう
この大学では、日本語は多くの学生に勉強されている。
“Japanese is studied by many students at this college.”
ゆうめいか
この本は有名な人に書かれました。
“This book was written by a famous person.”
(4) Causative verbs

Causation refers to a situation in which a person is caused to do something by another person or
thing. This may occur in a variety of circumstances where a person “forces/allows/lets/has some-
one do something.”
In English, causative sentences are constructed with such verbs as “make,” “let,” or “allow,” as in
“I make my child drink milk every day.” In this particular sentence, the sense of “making (some-
one) do (something)” is the causative element.
In Japanese, causative verbs may be used to express causation in certain circumstances. There are
also other constructions that also express “causation.” Stage 3–4 explains this more fully.
 Causative verb formation
Rules Examples
Group 1 Change る to させるたべる→たべさせる

おしえる→おしえさせる
Group 2 Change the final u to a and add せるかく→かかせる

かう→かわせる
Group 3 する→させる, くる→こさせる same as at left
All derived causative verbs are Group 1 verbs. The following examples show how they conjugate: た
べさせる→たべさせて, かわせる→かわせて.
 Example sentences
Causative sentences typically involve two people. The person who causes something is in the topic
position. The person who is caused to do something is marked by に (the use of を is also possible;
this will be discussed in Stage 3–4). Causative verbs are often used when a person of greater
authority makes another person with less authority do something. See the following examples.
まいしゅうさくぶん
日本語の先生は毎週、学生に作文を書かせます。
“The Japanese teacher makes her students write a composition every week.”
りょうしん
両親は晩ご飯の後、私に宿題をさせます。
“My parents make me do my homework after dinner.”
 Causative passive verbs
Because they are transitive, it is possible to make causative sentences into passive sentences—that
is, causative-passive sentences. For instance, the two causative sentences above may be expressed
by causative-passive sentences. Causative-passive sentences are used when the object in a causative
sentence is in the topic position. Because all causative verbs are Group 1 verbs, changing them into
passive verbs is quite simple.
Change the causative ending ~せる to ~せられる

まいしゅうさくぶん
日本語の学生は先生に毎週、作文を書かせられます。
“The Japanese students are made to write a composition every week by their teacher.”
りょうしん
私は両親に晩ご飯の後、宿題をさせられます。
“I am forced by my parents to do my homework after dinner.”
Stage 2
Towards More Complex Structures
Some of the basic simple sentences introduced in Stage 1 are used in Stage 2 to produce
more complex structures. Some structures introduced in this stage are new, but some that
were introduced in Stage 1 may also be included in these chapters and given a broader con-
text. In this stage of the book, studying the sections in sequence is recommended, but it is
not as crucial as it was in Stage 1. If students face limitations that make it necessary, the
structures in this stage may be learned out of sequence.
Stage 2-1 Conjunctive Forms and Their Uses

Stage 2-2 Adjectival Clauses
Stage 2-3 Adverbial Clauses
Stage 2-4 Derived Verbs: Potentials and Passives
Stage 2-5 Stems and Their Uses
Stage 2-6 Complex Words
Stage 2-7 Complex Predicates
Stage 2-8 も and は
Stage 2-1 Conjunctive Forms and Their Uses
Structures
1. The Continuous Aspect
(2) The continuous aspect of repeatable (punctual) verbs
(3) The continuous aspect of non-repeatable (punctual) verbs
(4) The continuous aspect of directional verbs
2. Joining Predicates
(1) Joining two predicates
(2) When the first nominal or adjectival predicate is negative
(3) When the first verbal predicate is negative
(4) Joining predicates with ~てから
3. Polite Commands and Requests
(1) Positive commands and requests
(2) Negative commands and requests
(3) ください（ませんか） with no preceding verbs
4. Other Functions of the て-form
(1) Means
(2) Permission ~てもいい
(3) Prohibition ~てはいけない
(4) ~てみる
(5) ~てしまう
5. Adverbs もう and まだ
(1) Overall meanings
(2) て-form with いない
(1) Using the polite form in speech
(2) Good wishes
(3) 先輩（せんぱい） and 後輩（こうはい）
(4) Giving a taxi driver directions
Structures
1: The Continuous Aspect
As explained in Stage 1–9, the rules for the conjunctive forms are exactly the same as those for the
plain positive perfective forms except for the final syllable. Instead of ending the form with た or
だ, as in the plain positive perfectives, the conjunctive forms end in て or で. To review the rules of
the formation of conjunctive forms, see Stage 1–9.
(2) The continuous aspect of repeatable (punctual) verbs
The て-form and the verb いる together express the continuous aspect of an action, event, or state.
This structure was introduced early on in the course, but an important point will now be added:
whether the continuous meaning is one of action or state depends on the type of verb.
Verbs such as “to eat” and “to study” denote actions that one can repeat or do continuously. For
these verbs, the construction with ~て and いる indicates repeated actions. This construction there-
fore has two different meanings, as indicated below:
べんきょう
日本語を勉強しています。
“I am currently studying Japanese.”
“I have been studying Japanese for some time.”
 The continuous aspect of non-action verbs
Some stative verbs, such as some semi-transitive verbs, do not use the ~ている construction. These
verbs are stative in meaning, and thus are already continuous in nature.
じしょ
私はいい辞書がいります。
“I need a good dictionary.”
はな
私は日本語が話せます。
“I am able to speak Japanese.”
~ている may not be used to express ideas above, as shown in the following incorrect sentences:
じしょ
*私はいい辞書がいっています。
はな
*私は日本語が話せています。
 When a verb has more than one meaning

A single word often has multiple meanings. One such example is the verb 分（わ）かる. The follow-
ing sentence indicates that the topic has a specific ability; the verb therefore has a stative meaning.
私は日本語が分かります。
“I understand Japanese.” [ = I have the ability to understand Japanese.]
The idea in the sentence above cannot be expressed with ~ている, because having the ability to do
something refers to a state or condition, rather than an action or an event. This is shown by the fol-
lowing incorrect sentence:
*私は日本語が分かっています。
The verb 分（わ）かる has a second meaning, however: “to figure something out.” This verb may
also be used to talk about having obtained knowledge about a specific thing or person. This mean-
ing indicates a process, rather than a state. When the verb carries this meaning, the ~ている con-
struction can be used.
あの人のことはよく分かっています。
“I have heard a lot about that person, and I now have a good understanding of him.”
The second example above, with the verb 分（わ）かる, also uses the continuous aspect of a non-
repeatable action that will be discussed next.
(3) The continuous aspect of non-repeatable (punctual) verbs
Verbs such as the second meaning of 分（わ）かる “to figure something out” and 起（お）きる “to get
up” denote a one-time, non-repeatable action. This type of verb is sometimes termed a “punctual
verb.” The て-form of these verbs, when used with いる, indicates that the action has been com-
pleted, and the topic is currently in the state of maintaining the completed action.
お
起きています。
“I am up/awake now.” or “I have been up/awake for a while.”
The sentence above does not refer to the process of getting up, but rather the state of being awake
after the action of getting up has been completed. With a punctual verb such as 起（お）きる,
Japanese speakers normally use either the positive imperfective to say “I will get up soon,” or use
~ている to say “I am up already.” They will seldom utter a sentence that is equivalent to “I am in the
process of getting up.”
This aspect of non-repeatable verbs has been seen earlier in the course. For example, the verbs 知
（し）る “to know” and 住（す）む “to reside” were introduced in Stages 1–4 and 1–5 of the Workbook
respectively. Additional information about the verb 知（し）る and a new verb, 持（も）つ, will be intro-
duced below.
 The verb 知（し）る

The verb 知（し）る, often translated as “to know,” and the verb 分（わ）かる, translated as “to under-
stand,” are similar in meaning. 知（し）る implies obtaining information, while 分（わ）かる implies
having an ability to figure things out, and also refers to the process of figuring things out.
The ~ている construction with the verb 知（し）る is used to talk about the possession of knowledge.
し
私はあの人の名前を知っています。
“I know that person’s name.”
To say that a person does not possess knowledge of something, the imperfective negative is used,
rather than the negative of the ~ている construction:
し
私はあの人の名前を知りません。
“I don’t know that person’s name.”
In fact, the ~ている construction cannot be used as the negative of 知（し）っている, as shown in the
following incorrect sentence:
し
*私はあの人の名前を知っていません。
When asking whether a person possesses a certain piece of information, the negative 知（し）りませ
んか is used as often as the positive 知（し）っていますか.
でんわばんごうし
あの人の電話番号を知りませんか。
“Do you know that person’s phone number?”
あの人の電話番号を知っていますか。
“Do you know that person’s phone number?”
 持（も）つ vs. ある
Both 持（も）つ and ある are normally translated into English as the verb “to have.” One significant
difference between the two is that 持（も）つ implies that the topic is physically holding something;
ある does not include this implication. For instance, if someone is carrying a bag, the verb 持（も）つ
must be used, rather than ある:
も
あの人は何を持っていますか。
“What does that person have?” [ = What is that person holding?]
も
かばんを持っています。
“She/he has a bag.” [ = She/he is holding a bag.]
ある cannot be used in this case, as shown in the following incorrect sentence:
*あの人は何がありますか。
[intended meaning] “What does that person have?”
ひと
*あの人はかばんがあります。
[intended meaning] “She/he is holding a bag.”
To talk about possession of an abstract item at a specific time, ある is normally used.

ぼくじかん
今日、僕は時間がたくさんあります。
“I have a lot of time today.”
In this case, the verb 持（も）つ may not be used.

ぼくじかんも
*今日、僕は時間をたくさん持っています。
[intended meaning] “I have a lot of time today.”
When talking about possessing abstract things such as 考（かんが）え “thoughts” or “ideas” at a
non-specific time, 持（も）つ may also be used:
かんがも
あの人はいい考えをたくさん持っています。
“He has a lot of good ideas.”
Both ある and 持（も）つ may be used to talk about possession of things, concepts, or ideas rather
than physically carrying something:
かねも
山中さんはお金をたくさん持っています。
“Yamanaka-san has [possesses] a lot of money.”
かね
山中さんはお金がたくさんあります。
“Yamanaka-san has a lot of money.”
山中さんのうちはお金がたくさんあります。
“The Yamanaka estate has a lot of money.”
(4) The continuous aspect of directional verbs
The following sentence contains a directional verb in the ~ている aspect.
パクさんは日本に行っています。
“Park-san has gone to Japan.” [The implication is that she is still there.]
This sentence does not mean that Park-san is in the process of going to Japan. It means that the
act of going to Japan has been completed and the topic, Park-san, is in Japan. Therefore, the sen-
tence means something like “Park-san is in Japan now,” or “Park-san has gone to Japan and she is
still there.”
The following sentences illustrate this concept with other directional verbs using the ~ている con-
struction.
かとうき
加藤さんはここに来ています。
“Kato-san has arrived.” [The implication is that he is here now.]
かえ
父は家に帰っています。
“My father has come home.” [The implication is that he is home now.]
s 2: Joining Predicates
(1) Joining two predicates
As explained in Stage 1–3, the conjunctive form is used to join clauses. The following examples
summarize the facts related to this construction.
 Non-action (stative) predicates
ぼく
僕はジョーンズで、日本語の学生です。
“I’m Jones, a student of Japanese.”
ちゅうごくとお
中国は大きくて、遠いです。
“China is both large and far away.”
えいごはなかんじよ
あの人は英語も話せて、漢字も読めます。
“That person can speak English, and can read kanji too.”
 Action verbs
In the following sentences containing action verbs, the order of actions is implied. That is, the first
action mentioned is understood as being completed before the action mentioned next begins.
These examples also show that the aspect of the final verb determines the aspect of all the actions
in the sentence. This is because the conjunctive form lacks aspectual forms.
私は勉強して、運動します。
“I will study and then exercise.”
私は勉強して、運動しました。
“I studied and then exercised.”
When two clauses have different topics, however, the order of actions is not implicit, as it would be
with a single topic:
ぼくべんきょううんどう
昨日、僕は勉強して、山中さんは運動しました。
“I studied, but Yamanaka-san exercised yesterday.”
 Color terms and how to join them
In Japanese, most primary colors have both adjectival and nominal forms. For example, 赤（あか）,
a noun, and 赤（あか）い, an adjective, are both words for “red.” Similarly, the adjectives 黒（くろ）い
“black,” 青（あお）い “blue,” and 白（しろ）い “white” have the nominal forms 黒（くろ）, 青（あお）, and
白（しろ） respectively.
When a nominal color term modifies a noun, the particle の must be used between the two nouns,
with the color term being the first element. の is required because the color terms are nouns rather
than adjectives.
あか
赤のかばん “a red handbag”
くろ
黒のペン “a black pen”
Some color terms, such as 緑（みどり） and 緑色（みどりいろ）, which both mean “green,” do not have
the adjectival options. These words are nouns.
Japanese color terms sometimes differ from those in English regarding the range of color that each
term refers to on the color spectrum. For instance, the green of a traffic light in Japan is referred
to as 青（あお） “blue,” even though it is a greenish color. This is because the term 青（あお） covers
a wider range of colors than the English term “blue.”
Quite a few loan words from English are used for expressing colors, as seen in the supplementary
vocabulary list in the Workbook that goes with this chapter.
When two descriptive predicates are applied to a single topic, it is understood that each of the pred-
icates describes the topic completely. For instance, see the following:
この本は小さくて、高いです。
“This is a small, expensive book.”
The descriptions of 小（ちい）さい and 高（たか）い are both true simultaneously.
When using more than one color term to describe an item, the nominal forms of the color terms
with the conjunction と must be used.
あかくろ
私のかばんは赤と黒です。
“My bag is black and red.”
The conjunctive forms of the adjectives may not be used in this case:
あかくろ
*私のかばんは赤くて黒いです。
[intended meaning] “My bag is black and red.”
The construction above would indicate that the bag is both entirely red and entirely black at the
same time, which is not possible.
When two different color terms are used to describe two different topics in a single sentence, how-
ever, the conjunctive construction may be used. Each color describes only one topic.
あかくろ
あのかばんは赤くて、このかばんは黒いです。
“That bag is red, and this bag is black.”
(2) When the first nominal or adjectival predicate is negative
Since all negative plain forms end with ~い (from ~ない), all negatives are conjugated according to
the rules for adjectives. The following examples use the conjunctive forms of negative nominal and
adjectival predicates to join other predicates:
私は日本人じゃなくて、中国人です。
“I’m not Japanese, I’m Chinese.”
このすしはおいしくなくて、高いです。
“This sushi doesn’t taste good, but it’s expensive.
(3) When the first verbal predicate is negative
When the initial predicate is a negative verbal predicate, it is joined differently to the predicate that
follows. The meaning of the sentence is also different. In this case, the combination of the plain
negative imperfective of a verb and the conjunctive of the copula で is used to join the negative ver-
bal predicate to a second predicate.
The meaning of the sentence is that the action described in the second predicate is, or will be,
begun without completing the action described in the first predicate.
あさはんがっこう
朝ご飯を食べないで、学校に行きました。
“I went to school without eating breakfast first.”
べんきょうしけんう
勉強しないで、試験を受けました。
“I took an exam without studying first.”
When the conjunctive form of a negative imperfective verb is used, the clause takes on a causal
meaning. The independent clause indicates naturally occurring consequences such as 困（こま）る
“feel troubled; feel worried,” as seen below:
しゅく/だいこま
この宿題が分からなくて、困っています。
“I’m worried because I don’t understand this assignment.”
This causal meaning of the conjunctive form will be covered in greater detail in Stage 2–4.
As pointed out in Stage 1–3, two or more different types of predicates (e.g. nominal and adjectival
predicates) may be joined by the conjunctive form to make a single sentence. However, in this
case, action and non-action predicates may not be joined by the conjunctive form to make a single
sentence, unless the sentence expresses a cause-consequence relation.
(4) Joining predicates with ~てから
 The sentential conjunction それから

The sentential conjunction それから adds the meaning of “from that point on,” or “after completing
that action.”
あさはんはし
私は朝ご飯を食べました。それから、走りました。
“I ate breakfast. After that, I went running.”
The two separate sentences above can be joined by putting the first predicate into the て-form fol-
lowed by から (from それから). This does not change the meaning.
あさはんはし
私は朝ご飯を食べてから、走りました。
“After eating breakfast, I went running.”
~てから may not be used for a non-action predicate, because ~てから expresses the completion of an
action. Non-action predicates have nothing to “complete.” Such an idea is impossible in English as
well as in Japanese:
えいごはなかんじよ
*あの人は英語も話せてから、漢字も読めます。
* “That person can speak English, and then can read kanji.”
 The difference between the use of ~て only and ~てから
Compare the following two sentences.
としょかんよ
私は図書館に行って、本を読みました。
“I went to the library, where I read a book.”
としょかんよ
私は図書館に行ってから、本を読みました。
“After visiting the library, I read a book.” [not necessarily at the library]
The only structural difference between the two sentences above is the use of から after the con-
junctive form 行（い）って. The first sentence means that the topic went to the library; there in the
library the next action—reading a book—took place.
The second sentence, however, indicates that the visit to the library was completed at the time of speak-
ing. The next action, reading a book, is expressed as a separate action. The sentence does not indicate
that reading the book took place in the library (it could be either at the library or somewhere else).
The following sentence contains two different topics:

かとうべんきょうたちえいが
加藤さんが勉強してから、私達は映画に行きました。
“After Kato-san finished studying, we went to the movie.” or “We went to the movie after Kato-san
finished studying.”
When the two clauses have different topics, the topic of the clause with ~てから must be marked by
が; the topic of the main clause must be marked by は.
If the speaker wants to say that going to the movie took place only after Kato-san had finished
studying, this cannot be expressed by simply joining the predicate with the て-form alone. In this
case, から must follow the て-form between the two clauses.
Compare also the Japanese sentence above with its English translation, in which the order of the
dependent and independent clauses is not fixed. In Japanese, the dependent clause (which is the
adverbial clause in the above case) must be expressed first, followed by the independent (main)
clause. The clauses are never reversed except in casual conversation (with a specific meaning).
Learners of Japanese often confuse sentences using the causal conjunction から with those using ~
てから, which indicates the completion of an action. The two have rather different meanings, how-
ever.
のいえで
コーヒーを飲んだから、家を出ました。
“Because I had drunk my coffee, I left the house.”
コーヒーを飲んでから、家を出ました。
“After I had drunk my coffee, I left the house.”
3: Polite Commands and Requests
(1) Positive commands and requests
Teachers of Japanese often use the conjunctive form of a verb and ください (the kanji 下さい may be
used for ください) to instruct their students to do certain activities in class. This construction is used
to indicate a polite command. The same structure may also be used for a polite request, depending
on the situation. The difference between a command and a request is not cut-and-dried; it is based
more on social context rather than any clear linguistic differentiation.
The following sentence might be a command if it were used by an instructor; used by a store clerk,
it could be a request.
なまえか
ここに名前を書いてください。
“Write your name here.”
Regardless of any ambiguity, when ませんか is added to this construction, the request or command
becomes more polite.
はな
日本語を話してください。
“Please speak Japanese.”
はな
日本語を話してくださいませんか。
“May I ask you to speak Japanese?”
The polite command is normally used in a formal setting, as when a teacher is addressing his or
her students, or a customer is speaking to a taxi driver. This construction is too polite to be used
by a parent to address his or her children. (See Stage 2–6 for language to be used between parent
and child.)
Polite requests may be used by a student to a teacher, by a store clerk to a customer, or when speak-
ing to a stranger, for example. There are many levels of politeness in Japanese; see Stages 2–6 and
4–6 for further information.
(2) Negative commands and requests
The structure of the polite negative command or request is constructed with the plain negative
imperfective form and the conjunctive form of the copula で, with ください added for a command
and a request. くださいませんか is added for politeness with commands and requests. The conjunc-
tive form of the negative imperfective form, ~なくて, should not be used to make a negative com-
mand or request.
はな
日本語を話さないでください。
“Please do not speak Japanese.”
はな
日本語を話さないでくださいませんか。
“Would you please not speak Japanese?”
 Deadline particle までに
The particle までに expresses the time required to complete an action. Do not confuse it with the
particle まで, which indicates an ending point.
き
明日、ここに五時までに来てください。
“Please come here by 5:00 tomorrow.”
今日、ここに五時までいます。
“I will stay here until 5:00 today.”
(3) ください（ませんか） with no preceding verbs
As explained in Stage 1–4 (Conversational Devices), ください（ませんか） can be used on its own with-
out a verb to request something.
ペンをください。
“Please give me a pen.”
ペンをくださいませんか。
“Would you please give me a pen?”
s 4: Other Functions of the て-form
(1) Means
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the て-form of the verb in the first predicate can join the verb
in the second predicate to indicate that the actions in the two clauses take place in the same order
as the verbs are mentioned.
あさおはし
朝、起きて、走りました。
“In the morning I got up, and then I went running.”
In Stage 1–3, it was stated that the conjunctive form of a certain verb may be used to express means,
as shown in the sentence below:
あるがっこう
私（僕）は歩いて、学校に行きます。
“I go to school on foot.” [ = by walking]
The above sentence, however, cannot be construed to say “I walked first, and then I went to
school.” Rather, the two actions—walking and going to school—take place simultaneously; the
first verb expresses the means of going.
(2) Permission ~てもいい
The conjunctive form followed by the particle も and the adjective いい expresses “permission” to
do something.
これを食べてもいいですか。
“May I eat this?”
One possible response is:
ええ、いいですよ。どうぞ、食べてください。
“Yes, you may. Please, go ahead and eat it.”
どうぞ is used to strongly encourage the addressee to do something.
When the speaker wants to deny the request, the following construction may be used:
いいえ。それは食べないでください（ませんか）。
“No. Please don’t eat that.”
The following section introduces a stronger way to tell someone not to do something.
(3) Prohibition ~てはいけない

The conjunctive form of a verb with the particle は and いけない together indicates that something
is prohibited.
これを食べてもいいですか。
“May I eat this?”
いいえ。それは食べてはいけません。
“No. You mustn’t eat that.”
(4) ~てみる
The verb 見る has a few different meanings such as “to see,” “to look,” or “to watch.” When this
verb is combined with other verbs in the conjunctive form, its meaning becomes somewhat more
abstract, expressing something like “examine the result of [the action expressed by the preceding
verb].” みる is not normally written in kanji in such a construction.
すしを食べてみました。
“I tried eating sushi.” [I.e., to see if I liked it or not, whether it was fresh, etc.]
The final verb みる is changed to express aspect:
すしを食べてみます。
“I will try eating sushi.”
すしを食べてみてください。
“Try eating some sushi.” [to see whether you like it or not, etc.]
The construction ~てみる is frequently translated with the verb “try” in English. The English word
“try,” however, has different meanings, not all of which can be conveyed by ~てみる. For instance,
the verb “try” has a connotation of “making an effort.” So, if the speaker is asked to come home
early tonight, he or she might say, “I will try to come home early.” In this case, the verb “try” does
not convey the same meaning as it does in “I tried eating sushi.”
~てみる only focuses on examining the result of doing or having done the action expressed by the
conjunctive form of the first verb.
(5) ~てしまう
The verb しまう means “to put things away.” It is used as a regular verb, as in the following:
てがみつくえなか
母からの手紙を机の中にしまいました。
“I put the letters from my mother away inside the desk.”
 Intentional acts
When combined with the て-form of a verb, especially when the verb indicates something that the
topic has control over, the use of しまう in the predicate signifies the completion of an event.
くだ
そのケーキを食べてしまって下さい。
“Please finish eating that cake.”
しゅくだい
ルームメートはもう宿題をしてしまいました。
“My roommate has already finished doing her homework.”
 Unintentional events or unexpected results
When the first verb indicates an uncontrollable event, then the event expressed by the predicate
with しまう is an unintended, or unexpected, result.
ね
バスの中で寝てしまいました。
“I completely fell asleep on the bus.” [The implication is that I did not intend to do so.]
こんがっきべんきょうぜんぶかんじわす
今学期、日本語を勉強しなかったら、全部、漢字を忘れてしまいました。
“I didn’t study Japanese this semester, and I completely forgot all the kanji.”
s 5: Adverbs もう and まだ
(1) Overall meanings
もう and まだ, both of which have been briefly introduced, have the following meanings depending
on the aspect of the predicate:
もうまだ
Positive predicate already (done) still (doing)
Negative predicate no longer (doing) not yet (done)
Compare the following sentences:

えいが
もうあの映画を見ました。
“I have already seen the movie.”
えいが
もうあの映画を見ていません。
“I am no longer watching the movie.”
えいが
まだあの映画を見ています。
“I am still watching the movie.”
えいが
まだあの映画を見ていません。
“I have not seen that movie yet.”
(2) て-form with いない
~ていない is used to respond negatively to a question such as the following:

あさはん
朝ご飯をもう食べましたか。
“Have you eaten breakfast already?”
If the speaker has eaten, the predicate is simply repeated:
ええ、もう食べました。
“Yes, I ate already.”
When the speaker has not eaten, then ~ていない must be used with the adverb まだ.
いいえ、まだ食べていません。
“No, I haven’t eaten yet.”
The following responses are not appropriate for answering the question:
*いいえ、まだ食べません。
This sentence refers to the future; it means “I will not eat yet.”
*いいえ、まだ食べませんでした。
This response indicates negation of a past event, and means “No, I did not eat.” It cannot be used
because it does not refer to the speaker’s current state.
In this case ~ている must be used, because the question concerns the addressee’s current state.
(1) Using the polite form in speech
よ
 何、読んでますか。
しょうせつ
 日本語の小説です。
 What are you reading?
 A Japanese novel.
 ~てます・~てる in speech
~ている is often shortened in casual speech by deleting the い, so that it becomes ~てる. The polite
form can also follow this pattern: one may say ~てます rather than ~ています when speaking.
Deleting this い gives a more casual sense in both cases.
今、食べてる。
“I’m eating now.”
今、食べてます。
“I’m eating now.”
(2) Good wishes
むずか
 その本、難しくありませんか。
むずからいしゅうしけん
 難しいですが、来週、試験があるんです。
しけんたいへんがんば
 試験ですか。大変ですね。頑張ってくださいね。
 Isn’t that book difficult?

 It is, but we have an exam next week.
 Really? Sounds tough. Good luck.
 大変（たいへん）ですね
大変（たいへん）, an adjectival noun, can mean many things. It may mean “difficult; hard; labori-
ous; dreadful; awful; immense” and so on. When used to describe a person, it may convey some-
thing like “difficult to deal with; unreasonable; unreal; awful” and similar ideas.
大変（たいへん）ですね is often used as a backchannel (see Stage 1-2) to express some kind of sym-
pathy or empathy.
 頑張（がんば）ってください
Japanese speakers use this phrase a great deal in conversation. It is used to convey good wishes, or
wishes for a good result, with reference to a current or upcoming situation or endeavor which may
be difficult for the addressee. In casual conversation, ください is deleted; 頑張（かんば）って alone is
used.
(3) 先輩（せんぱい） and 後輩（こうはい）
せんぱいなか
先輩：ああ、お腹、すいた！
こうはいせんぱい
後輩：先輩、まだ、食べてないんですか。
先輩：うん、まだ。これ、食べていい？
後輩：どうぞ、どうぞ。
先輩：でも、これ、マイクさんのじゃないの？
だいじょうぶしんぱい
後輩：大丈夫ですよ。心配しないでください。さあ、食べてください。
先輩：Wow, I’m hungry!

後輩：Haven’t you eaten yet, Senpai?
先輩：Not yet. Can I have this?
後輩：Oh sure, help yourself.
先輩：But doesn’t it belong to Mike?
後輩：It’s all right. Don’t worry. Please go ahead and eat it.
 先輩（せんぱい）・後輩（こうはい）
先輩（せんぱい） refers to an individual who is senior to the speaker within a group, such as an
extracurricular group, a club, or any other organized group. It may also simply refer to the speak-
er’s mentor. 後輩（こうはい） is the junior in relation to 先輩（せんぱい）. Instead of using the per-
son’s name, the junior speaker may address the senior person as 先輩（せんぱい）. Note, however,
that the term 後輩（こうはい） may not be used to address another person.
 食べていい？
も may be deleted in casual speech, as in the above sentence. 食べていい？ is therefore a casual way
to say 食べてもいいですか.
 どうぞ、どうぞ
As explained earlier in this chapter, どうぞ is used to emphatically invite an addressee to do some-
thing (to eat, in the example above). Repeating the word makes it stronger.
 の in question sentences
When the sentence-final particle の is used in question sentences in casual conversation, it functions
the same as んですか; that is, the speaker is confirming his or her understanding with the addressee.
 心配（しんぱい）しないでください
心配（しんぱい） is a noun that means “anxiety” or “worry.” 心配（しんぱい）しないでください is used to
comfort the addressee. The phrase means something like “There is no need for you to worry”; or
“Don’t worry.” In casual conversation, ください is deleted: 心配（しんぱい）しないで.
(4) Giving a taxi driver directions
ねが
[Giving the destination after getting in the cab]: 「森ビル」までお願いします。
ぎんこうかどまい
[When nearing the destination]: 銀行の角を曲がってください。そして、そこをまっすぐ行ってください。
みぎまたてものひだりと
あそこを右に曲がってください。あっ、あの建物の左に止まってください。
[Giving the destination after getting in the cab]: Take me to the Mori Building, please.
[When nearing the destination]: Please turn at the corner by the bank. And then go straight.
Please turn right there. Oh, please stop to the left of that building.
 Vocabulary for giving directions in a taxi
Kanji Kana Meaning Kanji Kana Meaning
角かど corner — まっすぐ straight
右みぎ right side 左ひだり left side
曲がるまがる turn 止まるとまる stop

Stage 2-2 Adjectival Clauses
Structures
1. Predicates in the Non-Final Position
(2) Compound vs. complex sentences
(3) The concept of adjectival clauses
2. Modified Nouns
(1) Modifying regular nouns
(2) こと as a regular and functional noun
(3) の as a pronoun
(4) こと and の as nominalizers
3. Fixed Expressions
(1) ことができる
(2) [Perfective verb] ことがある
(3) [Perfective verb] ほうがいい
4. [Specific Name] という [Generic Name]
(1) In a statement
(2) Definition
(3) ということ
(1) What did she say?
(2) What do you mean?
(3) What does it mean?
(4) That’s too bad
Structures
1: Predicates in the Non-Final Position
The topic of this chapter was briefly introduced in Stage 1–9. As explained earlier, plain forms have
a number of different functions.
When they are used in the final position of a sentence in speech, it indicates that the relationship
between speaker and addressee is close (close friends, family members, classmates, etc.); when
used in writing, it indicates that it is impersonal writing (the writer is not addressing any particu-
lar individual).
When a predicate is used in a non-final position in a sentence, the plain predicate is used regard-
less of the speech (or written) style.
(2) Compound vs. complex sentences
 Complex sentences
In Stage 1–9, the notion of complex sentences was introduced. A complex sentence consists of at
least one dependent clause and one independent clause.
As this section pointed out, the function of a dependent clause is the same as that of an adjective
or adverb, but on the level of a clause rather than a word. These dependent clauses are therefore
called adverbial and adjectival clauses. Because they function adjectivally and adverbially, they
must be used before the independent clauses; the order cannot be reversed.
As complex sentences and compound sentences are often confused, compound sentences are
briefly explained below. Understanding the difference between complex sentences and compound
sentences is important when forming and using plain and polite predicates.
 Compound sentences
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses that are joined by a conjunc-
tion.
The following English sentences are compound sentences:
Mary is a student, and Bill is a teacher.

Mary is a wife, but she is also a student.
Sentences joined by conjunctions such as “and” or “but” can be expressed in two separate sen-
tences, if the speaker chooses to do so, as shown below.
Mary is a student. Bill is a teacher.

Mary is a wife. She is also a student.
What this implies is that each clause in the sentences above is an independent clause; that is, one
that can be used alone as a sentence without being preceded or followed by another clause.
Unlike complex sentences, the order of clauses in a compound sentence can be reversed without
affecting meaning. The order may be important for other reasons, such as politeness, or order of
importance, but the logical meaning is not changed by reversing their order; this is because nei-
ther clause modifies the other.
Bill is a teacher, and Mary is a student.

Mary is a student, but she is also a wife.
In Japanese, the conjunction が may be used between two independent clauses. See the two sen-
tences below. Both have the same meaning, although the order of clauses is reversed in the sec-
ond:
私は日本人ですが、チャンさんは中国人です。
“I’m Japanese, and Chang-san is Chinese.”
チャンさんは中国人ですが、私は日本人です。
“Chang-san is Chinese, and I’m Japanese.”
The two clauses joined by が must have the same predicate form; that is, they must either be all
polite or all plain. They cannot be mixed.
私は日本人だが、チャンさんは中国人だ。
私は日本人ですが、チャンさんは中国人です。
*私は日本人だが、チャンさんは中国人です。
[intended meaning:] “I am Japanese, and Chang-san is Chinese.”
*私は日本人ですが、チャンさんは中国人だ。
[intended meaning] “I am Japanese, and Chang-san is Chinese.”
(3) The concept of adjectival clauses
The concept of adjectival clauses was briefly introduced in Stage 1–9. These clauses are handled
differently in English and Japanese, as can be seen by comparing the examples below. In the
English sentences, the adjectival clauses are in bold type:
I read the book that I bought yesterday.

The man who is speaking with the teacher is my roommate.
The adjectival clauses in the equivalent Japanese sentences below are in brackets:
[先生と話している]男の人は私のルームメートです。
The first difference is that in English, the adverbial clause is placed after the noun it modifies; in
Japanese it is placed before the noun.
The second difference is that the pronouns “that” and “who” used in the adjectival clauses in the
English sentences do not exist in Japanese.
To summarize, the following points are relevant to sentences with adjectival clauses:
 The adjectival clause must be placed before the noun it modifies;

 The predicate within the adjectival clause is in the plain form;
 The topic in the adjectival clause must be marked by が if it is different from the topic, which is
marked by は, in the independent clause. If the two topics are the same, there is no need to mark
each one with が and は; the topic in the adjectival clause is normally deleted.
In this chapter, some new information about sentences with adjectival clauses will be added to the
information already introduced.
2: Modified Nouns
(1) Modifying regular nouns
The following is a summary of the ways nouns may be modified.

 A noun modifying a noun
When a noun modifies another noun, the particle の must be used between the two nouns. In this
case, the preceding noun modifies the following one:
先生の本
“a book owned (or written) by a teacher”
とうきょう
東京の大学
“a college in Tokyo”
 An adjectival noun modifying a noun
When an adjectival noun modifies a noun, the particle な must be placed immediately before the
noun it modifies.
いや
あの人は嫌な人です。
“That person is a nasty person.”
 An adjective modifying a noun
When an adjective modifies a noun, it is placed immediately before the noun it modifies and no
particle is used between them.
これはいい本です。
“This is a good book.”
 A clause modifying a noun (adjectival clause)
Up to this point, the example sentences used to illustrate how adjectival clauses are used to modi-
fy nouns have contained verbal predicates in their clauses, as shown below. The adjectival clauses
are in brackets:
かよ
“I read the book that I bought yesterday.
かよ
私は[昨日、ジョンさんが買った]本を読みました。
“I read the book that John bought yesterday.”
It is important to be aware that any of the three predicate types (nominal, adjectival, or verbal) can
be used in the adjectival clause. The following three examples contain nominal predicates (the first
with a noun and the second with an adjectival noun) and an adjectival predicate:
しゅっしんともだち
私は[出身が日本]の学生と友達になりました。
“I made friends with a student from Japan.”
め
私は[目がとてもきれい]な人と話しました。
“I talked to a person with pretty eyes.”
私は[先生がとてもいい]大学に行っています。
“I go to a college that has good teachers.”
When a nominal predicate in an adjectival clause contains a noun, の must be used between the
two nouns. When a nominal predicate in an adjectival clause contains an adjectival noun, な must
be used between the adjectival noun and the noun. When an adjectival predicate and a verbal pred-
icate are used in an adjectival clause, no element is necessary between the adjective or the verb and
the noun it modifies.
 The use of の in adjectival clauses
One additional fact about adjectival clauses is that the topic, subject, and object marker が in the
adjectival clause may be replaced by の in most predicates.
The following sentence indicates the use of の for the topic position in the adjectival clause:
かよ
私は昨日ジョンさんの買った本を読みました。
“I read the book that John bought yesterday.”
The following sentences indicate the use of の for the subject position in the adjectival clause:
め
私は目のとてもきれいな人と話しました。
“I talked to a person with pretty eyes.”
私は先生のとてもいい大学に行っています。
“I go to a college with good teachers.”
The following sentence indicates the use of の in the object position in the adjectival clause:
じょうず
私は日本語の上手な学生と話しました。
“I talked with a student who is good at Japanese.”
In some isolated cases, の may replace the object marker を, especially when the object is topical-
ized, as shown below:
し
昨日、名前の知らない学生と話しました。
“Yesterday I spoke to a student whose name is unknown to me.”
The following use of の for the topic within the adjectival clause is not possible for the nominal
predicate in the adjectival clause, however.
しゅっしんともだち
*私は出身の日本の学生と友達になりました。
[intended meaning] “I made friends with a student who came from Japan.”
(2) こと as a regular and functional noun
こと can be used as a regular noun or a functional noun. As a regular noun, it refers to abstract
things, while もの is used to refer to concrete things or concepts (“ideas,” “music,” “habits,” and so
on are examples of concepts). When もの refers to concepts, it is not normally written in kanji.
おもしろき
面白いことを聞きました。
“I heard an interesting thing.”
おもしろものか
面白い物を買いました。
“I bought an interesting thing.”
おもしろなら
面白いものを習っています。
“I am learning an interesting thing.”
The use of the nominalizer こと as a functional noun was introduced in Stage 1–7.
よす
私は本を読むことが好きです。
“I like to read books.”
こと is here called a functional noun because it is not used as a noun with a referent, but rather
gives the preceding verb a nominal function.
(3) の as a pronoun
の, on the other hand, is a pronoun, as shown below. の is used in the second sentence to refer to
the noun 本.
かれおもしろかぼくか
彼は面白い本を買いました。でも、僕はつまらないのを買いました。
“He bought an interesting book, but I bought a boring one.”
の is also used to nominalize the preceding verb, just as こと is.

よす
私は本を読むのが好きです。
“I like to read books.”
(4) こと and の as nominalizers
こと and の as nominalizers are interchangeable in many cases.
The following pair of sentences illustrates that both こと and の may be used to nominalize verbs in
the topic position.
はなむずか
日本語を話すことは難しいです。
日本語を話すのは難しいです。
“Speaking Japanese is difficult.”
The following sentence pair shows cases in which こと and の are used to nominalize verbs in the
object position.
す
私はすしを食べることが好きです。
私はすしを食べるのが好きです。
“I like to eat sushi.”
Although こと and の can often be used identically, there are cases in which they are not inter-
changeable, such as in fixed expressions, as shown below. Other differences between こと and の
can be found in Stage 3–1.
s 3: Fixed Expressions
In all of the following fixed expressions, the functional nouns such as こと and ほう are modified by
adjectival clauses.
(1) ことができる
When a nominalized verb is in the object position with the verb できる, only こと rather than の may
be used as a nominalizer.
ぼく
僕は日本語ができます。
“I have some Japanese ability.”
ぼくはな
僕は日本語を話すことができます。
As the incorrect example below shows, の may not be used to nominalize the verb in the object
position with the verb できる.
ぼくはな
*僕は日本語を話すのができます。
[intended meaning] “I can speak Japanese.”
The fixed expression with ことができる indicates the ability or possibility of the topic in the same way
as the potential verb does. Compare the following sentences:
ぼくはな
僕は日本語を話すことができます。
みせ
この店で日本語を話すことができます。
“It’s possible to speak Japanese at this store.”
ぼくはな
僕は日本語が話せます。
みせ
この店で日本語が話せます。
“It is possible to speak Japanese at this store.”
The potential form, shown in the third and fourth sentences, is used more often in conversation
than the expression with ことができる. The fixed expression is more formal.
(2) [Perfective verb] ことがある
This fixed expression is used to talk about past experiences. In this structure, the perfective form
must be used before ことがある.
私は日本に行ったことがあります。
“I have been to Japan.”
The noun こと in this construction means something like “occasion” or “experience.” The sentence
above therefore literally means that “I have the experience of having gone to Japan.” In this con-
struction, の may not be used in place of こと, as the following incorrect example shows:
*私は日本に行ったのがあります。
[intended meaning] “I have been to Japan.”
Negative or positive responses are reflected in the last verb, ある, rather than in the non-final verb.
すしを食べたことがありますか。
“Have you ever eaten sushi?”
ええ、あります。
“Yes, I have.”
In a negative response, it is common to add 一度（いちど）も “not even once” to the negative ありませ
ん, as in the following:
いちど
いいえ、一度もありません。
“No. Not even once.”
A more detailed explanation about numbers with も can be found in Stage 2–8.
The imperfective form should not be used before ことがある to talk about a past experience; this con-
struction has quite a different meaning from the one with the perfective form. (For the construc-
tion with an imperfective verb before ことがある, see Stage 3–3).
(3) [Perfective verb] ほうがいい
The functional noun 方（ほう）, which literally means “side” or “way,” is used to suggest or indicate
a better or preferred way to do something. For this construction, the verb must be in the perfective
form.
ほう
明日、行った方がいいですよ。
“You’d better go tomorrow.”
The perfective form is preferred in this fixed phrase because one can judge something to be good
only after the action is completed. This assumed completion is expressed with the perfective form.
For a negative suggestion, the negative imperfective should be used.

ほう
明日、行かない方がいいですよ。
“It would be better if you didn’t go tomorrow.”
4: [Specific Name] という [Generic Name]
(1) In a statement
This expression is rather formulaic, insofar as the first noun should be a specific name, and the
second noun should be a category that the specific thing named by the first noun belongs to.
という comes from the quotative particle と and the verb 言（い）う, but in this expression, いう is not
written in kanji.
This construction is used when the speaker assumes that the addressee does not know the specif-
ic name of the thing being discussed.
とうきょうところ
東京という所
“a place called Tokyo”
マイクという学生
“a student called Mike”
たもの
すしという食べ物
“a food called sushi”
おんがく
音楽というもの
“a thing called music”
The following examples show how these noun phrases are used in sentences:
あ
私はナンシーという学生に会いました。
“I met a student called Nancy.”
こうこうすずき
高校の先生は鈴木という先生でした。
“I had a high school teacher called Suzuki.”
(2) Definition
There are many different ways to ask for definitions. The following illustrates one example:
りょこうことばえいごなん
旅行という言葉は英語で何ですか。
“What’s the word for 旅行（りょこう） in English?”
The pronoun の may be used in place of 言葉（ことば） in the above sentence because the referent is
clear from the context.
りょこうえいごなん
旅行というのは英語で何ですか。
“What’s the word for 旅行（りょこう） in English?”
There are many sentence structures that can be used to give definitions. The following is one such
structure:
りょこういみ
旅行というのは travel という意味です。
“旅行（りょこう） means ‘travel.’”
どういう is often used to ask for defining or rephrasing a word, a phrase, etc.
どくしょいみ
読書というのはどういう意味ですか。
“What does 読書 mean?”
ということ is often used when defining something by rephrasing.

どくしょよ
読書というのは本を読むということです。
“読書 means to read a book.”
(3) ということ
As mentioned above, ということ is used to rephrase the content of a message.

き
私はあの人は一年生だということを聞きました。
“I heard someone saying that he was a freshman.”
き
私は昨日のテストはやさしかったということを聞きました。
“I heard someone saying that yesterday’s test was easy.”
Compare the above with the following:

き
私はあの人は一年生だと聞きました。
“I heard someone saying that guy was a freshman.”
き
私は昨日のテストはやさしかったと聞きました。
“I heard someone saying that yesterday’s test was easy.”
The difference between the sentences with and without ということ is as follows:
 Sentences without ということ express the content of what the speaker has heard directly.
 Sentences with ということ indicate that the speaker has rephrased his or her own understanding
from what he or she has heard someone say about the content.
(1) What did she say?
なん
 お母さん、何て？
す
 うん。あまり好きじゃないって。
 What did Mom say?
 Um, she said she didn’t like it all that much.
 何（なん）て？
何て is a colloquial version of 何（なん）と言（い）いましたか “What did (someone) say?” This expres-
sion is used very often in conversation.
 ~って
~って in spoken language is a shortened version of と言（い）いました, meaning “(someone) said
such-and-such.” Therefore, the content of the message goes before ~って.
(2) What do you mean?
 それ、どういうこと？行かないっていうこと？
 まあ、そういうこと。
 What do you mean by that? Does that mean you won’t go?
 Yeah, pretty much.
 どういうこと
This expression is used to ask for some clarification of what the speaker has just heard the
addressee say; it means something like “What do you mean by that?”
 ~っていうこと
~っていうこと used in the predicate is a colloquial version of ということ, meaning “I mean (content).”
 そういうこと
This expression is used to concur with what the other person has said, thought, or assumed. When
used in a question, it is used to confirm the other person’s (or sometimes one’s own) understand-
ing of what was said. こういうこと may also be used to summarize what the speaker has said.
(3) What does it mean?
とざんいみ
 登山って、どういう意味？
やまのぼ
 山に登るってことよ。
 What does 登山（とざん）mean?
 It means to climb mountains.

 ~って in the first clause

登山（とざん）って is a shortened spoken version of 登山（とざん）というのは. 登（のぼ）る means “to
climb.”
(4) That’s too bad
かれなんい
 彼、何て言ってた？
 行かないって。
ざんねん
 そう。残念だけど、しかたないね。
 What did he say?
 He said he’s not going.
 Really. That’s too bad, but what can we do?
 残念（ざんねん）
This adjectival noun means that the speaker feels sorry about what he or she has just heard or
learned about.
 しかたない
This is a shortened phrase; the complete expression is しかたがない. しかた means “way of dealing
with something.” So, the literal meaning of this expression is “There’s no way to deal with this.”
This phrase, which is used when the speaker wishes to indicate that he or she will have to accept a
situation as it is. Another expression, しようがない, has the same meaning as しかたがない; しようがな
い is often contracted to しょうがない when speaking colloquially.
Structures
1. Adverbial Clauses
(1) The concept of adverbial clauses
(2) Adverbial clauses with the causal conjunction から
2. Temporal Adverbial Clauses
(1) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 時（とき）
(2) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 前（まえ）
(3) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 後（あと）
(4) Use of 前（まえ） and 後（あと） with numbers
3. Situational Adverbial Clauses Joined by the たら-forms
(1) たら-forms
(2) When the predicate of the main clause is in the imperfective form
(3) When the predicate of the main clause is in the perfective form
(4) Difference between the たら-adverbial and the とき-adverbial
4. Situational Adverbial Clauses Joined by と
5. Representative Expressions
(1) たり-formation (representative form)
6. Conjunctions
(1) Clausal conjunction し
(2) Sentential conjunction その上（うえ）
(3) Sentential conjunctions すると and そ（う）したら
(1) Giving a suggestion
(2) Not feeling well
(3) I’m sorry to do this, but . . .
Structures
1: Adverbial Clauses
(1) The concept of adverbial clauses
Two types of adverbial clauses were introduced in Stage 1–9. The first type uses the conjunction か
ら to give a reason for something. The second type indicates a time condition by using conjunc-
tions 時（とき）, 前（まえ）, and 後（あと）.
In this chapter, these adverbial clauses will be reviewed with additional clarification and informa-
tion. After that, a few more adverbial clauses will be introduced.
(2) Adverbial clauses with the causal conjunction から
In Stage 1–9 it was stated that the cause or reason for a certain consequence may be expressed in
a dependent clause joined by the conjunction から.
じゅぎょうやす
どうして（なぜ・なんで）、昨日、授業を休みましたか。
ははびょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は、母が病気だったから、授業を休みました。
“I didn’t go to class yesterday because my mother was sick.”
There are a few important points to remember for these constructions:
 Of the three interrogative pronouns, なぜ is the most formal, followed by どうして, and then なん
で, the most colloquial.
 The predicate form before から is normally in the plain form, although the polite form may be
used in very polite speech.
 The main clause in the response may be abbreviated by だ（or です） in conversation.
 When the topics in the dependent and independent clauses are not the same, use が for the topic
in the dependent clause and は for the independent clause.
In fact, there are a few more dependent clauses that express causes and reasons; these will be
introduced gradually throughout the course. It may be useful, at this point, to know that the clausal
conjunction ので may also be used to connect the cause-dependent clause and the main clause.
びょうきじゅぎょうやす
昨日、私は病気だったので、授業を休みました。
“I was sick yesterday, so I didn’t go to class.”
In most cases, から and ので are interchangeable, but there are some differences; the actual prac-
tice and details of these differences will be explained in Stage 3–1.
2: Temporal Adverbial Clauses
(1) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 時（とき）
In Stage 1–9, it was stated that a time condition may be expressed by an adverbial clause joined by
the conjunction 時（とき）. In this section, the aspectual form of the predicate in such adverbial
clauses will be discussed.
 Predicate aspectual forms before the conjunction 時（とき）
The following example uses the sentential conjunction その時（とき）:
もりあときたちはな
明日、私は森さんに会います。その時に、私達は日本語で話します。
“I’ll meet Mori-san tomorrow. At that time, we’ll speak in Japanese.”
The two sentences above may be changed into a complex sentence by using 時（とき） as the clausal
conjunction, as explained in Stage 1–9.
もりあときたちはな
明日、私が森さんに会った時に、私達は日本語で話します。
“When I meet Mori-san tomorrow, we’ll speak in Japanese.”
In the sentence above, the verb is in the perfective form, 会（あ）った, despite the fact that the speak-
er has not met Mori-san yet, because the speaker intends to speak to Mori-san after the act of meet-
ing has taken place. Remember, the perfective form indicates only the completion of an event, not
the past tense.
 Stative predicates in the adverbial clauses
When the predicate in an adverbial clause is stative in nature, its form does not change, regardless
of the form in the main clause.
さむときき
寒い時、コートを着ます。
“I wear a coat when it’s cold.”
さむときき
寒い時、コートを着ました。
“I wore a coat when it was cold.”
 Aspectual forms in adverbial clauses
The aspectual forms of movement verbs illustrate the imperfective and perfective aspects clearly,
regardless of the time of the event. In the examples below, imagine a situation that includes the fol-
lowing two events: (1) going to Japan from America; and (2) buying a dictionary.
In all cases, the aspectual form of the predicate in the main clause is what indicates whether both
events have taken place or not. There are four possible situations:
Situation 1
ときじしょか
日本に行く時、辞書を買います。
“I will buy a dictionary (in America) before going to Japan.”
Yes No N/A
the speaker has arrived in Japan x
the speaker has bought the dictionary x
the speaker has bought the dictionary in America x
the speaker has bought the dictionary in Japan x
the speaker will buy a dictionary in America x
the speaker will buy a dictionary in Japan x
Situation 2
ときじしょか
日本に行った時、辞書を買います。
“I will buy a dictionary in Japan after I arrive there.”
Yes No N/A

Situation 3
ときじしょか
日本に行く時、辞書を買いました。
“I bought a dictionary (in America) before I arrived in Japan.”
Yes No N/A
Situation 4
ときじしょか
日本に行った時、辞書を買いました。
“I bought a dictionary in Japan after I arrived there.”
Yes No N/A

(2) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 前（まえ）
As explained in Stage 1–9, the plain positive imperfective must be used before 前（まえ）に, as the
time condition indicates that the action in the adverbial clause is incomplete when the action in the
main clause takes or has taken place. This is true regardless of the time the sentence expresses in
the main predicate.
ねまえ
ルームメートが１０時に寝る前に、私はテレビを見ます。
“I’ll watch TV before my roommate goes to bed at 10:00.”
ねまえ
ルームメートが１０時に寝る前に、私はテレビを見ました。
“I watched TV before my roommate went to bed at 10:00.”
(3) Temporal adverbial clauses joined by 後（あと）
Similarly, the plain positive perfective form must be used before 後（あと）で, as the adverbial clause
indicates an action completed before the action in the main clause takes or has taken place. This is
true regardless of the time of the sentence shows in the main predicate.
ねあと
ルームメートが１０時に寝た後で、私はテレビを見ます。
“I’ll watch TV after my roommate goes to bed at 10:00.”
ねあと
ルームメートが１０時に寝た後で、私はテレビを見ました。
“I watched TV after my roommate went to bed at 10:00.”
(4) Use of 前（まえ） and 後（あと） with numbers
As briefly mentioned in Stage 1–6, 前（まえ） and 後（あと） can be used immediately after numbers
that indicate time.
まえ
三年前に日本に行きました。
“I went to Japan three years ago.”
あと
三年後で日本に行きました。
“I went to Japan three years later.”
ご
三年後に日本に行きました。
“I went to Japan three years later.”
三年後 may be pronounced either さんねんあと or さんねんご. The pronunciation of the kanji 後
depends on whether the particle に or で is used. If で is used, the phrase is pronounced さんねんあ
と; if に is used, it is pronounced さんねんご. The particle に is optional after 三年前 and 三年後（さ
んねんご）, but で must follow 三年後（さんねんあと）.
s 3: Situational Adverbial Clauses Joined by the たら-forms
(1) たら-forms
Adverbial clauses that indicate conditions of time are often expressed in English with “when” and
“if.” It is important for the students not to try to correlate the words “when” and “if” directly to spe-
cific structures in Japanese. Rather, it is more important to understand the basic meanings that
these Japanese structures express. There are quite a few adverbial clauses that express time-related
conditions. In this section, one such adverbial clause will be introduced. This is called the たら-
adverbial clause because its predicate ends with ~たら.
For now, the 時（とき） and たら adverbial clauses are distinguished as follows: the condition
expressed in the 時（とき） adverbial clause is temporal (“at the time when”), while the condition in
the たら adverbial clause is situational (“if and when the situation is such-and-such”).
The rules to derive the たら-forms are quite simple: just add ~ら to the ending of the perfective form
~た or ~だ.
Rules Examples
Verbal Perfective form + ら見たら, 書いたら, 読んだら
Adjectival ~い→~かったら高かったら, よかったら
Nominal (copula) だ→だったら日本人だったら
Negative predicate ~ない→~なかったら飲まなかったら, 安くなかったら
The たら-form can be used to express a situational condition under which a certain outcome will
occur. In this case, the main clause is always in the imperfective form.
じょうずおも
日本に行ったら、日本語が上手になると思います。
“If you go to Japan, I believe your Japanese will improve.”
くるまやすか
車がもっと安かったら、買います。
“If cars were cheaper, I would buy one.”
へやしずべんきょう
あの部屋が静かだったら、あそこで勉強します。
“If that room is quiet, I will study there.”
The たら-form in the adverbial clause can also indicate circumstances under which an unexpected
event occurred. In this case, the predicate form in the main clause is always perfective.
かえき
家に帰ったら、母が来ていました。
“To my surprise, when I returned home, my mother was there.”
クラスに行ったら、だれもいませんでした。
“To my surprise, when I went to class, no one was there.”
(4) Difference between the たら-adverbial and the とき-adverbial
The main difference between sentences with adverbial clauses using 時（とき） and those using ~た
ら is that with 時（とき）, the focus of the sentence is when the event expressed in the main clause
happened or will happen. With ~たら, on the other hand, sentence focuses on what happened or
will happen under the situation expressed in the ~たら clause.
Compare the two responses to the following question:

き
いつ聞きましょうか。
“When shall we ask him?”
はやしきときき
林さんが来た時に、聞きましょう。
“Let’s ask Hayashi-san when he gets here.”
林さんが来たら、聞きましょう。
“If Hayashi-san comes, let’s ask him.”
The difference between the adverbial clauses above is that in the first, with the 時（とき）-adverbial,
the speaker knows that Hayashi-san will arrive at some point; with the たら-adverbial, Hayashi-
san’s arrival is uncertain.
When the speaker is not certain that the conditions given will be met, the use of the たら-adverbial
is more appropriate than the 時（とき）-adverbial.
林さんが来たら、どうしましょうか。
“What should we do if Hayashi-san comes here?”
*林さんが来た時、どうしましょうか。
[intended meaning] “What should we do if Hayashi-san arrives?”
時（とき）-adverbial clauses may not be used when the consequence expressed in the main clause is
not controllable. 困（こま）る means “to be in trouble.”
はやしきときこま
*林さんが来た時、困ります。
[intended meaning] “I’ll be in trouble when Hayashi-san comes here.”
In this case, the たら-adverbial should be used:

はやしきこま
林さんが来たら、困ります。
“I’ll be in trouble if Hayashi-san comes here.”
s 4: Situational Adverbial Clauses Joined by と
Another example of situational adverbial clauses is a construction in which the adverbial and main
clauses are joined by the conditional conjunction と. In this construction, the predicate preceding
the conjunction と must be in the imperfective form.
 Natural consequences
When the predicate of the main clause is in the imperfective form, the sentence expresses the nat-
ural consequence of the situation described in the adverbial clause. In these cases, the conse-
quence is something that the speaker has no control over; it occurs naturally.
はるあたた
春になると、暖かくなります。
“Once spring comes, it will get warmer.”
かんじべんきょう
もっと漢字を勉強すると、日本語はやさしくなります。
“Once you study more kanji, Japanese will get easier.”
 Habitual consequences
“Natural consequences” and “habitual consequences” are related, but habitual consequences usu-
ally concern personal and controllable events rather than a natural, uncontrollable outcome.
This construction indicates that every time the event described in the adverbial clause occurs, the
speaker or the topic does what is expressed in the main clause.
いのうえあ
日本に行くと、井上さんに会います。
“Whenever I go to Japan, I see Inoue-san.”
おとしょかんしゅくだい
クラスが終わると、いつも図書館で宿題をします。
“After class, I always do my homework in the library.”
When the predicate of the main clause is in the perfective form in this construction, it expresses
an event occurring immediately after the situation described in the adverbial clause. The adverb す
ぐ（に） “immediately” often accompanies the main clause.
かえともだちでんわ
家に帰ると、友達から電話がありました。
“As soon as I returned home, I got a phone call from a friend.”
あさはん
朝ご飯を食べると、すぐ大学に行きました。
“As soon as I ate breakfast, I went to college.”
5: Representative Expressions
As discussed in Stage 1–5, the particle や is used to indicate that items in addition to those men-
tioned are included in the sentence. For instance, the phrase 本やペン indicates that the speaker is
implying that there are more than just books and pens. However,や may not be used to list predi-
cates.
To list predicates, the speaker must use the たり-form (also called the representative form), with the
verb する used in the final position of the sentence. This is called the representative form because
it is used when the speaker chooses to mention a few representative events out of many that could
be listed.
As with the て-form, the たり-form alone does not make a meaningful grammatical sentence. In the
most common structure, the actions or the descriptions made with the たり-form must be conclud-
ed with the verb する. The meaning of the sentence with the representative form, however, will dif-
fer depending upon the type of the predicate.
(1) たり-formation (representative form)
The formation of the representative form, or the たり-form, is very simple:
To create the representative form, add り to the perfective form of the predicate.
The following exchange shows how ~たり is used in conversation:
昨日、何をしましたか。
“What did you do yesterday?”
りょうりえいが
昨日、料理したり、映画に行ったりしました。
“I cooked, and went to a movie—things like that.”
The たり-form is used twice within the response above. It is common, though not obligatory, to use
the たり-form twice. Sometimes it is only used once; at other times, it may be used more than twice.
Note that the たり-form, like the conjunctive form, does not convey aspect. Aspect is always indicat-
ed by the final verb, する. In the example above, the final verb is in the perfective form. In the fol-
lowing examples, the main clauses are in the imperfective form and in the command construction.
りょうりえいが
明日、料理したり、映画に行ったりします。
“Tomorrow I will cook, and go to the movies, and do other things like that.”
どようびりょうりえいが
土曜日には、料理したり、映画に行ったりしてください。
“Please cook, and go to the movies, and do other things like that on Saturday.”
Since the primary function of adjectives is to describe, the たり-forms of adjectives with the verb す
る in a sentence are used to give different descriptions for different times.
むずか
日本語のテストは難しかったり、やさしかったりします。
“Sometimes Japanese exams are difficult and sometimes they’re easy.”
みせ
この店のケーキはおいしかったり、おいしくなかったりです。
“Cakes at this store sometimes taste great, but sometimes they’re not so good.”
The copula in the second sentence functions to abbreviate the predicate with する. This construc-
tion is commonly used.
When different descriptions apply to different things or people, they do not necessarily refer to dif-
ferent times:
やさやさ
この学校の先生は優しかったり、優しくなかったりします。
“Some teachers at this school are lenient and some are not.”
The function of the たり-form of the copula is the same as that of the adjective. The following exam-
ples illustrate the different aspects of the final verb する.
ことしひげつようびかようび
今年の日本語のテストの日は月曜日だったり火曜日だったりしています。
“The day of this year’s Japanese tests has sometimes been Monday and sometimes Tuesday.”
ことしひげつようびかようび
今年の日本語のテストの日は月曜日だったり火曜日だったりします。
“The day of this year’s Japanese tests is sometimes Monday and sometimes Tuesday.”
The difference between しています and します at the end of the above two sentences is aspectual. して
います implies the current situation while します implies a general description of the testing situa-
tion.
The example below is somewhat ambiguous:
日本語の先生はアメリカ人の先生だったり日本人の先生だったりです。
“Some of the Japanese teachers are American, and some are Japanese.”
Though the translation above is the most likely interpretation, this sentence could also be read as
“Sometimes an American teacher comes to the Japanese class, and at other times it’s a Japanese
teacher.” The meaning in such cases depends on the context.
6: Conjunctions
(1) Clausal conjunction し
The conjunction し is used between two independent clauses. The function of this conjunction is
to add information, much like そして, except that it is used between clauses rather than sentences.
あたまかお
あの人は、頭もいいし、顔もきれいですね。
“That person is not only smart, but she also has a very pretty face.”
Like けれども, the form of the first clause can be either in the plain form or the polite form when
the predicate of the second clause is in the polite form.
あたまかおだいす
あの人は、頭もいいし、顔もきれいだし、私は大好きです。
“I like her a lot because she is smart and pretty.”
あたまかおす
あの人は、頭もいいですし、顔もきれいですし、私は大好きです。
“I like her a lot because she is smart and pretty.”
As the sentences above indicate, し may be used as a conjunction after an adverbial clause giving
the reason for the statement made in the main clause.
(2) Sentential conjunction その上（うえ）
The conjunction その上（うえ） is sentential rather than clausal. The second sentence gives addition-
al information.
ほんとうあたまうえかお
あの人は本当に頭がいいです。その上、顔もきれいです。
“That person is really smart. On top of that, she’s pretty, too.”
(3) Sentential conjunctions すると and そ（う）したら
と and ~たら used in sentences in this chapter may also be used as independent sentential con-
junctions in the forms すると and そ（う）したら. When they are used to join sentences, these con-
junctions function the same as と and ~たら used for adverbial clauses.
Recall that when と is used between an adverbial clause and the main clause with a perfective pred-
icate, the event in the main clause is immediate.
へやはいでんわ
部屋に入った。すると、電話がなった。
“I entered the room. Immediately after that, the phone rang.”
~たら in the adverbial clause expresses that the event indicated in the main clause is unexpected. In
this case, the predicate in the main clause must be in the perfective form. The sentential conjunc-
tion そしたら expresses this nuance. そしたら is used more like a clause, meaning something like
“after doing that, to my surprise...”
びょうきがっこうやすでんわ
病気で学校を休んだ。そしたら、先生から電話があった。
“I was sick, so I didn’t go to school. My teacher surprised me by calling me on the phone because
I was absent.”
いもうとあいもうとな
妹にケーキを上げた。そしたら、妹は泣いた。
“I gave my sister a piece of cake. She surprised me by bursting into tears in response.”
 More conjunctions
Other conjunctions may be necessary to express certain things; please refer to Stage 4-4 for a list-
ing of additional conjunctions if needed.
(1) Giving a suggestion
かえあねでんわあしたかえ
 さっきね、うちに帰ったら、姉から電話があったんですよ。明日、帰るって。
なに
 へえ、何かあったんですか。
べつおも
 別にたいしたことないと思うんですけどね。
どでんわ
 でも、もう一度、電話してあげたら、どうですか。
 My sister suddenly called me when I got home. She said she’s coming home tomorrow.
 Really? Did something happen?
 I don’t think it’s anything serious.
 But maybe you should call her again, don’t you think?
 さっきね
The use of ね after a word or a phrase is a device to confirm that the addressee understands what
is being said. In conversation it is used often, even within the same sentence.
 別（べつ）にたいしたことない
The adverb 別（べつ）に, which must accompany a negative predicate, means “not particularly.”
べつ
これは別においしくありません。
“This is not especially tasty.”
たいしたことない is an idiomatic phrase meaning “nothing serious” or “not a big deal.”

 電話（でんわ）してあげる
あげる, one of the verbs of giving, is combined with the verb 電話（でんわ）する to mean, in the above
context, “call your sister to see if everything is all right.” This structure will be covered in detail in
the next chapter.
 ~たらどうですか
This construction is used to make a suggestion.
ともだちいっしょ
友達と一緒に勉強したら、どうですか。
“Why don’t you study with a friend?”
(2) Not feeling well
きのうあねでんわぐあいわるかえ
 昨日、姉に電話したら、ちょっと具合が悪いから、帰りたいって。
なん
 やっぱり。何でもないと、いいですね。
When I called my sister yesterday, she said she wanted to come home because she wasn’t feel-
ing well.
 I thought so. I hope it’s nothing serious.
 具合（ぐあい）が悪（わる）い
具合（ぐあい） is a noun that means “condition” or “situation.” This noun can be used for a thing
(such as a machine) or a person. When it is used for a person, it usually refers to their health.
Therefore, 具合（ぐあい）が悪（わる）い, when discussing a person, means they are “not feeling well”
or are “feeling sick.”
 何（なん）でもない
This phrase means “nothing serious.”
 といいです
といいです expresses the speaker’s wish for a certain situation.
(3) I’m sorry to do this, but…
じゅんび
 もう、行く準備できた？
ま
 わるいけど、もうちょっとだけ待ってくれない？
まあこま
 間に合わないと、困るんです。しかられますから。
さき
 じゃ、先に行ってて。
もうわけい
 じゃ、申し訳ないけど、さきに行ってるね。
 Are you ready to go?
 Sorry, but can you wait for me a little longer?
 I don’t want to be late—I’ll really be in trouble.
 OK, then go ahead.
 Sorry, but I think I should go now.
 わるいけど
This expression can be used when the speaker feels guilty about asking a favor of the addressee. It
means “I’m really sorry, but...”
 待（ま）ってくれない？
This is a casual way of asking 待ってくださいませんか.
 と困（こま）る
This expression is used to refer to an undesirable situation, the exact nature of which is, to the
speaker, somewhat uncertain.
こま
先生が日本人だと困るんですが・・・
“We won’t be happy if the teacher is Japanese.” [Literally, “If the teacher is Japanese, we’ll be in
trouble.”]
 しかられますから
しかられる is the passive verb of the base verb 叱（しか）る “to scold.” See Stages 1–9 and 2–4 for fur-
ther explanation of passive forms.
 先（さき）に行く
先（さき）に is a time adverb meaning “beforehand.” Therefore, 先（さき）に行く means “to go before
another person.” 行ってて here is the same as 行っていて.
 申（もう）し訳（わけ）ないけど
申（もう）し訳（わけ）ないけど is a more polite version of わるいけど. Even in a casual conversation, a
speaker can use 申（もう）し訳（わけ）ないけど, an expression equivalent to “I am truly sorry.” The use
of a more humble expression conveys the depth of the speaker’s regret. The polite predicate ありま
せん instead of ない may also be used to make the expression more polite: 申（もう）し訳（わけ）ありま
せんが. The conjunction が is more formal than the colloquial けど.
Stage 2-4 Derived Verbs: Potentials and Passives
Structures
1. Potential Verbs and Sentences
(1) Derived verbs
(2) Potential verbs
2. Passive Verbs and Sentences
(1) Passive verb formation
(2) Different passive sentences in Japanese
(3) Regular passive sentences
(4) Affective passive sentences
(5) Passive and potential sentences
(6) Passives in English and Japanese
3. て-forms with Giving and Receiving Verbs
(1) ~てあげる（さしあげる・やる）
(2) ~てくれる（くださる）
(3) ~てもらう（いただく）
(4) Comparison between ~てくれる and ~てもらう
4. て-forms for Expressing the Cause
(1) Different causes
(2) Apologizing
(3) Thanking
(1) Thanking someone for advice
(2) How did you get here?
(3) Feeling upset about a bad grade
Structures
1: Potential Verbs and Sentences
(1) Derived verbs
As mentioned in Stage 1–9, the three types of derived verbs include potential, passive, and
causative verbs. This chapter will focus on two of these, potentials and passives. Causatives are
mentioned briefly in this chapter, but will be discussed more fully in Stage 3–4.
(2) Potential verbs
Refer to Stage 1–9 for information on the formation of potential verbs. When potential verbs were
introduced as independent verbs until Stage 1–9, only their ability-related meaning was given. As
briefly mentioned in Stage 1–9, however, potential verbs can also express possibility (that is, some-
thing that is possible in some situations). The ability- and possibility-related meanings of potential
verbs are discussed below.
 Ability-related meaning
The following sentences express the topic’s ability to do something.
じょうずはな
ジョンさんは日本語が上手に話せます。
“John can speak Japanese well.”
うんてん
私は運転できません。
“I cannot drive.”
 Possibility-related meaning
Some verbs that do not involve skill or action indicate only possibility, not ability.
じゅぎょう
明日は日本語の授業に行けません。
“I cannot go to Japanese class tomorrow.” [I.e., it is not possible for the speaker to go.]
としょかん
ナンシーさんは明日から図書館でアルバイトできます。
“It will be possible for Nancy to work at the library starting tomorrow.”
しゅうかん
日本に三週間いられます。
“I can stay in Japan for three weeks.”
Derived potential forms of action verbs have both ability- and possibility-related meanings depend-
ing on the context. For instance, the potential verb 話せる may be used for both meanings. (See
above for the ability-related meaning with this verb.) As for the possibility-related meaning with
the potential forms of action verbs, the topic is often not explicitly expressed.
この店では日本語が話せます。
“In this store, we can speak Japanese.”
 Expressing possibility-related meaning with かもしれない
Some semi-transitive verbs, such as 分かる and ある, have no potential forms because this type of
verb does not refer to an action, and thus cannot express ability. Other constructions must be used
to express the idea of possibility with these verbs.
One construction that can be used to express possibility with these verbs is the sentence-ending
expression かもしれない.
あの人はお金がたくさんあるかもしれません。
“It’s possible that that person has a lot of money.”
あの人は日本語が分かるかもしれません。
“It’s possible that that person understands Japanese.”
When the speaker wants to express more certainty that the situation is true, the volitional copula
だろう may be used.
あの人はお金がたくさんあるでしょう。
“I’m quite certain that that person has a lot of money.”
あの人は日本語が分かるでしょう。
“I’m sure that that person understands Japanese.”
In either case, the possibilities expressed by the potential forms and those expressed by かもしれな
い or だろう are not quite parallel to each other.
With the potential form, the possibility lies in whether or not the topic is able to carry out the
action. When かもしれない or だろう are used, the possibility lies in whether or not the situation is
true, with somewhat different degrees of uncertainty. For this reason, both かもしれない and だろう
may be used even with potential verbs.
あの店では日本語が話せるかもしれません。
“You may be able to speak Japanese at that store.”
2: Passive Verbs and Sentences
(1) Passive verb formation
Refer to Stage 1–9 for information on the formation of passive verbs.
(2) Different passive sentences in Japanese
In both English and Japanese, passive sentences appear more often in formal writing than in casu-
al speech.
In Japanese, there are two different kinds of passive sentences. One is a regular passive, used most
often in formal writing or speech. The other is a passive expressing that the speaker has been
affected by a certain event, resulting in a feeling that is often undesirable. This type of passive,
which is used rather frequently in daily conversation, is called the affective passive. Because this
type of passive is emotive, the topic is normally the speaker.
(3) Regular passive sentences
The use of regular passives occurs most often in written work such as essays, or in formal speech.
The topic of the essay is often used as the topic of passive sentences. For instance, if an essay is dis-
cussing 日本語, 日本語 may be used as the topic of the essay’s opening statement.
はな
日本語は日本でだけ話されています。
“Japanese is spoken only in Japan.”
Regular passives do have active counterparts, as shown in Stage 1–9.
この大学では、多くの学生が日本語を勉強しています。
“Many students study Japanese at this college.”
この大学では、日本語は多くの学生に勉強されています。
“At this college, Japanese is studied by many students.”
The particle に is used to mark the person who does the action in a regular passive sentence. によっ
て instead of に can also be used in some cases.
ゆうめいさっかか
この本は有名な作家に（or によって）書かれました。
“This book was written by a famous writer.”
While the particle に and によって may mark the person who acts, に is the particle used for all types
of passive predicates. によって is not used for the verbs that have emotive meanings, such as scold-
ing and praising, as shown in the incorrect sentence below. In cases when both に and によって are
acceptable, the use of によって sounds more formal than に.
せいとせんせいときどきしか
*日本の生徒は先生によって、時々、叱られます。
[intended meaning:] “Students in Japan are occasionally scolded by their teachers.”
せいとせんせいときどきしか
日本の生徒は先生に時々、叱られます。
“Students in Japan are occasionally scolded by their teachers.”
(4) Affective passive sentences
In English, because passive sentences are formed by making the object of the active sentence into
the subject of the passive sentence, only transitive sentences can be converted into passive sen-
tences.
In Japanese, passive verbs can also be used in sentences in which the speaker expresses an emo-
tional response to an event. Feelings such as annoyance or surprise can be conveyed by the use of
passive verbs. In this type of passive sentence, even intransitive action verbs may be used in some
situations. However, semi-transitive verbs, and the intransitive counterpart of a transitive-intransi-
tive verb pair (such as the intransitive, 始（はじ）まる, whose transitive counterpart is 始（はじ）める)
may not be used even in affective passives.
The structures of the regular passive and affective passive are inherently different. In affective pas-
sives, the person who is affected—again, most often the speaker—is the topic of the sentence.
Unlike regular passive sentences, the topic of the affective passive does not appear in the active
counterpart.
あめふ
Active: 雨が降りました。
“It rained.” (Literally, “Rain fell.”)
あめふ
Passive: 私は雨に降られました。
“I was affected by the fact that rain fell.”
たちいぬし
去年、私達は犬に死なれました。
“Last year, we were saddened by the death of our dog.”
えいがかんこどもな
私は映画館で子供に泣かれました。
“I was really annoyed by the child’s crying in the theater.”
こ
私は先生に私の家に来られました。
“I was shocked that my teacher came to my house.”
The sentences above are translated idiomatically, as there is really no way to provide word-for-word
translations for sentences of this type.
Unlike a regular passive, when a transitive sentence is converted into an affective passive, the
direct object in the active sentence remains the direct object in the affective passive. The person
affected by the event is the topic, and does not appear in the active sentence.
ともだちてがみよ
Active: 友達はボーイフレンドからの手紙を読みました。
“My friend read my boyfriend’s letter.”
ともだちてがみよ
Passive: 私は友達にボーイフレンドからの手紙を読まれました。
“I was upset that my friend read my boyfriend’s letter.”
In many affective passive sentences, the topic is not mentioned, because it is clear that the speak-
er is the one who is emotionally affected.
Some passives are affective passives by nature, even though they have the structure of a regular
passive, because of the inherent meaning of the verb. This is particularly true of emotive verbs.
しか
Active: 先生は私を叱りました。
“The teacher scolded me.”
しか
Passive: 私は先生に叱られました。
“I was upset about being scolded by the teacher.”
 Affective passives with ~てしまう
~てしまう is often used with the affective passives. Recall that ~てしまう may be used to express a cer-
tain unexpected and unintentional result (see Stage 2–1). As the circumstances in which affective
passives are used are by nature unexpected, this resultative expression is commonly used in affec-
tive passive sentences.
きのうしか
昨日、先生に叱られてしまいました。
“I ended up being scolded by the teacher.”
そつぎょうしきあめふ
卒業式で雨に降られてしまいました。
“It turned out that it rained at the graduation ceremony.”
(5) Passive and potential sentences
In terms of their formation, the passive and potential forms of Group 1 verbs and 来（く）る are iden-
tical. The two forms are used in different structures, however, so the meanings of each are clear.
このケーキが食べられますか。
“Can you eat this cake?”
いもうと
私は妹にケーキを食べられました。
“I was upset that my sister ate my cake.”
Unlike Group 1 verbs, potentials and passives of the Group 2 verbs and する have different forms.
ここで日本語が話せます。
“We can speak Japanese here.”
日本語はここでも話されています。
“Japanese is spoken even here.”
(6) Passives in English and Japanese
When the speaker receives some kind of benefit, the use of a passive sentence is not appropriate
in Japanese. It is allowed in English, however, as in the following example:
Japanese is taught by Professor Tanaka.

I was taught Japanese by Professor Tanaka.
The second sentence cannot be expressed as a passive sentence in Japanese, because the implica-
tion is that the topic is receiving some kind of benefit or favor from Professor Tanaka. To express
this meaning, the following structure must be used:
おし
私は田中先生に日本語を教えていただきました。
“I was taught Japanese by Tanaka-sensei.” [Literally, “I received the teaching of Japanese from
Tanaka-sensei.”]
This construction will be explained in detail below.
s 3: て-forms with Giving and Receiving Verbs
All verbs of giving and receiving may be combined with other verbs in the て-form. In these cases,
what the topic gives and receives are the benefits of actions rather than things. The central mean-
ing of this construction is therefore “doing a favor for or receiving a favor from another individ-
ual.” In English, this nuance is expressed by the preposition “for,” as in “I read the book for the
child,” or “Mary made the cake for me.” See Stage 1–5 to review verbs of giving and receiving before
proceeding to the following section.
(1) ~てあげる（さしあげる・やる）
This construction indicates that the topic does a favor for another person. The use of あげる, さしあ
げる, and やる depends on the relationship between the topic and the recipient of the favor.
えいごてがみよ
私は母に英語の手紙を読んであげました。
“I read the letter in English for my mother.” [Literally, “I gave the reading of the letter in English
to my mother.”]
ともだちしんぶんよ
私は友達のおばあさんに新聞を読んでさしあげました。
“I read the newspaper for my friend’s grandmother.”
おとうとしゅくだい
私は弟の宿題をしてやりました。
“I did my younger brother’s homework for him.”
This construction should be used with care, because when a speaker talks about doing a favor for
others, it can seem boastful in the context of Japanese culture. The topic may do something for
someone voluntarily, or at the request of the receiver; it is not always clear which is the case.
(2) ~てくれる（くださる）
When the verbs くれる or くださる are used, the recipient is always the speaker or the speaker’s うち-
group. The particle が is often used as the topic marker in this type of sentence because the sen-
tence often expresses who is the person who has offered or will offer the favor.
かんじおし
ルームメートがこの漢字を教えてくれました。
“My roommate is the one who taught me this kanji.”
いとうかんじおし
伊藤先生がこの漢字を教えてくださいました。
“Ito-sensei is the one who taught me this kanji.”
The following sentence shows that the recipient is the speaker’s family member:
山田さんが弟に本を読んでくれました。
“Yamada-san read a book for my brother.”
(3) ~てもらう（いただく）
This construction is used when the topic receives a favor from someone else, most often as the
result of a request or in a prearranged situation.
ぼくかんじおし
僕はルームメートにこの漢字を教えてもらいました。
“I had my roommate teach me this kanji.”
すずきかんじおし
マイクさんは鈴木先生にこの漢字を教えていただきました。
“Mike asked Professor Suzuki to teach him this kanji.”
(4) Comparison between ~てくれる and ~てもらう
The following is a summary of the different situations in which ~てくれる（くださる） and ~てもらう（いた
だく） may be used. In both of the sentences below, Taro, a man, read the letter for the speaker:
たろうてがみよ
太郎さんが日本語の手紙を読んでくれました（くださいました）。
“Taro read the Japanese letter for me.”
てがみたろうよ
私は日本語の手紙を太郎さんに読んでもらいました（いただきました）。
“I had Taro read the Japanese letter for me.”
The person who did the action of reading the letter is in the topic position in the sentence with ~く
れる（くださる）. In contrast, the person who has asked and received the favor is the topic in the sen-
tence with ~もらう（いただく）.
In the first sentence with ~くれる（くださる）, the focus is Taro, who has offered the action of reading.
This action may have taken place because the speaker has asked Taro to do so, or Taro may have
volunteered (the use of が for the topic indicates the latter).
In the second sentence with ~もらう（いただく）, the speaker asked Taro to read the letter, perhaps
because the speaker cannot read Japanese. As a result of this request, the speaker (the topic)
received Taro’s help, namely, the reading of the letter. In this case, the speaker is the topic, since
the speaker initiated the asking, and the sentence is structured to communicate this fact. This con-
struction is generally used to talk about a favor that the speaker has received as the result of his or
her own request.
 Causative sentences and ~てもらう（いただく）
As explained in Stage 1–9, causative verbs can be used in sentences in which one person makes
another do something. This may seem similar to the sentences with ~てもらう（いただく）. The differ-
ence is that the topic of a causative sentence is usually someone who has a certain authority over
the person whom the topic makes do something; this is not the case with sentences with ~てもらう
（いただく）. Another difference is that sentences with ~てもらう（いただく） imply that the topic has
requested that another do something, while causative sentences do not imply any such request.
かんじ
先生は学生に漢字を書かせました。
“The teacher made the students write kanji.”
先生は学生に漢字を書いてもらいました。
“The teacher had a student write kanji for him.”
 Noun のために
This phrase, a noun with のために, is used to indicate the recipient of a favor in some construc-
tions. ために, rather than に, is used to avoid confusion as to whether the destination or the benefi-
ciary is being named.
Suppose the speaker’s grandmother is ill, so she cannot go shopping. In this situation, the grand-
mother is the beneficiary on whose behalf the speaker is going to the store. The following sentence
is awkward, and should not be used:
みせ
*私はおばあさんに店に行ってあげました。
[intended meaning]: “I went to the store for my grandmother.”
It is better to use ために in place of the first に:

みせ
私はおばあさんのために店に行ってあげました。
“I went to the store for my grandmother.”
ために may also be used in cases when に is normally used to indicate the beneficiary of the topic’s
action. When both ために and に are possible, the benefit is much more greatly emphasized with た
めに than に. Because of this, an inappropriate use of ために may convey the nuance that the gift
was overbearing.
つく
私はおばあさんに（or のために）おいしいケーキを作ってあげました。
“I made a great cake for my grandmother.”
4: て-forms for Expressing the Cause
(1) Different causes
Up to this point in the course, only the adverbial clause with the conjunction から has been intro-
duced to express cause. Clauses with ので, briefly mentioned in Stage 2–3, also express cause; this
conjunction will be more fully explained in Stage 3–1. Another way to express cause is to end the
first clause with the て-form. This indicates that the first clause is the reason for the result
expressed in the second clause. The distinction in this construction is that the result occurs natu-
rally, rather than being a result of the speaker’s action:
かんじむずかよ
漢字が難しくて、私はこの本が読めません。
“I can’t read this book because the kanji are too difficult.”
Emotive expressions, such as the verb 困（こま）る in the following sentence, are often used in the
result clause:
あめふこま
雨が降って、困りました。
“It rained, and that caused me some problems.”
(2) Apologizing
Ending the first clause with the て-form is a construction commonly used to form an apology:
じゅぎょうこ
昨日、授業に来なくて、すみません（でした）。
“I’m sorry I didn’t come to class yesterday.”
A very common mistake when expressing an apology is to connect the two clauses with the con-
junction から (or ので), as in the following incorrect sentence:
じゅぎょうこ
*昨日、授業に来なかったから (or ので)、すみませんでした。
[intended meaning] “I’m sorry I didn’t come to class yesterday.”
An apology is best connected with the て-form because it indicates that the speaker’s regret
emerges naturally, rather than being the chosen consequence of a causal event.
(3) Thanking
If the speaker is thanking someone for a specific thing that he or she received, を is used, though
it may be deleted in casual conversation:
おもしろ
面白い本をありがとうございます。
“Thank you for the interesting book.”
When a speaker thanks someone else, it is because that person has done something nice for him
or her. It is therefore most natural that, following the main clause, the first clause contains some
kind of giving or receiving verb. Without this, the expression is often inappropriate.
てつだ
手伝ってくれて、ありがとう。
“Thank you for helping me.”
The following is a more polite version of the above sentence; the verb くださる is used rather than く
れる, with ございます added at the end.
てつだ
手伝ってくださって、ありがとうございます。
“Thank you for helping me.”
Mistakes commonly made when expressing appreciation include (1) not using a verb of giving or
receiving; (2) joining the first clause to the second clause by から (or ので); or (3) using a form other
than the て-form in the first clause.
てつだ
*手伝って、ありがとう。
[intended meaning] “Thank you for helping me.”
てつだ
*手伝ってくれたから、ありがとう。
てつだ
*手伝ったから、ありがとう。
(1) Thanking someone for advice
じゅぎょうみんなわら
 今日も授業で皆に笑われたんです。
 ええ？そうなんですか。どうしたんですか。
[After receiving an explanation of how certain things are not appropriate in a given culture]:
ぜんぜんしおし
 全然、知りませんでした。教えてくださって、本当にありがとうございます。
 People laughed at me again today in class.
 Really? Tell me what happened.
[After receiving an explanation of how certain things are not appropriate in a given culture]:
 I didn’t know that at all. Thank you very much for telling me.
 どうしたんですか
In the Conversational Devices section in Stage 1–7, the expression どうしましたか was introduced.
The expression どうしたんですか in the conversation above has a very similar meaning. The differ-
ence here is that the use of ~んですか suggests that the speaker is urging or encouraging the
addressee to explain the situation.
(2) How did you get here?
こ
 どうやってここまで来られたんですか。
のき
 父に乗せてもらって来たんです。
 How did you manage to get here?
 I asked my father to give me a ride.
 どうやって
やって in this phrase is from the verb やる “to do,” a colloquial verb equivalent in meaning to する.
どうやって is a way of asking how things are done.
 乗（の）せてもらって
乗（の）せる is a verb meaning “to give a ride.”
かれくるまの
彼は私を車に乗せてくれた。
“He gave me a ride in his car.”
(3) Feeling upset about a bad grade
ちゅうかんしけんわるてん
 中間試験、ものすごく悪い点をつけられました。
べんきょうぼくせいせき
 勉強しなかったんですか。僕もあまりいい成績はもらいませんでした。
いっしょうけんめいべんきょうかぜ
 一生懸命、勉強したんですが、ちょっと風邪をひいていたんです。
き
 それはいけませんね。気をつけてください。
 I got a really bad grade on the midterm.
 Was it because you didn’t study for it? I didn’t do very well, either.
 I studied as hard as I could, but I caught a bit of a cold.
 That’s too bad [about the cold]. Please do take care.

 成績（せいせき）をつける and 点（てん）をつける

成績（せいせき） “grade” and 点（てん） “point” are used to express the grade one receives in a
course, on a test, etc. The verbs used with these words are つける (for giving a grade) and もらう (for
receiving one).
 一生懸命（いっしょうけんめい）
一生懸命（いっしょうけんめい） is used with the particle に, though the particle may be deleted in casu-
al conversation. The phrase means that one does something “as hard as one possibly can.” 一所懸
命（いっしょけんめい） (i.e., the second kanji pronounced with a short しょ) is also commonly used.
 気（き）をつける
There are quite a few idiomatic phrases with the noun 気（き）, “spirit; mind; heart.” 気（き）をつける
indicates that a person pays attention to things, or is careful about certain things. The thing that
the topic pays attention to is marked by に. For more idioms with 気（き）, see Stage 3–6.
くるまき
車に気をつけてください。
“Watch out for cars, please.”
Stage 2-5 Stems and Their Uses
Structures
1. Nominal Elements of Stems
(1) About stems
(2) Stems as nouns
(3) Stems used to describe the weather
(4) Responding to alternative questions with verbal predicates
2. Stems with に as Purpose Phrases
(1) Purpose particle に
(2) Purpose of going somewhere
(3) Purpose of doing something
(4) 大和言葉（やまとことば） and 漢語（かんご）
3. Emotive Expressions
(1) Stem with たい
(2) The verbs 言（い）う and おっしゃる
(3) The verb 思（おも）う
(4) The verb 聞（き）く
4. Two Simultaneous Events
(1) Stem with ながら
(2) The clausal conjunction あいだ（に）
(1) Where does this bus go?
(2) Expressing regret
(3) A great help
Structures
1: Nominal Elements of Stems
(1) About stems
 Stem formation
To review the rules for deriving stems from base forms, see Stage 1–9.
 The polite form as an example
See Stage 1–9 for information on the formation of polite forms with stems.
(2) Stems as nouns
When used alone, a stem may function as a noun, although not all stems can be used as
nouns. The following examples are typical:
Base form Stem Meaning as a noun

はな
話すはなし story; talk
やす
休むやすみ vacation; time off
よ
読むよみ reading
はなしおもしろ
あの先生の話はいつも面白いです。
“That teacher’s stories are always interesting.”
じゅぎょうやす
明日、日本語の授業は休みです。
“There will be no Japanese class tomorrow.”
かんじおんよくんよ
この漢字は音読みが二つと訓読みが一つあります。
“This kanji has two on-readings and one kun-reading.”
Please note that a stem used as a noun is different from a nominalized verb. A nominalized verb
with こと or の still maintains a verbal meaning, while a stem used as a noun does not. Compare
the following two sentences.
なつやすなが
大学の夏休みは長いですねえ。
“The college summer vacation is long, isn’t it?”
いそがたいせつ
忙しい時に、時々、休むことは大切です。
“It’s important to rest sometimes when things are busy.”
(3) Stems used to describe the weather
Weather may be described by using nouns such as 雨（あめ） and 雪（ゆき）, as shown below:
あめ
今日は雨です。
“It is [or will be] rainy today.”
ゆき
明日は雪です。
“It will snow tomorrow.”
To describe clear and cloudy days, it is common to use the stems of the relevant verbs in the pred-
icate position. 晴（は）れる is a verb meaning “to clear up.” 晴（は）れ is the stem of this verb.
は
今日は晴れです。
“It is [or will be] sunny today.”
Likewise, 曇（くも）る is a verb that means “to become cloudy.” 曇（くも）り is the stem of this verb.
くも
今日は曇りです。
“It is [or will be] cloudy today.”
The following formulaic expression is often used by weather forecasters, and may be heard in
weather reports. It is good to know this expression in order to understand TV or radio broadcasts,
but there is no need to use it to describe the weather in conversation. 後（のち）, a rather formal
word, means “later.”
はのちくも
今日は、晴れ、後、曇りです。
“It will be clear at first and then cloud over later today.”
In conversation, 後（あと）で “at a later time,” with the optional で, may be used rather than 後（の
ち）:
はあとくもき
今日は、晴れで、その後（で）、曇りになると聞きました。
“I heard that today will be clear at first, and then it will cloud over.”
(4) Responding to alternative questions with verbal predicates
There are three possible ways to respond to an alternative question: (1) choose one of the options;
(2) choose both options; or (3) negate both options.
べんきょうしごと
今日、勉強しましたか、（それとも）仕事しましたか。
“Did you study or work today?”
When choosing one of the options, state that option, as in the following:
しごと
仕事しました。
“I worked.”
When choosing both, use the following structure, in which the two nouns are used in the object
positions:
勉強も仕事もしました。
“I studied and worked.”
If choosing neither option, use the following structure:

勉強も仕事もしませんでした。
“I didn’t study or work.”
The verbs in the above alternative question sentence contain the same verb する. The following
question sentence, however, contains two different verbs:
あるはし
歩きましたか、走りましたか。
“Did you walk or run?”
In this case, to negate both alternatives, use the stems (which are nouns in form) marked by も with
the negative form of the verb する.
あるはし
歩きも走りもしませんでした。
“I neither walked nor ran.”
For choosing or negating both options, the pronoun どちらも “both” or “neither” may be used,
regardless of the verbs used in the alternative question. In this case, the verb する represents all
verbs.
どちらもしませんでした。
“I did neither.”
どちらもしました。
“I did both.”
2: Stems with に as Purpose Phrases
(1) Purpose particle に
The particle に has many functions, as has already been shown. In the following phrases, に func-
tions to express the purpose of an action:
あさはんた
朝ご飯にりんごを食べます。
“I eat apples for breakfast.”
かものい
買い物に行きます。
“I’m going shopping.” [i.e., going somewhere for the purpose of shopping]
(2) Purpose of going somewhere
In Stage 1–9, it was explained that the stem of a verb is used with the purpose particle に to express
a certain action as a purpose. In this construction, the last verb must be a directional verb that indi-
cates a movement from one place to another, such as coming or going somewhere, or returning
home.
えいがみ
映画を見に行きましょう。
“Let’s go see a movie.”
き
友達に会いにこのレストランに来ました。
“I came to this restaurant to meet my friend.”
ひるはんかえ
お昼ご飯を食べに家に帰りました。
“I went home to eat lunch.”
When the main verb is not a directional verb, a different construction must be used, as explained
in the following section.
(3) Purpose of doing something
When the main verb is one that does not indicate direction, such as “studying in order to become
a teacher,” or “eating to gain weight,” then the purpose of the action should be expressed by the
imperfective form of the verb followed by ために.
りゅうがくことしべんきょう
来年、留学するために、今年、日本語を勉強しています。
“I am studying Japanese this year in order to study abroad next year.”
ともだちはなでんわ
友達と話すために、電話しました。
“I called my friend on the phone in order to talk to him.”
In fact, ために can be used for all verb types, even those that indicate direction.
まち
すしを食べに（or 食べるために）町に行きます。
“I will go to town to eat sushi.”
When both structures are possible, the purpose expressed by ために sounds more serious.
ともだちはな
友達に話しに行きました。
“I went to have a chat with my friend.”
ともだちはな
友達に話すために行きました。
“I went to discuss something with my friend.”
When the verb preceding ために is in the perfective form, the entire sentence takes on a different
meaning. This structure is explained in Stage 4–1.
(4) 大和言葉（やまとことば） and 漢語（かんご）
In addition to the use of a stem as a nominal form, one may see an actual noun that consists of
kanji compounds in the same construction. As explained thus far, both stems and nominalized
verbs function as nominal elements. In addition to these two kinds of nominal elements, there is
another group of nouns that consist of more than one kanji. These kanji compounds are called 漢
語（かんご）.
For instance, the noun 読書（どくしょ） “reading,” a 漢語（かんご）, was introduced in Stage 2–2. The
same meaning can be expressed by the verb 読む with the nominalizer こと, as in 読むこと.
In the pair of sentences below, 食（た）べ is derived from the verb 食べる, while the noun 食事（しょ
くじ） “meal” is expressed with two kanji. This kanji compound is pronounced with the on-reading:
いっしょた
明日、一緒に食べに行きませんか。
“Would you like to eat together tomorrow?”
いっしょしょくじ
明日、一緒に食事に行きませんか。
“Would you like to eat together tomorrow?”
In any language, there is often more than one word to refer to the same thing, event, action, state,
etc. In English, these similar words, if not exactly the same, may have different origins: Anglo-
Saxon and Latin/French-based, for example. In Japanese, two common sources are native words
and Chinese words. The native words are referred to as 大和言葉（やまとことば） or 和語（わご） while
words of Chinese origin are 漢語（かんご）. For “reading,” 読む is 大和言葉（やまとことば）, while the
kanji compound 読書（どくしょ） is of Chinese origin.
Not all 漢語（かんご） are of Chinese origin, however. For instance, the verb 食（た）べる is 大和言葉
（やまとことば）. The 漢語（かんご） equivalent is 食事（しょくじ）する, but this 漢語（かんご） is a Japan-
made noun based on the structure of the words of Chinese origin. There are quite a few such 漢語
（かんご）.
Notice the differences in the readings of the kanji of these two words. For most 大和言葉（やまとこ
とば）, 訓読（くんよ）み is used, as in 食（た）べる. And 音読（おんよ）み is used for most 漢語（かんご）
as in 食事（しょくじ）.
The difference between the two kinds of words is often one of formality. 大和言葉（やまとことば） are
used more often in everyday speech, while 漢語（かんご） sound somewhat more formal. Of course,
this is just a broad generalization, and there are exceptions to this statement.
3: Emotive Expressions
(1) Stem with たい
In Stages 1–7 and 1–9, the construction of the stem with the suffix ~たい was introduced.
えいが
明日、映画に行きたいです。
“I want to go to a movie tomorrow.”
 Expressing one’s own desires
In Japanese culture, it is considered overly direct to express one’s own desires, so it may not be
appropriate to use the たい-form by itself in some cases. To avoid such directness, many speakers
add the verb 思（おも）う.
おも
来年、日本に行きたいと思っています。
“I want to go to Japan next year.” [Literally, “I am thinking that I want to go to Japan next year.”]
Since the above sentence refers to the speaker’s current feeling, 思（おも）っている is better than the
habitual 思（おも）う, which is generally used to express the speaker’s opinions.
There is no need to add 思（おも）う when negating a desire or talking about a past desire.
えいが
そんな映画は見たくありません。
“I don’t want to see that kind of a movie.”
の
ミルクが飲みたかったです。
“I wanted to drink milk.”
 Other facts
Other important facts to remember about this construction include the following (see Stages 1–7
and 1–9 for review):
 The new forms are adjectives, as the last syllable い suggests;

 The object should be formally marked by the particle が, but in actual conversation を is also used;
 This expression can be used to express the speaker’s desire, or in a question addressing a second
person directly, but it may not be used to talk about a third person’s desire.
 A third person’s emotive expressions
As the last point in the above list states, certain emotive expressions may not be used to describe a
third person’s emotive states.
らいねんにほんい
*マイクさんは来年、日本に行きたいです。
[intended meaning] “Mike wants to go to Japan next year.”
There are many ways to talk about a third person’s desire. One is for the speaker to report what the
third person said regarding his or her feelings.
らいねんにほんいい
マイクさんは来年、日本に行きたいと言いました。
“Mike-san said that he wanted to go to Japan next year.”
Another way is for the speaker to express his or her inference based on direct observation by using
a complex predicate with ようだ.
らいねんにほんい
マイクさんは来年、日本に行きたいようです。
“It seems to me that Mike wants to go to Japan next year.”
Review and further study of structures with the verbs 言（い）う (or おっしゃる) and 思（おも）う follows
below. A more detailed explanation of ようだ will be presented in Stage 3–2.
(2) The verbs 言（い）う and おっしゃる
おっしゃる is the honorific verb of the verb 言（い）う. The polite form is おっしゃいます, rather than お
っしゃります, just as the polite form of いらっしゃる is いらっしゃいます, not いらっしゃります.
Since おっしゃる is the honorific verb of 言（い）う, it is used when the topic is someone to whom the
speaker wishes to show respect.
With these verbs, there are essentially two ways to report what the other has said: the speech can
be reported directly, or indirectly.
 Direct quotation
In reporting speech directly, the speaker repeats exactly what another person has said. In the direct
quote, such things as the predicate style (polite vs. plain), the predicate ending, and sentence-final
particles may also be reported directly. When speaking, it is really up to the speaker to choose what
to include in the quote. When reporting in writing, use quotation marks. In horizontal writing, 「
is used to open a quote, and 」 is used to close it. The direction of the quotation marks changes
when writing vertically. Examples of quotation marks, especially in vertical writing, can be seen in
Step 3 of Stage 1–3 in Workbook 1.
いとうい
伊藤さんは「このケーキはおいしいですよ。」と言いました。
“Ito-san said, ‘You know, this cake is delicious.’”
すずきしけんきんようび
鈴木先生は「試験は金曜日です。」とおっしゃいました。
“Suzuki-sensei said, ‘The examination will be on Friday.’”
 Indirect quotation
In an indirect quote, a speaker’s remarks are paraphrased rather than being quoted verbatim. In
this case, the content of the quote is expressed in the plain form, even though the person being
quoted might have used the polite form. Such things as sentence-final particles are not included in
the indirect quote.
い
ジョンさんはこのケーキはおいしいと言いました。
“John said that this cake was delicious.”
With an adjectival predicate, as above, as well as with a verbal predicate, the copula is not needed
for an indirect quote. When the predicate is nominal, as below, the copula is needed to indicate
aspect:
いとうしけんきんようび
伊藤先生は試験は金曜日だとおっしゃいました。
“Ito-sensei said that the examination would be on Friday.”
(3) The verb 思（おも）う
Both 思（おも）う and 考（かんが）える are translated as “to think.” However, 思（おも）う, rather than 考
（かんが）える, is used for stating the speaker’s own opinions or thoughts. 考（かんが）える is usually
reserved for the problem-solving type of thinking.
The verb 思（おも）う is used similarly to the verb 言（い）う. The verb 思（おも）う, however, is not used
to quote thoughts directly. Thoughts are generally conveyed by stating their content, rather than
the verbatim thoughts themselves.
This verb can be used when the speaker asks the addressee what he or she thinks directly, or when
the speaker expresses his or her thoughts. Like other emotive expressions, this verb may not be
used to express a third person’s thoughts.
When asking for opinions, use the interrogative pronoun どう rather than 何（なん）.
おも
あなたはこれについてどう思いますか。
“What do you think of this?”
かんがおも
とてもいい考えだと思います。
“I think it’s a very good idea.”
When asking for specific information, 何（なん） or 何（なん） with an appropriate suffix may be
used. In this case, the question particle か is not used within the embedded question (that is, the
question clause used within the sentence). In the sentence below, か should not be used between
the clause 何人だ and the final verb 思（おも）う.
なにじんおも
あの人は何人だと思いますか。
“What nationality do you think that person is?
おも
あの人は日本人だと思います。
“I think he’s Japanese.”
As mentioned above, the topic of the verb 思（おも）う is always the speaker in a statement sentence,
or the addressee in a question sentence. This verb may not be used to report a third person’s opin-
ion. To do this, another element such as 言（い）う or よう may be used after the verb 思（おも）う, as
shown below.
すずきかんがおもい
鈴木さんはそれはいい考えだと思うと言いました。
“Suzuki-san said that he thought it was a good idea.”
すずきかんが
鈴木さんはそれはいい考えだと思っているようです。
“It looks to me like Suzuki-san thinks it’s a good idea.”
(4) The verb 聞（き）く
The verb 聞（き）く has two different meanings.

 聞（き）く “to hear”
It is most common to use indirect quotation to express something that has been heard from anoth-
er person. Review the difference in meaning between the following two sentences (see Stage 2–2
for review):
いとうじゅぎょうむずかき
伊藤先生の授業はとても難しいと聞きました。
“I heard that Ito-sensei’s class is very difficult.”
いとうじゅぎょうむずかき
伊藤先生の授業はとても難しいということを聞きました。
“I heard that Ito-sensei’s class is very difficult.”
To convey what has been heard directly, the two verbs, 言（い）う and 聞（き）く, must be used in a sin-
gle sentence. This type of sentence will be covered in Stage 3–1, as the important factor of direct
perception must be considered.
 聞（き）く “to ask”
There are direct as well as indirect ways to report the content of a question. When reporting direct-
ly, both か in the quoted question and と, which connects the quote and the verb 聞（き）く, are used.
When reporting indirectly, the question particle かoverrides the quotative particle と.
すずきぼくなんじおき
鈴木先生は僕に「何時に起きましたか。」と聞きました。
“Suzuki-sensei asked me, ‘What time did you get up?’”
すずきぼくなんじおき
鈴木先生は僕に何時に起きたか聞きました。
“Suzuki-sensei asked me what time I got up.”
s 4: Two Simultaneous Events
(1) Stem with ながら
The stem of an action verb with ながら is used as an adverbial phrase to express an action that
accompanies a main action, but only as performed by a single person.
しんぶんよべんきょう
私はいつも新聞を読みながら、勉強します。
“I always read the newspaper while I’m studying.”
In the sentence above, the main action—studying—is described in the main clause. The other
action, reading the newspaper, is the accompanying action.
The main action in the English sentence can be expressed after the word “while” (as in the trans-
lated sentence above). In Japanese, the function of the stem with ながら is adverbial, so it must be
given before the thing it modifies (the main clause).
Aspects such as negation and time are all expressed in the main clause.
べんきょう
テレビを見ながら、勉強しないでください。
“Please don’t watch TV while you study.”
昨日、メールを読みながら、朝ご飯を食べました。
“I read my e-mail while I ate breakfast yesterday.”
The ながら-construction has the following restrictions:
 The ながら-construction may not be used to express an event in which two different people do two
different things simultaneously (e.g., “I always read the newspaper while my mother watches
TV”).
 Neither verb in the ながら-construction can be a stative (non-action) verb (e.g., “I got married
while I was in Japan”).
(2) The clausal conjunction あいだ（に）
Complex sentences joined by the conjunction あいだ（に） may be used in the two situations
described above, where the construction with ながら is not possible. The conjunction あいだ may be
written in kanji as 間, or in hiragana; both are acceptable.
The construction with あいだ（に） may be used for the actions of a single person or those of two dif-
ferent people. It may also be used to express simultaneous continuous actions, state events, or
punctual actions. The use of に is not optional. See the next section for the meaning differences
between the sentences with and without に.
In the first example below, that the complex sentence joined by あいだ（に） is used to express
events happening with two different people simultaneously. The second example shows that the
predicate within the adverbial clause may be stative. It would not be possible to use ながら in either
of these cases.
こどもねべんきょう
子供が寝ているあいだ（に）、私は勉強しました。
“I studied during the time that my child was sleeping.”
かんじべんきょう
私は日本にいるあいだ（に）、漢字をたくさん勉強しました。
“I studied a lot of kanji during the time I was in Japan.”
 The use of に after あいだ
The particle に in あいだに is not optional. When the particle に is used immediately after 間（あい
だ）, it indicates that the duration of the events in the two clauses is not the same.
こどもねあいだべんきょう
子供が寝ている間に、私は勉強しました。
“I studied for part of the time that my child was sleeping.”
| ——————————————————————— |
the time that the child slept
| ————————————— |
the time I spent studying
When no に is used, it indicates that the duration of the events in the two clauses is the same.
こどもねあいだべんきょう
子供が寝ている間、私は勉強しました。
“I studied while my child was sleeping.”
| ———————————————————————— |
the time that the child slept
| ———————————————————————— |
the time I spent studying
When the action within the main clause is punctual (non-continuous), に is obligatory.
あいだかれあ
私は日本にいる間に、彼に会いました。
“I met him while I was in Japan.”
 Predicate forms in the あいだ-clause
Because predicate forms in the あいだ-clause are normally durational, the aspect of the adverbial
clause does not have to be in the perfective form even for the past events.
びょうきあいだてつだ
私が病気の間、あの人は手伝ってくださいました。
“That person helped me during the time I was sick.”
へやしずあいだべんきょう
部屋が静かな間に、勉強しました。
“I studied while the room was quiet.”
こどもねべんきょう
子供が寝ているあいだに、勉強しました。
“I studied while my child was asleep.”
(1) Where does this bus go?
ゆ
 すみません。このバス、どこ行きですか。
おおさかゆ
 大阪行きです。
きょうとゆで
 京都行きはどこから出てますか。
 Excuse me. Where does this bus go?
 To Osaka.
 Where does the bus to Kyoto leave from?
 どこ行き
The stem of 行く is used to specify destination in a rather unusual structure. When asking about a
destination, it is used within the predicate in a complex noun, どこ行（ゆ）き, with no intervening
particle. The stem 行き may be pronounced either いき or ゆき; ゆき is very common in this context.
(2) Expressing regret
しけんぜんぜん
 ああ、どうしよう？やっぱり、試験、全然、だめだった！
ぼくしけんむずかおも
 僕も、あの試験、難しかったと思うよ。
おんがくきべんきょうおも
 でも、昨日、私、音楽、聞きながら勉強してたから、私がいけないんだと思う。
 What am I going to do? I knew this would happen . . . I totally messed up my exam!
 I thought the exam was hard, too.
 But, it’s my fault . . . I listened to music the whole time I was studying yesterday.
 どうしよう？
This is a casual version of どうしましょうか, “What should I do?” It is important to remember that ど
う, rather than なん, is used for this expression.
 やっぱり
This adverb is used when the speaker wants to express that the situation is what he or she has
expected. やっぱり is more casual than やはり.
 私がいけないんです
私がいけない is an idiomatic expression that means “I am the one who should be blamed.” ~んで
す expresses that the speaker is trying to convince the addressee that it is his or her fault.
(3) A great help
でんしゃじかんまあおも
 どうしよう？電車の時間に間に合わないと思います。
だいじょうぶぼくくるまえき
 大丈夫ですよ。僕の車で駅まで行きましょう。
たす
 ええ？いいんですか。ありがとうございます。本当に助かります。
 What shall I do? I don’t think I can make it to the train in time.
 It’ll be fine. Let’s go to the station in my car.
 Really? Are you sure? Thank you so much. What a great help!
 間（ま）に合（あ）わない
間（ま）に合（あ）わない is the negative form of the idiomatic phrase, 間（ま）に合（あ）う “to be on
time.”
 いいんですか
This expression is equivalent to an expression in English, “Are you sure that’s all right?” ~んです
か indicates that the speaker wants to confirm his or her assumption or understanding.
 本当に助（たす）かります
助（たす）かる is an intransitive verb indicating that “something is helpful to the situation that the
person is in at the moment.” When someone volunteers to help, this is an appropriate expression
to use together with ありがとうございます in two separate sentences.
Stage 2-6 Complex Words
Structures
1. Complex Adjectives
(1) What are complex words?
(2) Stem with やすい
(3) Stem with にくい
2. Complex Verbs
(1) Stem with 過（す）ぎる
(2) Stem with other verbs
3. Complex Nouns with 方（かた）
4. Complex Adjectival Nouns with そう
(1) With adjectives and adjectival nouns
(2) With nouns
(3) As a modifier
(4) With verbs
(5) Complex words with more than two elements
5. Stems Used for Different Speech Levels
(1) Inviting and giving instructions
(2) Honorific forms
(3) Humble forms
(1) Welcoming a visitor
(2) I wonder . . .
(3) For example
Structures
1: Complex Adjectives
(1) What are complex words?
Words formed by combining other words are called complex words. A complex word consists of
the stem of a predicate joined by another word such as a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.
Classification of a complex word is based on its final component. For instance, a complex word is
an adjective if it consists of the stem of a predicate and an adjective, and a noun if it is formed by
the stem of a predicate and a noun.
In this chapter, a variety of complex words will be introduced, including complex adjectives, com-
plex verbs, complex nouns, and complex adjectival nouns.
(2) Stem with やすい
The stem of a predicate and the adjective やすい together express that the speaker can easily per-
form the act named by the verb.
The topic of this construction is the thing or the person the speaker describes.
かんじかかんじか
この漢字は書きやすいですが、その漢字はあまり書きやすくありません。
“This kanji is easy to write, but that one is not so easy to write.”
かてがみよ
この人の書いた手紙は読みやすかったです。
“This person’s letters were easy to read.”
あたらがいこくか
この新しい外国のペンは書きやすくありませんでした。
“The new, foreign pen wasn’t easy to write with.”
The following example illustrates how a complex adjective modifies a noun:

か
この書きやすいペンはだれのですか。
“Who owns this pen that’s so easy to write with?”
Non-active verbs are not used in this construction, as the following incorrect sentences show:
かね
*お金はありやすいです。
[intended meaning] “It’s easy to have ( = own) money.”
かね
*お金はいりやすいです。
[intended meaning] “It’s easy to need money.”
(3) Stem with にくい
This construction indicates that the topic poses some kind of difficulty for the speaker.
この本は分かりにくいです。
“This book is hard to understand.”
はな
あの先生には本当に話しにくかったです。
“That teacher was very difficult to talk to.”
The following is an example of using this complex adjective before a noun:

かもの
この分かりにくい本は父が書いた物です。
“This hard-to-understand book was written by my father.”
s 2: Complex Verbs
(1) Stem with 過（す）ぎる
This construction is used when the action denoted by the first element is performed in excess. It
is also used in excessive or hyperbolic descriptions.
 With verbs
す
昨日、食べ過ぎました。
“I ate too much yesterday.”
の
パーティーで飲みすぎないでください。
“Please don’t drink too much at the party.”
 With adjectives
The stems of adjectives are formed by dropping the final い. Use the stem of an adjective and add
過（す）ぎる.
さむす
今日は、私には、寒過ぎます。
“It’s too cold for me today.”
See the following example with the adjective いい:

あたまみんない
あの人は頭がよすぎると皆に言われています。
“Everyone says that he’s too smart.”
 With adjectival nouns
Adjectival nouns do not have stems since they do not conjugate. In this construction, they come
immediately before 過（す）ぎる.
へやしずす
この部屋は静か過ぎます。
“This room is too quiet.”
 With nouns
Some nouns may also be used in this construction, if the noun can imply certain degrees.
こどもす
あの学生は子供過ぎます。
“That student is too childish.”
かねもすびんぼうきも
あの学生は金持ち過ぎて、貧乏な人の気持ちは分からないでしょうね。
“That student has too much money, so he probably doesn’t understand how poor people feel.”
 With negative predicates
Although rare, it is possible to use the negative predicate in this construction. All negative predi-
cates contain ない, which follows the same conjugational pattern as adjectives. In this construction,
ない with 過（す）ぎる produces なさ過（す）ぎる with さ intervening between the syllable な and すぎる.
(This kind of insertion happens when there are too few syllables between two separate elements.)
こす
うちの子は元気がなさ過ぎます。
“Our child is too unwell these days.”
あたます
ここには頭のいい人がいなさ過ぎます。
“There are too few smart people here.”
(2) Stem with other verbs
 始（はじ）める
始（はじ）める is a transitive verb and meaning “to begin something.” The complex verb formed from
this verb indicates the beginning of an event:
ばんはんつくはじ
晩ご飯を作り始めましょうか。
“Shall we begin making supper?”
しゅくだいはじ
宿題をし始めました。
“I have begun doing my homework.”
 出（だ）す
The verb 思い出す（おもいだす） “to recall” was introduced as a verb in Stage 2–3; this verb in fact
consists of the stem of the verb 思（おも）う and the verb 出（だ）す. This complex verb literally means
something like “to take out what has been memorized.”
おもだ
ああ、あの人の名前を思い出しました。
“Oh, now I remember that person’s name.”
Although 出（だ）す “to take something out” itself is transitive, it can be combined with both intran-
sitive and transitive verbs. This expression has an inceptive or inchoative sense, that is, it denotes
the beginning of a continuous action or event.
あめふだ
雨が降り出しました。
“It started to rain.”
はなだ
あの人はゆっくり話し出しました。
“The person slowly began speaking.”
Complex verbs with 出（だ）す are very similar to those with 始（はじ）める. Compare the following
two sentences:
はなだ
あの人はゆっくり話し出しました。
はなはじ
あの人はゆっくり話し始めました。
When the speaker anticipates the beginning of an event, 始（はじ）める may be used; while an
unanticipated event may be expressed with 出（だ）す. Thus, the first sentence above means that the
person began talking and the speaker had not expected it; the second sentence implies that the
speech of the person, which the speaker had anticipated, began.
A similar nuance informs the difference in meaning between the following two sentences:
こどもなだ
あの子供は泣き出しました。
“The child began to cry.”
こどもなはじ
あの子供は泣き始めました。
“The child began to cry.”
The first sentence indicates that the child began to cry when no one was expecting it to. But the
second sentence makes it sound as if people had been waiting for the child to cry, which could hap-
pen, for example, in a dramatic play.
 直（なお）す
直（なお）す by itself means “to correct” or “to repair.”
なお
コンピュータを直しました。
“I fixed the computer.”
When combined with the stem of another verb, the combined meaning implies that an action is
repeated.
よなお
この本を読み直しました。
“I re-read this book.”
てがみかなお
手紙を書き直しました。
“I re-wrote the letter.”
 忘（わす）れる
忘（わす）れる by itself means “to forget.”
がっこうわす
かさを学校に忘れました。
“I forgot my umbrella at school.”
There are two ways to express forgetting to do something: (1) use the stem of a verb and 忘（わす）
れる; (2) nominalize the verb with の in the object position (the use of こと rather than の is accept-
able, but の is preferable).
でんわわす
母に電話し忘れました。
“I forgot to call my mother.”
でんわわす
母に電話するのを忘れました。
“I forgot to call my mother.”
Although there is only a small difference between the two sentences above, in certain cases the two
structures are not interchangeable.
When the action indicated is from one point to a goal (e.g. going, returning, etc.), the use of com-
plex verbs with 忘（わす）れる is awkward. In this case, use the nominalized verb with の.
*図書館に行き忘れました。
[intended meaning] “I forgot to go to the library.”
図書館に行くのを忘れました。
“I forgot to go to the library.”
*今日、歩き忘れた。
[intended meaning] “I forgot to go for a walk today.”
今日、歩くのを忘れた。
“I forgot to go for a walk today.”
s 3: Complex Nouns with 方（かた）
方（かた） means “method” or “way”; thus, the coupling of a verb stem with this noun means “a way
of (doing something).” An equivalent expression in English is “how to do something.”
読み方 “the way of reading” (how to read)

書き方 “the way of writing” (how to write)
食べ方 “the way of eating” (how to eat)
The combined words form a complex noun, so it is important to pay attention to the use of the par-
ticle の between the modifying noun and the modified noun.
てがみかかたなら
今日は、手紙の書き方を習いました。
“I learned how to write letters today.”
かんじよかたおしくだ
すみませんが、この漢字の読み方を教えて下さいませんか。
“Excuse me, but could you tell me how to read this kanji?”
s 4: Complex Adjectival Nouns with そう
Attaching そう to the stem of a predicate creates an adjectival noun that expresses the speaker’s
inference based on his or her direct and immediate observation.
(1) With adjectives and adjectival nouns

みせちゃ
あの店のお茶はおいしそうです。
“The tea at that shop looks delicious.”
しず
ここは静かそうです。
“This place feels/looks quiet.”
For the adjective いい and the negative ~ない, さ must be inserted between the first syllable and そ
う.
この本はよさそうです。
“This book looks good.”
このケーキはおいしくなさそうです。
“This cake doesn’t look very tasty.”
(2) With nouns
A noun cannot precede そう, but there is an equivalent word, みたい.
あの人は日本人みたいです。
“That person looks Japanese.”
(3) As a modifier
Because complex words with みたい and そう are adjectival nouns, they must be followed by な when
they modify a noun.
これはおいしそうなケーキですね。
“This is a delicious-looking cake, isn’t it?”
ひと
あの日本人みたいな人はだれですか。
“Who is that Japanese-looking person?”
(4) With verbs
The stem of a verb joined to the suffix ~そう also indicates the immediacy of an observed event. This
means that the speaker believes that something will occur very soon, based upon what he or she
has observed.
あめふ
雨が降りそうです。
“It looks like it’s going to rain at any second.”
は
今日は晴れそうですね。
“It looks like it’s going to clear up today.”
(5) Complex words with more than two elements
Complex words may consist of more than two elements.

あめふだ
雨が降り出しそうです。
“It looks like it’s going to start raining at any second.”
この本は読みやすそうですね。
“This book looks like it’s easy to read.”
この食べにくそうな食べ物は何ですか。
“What is this food that looks like it’s hard to eat?”
 ~そう and ようだ
As explained in earlier chapters, ようだ is used at the end of a sentence to express the speaker’s
inference based on his or her observation. The difference between the two is that an expression
with ようだ lacks the immediacy of an expression including the stem with ~そう. This will be covered
in more detail in Stage 3–2.
あめふ
雨が降りそうですね。
“It looks like it’s going to rain at any second.”
雨が降るようですね。
“It looks like it may rain.”
5: Stems Used for Different Speech Levels

As briefly introduced in Stage 1–5, the honorific system in Japanese is quite complex. As explained
earlier, the use of honorifics reflects the relation between the topic of a sentence and the speaker,
while the use of politeness depends on the relationship between the speaker and the addressee.
Here, a few more facts and the situations of the honorific system will be explained. It is helpful for
the learners to know that stems are used a great deal in the honorific system.
(1) Inviting and giving instructions
 Polite commands and requests

~てください and ~てくださいませんか were introduced in Stages 1–6, 1–9, and 2–1 as a way to give polite
commands and requests.
いくだ
これを日本語で言って下さい。
“Please say this in Japanese.”
たくだ
すみませんが、こちらに立たないで下さいませんか。
“I’m sorry, but could you please not stand here?”
 Inviting someone to do something
The English expression “Please do such-and-such” has many meanings, and many different
Japanese structures may be used in its place. In Japanese, however, different structures are used
for different purposes.
For example, to invite someone to do something–as when inviting a guest to enter the house or to
sit somewhere, the following construction should be used:
お + Stem + ください
どうぞ is often added to further urge or invite someone to do something.

はい
どうぞ、お入りください。
“Please come (or go) in.”
すわ
こちらにお座りください。
“Please sit here.”
In the following sentence, the verb 上（あ）がる “to go upward” is used to mean “to come in” (i.e., to
enter a place). As pointed out in Stage 2-1, this is because, in many Japanese houses, the area where
people remove their shoes is slightly lower than the rooms of the house.
あくだ
お上がり下さい。
“Please come in.”
There is no real negative counterpart to the structure above, probably because invitations are gen-
erally not given in the negative form. There are many expressions of prohibition, however.
Depending on the situation, it is possible to use the negative command or request in certain cases:
はいくだ
入らないで下さい（ませんか）。
“Please do not enter.”
 Giving instructions to children or students
Parents or school teachers may use the following structure to give instructions or (at times) orders
to small children:
Stem + なさい
やさい
野菜をいっぱい食べなさい。
“Eat lots of vegetables.”
This structure is also used in examination instructions, in which case the recipients are not only
small children.
つぎことばかんじか
次の言葉を漢字で書きなさい。
“Write the following words in kanji.”
Here, too, there is no exact negative counterpart, but some examples are given below (sentence-
final particles used in conversation, such as ね and よ, are used in the following example sentences
because they are conversational):
はし
ここを走らないでね。
“Don’t run here.”
Alternatively, in spoken Japanese, the following structure with ~てはだめ or ~てはいけません in the
predicate may be used:
はし
ここを走っては、だめですよ。
“You shouldn’t run here.” [Literally, “running here is no good”]
はし
ここを走っては、いけませんよ。
“You shouldn’t run here.” [Literally, “it won’t do to run here”]
(2) Honorific forms
For honorific verbs, there are at least three ways (actually, there are more) for the speaker to show
his or her respect for the topic of the sentence.
 Irregular honorific verbs
There are a handful of irregular honorific verbs. The irregular honorific verbs いらっしゃる（いらっしゃ
います）, おっしゃる（おっしゃいます）, and くださる（くださいます） have already been introduced.
つぎしけんなが
ウィリアムズ先生は次の試験は長くないとおっしゃいました。
“Williams-sensei said that the next test would not be long.”
 Formulaic honorific verbs
Not all verbs have separate honorific verbs. Most honorific verbs are derived from the following
construction:
お + Stem + に + なる
よ
先生はこの本をお読みになりました。
“The teacher read this book.”
もりか
森先生がこの本をお書きになりました。
“Mori-sensei is the one who wrote this book.”
 Passive forms
Passive verb forms may also be used to express respect, though they are less honorific than the two
constructions above.
あした
先生も明日、行かれますか。
“Will you also go tomorrow, Sensei?”
せんぱいよ
先輩はこれをもう読まれましたか。
“Have you already read this, Senpai?”
(3) Humble forms
Humble verbs, which are a part of the honorific system in Japanese, are used to refer to the speak-
er’s (or his/her うち-group’s) own action in the presence of someone the speaker respects. Just like
honorific verbs, there are irregular and regular humble forms.
 Irregular humble verbs
There are a handful of humble verbs that are irregular insofar as they are not derived from the base
forms of corresponding verbs.
In the Preparatory Stage, the following expression was introduced:

もう
私はリンと申します。
“I’m Lin.”
申（もう）す is the humble version of the neutral verb 言（い）う; the above sentence may also be
expressed as follows:
い
私はリンと言います。
“I’m Lin.”
参（まい）る is the humble version of the directional verbs 行（い）く and 来（く）る.
あしたまい
私は明日、こちらに参りません。
“I won’t come here tomorrow.”
あしたまい
私は明日、そちらに参りません。
“I won’t go there tomorrow.”
 Formulaic verbs
Most verbs do not have separate humble verbs. For those verbs, use the following construction:
お + Stem + する
Irregular and formulaic humble verbs are different with respect to when the speaker should use
them. Formulaic humble verbs are used only when the speaker does or did something for the
person for whom he or she expresses his or her respect. If the action is not done for that person, a
formulaic humble verb should not be used. Irregular humble forms do not have this restriction;
that is, they may be used for the speaker’s action that is not performed for other people.
か
私がお書きします。
“I will write it for you.”
よ
お読みしましょうか。
“Shall I read it for you?”
(1) Welcoming a visitor
Visitor: ごめんください。
はやしあ
Host: はあい。ああ、林さん、いらっしゃい（ませ）。どうぞ、お上がりください。
じゃま
Visitor: お邪魔します。
Visitor: Hello!
Host: Yes? Oh, Hayashi-san, welcome. Please do come in.
Visitor: Thank you.
 ごめんください
This expression can be used to announce one’s arrival when visiting people at their home. It is
used at the entrance, when the speaker is afraid the host has not noticed that he or she is there.
ごめんください can also be used as a closing phrase when talking on the phone. Women tend to use
the expression for this purpose more than men do.
 いらっしゃい（ませ）
The host normally welcomes the guest with this greeting. ませ makes this expression more polite.
 お上（あ）がりください
As explained earlier in this chapter, the verb 上（あ）がる literally means “to rise.” As explained in
Stage 2–1, most Japanese houses have two entrances, the first going into the 玄関（げんかん）, and
the next going into the rooms of the house proper. The verb 上（あ）がる is used to talk about going
from the 玄関（げんかん） to the rest of the house because these rooms are raised above the 玄関（げ
んかん） area.
 お邪魔（じゃま）します
邪魔（じゃま） is an adjectival noun that means “interference.” The expression, お邪魔（じゃま）します,
is used often when going into someone else’s house, room, or office.
(2) I wonder…
ひと
 あの人、だれ？
いのうえ
 井上さんじゃない？
いのうえなんはなひと
 井上さん、何だか、話しにくい人じゃない？
 ううん・・・そうかな？でも、あの人、とってもかわいそうな人・・・
 へえ？そうなの？
 Who’s that?
 Isn’t that Inoue-san?
 Don’t you think she’s kind of hard to talk to?
 Huh . . . I guess that’s true, isn’t it? But, you know, I feel really sorry for her.
 Is that right?
 For some reason 何（なん）だか

何（なん）だか, which means “for some reason,” is used in conversation to express that the reason
for a certain thing is not very clear to the speaker.
 Rhetorical question with かな
When the speaker expresses a question about something without addressing it to anyone but him-
or herself, かな is used in conversation; the nuance is something like, “I wonder if (such-and-
such).”
 かわいそう
かわいそう should be regarded as a single word rather than a complex word. The speaker can use
this adjectival noun when he or she feels sorry for someone, no matter the reason.
(3) For example
きら
 あなたが嫌いな人って、どんな人？
たとはなもんくい
 そうねえ。例えば、話しすぎる人とか、いつも文句を言う人・・・。
 What kind of people get on your nerves?
 Um, let’s see. For example, people who talk too much, or people who complain all the time.
 文句（もんく）
The noun 文句（もんく） means “complaint.” The associated verb is 言（い）う, “to say.” The phrase 文
句を言う（もんくをいう） therefore means “to complain.”
Structures
1. Complex Predicates with つもりだ and はずだ
(1) What is a complex predicate and what does it do?
(2) つもりだ
(3) はずだ
2. Complex Predicates with のだ
(1) In questions
(2) In statements
3. Complex Predicates with そうだ
(1) Information source
(2) Complex predicates with そうだ and quotative sentences with 聞（き）く
(3) Two different そう
4. Conjunctive Forms and Other Verbs
(1) ~てくる and ~ていく
(2) ~ておく
(1) I fell asleep again!
(2) I’ll call and take care of it later
(3) Saying goodbye when leaving home
(4) Greeting when coming home
Structures
1: Complex Predicates with つもりだ and はずだ
(1) What is a complex predicate and what does it do?
In Stage 1–9, a few examples of complex predicates were given. A complex predicate is a predicate
consisting of two or more elements. In Japanese, different elements are added onto the basic pred-
icate to convey the speaker’s view or interpretation of a situation, or his or her intention, among
many other things.
So far, such elements as つもりだ, ようだ, だろう, かもしれない, and んだ have been briefly introduced.
In this chapter, some of these elements will be discussed further, and some new complex predi-
cates will be introduced.
(2) つもりだ
As briefly explained in Stages 1–7 and 1–9, the functional noun つもり and the copula です can be
added to a predicate to indicate the speaker’s plan.
べんきょう
私は来年、日本で勉強するつもりです。
“I plan to study in Japan next year.”
The negative imperfective form is used in the adjectival clause if the speaker plans not to do some-
thing.
べんきょう
来年、日本で勉強しないつもりです。
“My plan is not to study in Japan next year.”
It is possible to negate the copula, instead of the verb preceding つもりだ, but this changes the mean-
ing slightly. By negating the copula, the speaker corrects the other person’s positive assumption.
べんきょう
来年、日本で勉強するつもりじゃありません。
“Actually, I don’t plan to go to Japan to study next year.”
 Restriction on the use of the construction
The construction with つもりだ has the same restriction on its use as other emotive expressions; that
is, the topic of this construction is the speaker, or the addressee if a question is asked directly. This
construction therefore is not used to discuss a third person’s plan or intention.
べんきょう
カーターさんは、来年、どこで勉強するつもりですか。
“Where do you plan to study next year, Carter-san?”
べんきょう
私はイギリスで勉強するつもりです。
“I plan to study in England.”
A third person’s intent may be expressed by reporting what he or she has said, by expressing the
speaker’s belief with the verb 思（おも）う, or by using other complex predicates.
べんきょうい
リンさんは来年、日本で勉強するつもりだと言っていました。
“Lin-san said that he plans to study in Japan next year.”
べんきょうおも
ウィリアムズさんは来年、日本で勉強するつもりだと思います。
“I believe Williams-san is planning to study in Japan next year.”
(3) はずだ
A complex predicate with はずだ expresses the speaker’s expectation of a certain event; the event
need not relate directly to the speaker. Although つもりだ is not used to discuss a third person’s
intent, this may be expressed with はずだ. This construction indicates that the speaker is express-
ing his or her understanding of the third person’s intent.
べんきょう
カーターさんは来年、日本で勉強するはずです。
“It is my understanding that Carter-san will study in Japan next year.”
私は来年、日本に行けるはずです。
“I believe that I’ll be able to go to Japan next year.”
 The difference between はず and 思（おも）う

はずだ expresses a similar notion to sentences with the final verb 思う, but the two structures differ
in a crucial way. In many sentences, はずだ and 思う can be interchanged, but they each convey a
different nuance. 思う expresses the speaker’s personal opinion, but はずだ an objective expectation
the speaker infers from some source.
もうすぐ、先生はいらっしゃるはずです。
“I expect the teacher to be here very soon.”
おも
もうすぐ、先生はいらっしゃると思います。
“I think the teacher will be here soon.”
The next pair of sentences illustrate that はずだ expresses the speaker’s belief regarding a certain
fact or event, but it may not be used to express a specific personal opinion arising from direct expe-
rience. In the latter case, 思（おも）う would be used.
べんきょう
日本語を勉強しているんですか。
“Is it true that you’re studying Japanese?”
むずかことばおも
ええ、日本語は難しいですが、本当におもしろい言葉だと思います。
“Yes. Japanese is difficult, but I think it’s a very interesting language.”
Since the second sentence expresses the speaker’s opinion, はずだ cannot be substituted for 思う, as
the following incorrect sentence shows:
むずかことば
*ええ、日本語は難しいですが、本当におもしろい言葉のはずです。
[intended meaning] “Yes. Japanese is difficult, but I think it’s a very interesting language.”
Additional uses of つもりだ and はずだ are explained in Stage 4–3.
2: Complex Predicates with のだ

This structure, which has been introduced briefly, is used often in the Conversational Devices sec-
tions because it is frequently used in conversation, but a detailed explanation has not been given.
See below for a more detailed summary of this structure.
The underlying notion of the use of の (or ん in more casual conversation) and the copula だ in
complex predicates gives the sense that the statement or question includes the speaker’s personal
interpretation. However, it is easier to learn the meanings this structure can convey when used in
statements and questions separately.
(1) In questions
When の（ん）だ is used with a yes-no question sentence, it indicates that the speaker would like to
confirm his or her understanding of a certain situation with the addressee.
 Situation 1
The speaker observes that the addressee always orders the same thing whenever they go out
together. The speaker therefore concludes that the addressee likes this particular food. In order to
confirm this belief, he or she would use the following construction. Note that な must be used
between a nominal element and の（ん）だ.
てんす
天ぷらが好きなんですか。
“I guess you like tempura, don’t you?”
 Situation 2
When の（ん）だ is used with an information-seeking question, it indicates that the speaker would
like to receive some kind of explanation.
Suppose the speaker sees that the addressee is packing as if he or she would go somewhere. The
speaker therefore uses the following question, first to confirm where the addressee would go and
why.
どこへ行くんですか。
“Would you tell me where you’re going?” [The speaker seeks an explanation.]
The following question is a straightforward question in which the speaker wants to know where
the addressee will go (there is no implication of asking why):
どこに行きますか。
“Where are you going?”
 Situation 3
When the speaker suspects that something unusual has happened to the addressee, he or she can
confirm this observation and at the same time convey that he or she would like some kind of expla-
nation from the addressee. The following questions are a few of those that could be used in such a
situation:
何があったんですか。
“Tell me, what happened?”
何かあったんですか。
“Did something happen? – Tell me.”
どうしたんですか。
“Tell me what happened. Is something wrong?”
(2) In statements
When の（ん）だ is added to the predicate of a statement, it adds the sense that the speaker is giving
an explanation of a past or future action. In the following sentence, the first clause with のだ gives
an explanation why the speaker mentions in the main clause that he or she has no money.
おも
来年、日本に行きたいと思っているのですが、お金がありません。
“You may know that I’d like to go to Japan next year, but I don’t have any money.”
When asking a professor a question, for example, it is a good idea to explain the reason for asking
the question. It is therefore appropriate to use this complex predicate in the first clause:
来年、日本に行きたいのですが、どの学校がいいでしょうか。
“I’d like to go to Japan next year. What school do you think is good?”
This complex predicate may also be used both in a why-question and its response in conversation.
どうして、授業を休んだんですか。
“Tell me why you were absent from the class.”
あたまいた
頭が痛かったんです。
“It was because I had a headache.”
As explained previously, the use of ん instead of の is strictly for casual speech. It is therefore not
advisable to write ん or use it on more formal occasions.
3: Complex Predicates with そうだ

The complex predicate with そうだ simply conveys information that the speaker has gathered from
an outside source (such as TV, radio, newspaper, friends, etc.). The sentence with そうだ is therefore
used to objectively report information that the speaker has gathered.
The following example sentences include a verbal, an adjectival, and a nominal (both with an adjec-
tival noun and a noun) predicate before そうだ.
ごごあめふ
午後、雨が降るそうです。
“My source tells me that it will rain this afternoon.”
みせちゃ
あの店のお茶はおいしいそうです。
“I’ve heard/read/learned that tea at that shop is delicious.”
The copula だ needs to be used between a noun or an adjectival noun and そう.
しず
ここは静かだそうです。
“I’ve heard/read/learned that this place is quiet.”
あの人は日本人だそうです。
“I’ve heard/read/learned that that person is Japanese.”
(1) Information source
The objective source of information in sentences with そうだ may be marked by によると.
あめふ
テレビによると、今日は雨が降るそうです。
“According to the TV, it’s going to rain today.”
はやしはなしとうきょうゆきふ
林さんの話によると、去年、東京は雪が降ったそうです。
“According to Hayashi-san, it snowed in Tokyo last year.”
(2) Complex predicates with そうだ and quotative sentences with 聞（き）く
The structure detailed above is very close to the following sentences in meaning:
ごごあめふき
午後、雨が降ると聞きました。
“I heard that it would rain in the afternoon.”
き
あの人は日本人だと聞きました。
“I heard that that person is Japanese.”
These constructions are different in that the means by which the information is conveyed is clear-
er in the construction with 聞（き）いた. The construction with そうだ does not clarify whether the
information was “read,” “heard,” or received in some other way, unless he source is identified.
Another difference between these constructions is that the topic of the predicate 聞（き）く is the per-
son who hears the content; however, the topic of the predicate そうだ is not the person who has the
information, but the thing or the person that the predicate describes.
In addition, the complex predicate そうだ cannot express the specific time at which the information
was obtained, but with the predicate 聞（き）く this is possible.
Compare the following:

うちかえときおとうとりゅうがく
*家に帰った時に、弟が日本に留学をするそうだ。
[intended meaning] “When I went home, I heard that my brother was going to study abroad in
Japan.”
かえときおとうとりゅうがくき
家に帰った時に、弟が日本に留学をすると聞いた。
“When I went home, I heard that my brother was going to study abroad in Japan.”
(3) Two different そう
Be aware that the complex adjectival noun with そう and the complex predicate with そう（だ） have
almost opposite meanings in terms of the information source. Compare the following two sen-
tences below:
このケーキはおいしそうですね。
“This cake looks delicious!”
このケーキはおいしいそうですね。
“I hear that this cake is delicious.”
The first sentence is uttered based on the speaker’s direct and immediate observation, while the
second sentence is based on an outside source, such as hearing from someone else, reading, or
some other means.
s 4: Conjunctive Forms and Other Verbs
(1) ~てくる and ~ていく
 Predicates with two verbs

There are predicates that consist of two verbs, the first of which is in the conjunctive form. This
kind of predicate is quite different from a complex predicate, the biggest distinction being that the
speaker’s views are not relevant in these predicates.
Two examples of this kind of predicate, ~てみる and ~てしまう, were introduced in Stage 2–1. Three
additional examples, ~てくる, ~ていく, and ~ておく, are introduced below. Although it is not always the
case, the second verb is generally not written in kanji in these predicates.
 The verb くる to indicate returning
When くる is used after another verb, it indicates that the speaker will return as soon as the event
expressed by the first verb is complete.
か
コーヒーを買ってきます。
“I’ll go and get some coffee.”
The sentence above literally means that the speaker will buy coffee and come back to where he or
she was. In such a situation, the following sentence would not be used, as it indicates only that the
speaker will purchase coffee (no mention is made of coming back):
か
コーヒーを買います。
“I’ll buy some coffee.”
Here is another example:

はし
走ってきました。
“I went running, but I’m back now.”
The above sentence indicates that the speaker has returned from running.
The following examples illustrate the appropriate questions and responses for the structure being
discussed here. The first question asks for an explanation of an action.
何をしたんですか。
“Tell me what you did.”
コーヒーを買ったんです。
“I bought coffee.”
The next question asks where the addressee has been.
どこに行ったんですか。
“Tell me where you’ve been.”
コーヒーを買ってきたんです。
“I just went out to get coffee.”
 Verbs くる and いく to indicate the beginning of an event
くる and いく indicate the direction of movement. Since くる describes the topic approaching the
speaker, it sometimes expresses the beginning of an event.
あめふ
雨が降ってきました。
“It’s started raining.”
は
晴れてきました。
“It’s beginning to clear up.” [Note: this sentence is only used to talk about weather.]
くも
曇ってきました。
“It’s starting to cloud over.” [Note: this sentence is only used to talk about weather.]
In the first sentence above, くる conveys the nuance that the rain is coming down on or towards the
speaker. いく may not be used here. The second and third sentences convey the nuance that the
speaker has directly perceived the changes in the weather.
The following examples shows a predicate of the same type with いく:
で
ルームメートが明日ここから出ていきます。
“My roommate is moving away tomorrow.” [i.e., the roommate will leave and go away.]
In the sentence above, the combination of the verbs 出（で）る and いく gives the sense that the topic
is moving away from the speaker.
 Metaphorical meanings
In addition to their specific meanings, the directional verbs くる and いく can also be used to describe
something moving metaphorically towards or away from the speaker.
For instance, if the speaker had trouble understanding something earlier and has finally begun to
understand it after much thought, he or she can use this statement:
分かってきました。
“I’m beginning to understand.”
The くる in the above sentence indicates that understanding has moved, metaphorically, towards the
speaker’s mind.
For an example of movement in the opposite direction, see this example:

わす
日本語を忘れていきます。
“I’m starting to forget Japanese.”
In the example above, いく indicates that the knowledge the speaker once had is moving away from
him or her, metaphorically speaking. くる would not be used in this case.
(2) ~ておく
The verb 置（お）く, which means “to place something somewhere,” is used as a regular verb, as in
the following example:
つくえうえお
私はかばんを机の上に置きました。
“I put my backpack on the desk.”
When this verb is combined in a predicate with another verb, it implies that the action will result
in a benefit at a later time. The following sentence literally means, “We will have a party tomorrow,
so I bought drinks and food and put them away so that I can use them later at the party.”
たもののものか
明日、パーティーがありますから、今日、食べ物と飲み物を買っておきました。
“We’re having a party tomorrow, so I bought food and drinks for it today.”
Here is another example. A teacher might inform her or his students of an upcoming test with the
following advice. The full implication is something like, “I will give you a test on Friday, so study
the material well and keep it in your memory for the test.”
きんようびしけんべんきょう
金曜日に試験がありますから、よく勉強しておいてください。
“We’ll have an exam on Friday, so study the material well.”
(1) I fell asleep again!
こうぎね
 あの先生の講義、本当につまらなくて、また寝ちゃった！
ねわるせいせき
 いつも寝てると、悪い成績をつけられちゃいますよ。
き
 本当にそうですよね。これから、気をつけます。
 That teacher’s lectures are so boring, I fell asleep again.
 You’re going to get a bad grade if you’re always sleeping.
 Yeah, you’re right. I’ll try to do better from now on.
 ~ちゃう
In casual conversation, ~てしまう is changed to ~ちゃう. The polite form of ~ちゃう is ~ちゃいます, and
the conjunctive form is ~ちゃって. In the example below, ~ちゃった is the positive perfective form.
しゅくだいわす
宿題、忘れちゃった!
“I completely forgot about my assignment!”
(2) I’ll call and take care of it later
でんわわす
 ああ、また、電話するの、忘れちゃった！
あとぼくでんわ
 後で、僕が電話しとくよ。
 Oh, I forgot to call again.
 I’ll call and take care of it later.
 電話（でんわ）しとくよ
~ておく is contracted to ~とく in casual speech. The て-form is ~といて, and the polite form is ~ときます.
これ、明日までに、読んどきます。
“I will have read this by tomorrow.”
これ、明日までに、読んどいて。
“Get this read by tomorrow.”
(3) Saying goodbye when leaving home
で
 ちょっと出てきます。いってきます。
 いってらっしゃい。
 I’m going out for a bit. I’ll be back.
 OK, bye.
 ちょっと出（で）てきます
ちょっと is a colloquial form of 少（すこ）し. So, the first line means something like “I will be out for a
while.”
 いってきます
This is a standard phrase that a person says before leaving his or her own house. いってまいります is
a more polite way to say the same thing.
 いってらっしゃい
This is a standard phrase that the person who is staying home says to someone who is about to
leave the house temporarily. The phrase originated from 行って and いらっしゃる.
(4) Greeting when coming home
 ただいま！
かえか
 あっ、お帰りなさい。何か、買ってきたの？
さんぽ
 何も。ちょっと、散歩に行ってきたの。
 I’m home.
 Oh, hi! Did you get anything?
 No, I just went for a walk.
 ただいま
This is a standard phrase used by a person who is just getting home to greet someone who is
already there.
 お帰（かえ）りなさい
This is a standard phrase that a person who is at home uses to welcome someone who has just
returned.
Stage 2-8 も and は
Structures
1. ても-Adverbials
(1) Expressing permission with ~てもいい
(2) Expressing permission with ~てもかまわない
(3) Non-fixed use of the ても-adverbials
(4) Using the ても-adverbial twice (or more)
(5) Interrogative pronouns with ~ても
2. も in Phrases
(1) Indefinite amount
(2) Number (with an appropriate counter) も
(3) 一 (with an appropriate counter) も
(4) Interrogative pronoun でも
3. ては-Adverbials
(1) Expressing prohibition with ~てはいけない or ~てはだめ
(2) Non-fixed ては-adverbials
(3) Expressing obligation with ~なくては
(4) Expressing obligation with ~なければ
4. Conditional Adverbial Clauses with ~ば
(1) ば-formation
(2) Using the ば-conditional
(3) The difference between ~たら and ~ば
(4) Subjunctive use
(5) Fixed expression with the ば-forms
5. Adverbial Phrases with として, としても, and としては
(1) として
(2) としても vs. としては
(1) Do you want tea or something?
(2) What an awesome guy!
Structures
1: ても-Adverbials
Overriding particles も and は are used in various constructions to add different meanings to phras-
es, clauses, and sentences. There are fixed and non-fixed expressions with these phrases, some of
which have already been introduced.
(1) Expressing permission with ~てもいい
The basic meaning of fixed expressions with ~てもいい was already introduced in Stage 2–1. Spoken
as a statement, this phrase grants the addressee permission to do something. In question form, it
is a way of asking permission. The following summary illustrates the use of this phrase with dif-
ferent predicate types.
 Positive adverbials
のものみず
飲み物は水でもいいですか。
“Is water OK for a drink?”
晩ご飯は少し早くてもいいですか。
“Is it all right if we have dinner a little early?”
しゅくだいげつようびだ
宿題は月曜日に出してもいいですか。
“Is it all right if I submit my assignment on Monday?”
 Negative adverbials
のものみず
飲み物は水じゃなくてもいいですか。
“Is it all right if the drink isn’t water?”
晩ご飯は早くなくてもいいですか。
“Is it all right if we don’t have dinner early?”
しゅくだいげつようびだ
宿題は月曜日に出さなくてもいいですか。
“Is it all right if I don’t submit my assignment on Monday?”
(2) Expressing permission with ~てもかまわない
In place of いい in the above construction, かまわない “does not matter” may also be used. The
meaning is the same; the only difference is that phrases with いい sound more casual than those
with かまわない.
こどもなか
子供は早くお腹がすくと思いますから、早くそちらに行かせてもかまいませんか。
“I think the children will be hungry early; would it be all right for them to go there earlier?”
だ
月曜日に出してくださいと言われましたが、月曜日じゃなくてもかまいませんか。
“I was told to submit it on Monday, but would it be all right not to do so?”
 Combination of positive and negative adverbials
It is possible to include both positive and negative predicates in one sentence with ~てもいい and か
まわない structures.
くすりの
この薬は飲んでも、飲まなくてもいいです（かまいません）よ。
“You can take this medicine or not; either way is fine.”
(3) Non-fixed use of the ても-adverbials
The ても-adverbials may also be used in a non-fixed way. The ても-adverbial expresses a condition
that would have been sufficient for the (desirable) expected outcome, but the actual consequence
expressed in the main clause indicates that the expected (desired) outcome did not occur. Because
of this, the main clause is often in the negative.
はな
リンさんが私に日本語で話してくれても、分かりませんでした。
“Even though Lin-san spoke to me in Japanese, I still did not understand it.”
さんじかんまき
三時間、待っても、あの人は来ませんでした。
“Even though I waited for him for three hours, he didn’t show up.”
やさい
そんなに野菜をたくさん食べても、すぐには元気になりませんよ。
“Even though you’re eating lots of vegetables, you aren’t going to get better right away.”
(4) Using the ても-adverbial twice (or more)
When the ても-adverbial is used twice or more in an adverbial clause, the sentence indicates an
undesirable outcome despite repeated efforts.
いいかれ
言っても、言っても、彼は分かりませんでした。
“No matter how many times I told him, he didn’t understand.”
The number of repetitions is not limited to any particular number, but too many repetitions will
diminish the effect.
なか
食べても、食べても、食べても、お腹がいっぱいになりませんでした。
“No matter how much I ate, I didn’t get full.”
(5) Interrogative pronouns with ~ても
When interrogative pronouns are used in a clause with ~ても, it expresses that every possible option
has been or will be tried, but an undesirable outcome resulted, or will result.
今日は、何を食べても、おいしくありません。
“No matter what I eat today, it doesn’t taste good.”
もんだいき
この問題は、だれに聞いても、分からないと言われました。
“No matter who I asked about this problem, no one knew the answer.”
Degrees of conditions are expressed with どんなに rather than どう.

なか
どんなにお腹がすいていても、すしは食べられません。
“No matter how hungry I am, I can’t eat sushi.”
どう is used to indicate that different ways have been tried.

かんがかれいけんさんせい
どう考えても、彼の意見には賛成できない。
“No matter how I think about it, I still can’t agree with his opinion.”
 Interrogative pronouns with counters
This structure emphasizes the number of times a certain thing was tried or will be tried only to
meet an undesirable outcome.
なんどでんわでんわで
何度、電話しても、あの人は電話に出ませんでした。
“No matter how many times I called him, he didn’t answer the phone.”
かんじなんかいかおぼ
この漢字は何回、書いても、覚えられません。
“No matter how many times I write this kanji, I just can’t memorize it.”
2: も in Phrases
(1) Indefinite amount
Indefinite amounts of things may be expressed by combining 何（なん） with a counter (or いくつ for
the ~つ counter) and the particle も or か. The combination with も indicates a larger number (“sev-
eral”) than the one with か (“a few”).
 何（なん） (with an appropriate counter) or いくつ and も
なんどよぜんぜん
この本は何度も読みましたが、全然、分かりません。
“I’ve read this book several times, but I don’t get it at all.”
なんにちたいざいこま
あの人に何日も滞在されて、とても困りました。
“He inconvenienced us greatly by staying at our house for several days.”
みやげぜんぶ
お土産をいくつも買いましたが、もう全部、あげてしまいました。
“Although I bought several souvenirs, I have already given them all away.”
 何（なん） (with an appropriate counter) or いくつ and か
かんじいみ
この漢字の意味を何人かに聞きましたが、だれも分かりませんでした。
“I asked a few people about the meaning of this kanji, but no one knew it.”
かばんをいくつか買ってみましたが、好きなかばんはありませんでした。
“I bought a few bags, but I didn’t find one that I really liked.”
(2) Number (with an appropriate counter) も
When も is added to a number, it expresses that the number mentioned is more than the speaker
had expected:
まい
母はトーストを三枚も食べてしまいました。
“Mom went and ate three pieces of toast.”
よんかい
日本に四回も行ったことがあるんですか。
“You mean you’ve been to Japan four times?”
 Comparison between も and は
When は is used instead of も in the above sentences, the phrases with the number indicate the
least amount. These sentences below indicate that the speaker does not know the exact number,
but the number that is given is the least possible number.
まい
母はトーストを三枚は食べたと思います。
“I think Mom ate at least three pieces of toast.”
よんかい
あの人は日本に四回は行ったことがあると思いますよ。
“I believe that person has been to Japan at least four times.”
(3) 一 (with an appropriate counter) も
The combination of 一, a counter, and the particle も, as in the following exchange, has already
been introduced. This combination with the negative predicate means “not even one.”
日本に行ったことがありますか。
“Have you been to Japan?”
ど
いいえ、一度もありません。
“No. Not even once.”
かいちえんも
本を買うつもりでしたが、一円も持っていませんでした。
“I was going to buy a book, but I didn’t have a single yen on me.”
(4) Interrogative pronoun でも
Interrogative pronouns with も or か were introduced earlier. Here, でも is added to interrogative

pronouns to produce the following meanings:
もかでも
なん・なになにもなにかなんでも

nothing something anything
だれだれもだれかだれでも

no one someone anyone
どこどこもどこかどこでも

nowhere somewhere anywhere
どれどれもどれかどれでも

not one thing one of the things any one of them
どちらどちらもどちらかどちらでも

neither one of the two both
いつ（いつも）いつかいつでも

(always) sometime anytime
どうしてどうしてもどうしてかどうしてでも

no matter how for some reason by any means
 Fixed expression: interrogative pronoun with でもいい（かまわない）
Fixed expressions containing an interrogative pronoun with でもいい（かまわない） indicate that any
option available would be acceptable.
パーティーの日は、いつでもいいです。
“Any day would do for us to have a party.”
いっしょす
一緒に住むのはだれでもいいとは言えません。
“I can’t say that I’d be able to live with just anyone.”
 Non-fixed usages
An interrogative pronoun with でも refers to every possible thing, person, and so on, depending on
the meaning the interrogative pronoun carries. Such phrases can be used in a non-fixed way.
あの人は何でも食べます。
“That person will eat anything.”
あの人に言われたら、どこにでも行きます。
“I’ll go anywhere that person tells me to.”
s 3: ては-Adverbials
Adverbial clauses with ~ては also have both fixed and non-fixed expressions.
(1) Expressing prohibition with ~てはいけない or ~てはだめ
These structures were briefly introduced in Stage 2–1. Both of these fixed expressions indicate that
the topicalized element is not acceptable. だめ has a more colloquial tone than いけない.
The following examples demonstrate these expressions with all predicate types:
しけんじしょつか
この試験では、辞書を使ってはいけません。
“You may not use a dictionary for this test.”
きゃくだちゃふる
お客さんに出すお茶は古くてはだめです。
“You mustn’t serve old tea to guests.”
だしゅくだいかんたんしゅくだい
学生に出す宿題は簡単な宿題ではいけません。
“The homework you give to students shouldn’t be easy.”
(2) Non-fixed ては-adverbials
The following examples show a few of the non-fixed uses of the ては~ adverbial.
いしつれい
そんなことを言っては、失礼です。
“It’s rude to say such a thing.”
The above structure is very similar in meaning to the following:

いしつれい
そんなことを言うのは、失礼です。
“Saying such a thing would be rude.”
The difference between the two is that the first sentence with ~ては implies that the act of saying
has taken place, while the second sentence does not.
(3) Expressing obligation with ~なくては
Obligation may be expressed by the following fixed structures: ~なくてはならない, ~なくてはいけない,

and ~なくてはだめ. The basic meaning of these phrases comes from the literal meaning, “if (some-
thing) did not happen, it would not do.” From this meaning, the nuance of obligation comes
through, as in “One must/should do/be such-and-such.”
The difference among the three options is that of formality: the most formal is ~なくてはならない;
then ~なくてはいけない; and ~なくてはだめ is colloquial. The following example uses a verbal predi-
cate:
すぐに行かなくてはなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“I’d better go soon.”
The following examples use nominal and adjectival predicates:

くつせい
靴は日本製じゃなくてはなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“Shoes should be Japan-made.”
この部屋の机は新しくなくてはなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“The desk in this room should be new.”
(4) Expressing obligation with ~なければ
Obligation may also be expressed by changing the above fixed structure with ~なくては to one with
~なければ and adding the same three options: ~なければはならない, ~なければいけない, and ~なけれ
ばだめ. The basic meaning of these phrases shares the similar literal meaning as ~なくては: that is,
“if (something) did not happen, it would not do.” This meaning is also communicates a sense of
obligation, as in “One must/should do/be such-and-such.”
The difference among the three options is, again, formality: the most formal is ~なければならない;
then ~なければいけない; and ~なければだめ is colloquial.
For the sake of comparison, the following examples are identical to the ones above except for ~な
ければ instead of ~なくては. The examples below use all three predicates (verbal, nominal, and adjec-
tival, in order):
すぐに行かなければはなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“I’d better go soon.”
くつせい
靴は日本製じゃなければはなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“Shoes should be Japan-made.”
この部屋の机は新しくなければなりません（いけません・だめです）。
“The desk in this room should be new.”
 The difference between the two expressions of obligation
The difference between the two is small. An obligation expressed with ~なければ sounds a little
stronger and more formal than one expressed with ~なくては.
 Conditionals with ば
The fixed expression with ~なければ comes from the conditional predicate form, the ば-form, which
will be introduced below. Review Stages 1–9 and 2–3.
s 4: Conditional Adverbial Clauses with ~ば
Thus far, it has been explained that time and situational conditions are expressed with adverbial
clauses joined by the conjunctions 時（とき）, 前（まえ）, 後（あと）, or と. The predicate form ~たら may
also be used in the adverbial clause in this case. Another adverbial clause that expresses situation-
al conditions is joined by the so-called ば-form of the predicate.
At this point, it may be beneficial to review the structures of all time and situational conditions cov-
ered in earlier chapters. Reviewing all of the adverbial clauses mentioned above by identifying the
significant feature of each adverbial clause and the differences among them is strongly recom-
mended. Review Stages 1–9 and 2–3.
(1) Creating the ば-formation
Rules Examples
Nominal predicate である→であれば日本人であれば
Adjectival predicate い→ければたかければ, よければ
Verbal predicate the last u to e and add ばたべれば, はなせば, くれば
 である as the copula

である is a more formal copula than だ. See Stage 4–7 for a further explanation of である.
あねいしゃあねいしゃ
姉は医者だ。姉は医者である。
“My older sister is a medical doctor.”
The ば-form of the copula, であれば, is based only on である and not with だ.
(2) Using the ば-conditional
The ば-conditional is used only for an assumed situational condition, the realization of which the
speaker is not so sure of. That is, the condition stated in the ば-conditional may or may not be true.
ゆうしょくわしょく
夕食が和食であれば、私は行きません。
“If Japanese food is on the menu for dinner, I’m not going.”
A similar meaning can also be expressed with the たら-conditional. The “uncertainty” of the condi-
tion in the ば-conditional is stronger than that in the たら-conditional, which causes the ば-condi-
tional to sound a little more formal than the たら-conditional. This phenomenon is somewhat
universal. In English, as well, it is generally more polite to use the subjunctive mood (see next sec-
tion) than the indicative (statement) mood: for instance, “should you come this way” is more polite
than “if you come this way.”
もし may be used with this type of sentence to emphasize the uncertainty of the condition. もし has
no one-word equivalent word in English, but it expresses a notion of something like “there may be
a chance of a certain condition” or “if ever (this) should happen.”
かれたいへん
もし、明日、彼が来なければ、大変なことになります。
“If by any chance he did not come here tomorrow, it would be tragic.”
(3) The difference between ~たら and ~ば
In addition to those discussed above, another difference between the ~たら and the ~ば condition-
als has to do with talking about an event that actually happened. As previously mentioned, the た
ら-conditional can express an unexpected consequence when the predicate of the main clause is
expressed in the perfective form. The main clause is in the perfective form because the event actu-
ally did happen. However, the ば-conditional may not be used to talk about an event that really
occurred. Since the ば-adverbial indicates only an assumed situation, the main clause is always in
the imperfective form. The incorrect example below illustrates this:
き
*家に帰れば、母が来ていました。
[intended meaning] “When I went home, I was surprised to find my mother there.”
き
家に帰ったら、母が来ていました。
“When I went home, I was surprised to find my mother there.”
(4) Subjunctive use
The subjunctive is a way to express a hypothetical situation. For instance, in English, one might
say, “If I were you, I wouldn’t have done that.” Obviously, the speaker is not the addressee and
never will be; the expression refers to an imaginary situation.
In Japanese, this subjunctive meaning is expressed by the たら-form more often than the ば-form.
This is because the syllable ~た of ~たら is the same as the perfective ~た, and an assumed comple-
tion of the situation is presented in the adverbial clause. This sort of an assumed completion of the
situation may not be expressed by the ば-conditional.
もし、私があなただったら、そんなことはしていなかっただろう。
“If I were you, I wouldn’t have done such a thing.”
The following sentence is awkward and would not be used by a native speaker of Japanese:
*もし、私があなたであれば、そんなことはしていなかっただろう。
[intended meaning] “If I were you, I wouldn’t have done such a thing.”
(5) Fixed expressions with the ば-forms
The ば-conditional form is used in a few fixed expressions, some of which are introduced below.
 どうすれば
This construction is used to ask for advice about how best to achieve a certain thing.
かんじおぼ
どうすれば、漢字がもっと覚えられるでしょうか。
“What’s the best way for me to memorize more kanji?”
どうすれば often accompanies いい, as used in the following.

れんらくおも
あの人に連絡できないのですが、どうすればいいと思いますか。
“I can’t get in touch with him, so what do you think I should do?”
 ~ば…ほど
Repeating the same verb, once with the ば-conditional and another time with the imperfective
form plus ほど, indicates the incremental degree of a description expressed in the independent
clause.
よよおもしろ
この本は、読めば読むほど、面白くなってきますね。
“The more I read this book, the more interesting it gets.”
べんきょうむずか
日本語は、勉強すればするほど、難しくなってきます。
“The more we study Japanese, the more difficult it becomes.”
5: Adverbial Phrases with として, としても, and としては
(1) として
A noun followed by the particle と and して is a fixed phrase indicating that the noun marked by と
して is a publicly-recognized category that the topic belongs to.
かとうおし
加藤先生は日本語の先生として、この大学で教えています。
“Kato-sensei teaches at this college as a professor of Japanese.”
ゆうめい
田中先生は日本語の先生として有名です。
“Tanaka-sensei is famous as a Japanese teacher.”
(2) としても vs. としては
として introduced above is also used with は and も, each of which expresses a different nuance.
としては indicates that the attribute of the noun is less than what the speaker expected, while a noun
marked with としても is more than expected:
 Situation 1
Suppose that Williams-san is an American. Americans are generally expected to be taller than
Japanese. If the speaker judges that William-san is shorter than a regular American is expected to
be, he or she would mark the noun with としては:
せひく
ウィリアムズさんは、アメリカ人としては、背が低いですね。
“Williams-san is short for an American.”
 Situation 2
Suppose that Williams-san is an American. The speaker expects Americans to be tall, but Williams-
san is even taller than other Americans. In that case, the noun would be marked with としても:
せたか
ウィリアムズさんは、アメリカ人としても、背が高いですね。
“Williams-san is tall even for an American.”
(1) Do you want tea or something?
ちゃの
 お茶でも、飲む？
いま
 ううん、今はちょっと・・・。
なにた
 じゃ、何か食べる？
たき
 あんまり食べる気しない。
なんたげんき
 そう？だって、何でも食べなきゃ、元気にならないわよ。
 うん。そうだけど。
 Do you want tea or something?
 No, not now.
 Then, do you want to eat something?
 I don’t feel like eating.
 Really? But you’re not going to get better unless you eat.
 Yeah, I know, but . . .
 お茶（ちゃ）でも、飲（の）む？
Nouns with でも convey suggested items. So, when offering tea, you can say お茶（ちゃ）でも、飲（の）
みますか, meaning “Would you like to drink tea or something of that sort?”
 今はちょっと
ちょっと is a colloquial expression of 少（すこ）し, but this phrase is used to decline an offer. It means
something like “Now is not such a good time.” This was briefly explained in Stage 1–8.
 食（た）べる気（き）しない
In this expression, が is deleted from 気（き）しない, and the complete phrase should be 気（き）がしな
い. The idiom 気（き）がする means that the speaker has a certain feeling.
 だって
だって is a casual expression that means something similar to でも.
 何（なん）でも食（た）べなきゃ
~なきゃ, which is very casual, is a contracted form of ~なければ in the construction introduced
above. As is the case with other contracted forms, this form is more colloquial than ~なければ.
(2) What an awesome guy!
[Dialogue between two male friends]
もりししおもなんほんとうきみもり
 森っていうやつ、知れば知るほど、すごいやつだなあと思うよ。何でも、できるんだよ、本当に。君は、森
し
ってやつ、知ってる？
おれあたと
 いや、俺は会ったことない。例えば、すごいって、どんなこと？
たとがいこくごなにごはなげんごことばかんこく
 うん、例えば、外国語だったら、何語でも話せるんだよ。ヨーロッパ言語でも、アジアの言葉でも。韓国
ごちゅうこくご
語とか中国語とか、ものすごく、ペラペラなんだよ。
 なるほど。それはすごいな。
 The more I get to know Mori, the more awesome I think he is. He can do anything, really. Do
you know him?
 No, I haven’t met him. What do you mean by awesome?
 Uh, for example, he can speak many foreign languages: European languages and Asian lan-
guages. He’s totally fluent in languages like Korean and Chinese.
 WOW! You’re right – he is awesome.
 やつ
This noun is used only by male speakers to refer to other males. It is extremely casual.
 君（きみ） and 俺（おれ）
君（きみ） is used only by male speakers to address the listener. It is quite casual and may be used
to address either gender. 俺（おれ） is used by the speaker to refer to himself; this word is also used
only by male speakers in extremely casual situations.
 なるほど
This expression is frequently used for backchanneling (similar to “uh-huh” or “I see” in English).
It acknowledges that the speaker hears and understands what the other person is saying. Review
Stage 1–2 (Conversational Devices) for more information about backchanneling.
Stage 3
Adding Sophistication
The learner can use much of what was introduced in the first two stages to express many
things without being too inconvenienced. In any language, however, there are countless
ways to express the same concept or thought, each with a slightly different nuance. In this
stage, issues of nuance are dealt with by reviewing the material covered in the first two
stages and adding new structures and expressions. It is not absolutely crucial to cover each
chapter faithfully in the order presented, but if there is no particular reason to skip chapters,
following the order of the chapters suggested in this stage will allow learning to proceed
more smoothly.
Stage 3-1 Objective vs. Personal Expressions

Stage 3-2 Making Inferences
Stage 3-3 Embedded Information
Stage 3-4 Sentences of Causation
Stage 3-5 Expressions of Simultaneous Events
Stage 3-6 Emotive Expressions
Stage 3-7 Requests, Commands, and Imperatives
Stage 3-8 Overriding Particles
Stage 3-1 Objective vs. Personal Expressions
Structures
1. こと and の
(1) Review of こと and の
(2) The referent of の
(3) こと and の with perception verbs
(4) の in complex predicates
2. Adverbial Clauses with ので and のに
(1) Adverbial clauses with ので
(2) Differences between から and ので
(3) Adverbial clauses with のに
3. Situation-Focus vs. Person-Focus
(1) Revisiting verbs する and なる
(2) ことにする vs. ことになる
(3) Revisiting transitive-intransitive verb pairs
(4) Transitive て-form with ある (situation-focused)
4. なら-Adverbial as a Situational Condition
(1) He got upset again!
(2) A quick errand
(3) Declining an offer politely
(4) It’s my fault
Structures
1: こと and の
(1) Review of こと and の
The following is a summary of points that have already been introduced. One new piece of informa-
tion is added at the end of this section, namely the use of こと and の in the predicate position. After
this review section, additional information on こと and の will be introduced.
 こと as a noun and の as a pronoun
The following examples show that こと is a noun, while の is a pronoun:
おもしろ
昨日、山田さんに面白いことを聞きました。
“I heard an interesting thing from Yamada-san yesterday.”
さっきまであなたのことについて話していました。
“We were talking about you until a little while ago.”
私が読んだ本はこの本です。あなたが読んだのはどれですか。
“This book is the one that I read. Which one did you read?”
 こと and の as nominalizers
Both こと and の function grammatically as nominalizers, and they often can be used interchangeably
in such positions as the topic and the object.
あるからだ
毎日、歩くこと（or の）は体にとてもいいです。
“Walking every day is very good for your health.”
きら
僕は人の前で話すこと（の）が嫌いです。
“I don’t like to speak in front of other people.”
 Non-interchangeable こと and の in fixed phrases
In many fixed phrases such as with ある and できる, こと and の are not interchangeable. In the fol-
lowing cases, only こと may be used.
しょうたいせんぱい
先生を家に招待したことはありませんが、先輩を招待したことが一度、あります。
“I have never invited a teacher to my home, but I once invited a senior student.”
私は漢字が二千も読むことができます。
“I can read as many as two thousand kanji.”
 Non-interchangeable こと and の in predicates

Although the fact has not been introduced up to this point, こと and の are not interchangeable when
used as nominalizers in the predicate. In this case, only こと may be used.
しゅみ
私の趣味は本を読むことです。
“My hobby is reading books.”
しゅみ
*私の趣味は本を読むのです。
[intended meaning] “My hobby is reading books.”
(2) The referent of の
In some cases, the referent of the pronoun の is not given anywhere in the sentence or discourse.
The referent of の, however, is quite apparent from the meaning of a sentence. In the first example,
の refers to a place, and in the second, の refers to a person.
私が生まれたのは東京です。
“Tokyo is where I was born.”
私が話したのは山田さんです。
“The one I spoke to was Yamada-san.”
(3) こと and の with perception verbs
There is a significant difference between こと and の when they are used with verbs of perception.
私は中田さんがピアノをひいているのを聞きました。
“I heard Nakada-san playing the piano.”
私は中田さんがピアノをひいていることを聞きました。
“I heard that Nakada-san is (or has been) playing the piano (somewhere).”
The two sentences are identical except for the use of こと and の. Yet the meaning of each is quite
different. In the first sentence, the speaker directly perceived Nakada-san playing the piano in person,
so only の is acceptable here.
In the second sentence, in which こと is used, what the speaker heard was the information or report
that Nakada-san is (or has been) playing the piano. The speaker did not get a direct perception of
Nakada-san’s playing by hearing it in person at all; what she or he heard was the fact that Nakada-
san is (or has been) playing the piano. Here only こと may be used.
With the verb 見る, only の is possible.

上田さんが歩いているのを見ました。
“I saw Ueda-san walking.”
In this case, こと is unacceptable because the speaker is the one who saw Ueda-san walking. It is not
possible to see the information.
In sum, when the main verbs are perceptual verbs such as 聞（き）く and 見る, こと and の are not in-
terchangeable. こと gives an indirect objective interpretation of an event while の gives a personal
and direct one.
When こと and の are interchangeable, as in some of the earlier sentences above, there is a nuance
difference, objective vs. personal, between the two sentences.
(4) の in complex predicates
の（ん in conversation） is used in the predicate to indicate that the statement made in the sentence
is the speaker’s explanation. The complex predicate のだ（or んだ） was already introduced in Stage
2–7. の in the following two examples is the same の as in のだ.
 のだろう
As explained earlier, だろう, instead of だ, is used when the speaker is not 100% certain that the state-
ment is true.
この授業はそんなに難しくないでしょう。
“This class is probably not that difficult.”
When の intervenes between the first predicate and だろう, it indicates that the speaker is giving his
or her own interpretation based on first-hand observation. Recall that な must stand between the
nominal predicate and の.
あの女の人は先生なのだろう。
“From what I have seen, I think that woman is probably a teacher.”
Recall that the speaker is not able to express a third person’s emotion in the predicate directly. When
の is used in the predicate, it indicates that the statement is based on the speaker’s observation.
Since the use of だろう makes it less certain, the combination is quite appropriate to express a third
person’s feelings.
あの人は犬がこわいのでしょう。
“From my observations, it seems like that guy is afraid of dogs.”
The following is an example of a verbal predicate. The context of the following statement might be
that the speaker has been wondering how Suzuki-san will reach his destination. The speaker might
make the following statement based on his or her own observations:
すずきじてんしゃ
鈴木さんは自転車で行くのでしょう。
“I gather that Suzuki-san will probably go by bicycle.”
 のかもしれない
かもしれない used at the end of a predicate conveys a meaning that is very similar to the structure
with だろう discussed above. However, だろう conveys more certainty than かもしれない.
As is the case with だろう, the use of の before かもしれない indicates that the statement is made based
on the speaker’s direct observation, and therefore expresses his or her own interpretation of the sit-
uation. もしかすると means something like “by chance; there is a chance.” It is used often with かもし
れない.
もしかすると、友達は来週、来るのかもしれません。
“Based on my observation, I think there is a chance my friend will come next week.”
もしかすると、あの人はこれが見えないのかもしれません。
“Based on my observations, I think it’s possible that he is unable to see this.”
s2: Adverbial Clauses with ので and のに
(1) Adverbial clauses with ので
ので comes from the complex predicate のだ. The で in ので is the conjunctive form of the copula だ.
As previously explained, のだ is used in statements to convey the speaker’s personal explanation.
To answer a why-question, it is quite possible to simply respond by using the complex predicate の
だ.
どうして、昨日、授業を休んだのですか。
“So, why didn’t you come to class yesterday?”
なかいた
ちょっとお腹が痛かったんです。
“Because I had a stomachache.”
Although ので is related to のだ, as explained above, it functions as a clausal conjunction to connect

the cause-adverbial to its consequence.
なかいた
お腹が痛かったので、昨日、授業を休みました。
“I didn’t go to class yesterday because I had a stomachache.”
So far, three structures that indicate a cause-consequence relation have been introduced. Some dif-
ferences among the three are discussed below.
(2) Differences between から and ので
 Structural differences between から and ので

The only structural difference between から and ので arises when the first clause is a nominal pred-
icate. The plain copula だ must be used before から, while な must be used before ので:
あの人は日本人だから、日本語を話します。
“She speaks Japanese because she is Japanese.”
あの人は日本人なので、日本語を話します。
“She speaks Japanese because she is Japanese.”
 Differences in meaning between から and ので
ので and から are interchangeable most of the time, especially when the main clause states a factual
event. The general difference is that causes expressed with から provide objective reasons, while
those with ので offer personal ones. Therefore, even when either one is acceptable, this difference
in nuance exists.
これはあまりおいしくないので、食べませんでした。
これはあまりおいしくないから、食べませんでした。
“This didn’t taste very good, so I didn’t eat it.”
 Cases in which ので should not be used
When the main clause expresses such things as requests, commands, suggestions, or invitations,
the use of ので can be awkward. Such clauses are better joined by から, which is used in more objec-
tive cause-consequence sequences.
*これはあまりおいしくないので、食べないで下さい。
[intended meaning] “Please don’t eat this, because it doesn’t taste good.”
これはあまりおいしくないから、食べないで下さい。
“Please don’t eat this, because it doesn’t taste good.”
Another situation in which the use of ので is inappropriate is when the copula is used as an abbre-
viated predicate.
この大学の学生はなぜ日本語を勉強しませんか。
“Why don’t students at this college study Japanese?”
日本語の先生がいないからです。
“Because they don’t have a Japanese teacher.”
ので may not be used in such an abbreviated way. Because the で of ので is the conjunctive form of
the copula, another copula may not be used consecutively.
*日本語の先生がいないのでです。
[intended meaning] “Because they don’t have a Japanese teacher.”
Instead, のです may be used as a complex predicate.
日本語の先生がいないの（ん）です。
“Because there isn’t a Japanese teacher there.”
 The politeness factor
In general, sentences in which ので is used are more polite than those with から. This is because の
で implies a sense of a personal accountability for the cause-consequence relation; that is, the speaker
takes responsibility for the cause of the consequence.
 The cause with ~て
When the causal adverbial clause with ~て is used, the consequence expressed in the main clause
must be a naturally occurring result, such as emotion or ability. It may not be an intentional act.
*これはおいしくなくて、食べませんでした。
[intended meaning] “This didn’t taste very good, so I didn’t eat it.”
これはおいしくなくて、食べられませんでした。
“This didn’t taste very good, so I couldn’t eat it.”
(3) Adverbial clauses with のに
The meaning of the adverbial clause with のに is “despite the fact (given in the dependent clause).”
The の of this のに is the same の previously discussed in this chapter; that is, the personal interpre-
tation. The function of のに is quite similar to けれども in the sense that they are both used in adver-
bial clauses. The similar conjunctions が and でも are not used in complex sentences.
The basic difference between のに and けれども is that のに may not be used when the main clause
does not state a factual event.
The の in のに may not be reduced to ん, even for casual speech. (The の in ので, however, may be
shortened to ん).
ずいぶん
あの子供はもう随分大きいのに、まだ話せません。
“Although that child seems rather big to me, he still can’t talk.”
きものき
あの人は日本人なのに、着物をぜんぜん着ません。
“Although I know that that person is Japanese, she never wears a kimono.”
As the following incorrect example demonstrates, のに may not be used when the main clause is a
command, request, or suggestion.
さむ
*寒いのに、ここに来て下さいませんか。
[intended meaning] “Even though it’s cold, could you please come over here?”
In this case, the two clauses may be joined by けれども. See the following:
さむ
寒いけれども、ここに来て下さいませんか。
“Even though it’s cold, could you please come over here?”
When the main clause expresses an outcome that has already taken place, the sentence is quite ac-
ceptable.
さむおよ
寒いのに、泳ぎに行きました。
“Even though it was cold, we went swimming.”
When the adverbial clause expresses a condition that is or was inconvenient to others, and the main
clause indicates that a task was completed despite this adverse condition, it is better to use のに than
the objective けれども. のに indicates that the speaker is aware of the adverse condition.
きぶん
*北村さんは気分がよくないけれども、私を手伝ってくれました。
[intended meaning] “Kitamura-san helped me even though she wasn’t feeling well.”
きぶん
北村さんは気分がよくないのに、私を手伝ってくれました。
“I knew that Kitamura-san wasn’t feeling well, but she helped me anyway.”
When thanking someone for doing something in spite of adverse conditions, this difference should
be easy to understand.
いそが
*お忙しいけれども、来てくださって、本当にありがとうございました。
[intended meaning] “I appreciate your coming here even though you’re busy.”
いそが
お忙しいのに、来てくださって、本当にありがとうございました。
“I know how busy you are, and I do appreciate your coming here despite that.”
s3: Situation-Focus vs. Person-Focus
(1) Revisiting verbs する and なる
Situation-focused vs. person-focused expressions were introduced in Stage 1–6 with examples using
the verbs する and なる. For instance, announcing a dinner selection may be done in two different
ways: する is person-focused, while なる is situation-focused.
わしょく
晩ご飯は和食にしました。
“We’ve decided to serve Japanese food for dinner.”
わしょく
晩ご飯は和食になりました。
“It was decided that the dinner would be Japanese food.”
(2) ことにする vs. ことになる
Earlier in this chapter, it was pointed out that in certain fixed expressions, the nominalizers こと and
の are not interchangeable. Nominalizing verbs preceding ~にする and ~になる represent one such
case. When a verb is used before する or なる, the nominalizer こと, rather than の, must precede the
verb.
 When to use which?
The implications of person-focused and situation-focused sentences are quite different. In many
cases, する is used to report a personal decision made in a certain situation. In such a case, the ad-
dressee is probably aware of the options that the speaker had prior to making the decision reported.
りょうしん
明日、両親に電話することにしました。
“I decided that I would call my parents tomorrow.”
When なる is used, the speaker is reporting the objective outcome, rather than what the speaker has
decided to do in a certain situation. When such a construction as the one below is used, the matter
sounds quite significant, because the implication is that it took much thought to arrive at the deci-
sion.
りょうしん
明日、両親に電話することになりました。
“It’s been decided that I will call my parents tomorrow.”
In some situations, the decision is not solely within the speaker’s control. For instance, a situation
such as graduating from school depends on many factors; it is not just a personal decision. If the
following statement were made, it would imply that the speaker has earned enough credits to grad-
uate and that he or she has the option of when to graduate (not a common situation).
そつぎょう
この六月に卒業することにしました。
“I decided to graduate this June.”
When publicly announcing a graduation (such as in an invitation card for a graduation party), the
following expression with なる is much more appropriate. Even though the speaker has not graduated
yet, the main verb must be in the perfective aspect. The perfective aspect here indicates that the de-
cision has already been made about the coming commencement.
この六月に卒業することになりました。
“I will be graduating this June.”
 Culturally speaking
Though it is largely situational, it is generally more appropriate to use なる when making a public
announcement (e.g. wedding, graduation, starting school, starting a new job, etc.). For personal
matters, day-to-day decisions are more likely to be expressed with する (food, shopping, assignment,
etc.). When なる is used for daily decisions, it indicates that the decision is not a trivial one.
(3) Revisiting transitive-intransitive verb pairs
As explained in earlier chapters, a few hundred transitive-intransitive pairs of verbs exist in Japanese.
In general, the transitive verbs of these pairs are used for person-focused expressions, while intran-
sitives are situation-focused.
Depending on the situation, it may be more appropriate to use a transitive verb in some cases. In
other cases, the reverse is true. The main point is that “who” did something can be expressed only
via the use of transitive verbs.
If the speaker broke an important item—say, a cell phone–that his or her roommate treasured, how
would he or she apologize for the mistake? Using an intransitive verb would imply that the cell
phone broke for an unfortunate reason (e.g. wind blew it off the table; a cat walked near it and
knocked it off the table). But when a transitive verb is used, it makes it obvious that the speaker did
something like dropping it by mistake. Therefore, the first example below would be more appropriate
than the second. (As explained in Stage 2–6, 壊（こわ）す is transitive, while 壊（こわ）れる is intransi-
tive).
けいたいこわ
大切な携帯を壊してしまって、本当にごめんなさい。
“I am so sorry I broke your precious cell phone.”
けいたいこわ
*大切な携帯が壊れてしまって、本当にごめんなさい。
[intended meaning] “I am so sorry that your precious cell phone broke.”
In trying to comfort the person who is feeling bad about breaking the phone, one might make the
following statement, using an intransitive verb:
けいたいこわしんぱい
携帯はよく壊れるから、私は何とも思っていませんよ。心配しないでください。
“Cell phones break all the time, so I don’t think anything of it. Please don’t worry about it.”
Imagine how the following inappropriate sentence using a transitive verb might sound to the ad-
dressee:
けいたいこわしんぱい
*携帯はよく壊すから、私は何とも思っていませんよ。心配しないでください。
[intended meaning] “You break cell phones all the time, so I don’t think anything of it. Please don’t
worry about it.”
(4) Transitive て-forms with ある (situation-focused)
The use of transitive verbs is by nature person-focused, because the verb implies that the topic op-
erates on the object. Transitive verbs can, however, be used for situation-focused expressions as well,
with the following construction:
とあ
戸が開けてあります。
“The door has been opened.”
The construction above contains the conjunctive form of a transitive verb and ある. Not all transitive
verbs may be used in the above construction; it is limited to those transitive verbs that leave some
kind of trace of the result of completing the action implied by the verb. In the above sentence, some-
one opened the door (transitive act; person-focused) and the door is left standing open (situation-fo-
cused). Even though the sentence implies that someone opened the door, it is not possible to
articulate the person in this kind of construction.
Compare the following. Although the verbs 書く and 飲む are both transitive, the てある-construction
is acceptable with 書く, but not with 飲む. This is because a name can be traced after someone has
written it, but water cannot be traced after it is consumed.
*水が飲んであります。
[intended meaning] “The water has been consumed.”
ここに名前が書いてあります。
“The name is written here.”
s4: なら-Adverbial as a Situational Condition
A number of conditional adverbial clauses have been introduced so far (e.g., clauses joined by とき,
と, ~たら, ~ば); each of these gives a distinct meaning to the preceding clause and connects it to the
main clause. It would be wise to review these clauses at this point to ensure that everything intro-
duced has been clearly understood.
The most salient meaning of the なら-adverbial, as distinct from all the other conditionals, is that
the condition expressed in the なら-clause is how the speaker interprets a situation in the context of
the speaker’s earlier deeds or statements (whether verbalized or assumed). The speaker’s interpre-
tation is offered as a possible condition for the consequence expressed in the main clause.
What this means is that the なら-conditional clause has a certain reference point (i.e., the previous
statement, thought, etc.). This is not true for other conditional clauses.
The なら-conditional clause is similar in nuance to the たら-conditional clause with the complex pred-
icate with のだ.
あなたが行くのだったら、私は行きません。
“If I understand that you are going to go, I will not go.”
あなたが行くなら、私は行きません。
“If it seems to me that you are going to go, I will not go.”
の may be inserted between the clause and なら, emphasizing the speaker’s interpretation of the sit-
uation:
あなたが行くのなら、私は行きません。
“I take it that you may go, and if that is in fact the case, I will not go.”
や
あの授業がそんなに難しいのなら、辞めたらどうですか。
“If the class is that difficult, why don’t you quit?”
It is not incorrect to insert の with the nominal predicate, as seen below. However, this is a rather
awkward structure because there are too many clusters of elements that indicate the speaker’s per-
sonal interpretation. Without の, the personal account is well expressed:
しごとたの
*あの人が日本人なのなら、この仕事をあの人に頼みましょうか。
[intended meaning] “If that person is indeed Japanese, shall we ask her to do this job?”
しごとたの
あの人が日本人なら、この仕事をあの人に頼みましょうか。
“If that person is indeed Japanese, shall we ask her to do this job?”
(1) He got upset again!
くん
 山田君、どこ？
くん
 ええ？山田君なら、もう帰っちゃいましたよ。
 ええ？もう、帰った？
おこ
 ええ。また、怒ったんでしょ、きっと。
 Where is Yamada-kun?
 What? If you’re asking about Yamada-kun, he already went home.
 He went home already?
 Yeah. I’m sure he got upset again!
 ええ？
With a rising tone, this vocalization indicates that the speaker is quite surprised. Greater surprise is
expressed with a more drawn-out pronunciation.
 A short でしょ
If she or he is upset, a speaker may cut でしょう rather short, following it immediately with the next
word. However, not every short でしょ indicates that the speaker is upset.
 Word order inversion
The last line shows an inversion of the predicate and an adverb, きっと “surely.” This kind of inversion
occurs in conversation. The last word is added as an afterthought, or to show that the speaker wants
to emphasize the word.
(2) A quick errand
こうはいじょせいなかで
後輩（女性）: ちょっと、お腹、すいたんで、出てきます。
せんぱいだんせい
先輩（男性）: どこ、行くの？
こうはいじょせい
後輩（女性）: コンビニ、行ってきます。
せんぱいだんせいぼく
先輩（男性）: コンビニかあ。僕も行こうかな？
こうはい
後輩（female）: I’m a little hungry, so I’m going to go out for a moment.
せんぱい
先輩（male）: Where are you going?
こうはい
後輩（female）: Just to the mini-mart.
せんぱい
先輩（male）: Mini mart . . . hmm . . . I think I’ll go, too.
 んで for causes
ので may be shortened to んで in conversation.
 コンビニかあ
The vowel in the question particle か may be prolonged while trying to come up with things to say.
(3) Declining an offer politely
 もう少し、いかがですか。
じゅうぶん
 ありがとうございます。これで十分です。
だいじょうぶ
 そうですか・・・でも、少しだけなら、大丈夫でしょう？
けっこう
 いいえ、本当にもう結構です。
 How about a little more?
 Thank you, but I’ve had plenty.
 Really? But you can have just a bit more, can’t you?
 No, really, I’m fine.
 これで十分（じゅうぶん）です
It is quite common for a Japanese host to offer things like food and drink repeatedly, even if the
guest declines the offer. This phrase, and もう結構（けっこう）です below, are typical ways to politely
decline an offer.
十分（じゅうぶん） is an adjectival noun that means “sufficient; enough.” これで十分（じゅうぶん）です

means “this is sufficient.” で in this case indicates a boundary delimiting the amount that the speaker
has.
 もう結構（けっこう）です
This is another polite way to decline an offer. The adjectival noun 結構（けっこう） means “great; fine;
excellent.” With もう, the phrase means something like, “I’m fine with the way things are right now.”
The phrase 結構（けっこう）です may be used either for praising something or declining an offer, de-
pending on the situation.
(4) It’s my fault
 どうしたんですか。何かあったんですか。
しけんせいせき
 うん、ちょっと。日本語の試験の成績、本当にひどかったんです。
しけんむずか
 試験、難しかったんじゃないですか。
ぼく
 そうじゃないんです。僕がいけないんです。勉強しなかったんです。
 What’s wrong? Did something happen?
 Yeah, kinda . . . I got an awful grade on my Japanese test.
 Well, it was a hard test, wasn’t it?
 It wasn’t that. It’s my fault. I just didn’t study.
 Giving a vague answer うん、ちょっと

うん、ちょっと is a way to give a vague answer to a question, especially if the speaker is put into a situ-
ation where he or she needs to explain something personal.
Stage 3-2 Making Inferences
Structures
1. Complex Predicates with そうだ
(1) Overview
(2) Complex words with そう and complex predicates with そうだ
(3) Aspects of the two structures
2. Complex Predicates with ようだ
(1) The use of よう in complex predicates
(2) Complex words with そう and complex predicates with ようだ
(3) みたいだ and ようだ
3. Different Uses of よう
(1) Adjectival and adverbial phrases with よう and みたい
(2) ように expressing a goal
(3) ようにする expressing effort
(4) Volitional とする
4. Complex Predicates with らしい
(1) Structures with らしい
(2) Complex adjectives with らしい
(3) Adverbs with らしく
(4) Comparison of the four structures
(1) It seems that way
(2) As I said earlier
(3) She seems so Japanese
Structures
1: Complex Predicates with そうだ
(1) Overview
Complex predicates with such elements as そうだ, ようだ, and らしい express the speaker’s inferences
based on different sources. Some of these have been already introduced, and some are new.
The difference among the structures that express inferences lies in the source of information:
whether it is from an objective or subjective source, or the degree of objectivity or subjectivity of the
information source.
The following illustrates the continuum of different information sources of the relevant elements
of these structures. So far, the subjective そう (Stage 2–6) and the objective そうだ (Stage 2–7) have
been introduced. The subjective ようだ has been mentioned (Stages 1–7 and 2–5), but details of its
use have not been covered. The objective らしい is new in this chapter.
Objective source ———————-———————— Subjective source
そうだらしいようだ Stem + そう
Often, English expressions such as “it appears,” “it looks,” “it seems,” or “it is likely” are used to in-
troduce complex predicate structures with the above elements. A reminder here is that there is no
absolute one-to-one correspondence between certain English translations and Japanese sentences
(or vice versa), so it is important to remember that learning the underlying meaning of each structure
is far more powerful than learning structures via English translation.
(2) Complex words with そう and complex predicates with そうだ
Complex adjectival nouns with そう and complex predicates with そうだ were introduced in Stages 2–
6 and 2–7 respectively. They look similar, but the information sources, as well as the structures, are
quite different. Review the following.
A complex adjectival noun is derived by adding そう to the stem of a word, while a complex predicate
is derived by adding そうだ to the original predicate. The meanings are quite different.
あの人の作ったケーキはまずそうですね。
“The cake that he made doesn’t look very appetizing, does it?”
あの人の作ったケーキはまずいそうですね。
“I heard that the cake that he made is unappetizing; is that right?”
 Information source
As was pointed out in Stage 2–7, the objective information source is often expressed with によると
and a complex predicate with そうだ. However, the objective source cannot be expressed by the com-
plex adjectival noun with そう. This complex word is used only for information sources that are com-
pletely subjective.
*山田さんの話によると、あの人の作ったケーキはまずそうですね。
[intended meaning] “According to Yamada-san, the cake that he made doesn’t look appetizing; isn’t
that so?”
山田さんの話によると、あの人の作ったケーキはまずいそうですね。
“According to Yamada-san, the cake that he made is unappetizing, but is that really so?”
(3) Aspects of the two structures
The following sentences illustrate how aspects of the above two structures are expressed:
 Negative sentences containing complex words with そう
There are two ways to negate a sentence containing a complex adjectival noun with そう. The first is
to use the negative of the original word and add そう. Recall that さ must be inserted between the neg-
ative な~ and そう. This is true with all negatives and the positive adjective いい, which is よさそう.
雨が降らなさそうです。
“It looks to me like it’s not going to rain any time soon.”
The second way is to form a complex adjectival noun first and then negate the predicate.
雨が降りそうじゃありません。
“It doesn’t look to me like it’s going to rain any time soon.”
There is a difference in meaning between the two negative sentences above: the first sentence above
expresses the speaker’s own observation that it might not rain while the second sentence is the
speaker’s negation of a previous statement or inference (which could include the speaker’s own in-
ference prior to the observation).
 Positive and negative perfective sentences containing complex words with そう
The positive perfective is indicated by the predicate; this is the only way to express this aspect. In
other words, it is not possible to put the original word into the perfective form before adding そう in
this structure.
雨が降りそうでした。
“It looked to me like it was going to rain soon.”
There are two ways to form negative perfective sentences with complex adjectival nouns with そう.
These are the same as the ways of forming imperfective negative sentences; the only difference is
that でした is added. The difference in nuance between the two is the same as for negative imperfec-
tives.
雨が降らなさそうでした。
“It looked to me like it wasn’t going to rain any time soon.”
雨が降りそうじゃありませんでした。
“It didn’t look to me like it was going to rain any time soon.”
 Indicating aspect in complex predicates with そうだ
Because そうだ at the end of a complex predicate does not convey when the information was obtained,
aspect cannot be expressed by this element. In constructions including the complex predicate with
そうだ, the most natural way to indicate aspect is therefore to express it in the first predicate within
the complex predicate.
午後は雨が降らないそうです。
“I heard that it’s not going to rain in the afternoon.”
午後は雨が降ったそうです。
“I heard that it rained in the afternoon.”
午後は雨が降らなかったそうです。
“I heard that it didn’t rain this afternoon.”
今は日本でも雨が降っているそうです。
“I heard that it’s raining in Japan now, too.”
s2: Complex Predicates with ようだ
Complex predicates with ようだ were mentioned in Stages 1–7 and 2–5, but the ways in which this
structure is used have not been covered. In fact, よう is used in quite a few ways in various structures;
the goal of this chapter is to introduce some of the most typical of these.
(1) The use of よう in complex predicates
The word よう literally means “appearance.” The use of よう in the complex predicate therefore indi-
cates that the event that the sentence refers to is based on an inference drawn from the speaker’s di-
rect perception of a situation.
The information may be from an objective source as well, but the speaker must still confirm it
through his or her own direct observation.
 Predicates before ようだ
The following examples illustrate the use of all three predicates before ようだ.
午後、雨が降るようです。
“It looks like it will rain this afternoon.”
あの店のお茶はおいしいようです。
ここは静かなようです。
“It seems like this place is quiet.”
あの人は日本人のようです。
In the following section, different aspects of this construction are presented. The same content, that
is, “rain in the afternoon,” will be used in all cases so that the comparison will be clearer.
 Negative aspects
A structure in which the predicate before ようだ is negative is different in meaning from one in which
ようだ itself is negative.
When the predicate before ようだ is negative, the speaker is stating her or his observation.
午後、雨が降らないようです。
“It looks like it won’t rain this afternoon.”
When ようだ is negative, the speaker is negating the assumption that it may rain.
午後、雨が降るようではありません。
“It doesn’t look like it will rain this afternoon.”
 Positive perfective aspect
Structures that use the perfective in the predicate before ようだ are different in meaning from those
that use ようだ in the perfective.
When the positive aspect is expressed in the predicate before ようだ, the speaker is informing the ad-
dressee that he or she believes that it rained in the afternoon.
午後、雨が降ったようです。
“It looks like it rained in the afternoon.”
When ようだ is in the perfective, it refers to a certain past situation in which the speaker reports that
it looked as if it would rain in the afternoon. For instance, if the speaker is talking about the previous
weekend, by using this structure, she or he is saying that it looked like rain then.
午後、雨が降るようでした。
“It looked like it was going to rain in the afternoon.”
The following illustrates when both predicates are positive perfective.
午後、雨が降ったようでした。
“It looked like it had rained in the afternoon.”
 Negative perfective aspect
With this aspect, the difference in meaning depends on the place of negation. The difference is sim-
ilar to the difference between negative imperfectives.
午後、雨が降らなかったようです。
“It looks like it didn’t rain in the afternoon.”
午後、雨が降るようじゃありませんでした。
“It didn’t look like it would rain in the afternoon.”
When referring to a situation in the past, the following structures are possible. The first sentence
indicates that the speaker observed in the past that it would not rain, while the second one conveys
the speaker’s past observation that it did not rain.
午後、雨が降らないようでした。
“It looked like it wouldn’t rain in the afternoon.”
午後、雨が降らなかったようでした。
“It looked like it hadn’t rained in the afternoon.”
(2) Complex words with そう and complex predicates with ようだ
For both structures—complex adjectival nouns with そう and complex predicates with ようだ—the in-
formation source is subjective.
 Time of events
Despite this similarity, there are some important differences. The sentence with the complex adjec-
tival noun conveys “immediacy”—something like “it looks as if the rain will come very soon.” It also
expresses the speaker’s strong prediction if immediacy is not included. With complex predicates
containing ようだ, these implications are not conveyed.
雨が降りそうです。
“It looks like it’s going to rain any minute now.”
明日も雨が降るようです。
“It looks like it’s going to rain tomorrow, too.”
Compare the following examples.
このすしは本当においしそうですねえ。
“This sushi looks really delicious!”
あそこのすしは本当においしいようですねえ。
“Sushi at that restaurant is supposed to be quite good.”
The first sentence with the complex word with そう is used when something—sushi, in this case—
is right in front of the speaker. The second sentence containing the complex predicate with ようだ is
an inference made by the speaker based on what he or she has heard or witnessed.
 Information source
Though complex adjectival nouns with そう and complex predicates with ようだ are based on a subjec-
tive information source, the latter may also include an objective source.
Because complex predicates with ようだ may contain combined information sources, an objective
source may be expressed with this construction. This is not possible, however, with the complex ad-
jectival noun with そう.
*テレビによると、午後、雨が降りそうです。
[intended meaning] “According to the TV, it’s supposed to rain in the afternoon.”
テレビによると、午後、雨が降るようです。
“According to the TV, it’s supposed to rain in the afternoon.”
 A conversational function of ようだ
When the speaker wishes to make an assertion, she or he may choose to add ようだ at the end of sen-
tence to soften the assertion. For instance, the use of ようだ adds the nuance that the speaker agrees
with something based on his or her own direct observation.
For instance, the following examples show that the one with 思います is much stronger than そのよ
うです when expressing agreement.
あの人は困っているようですね。
“She is in trouble, isn’t she?”
そう思います。
“I think so.”
そのようですね。
“It seems that way, doesn’t it?”
 Emotive expressions with ようだ

Similar to the way in which a third person’s emotions may be reported with 言う and 思う, the use of
ようだ is also appropriate when the speaker has witnessed a third person’s emotions directly. See
Stages 1–7 and 2–5.
(3) みたいだ and ようだ
Though more colloquial in tone, complex predicates with みたいだ express the same degree of sub-
jectivity and objectivity with regard to the information source as those with ようだ. The following ex-
amples illustrate that there is no structural difference between sentences with みたい and ようだ when
the predicate is verbal or adjectival. There is, however, a structural difference when the predicate is
nominal.
午後、雨が降るようです。
午後、雨が降るみたいです。
“It looks like it’s going to rain this afternoon.”
みせちゃ
あの店のお茶はおいしいようです。
あの店のお茶はおいしいみたいです。
ここは静かなようです。
ここは静かみたいです。
“This place seems quiet.”
あの人は日本人のようです。
あの人は日本人みたいです。
3: Different Uses of よう
The following sections discuss uses of よう other than ようだ in complex predicates.
(1) Adjectival and adverbial phrases with よう and みたい
 Similes with よう and みたい

Similes may be expressed with よう or みたい. な is needed to join either word to the noun that follows.
Though it is not necessary to use の between みたい and the preceding noun, の is necessary for よう.
あの人は先生のような人ですね。
“That person acts like a teacher, doesn’t he?”
あの人は先生みたいな人ですね。
“That person acts like a teacher, doesn’t he?”
あのコーヒーのような飲み物は何ですか。
“What is that coffee-like drink?”
あのコーヒーみたいな飲み物は何ですか。
“What is that coffee-like drink?”
 よう and みたい representing a category
The noun followed by よう or みたい represents a category.
きら
北川さんのような人は嫌いです。
“I can’t stand people like Kitagawa-san.”
きら
北川さんみたいな人は嫌いです。
“I can’t stand people like Kitagawa-san.”
和食のような物を作りました。
“I made something that looks like Japanese food.”
和食みたいな物を作りました。
“I made something that looks like Japanese food.”
 Adverbial similes with よう and みたい
Similes may be expressed adverbially using よう or みたい. In this case, に must be used to make the
よう-phrase an adverbial one. ぶた in the third and fourth examples means “pig.”
あの学生は日本人のように日本語を話しますね。
“That student speaks Japanese just like a native, doesn’t she?”
あの学生は日本人みたいに日本語を話しますね。
“That student speaks Japanese just like a native, doesn’t she?”
昨日、ぶたのようにたくさん食べました。
“I ate like a pig yesterday.”
昨日、ぶたみたいにたくさん食べました。
“I ate like a pig yesterday.”
 まるで・・・よう（な・に） or みたい（な・に）
The adverb まるで may be added in the sentences above to emphasize the degree of similarity of the
things being compared.
あのアメリカ人はまるで日本人のようなアメリカ人ですね。
“That American is just like a Japanese person.”
あのアメリカ人はまるで日本人みたいなアメリカ人ですね。
“That American is just like a Japanese person.”
昨日、まるでぶたのようにたくさん食べました。
“I ate so much yesterday, like an absolute pig.”
昨日、まるでぶたみたいにたくさん食べました。
“I ate so much yesterday, like an absolute pig.”
(2) ように expressing a goal
A target or a goal may be expressed with ように. In this case, the predicate before ように must be im-
perfective.
しけんごうかくいっしょうけんめい
試験に合格するように毎日、一生懸命に勉強しています。
“I’ve been studying hard every day so I can pass the examination.”
ふとうんどう
あまり太らないように毎日、運動しています。
“I’ve been exercising every day so I won’t get fat.”
(3) ようにする expressing effort
In this construction, the verb, whether positive or negative, must be in the imperfective form. This
structure indicates that the speaker is making an effort to do or not do something.
もっと勉強するようにします。
“I will try to study more.”
Adverbs such as なるべく “as much as possible” often accompany this structure. The following sen-
tence illustrates the negative aspect as well.
あそ
なるべく遊ばないようにします。
“I will make an effort to play as little as possible.”
The adverbial phrase できるだけ “as much as possible” is more colloquial than なるべく used above.
The following sentence illustrates the negative perfective aspect:
できるだけ、あの人とは話さないようにしました。
“I tried to speak to that person as little as possible.”
 ようになる
Since the expressions above convey that the speaker is making an effort, they are person-focused
expressions. Compare them to the following sentences with ようになる, which are all situation-fo-
cused. It may be helpful to remember that the verb なる is used to indicate situational changes.
あそ
あの人とあまり遊ばないようになりました。
“Things have changed, and I don’t play with him anymore.”
あの人とは話さないようになりました。
“As things stand now, I no longer speak to him.”
 ようにする and ~てみる
The sentences with ようにする introduced above, especially the positive ones, may seem similar to
structures with ~てみる, primarily because both structures are commonly expressed with the English
verb “try.” However, while the expression with ~てみる focuses on the result of the action of studying,
the structure ようにする focuses on the effort to do the studying, and the actual action of studying has
not taken place.
もっと勉強してみます。
“I will try studying more.” [Literally, “I will see how it turns out after studying more.”]
もっと勉強するようにします。
“I will try to study more.” [Literally, “I will make an effort to study more.”]
(4) Volitional とする
Yet another structure exists that is similar to the two structures above. When the volitional form is
used with the particle と and the verb する, usually in its perfective form, the combination indicates
that the speaker made an effort to do something, but the action was not successfully carried out as
a result. In these sentences, the implication is that the speaker was never able to carry out the act
expressed in the adverbial clauses.
晩ご飯を食べようとしましたが、食べられませんでした。
“I tried to eat my dinner, but I couldn’t do it.”
電話をしようとしましたが、時間がありませんでした。
“I meant to call you last night, but I didn’t have time.”
 Differences in sentences with ようにする, volitional とする（した）, and てみる
Compare the following three structures. Although it is possible for all three of the sentences below
to be expressed with the English verb “try,” students should be mindful of the underlying meaning
of each Japanese sentence.
やさい
野菜を食べるようにしました。
“I tried to eat the vegetables.” [Literally, “I made an effort to eat the vegetables.”]
やさい
野菜を食べようとしました。
“I tried to eat the vegetables.” [Literally, “I was about to eat the vegetables, but was unable to.”]
やさい
野菜を食べてみました。
“I tried eating the vegetables.” [Literally, “I ate the vegetables and saw how they were.”]
4: Complex Predicates with らしい

Complex predicates with らしい are closest in meaning to those with そうだ. Both structures imply
that the information source is an objective one. Structures with そうだ, however, merely report the
information; no confirmation of the information by the speaker is implied. With らしい, this confir-
mation is expressed.
(1) Structures with らしい
As with complex predicates with そうだ, aspect is not reflected in the predicate with らしい. Instead,
all aspectual forms are included in the predicate before らしい. The following examples show various
types of predicates and different aspects.
午後、雨が降るらしいです。
“It seems like it’s going to rain this afternoon.”
午後、雨は降らないらしいです。
“It seems like it’s not going to rain this afternoon.”
あの店のお茶はおいしいらしいです。
“It seems like tea at that shop is delicious.”
あの店のお茶はおいしかったらしいです。
“It seems like tea at that shop was delicious.”
ここは静からしいです。
“It seems like this place is quiet.”
ここは静かじゃなかったらしいです。
“It seems that the place wasn’t quiet.”
あの人は日本人らしいです。
“It seems like that person is Japanese.”
あの人は日本人じゃないらしいです。
“It seems like that person is not Japanese.”
(2) Complex adjectives with らしい
らしい is also used to form complex adjectives. In the following example, 日本人らしい is a complex
adjective conveying that the topic satisfies every criterion of what a Japanese person ought to be.
あの女の人は日本人らしいですねえ。
“That woman acts very Japanese, doesn’t she?”
When written, there is no difference between the forms of a complex adjective with らしい and a
complex predicate with らしい. Only the context in which a sentence is used will indicate whether it
is used as a complex predicate or a complex adjective.
あの女の人は日本人らしいですねえ。
“That woman seems to be a Japanese, doesn’t she?”
In speaking, there is a difference in pause and pitches between the complex adjective and the com-
plex predicate. Since the complex adjective is an independent word, there is no pause in pronunci-
ation between 日本人 and らしい. Therefore, the pitch used between 日本人 and らしい is continuous.
When らしい is in the predicate, there should be a break or pause in pronunciation between 日本人
and らしい, even if it is a very brief pause.
The following sentence illustrates how the complex adjective with らしい modifies a noun. Here, あ
の人 is a teacher who speaks as one would expect a teacher to do.
あの人は先生らしい話し方をしますね。
“That person speaks in a very teacher-like manner.”
Compare the following sentence with the one above. Here, あの人 is not a teacher, or the speaker is
not certain if あの人 is a teacher but she speaks as if she were one.
あの人は先生のような話し方をしますね。
“That person talks like a teacher.”
(3) Adverbs with らしく
Complex adjectives with らしい are used as adverbs by changing the final い to く.
じょせい
あの人はいつもとても女性らしく話します。
“The way she speaks is always very feminine.”
だいがくないこうどう
大学内では学生らしく行動してください。
“Please behave the way a student should on campus.”
(4) Comparison of the four structures
The differences in the four structures are compared in the following chart:
Source of information Features
Objective Subjective
そうだ Entirely Not at all Reporting objectively

No confirmation
らしい Mostly A little Reporting objectively

Confirmation by the speaker
ようだ A little Mostly Inference based on the speaker’s

direct observation
Stem + そう Not at all Entirely Inference based on the

speaker’s direct observation
Immediacy
(1) It seems that way
かとうこんやく
 加藤さん、婚約したんだって！
 そうらしいねえ。
けっこん
 結婚はいつなのかな。
あき
 秋らしいよ。
 I heard that Kato-san got engaged!
 I heard that, too.
 I wonder when the wedding will be.
 I heard it’s in the fall.
 婚約（こんやく）したんだって！
婚約（こんやく）する means “to get engaged.” 婚約（こんやく）したんだって is a shortened version of 婚約
（こんやく）したのだと聞（き）きました “I heard from someone that someone else got engaged.”
 そうらしい
This phrase is often used to agree with the addressee’s statement. The phrase literally means “it
seems that way.”
(2) As I said earlier
だんせいうんてんめんきょとこんどどようび
男性：やっと、運転免許が取れたよ。今度の土曜日、ドライブに行かない？
じょせいこんどどようび
女性：よかったわね。でも、今度の土曜日はちょっと・・・
だんせいつごうわるざんねんいまこうよう
男性：都合が悪いの？残念だなあ。今、紅葉がきれいだということだから・・・
じょせいいどようびつごうわる
女性：さっきも言ったように、土曜日はちょっと、都合が悪いの。
Male: I finally got my drivers’ license. Do you want to go for a ride this Saturday?
Female: That’s great! But this Saturday isn’t a good time for me.
Male: It’s not? Too bad. I heard the autumn foliage is really pretty now.
Female: As I said, Saturday won’t work for me.
 運転免許（うんてんめんきょ）
免許（めんきょ） refers to any kind of “certificate.” Here, the combination means “drivers’ license.”
 ドライブに行く
This indicates a ride taken in an automobile for pleasure.
 都合（つごう）が悪（わる）い
都合（つごう） is a noun that means “the personal circumstances that may or may not be convenient
for a certain event.” 都合（つごう）がいい is used when there is no conflict, and 都合（つごう）が悪（わ
る）い is used when there is conflict.
 紅葉（こうよう）
The kanji 紅 indicates the color red; the second kanji 葉 means “leaves.” Together, it means “red
leaves,” referring to the autumn foliage.
(3) She seems so Japanese
ほんとう
 ブラウンさん、本当に日本語がペラペラですね。
ほんとうかのじょ
 本当に。まるで、日本人ですね、彼女は。
にほんしょくくろう
 でも、日本食にはなかなか苦労しているようですよ。
 そうなんですか。
 Brown-san is so fluent in Japanese!
 She really is. She’s just like a Japanese person.
 But I heard she has a hard time with Japanese food.
 Is that so?
 苦労（くろう）する
苦労（くろう） means “hardship.” It can be used for many different situations. Here, the word refers
to a person having a difficult time with Japanese food. The word may be used to refer to hardship
in personal relations as well. In all cases, the particle に is used for the things that a person is having
a hard time with.
 まるで日本人ですね
In the grammar section of this chapter, まるで is introduced with みたい and よう, but in the above
sentence, neither is used. In conversation, this deletion is frequent. Here, the meaning of よう or み
たい is implied.
Stage 3-3 Embedded Information
Structures
1. Embedded Clauses
(1) Review
(2) の・こと・ということ
2. わけ and というわけ
(1) わけ as an independent noun
(2) Complex predicates with わけだ
3. Embedded Questions
(1) Embedded information-seeking questions
(2) Embedded yes-no questions
(3) Embedded alternative questions
4. Adverbial Clauses
(1) Fixed expressions
(2) Perfective forms in adjectival clauses
(3) Double questions
5. Volitional Forms in Embedded Clauses
(1) The volitional form in quotes
(2) The volitional form with 思う
(3) The volitional form with する
6. Complex Predicates with ところだ
(1) With imperfective verbs
(2) With perfective verbs
(3) With ~ている
(1) Do you know what I’m saying?
(2) It’s good, but . . .
(3) I wouldn’t worry about her
(4) I really don’t think that’s true
Structures
1: Embedded Clauses
Embedded clauses are the clauses that are buried in certain structures. Quite a few structures with
embedded clauses have already been introduced so far.
In this section, the focus will be on how embedded clauses connect to main predicates and modify
nouns.
(1) Review
 The use of と when reporting

Some quotes or thoughts may be conveyed by such verbs as 言（い）う, 思（おも）う, and 聞（き）く. The
content of quotes (direct or indirect) or thoughts is connected to the final verb by the particle と.
ことば
日本語は難しい言葉だと言われています。
“It has been said that Japanese is a difficult language.”
ことば
日本語はそんなに難しい言葉だとは思いません。
“I don’t think Japanese is such a difficult language.”
あの人は一年生だと聞きました。
“I heard that that person is a freshman.”
 Using か in embedded questions
When the content of the speaker’s report is a question, か overrides と. In the sentence below, the
speaker summarizes the content.
あの人に明日は何をするつもりか聞きました。
“I asked that person what he was planning to do tomorrow.”
When と is added to the sentence above, the meaning changes, making the sentence sound more
like a verbatim quote than the speaker’s summary of the content.
あの人に明日は何をするつもりかと聞きました。
“I asked that person, ‘What are you planning to do tomorrow?’ ”
 Adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses are embedded clauses that modify the nouns that follow them. The way such a
clause is connected to the noun depends on the predicate type in the embedded clause. The following
sentences illustrate, in order, the nominal (both noun and adjectival noun), adjectival, and verbal
predicate types that are used in embedded clauses. All adjectival clauses in the following examples
modify the noun ルームメート.
せんこういっしょす
私は専攻が日本語のルームメートと一緒に住んでいます。
“I live with a roommate whose major is Japanese.”
さかなきら
僕は魚が嫌いなルームメートと一緒に住んでいます。
“I live with a roommate who doesn’t like fish.”
かみなが
姉は髪が長いルームメートと一緒に住んでいます。
“My sister lives with a roommate who has long hair.”
みんなあたま
兄は皆に頭がいいと言われているルームメートと一緒に住んでいます。
“My brother lives with a roommate who everyone says is smart.”
(2) の・こと・ということ
In the following examples, the functional noun こと and the pronoun の are modified by adjectival
clauses. As explained in Stage 3–1, the difference between the use of の and こと is that の would
imply that the speaker heard Nakada-san playing the piano directly, while こと would imply that the
speaker heard from someone else that Nakada-san has been or is playing the piano.
私は中田さんがピアノをひいているのを聞きました。
“I heard Nakada-san playing the piano.”
私は中田さんがピアノをひいていることを聞きました。
“I heard that Nakada-san is playing the piano.”
In embedded clauses connected by こと and those connected by ということ, the difference is that こと
is used to convey a fact, while ということ is used to paraphrase the speaker’s interpretation of infor-
mation.
私は中田さんがピアノをひいているということを聞きました。
“I heard something to the effect that Nakada-san is playing the piano.”
In Stage 2–2, the use of こと and ということ was introduced to define a word or a concept. When defin-
ing a word by the use of a noun or a noun phrase, こと may be used in the predicate. See the following
example.
和食は日本の食べ物のことです。
“和食 refers to food from Japan.”
When defining a word by the use of a clause, ということ may be used in the predicate. See the follow-
ing:
読書は本を読むということです。
“読書 means reading books.”
 ということ with the verb 知（し）る
In the following sentences with the verb 知（し）る, the thing that the speaker knows is the direct ob-
ject, which is marked by を.
私はあの人の名前を知っています。
“I know his name.”
When the direct object is a clause rather than a noun, ということ must be used:
*私はあの人が一年生だを知っています。
[intended meaning] “I know that that person is a freshman.”
私はあの人が一年生だということを知っています。
“I know that that person is a freshman.”
s2: わけ and というわけ
(1) わけ as an independent noun
わけ is a noun that means “interpretation,” “explanation,” or “reason.” The following examples show
how this word is used as a noun. When used as a noun, わけ may be expressed in kanji as 訳.
そのわけが分からない。
“I don’t understand the reason.”
そのわけを教えて下さい。
“Tell me why you think so.”
Two fixed expressions in which わけ is used are introduced in the following section. When わけ is
used in fixed expressions or in the predicate position, it is not written in kanji.
 Fixed expressions with わけがない
わけ in this construction means something more like “a way to interpret something.” The fixed ex-
pression わけがない literally means “it is not possible to interpret the given situation”; the specific
circumstances that are impossible are expressed in the embedded clause that modifies the noun わ
け.
子供にこんな難しい漢字が読めるわけがない。
“A child couldn’t read such a difficult kanji.” [Literally, “it is not possible for a child to be able to
read such a difficult kanji.”]
The entire embedded clause may be referred to by a pronoun in this construction. Suppose someone
has said something, and the speaker wants to respond strongly that what was said is not possible.
そんなわけがありません。
“That is inconceivable.” [Literally, “Such a thing is not possible.”]
が, of course, may be topicalized for a stronger negation.
そんなわけはありません。
“That is absolutely inconceivable.” [Literally, “Such a thing is not at all possible.”]
 Fixed expressions with わけにいかない
The fixed expression わけにいかない means something like “(the speaker) cannot possibly do (a cer-
tain thing)” or “circumstances do not allow the speaker to do such-and-such.”
今日、そこに行くわけにいきません。
“There’s no way that I can go there today.”
Because the predicate is in the negative form, は often accompanies に for contrast.
今日、そこに行くわけにはいきません。
“There’s no way that I can go there today.”
The verb before わけに（は）いかない must indicate an action that the speaker has control over. The
following sentence is ungrammatical because the verb 分かる is a non-action verb.
*私にそれが分かるわけにはいきません。
[intended meaning] “I cannot possibly comprehend that.”
In such a case, はず should be used. Recall that はず is used when the speaker expects a certain event,
situation, or result. In the example below, however, はずだ is in the negative.
私にそれが分かるはずはありません。
“I cannot possibly comprehend that.”
(2) Complex predicates with わけだ
Since the noun わけ means “reason,” the complex predicate with わけだ can provide a reason or in-
terpretation.
あの人は中国人だから、漢字がよく読めるわけです。
“The reason that person can read kanji so well is because he is Chinese.”
This structure is similar to the complex predicate with の（ん）だ, which also provides a reason or in-
terpretation. Reasoning or interpretation in the complex predicate with のだ, however, indicates a
personal explanation, while the reasoning in the complex predicate with わけ refers to an objective
interpretation of circumstances.
Compare the two responses below to the following question:
昨日、どうして授業に来ませんでしたか。
“Why didn’t you come to class yesterday?”
In responding to the above question, using のだ sounds better than using わけ, because the speaker
is giving a direct personal account of the reason.
あたまいた
*頭が痛かったわけです。
[intended meaning] “Because I had a headache.”
あたまいた
頭が痛かったんです。
“Because I had a headache.”
 という in complex predicates with わけだ
Recall that という, with a clause, is used to define a word. In the same way, という is often used to con-
nect the content of the message, which is often an embedded clause, to the predicate with わけだ.
くるまとちゅうこしょうおく
車が途中で故障して、遅れてしまったというわけです。
“The reason I was late is because the car broke down on the way.”
In addition, というわけ is often used in questions that ask the addressee to confirm the speaker’s in-
terpretation of the circumstances.
時間がなかったから電話ができなかったというわけですか。
“Are you saying that you couldn’t call me because you didn’t have enough time?”
かれ
彼が日本にいたから日本語が上手だというわけですか。
“Do you mean to say that his Japanese is good because he has been to Japan?”
In conversation, it is normal to abbreviate the response by using pronouns. In these cases, the par-
ticle と is not used before いう.
ええ、そういうわけです。
“Yes, that’s what I am saying.” or “Yes, that’s what I mean.”
いいえ、そういうわけでは（じゃ）ありません。
“No, that’s not what I am saying.” or “No, that’s not what I meant.”
3: Embedded Questions
Most of the following structures have been already introduced, but there are some important addi-
tions below. The following section summarizes all embedded question types.
(1) Embedded information-seeking questions
The following sentences illustrate how direct and indirect questions are expressed. In indirect ques-
tions, there is a difference between the sentences with the quotative と and those without it.
友達が私に「この大学の日本語の先生はだれですか。」と聞きました。
“My friend asked me, ‘Who is the professor of Japanese at this college?’ ”
友達が「今晩、何をしますか。」と聞きました。
“My friend asked me, ‘What will you do tonight?’”
In embedded questions, か must always be used. When と is used after か, the sentence focuses on
how the question was asked. When と is not used after か, the sentence conveys the general content
of the question. The sentences with both か and と are somewhere between direct and indirect quo-
tation sentences.
友達が私にこの大学の日本語の先生はだれか（と）聞きました。
“My friend asked me who the professor of Japanese at this college is.”
友達が今晩、何をするか（と）聞きました。
“My friend asked me what I would do tonight.”
(2) Embedded yes-no questions
The following examples show that the copula だ is not used in an indirect quotation, and that どうか
may be added after the embedded question. When どうか is used, the quotative と is not used.
友達は私に「この大学の日本語の先生は日本人ですか。」と聞きました。
“My friend asked me, ‘Is the professor of Japanese at this college a Japanese person?’ ”
友達は私にこの大学の日本語の先生は日本人か（と）聞きました。
“My friend asked me, ‘Is the professor of Japanese at this college a Japanese person?’ ”
友達は私にこの大学の日本語の先生は日本人かどうか聞きました。
“My friend asked me whether the professor of Japanese at this college is Japanese or not.”
(3) Embedded alternative questions
For embedded alternative questions, either use どうか after the first question, or list two questions
side by side if both use the same predicates with different aspects. When listing two questions, the
use of と conveys information as to how the question was worded rather than the content of the ques-
tion.
私は友達に「明日、映画に行きますか、行きませんか。」と聞きました。
“I asked my friend, ‘Do you want to go to a movie tomorrow or not?’”
私は友達に明日、映画に行くかどうか聞きました。
“I asked my friend whether or not she would go to a movie tomorrow.”
私は友達に明日、映画に行くか行かないか（と）聞きました。
“I asked my friend whether or not she would go to a movie tomorrow.”
The following sentences illustrate that the alternative question does not always contain the same
predicate as the first question. In such cases, どうか may not be used.
友達に「あなたのお母さんは日本人ですか、アメリカ人ですか。」と聞きました。
“I asked my friend, ‘Is your mother Japanese or American?’”
私は友達に彼のお母さんは日本人かアメリカ人か（と）聞きました。
“I asked my friend if his mother was Japanese or American.”
4: Adjectival Clauses
It has already been pointed out that embedded clauses are frequently adjectival clauses. The following
section introduces new information regarding embedded clauses that are adjectival clauses.
(1) Fixed expressions
 [Imperfective verb] ことがある

As explained in Stage 2–2, a perfective verb with ことがある expresses the topic’s past experience.
のぼ
あの山に登ったことがあります。
“I have climbed that mountain.” [Literally, “I have had the experience of climbing that mountain in
the past.”]
When an imperfective predicate is used before ことがある, it expresses an entirely different concept.
When the verb before ことがある is in the imperfective, it refers to events that take place occasionally.
母に日本語で話すことがあります。
“There are occasions when I speak to my mother in Japanese.”
The sentence above conveys the following nuance: the speaker normally speaks to her or his mother
in English (or another non-Japanese language, depending on the context), but there are some occa-
sions on which the speaker talks to her or his mother in Japanese.
The following sentence illustrates a negative imperfective verb being used before ことがある. This
sentence implies that the speaker normally eats breakfast, but there are occasions when he or she
skips it.
朝ご飯を食べないことがあります。
“There are times that I don’t eat breakfast.”
(2) Perfective forms in adjectival clauses
One of the uses of the ~ている construction is to express a state of events.
私の父はぼうしをかぶっています。
“My father has a hat on.”
An interesting characteristic of this structure is that the perfective predicate may be used for de-
scription. This is only true with adjectival clauses, however.
あのぼうしをかぶっている人は私の父です。
あのぼうしをかぶった人は私の父です。
“The person who has a hat on is my father.”
This may not be applied to ~ている constructions that are not descriptive in nature.
ルームメートは起きています。
“My roommate is awake.”
*あの起きた学生が私のルームメートです。
[intended meaning] “The student who is up is my roommate.”
あの起きている学生が私のルームメートです。
“The student who is up is my roommate.”
(3) Double questions
The structure discussed here is quite unique. The following question sentences contain both yes-
no and information-seeking questions. Let us call these kinds of question sentences “double ques-
tions.” In these sentences, the embedded clause and the main clause are both interrogative clauses.
このバスはどこに行くバスですか。
“Where is it that this bus goes?” [Literally, “This bus is the bus that goes where?”]
あの先生は何を教えている先生ですか。
“What is it that that teacher teaches?” [Literally, “That teacher is the teacher who teaches what?”]
Double questions are used when at least some of the possible options are known to the speaker,
and she or he asks for the answer to a specific option. For instance, the person asking the first ques-
tion above knows that there are a certain number of possible destinations for the buses. The reading
of the second sentence is the same: the options are at least somewhat known to the speaker and the
addressee.
When the options are not known, the following simple question sentences are used instead of the
double questions above, making them open-ended questions.
このバスはどこに行きますか。
“Where does this bus go?”
あの先生は何を教えていますか。
“What does that teacher teach?”
 A possible situation for a double question
Suppose the speaker is waiting for a bus because she wants to go to destination A. She knows that
there are three buses that go to different destinations from the bus stop where she is waiting. She
sees a bus coming to the stop. When the bus arrives, she approaches the bus driver and asks where
that particular bus is going, in order to see whether or not it is the right bus for her. In this case, she
can use the double question construction.
このバスはどこに行くバスですか。
“Which way is it that this bus is going?”
Because of the nature of double questions, if the noun the embedded question clause modifies is a
specific noun, a double question is not acceptable.
*あなたのお父さんは何を教えているお父さんですか。
[intended meaning] “What is it that your father teaches?” [Literally, “Your father is the father who
teaches what?”]
In this case, it is better to simply ask the open-ended question.
あなたのお父さんは何を教えていますか。
“What does your father teach?”
s5: Volitional Forms in Embedded Clauses
The meaning of phrases in which volitional forms are used differs depending on the verb that ac-
companies the volitional form. The volitional form with the verb する was introduced in Stage 3–2.
Another structure will be added in this chapter, after a review of direct and indirect quotations with
a volitional form in the predicate.
(1) The volitional form in quotes
The following sentences contain direct and indirect quotes with predicates in which volitional forms
are used.
さそ
私はルームメートに「一緒に映画に行きましょう。」と誘いました。
“I invited my roommate, saying, ‘Let’s go to the movie together.’”
さそ
私はルームメートに一緒に映画に行こうと誘いました。
“I invited my roommate to go to the movie with me.”
(2) The volitional form with 思う
The volitional form is used with 思う to express the speaker’s intention. In this structure, the con-
tinuous 思っている is often used to express a thought regarding an action in the near future.
今晩、映画に行こうと思っています。
“I’m thinking about going to a movie tonight.”
The use of the volitional form and 思う is similar to the structure with つもり that expresses the
speaker’s plan. The difference between the two structures is that the sentence with つもり implies
that the plan is firm, while the volitional form with 思う gives the impression that it is still a tentative
plan.
今晩、映画に行くつもりです
“I’m planning to go to a movie tonight.”
When the predicate form before 思（おも）う is not in the volitional form, the sentence indicates that
the speaker thinks that someone else will go to the movie; there is no possibility that it is the speaker
who might go to the movie.
田村さんは今晩、映画に行くと思います。
“I think that Tamura-san will go to a movie tonight.”
The above sentence indicates that the speaker believes that 田村（たむら）さん will go to the movie.
Even when the person who will go to the movie is not named, the sentence still does not mean that
it is the speaker who will go to the movie.
今晩、映画に行くと思います。
“I think that (someone) will go to a movie tonight.”
(3) The volitional form with する
In Stage 3–2, it was explained that combining the volitional form and the verb する expresses the
notion that the speaker was about to take some action, but could not (which is expressed in the main-
clause).
買い物に行こうとしましたが、友達が来て、行けませんでした。
“I was about to go shopping, but I couldn’t go because my friend dropped by.”
The meaning of the above construction is similar to that of one of the structures with the complex
predicate with ところだ, which will be introduced shortly.
勉強しようとしましたが、できませんでした。
“I was about to study, but I couldn’t.”
勉強するところでしたが、できませんでした。
The difference between the two sentences above will be discussed after the explanation of complex
predicates with ところだ below.
s6: Complex Predicates with ところだ
The noun 所（ところ） has been introduced as a word meaning “place.” ところ used in the complex
predicate indicates a place as well, but it refers to a place in time. When ところ is used in complex
predicates, it is not written in kanji.
(1) With imperfective verbs
When the imperfective predicate is embedded before ところ, the sentence indicates that the action
expressed has not yet begun. The literal meaning of the sentence is therefore “someone is at a place
in time when he or she is about to do something.”
妹は宿題をするところです。
“My sister is about to do her homework.”
The perfective copula in the following sentence indicates that the topic was about to do something
in the past. Therefore, the setting is in the past, but the action did not take place.
妹は宿題をするところでした。
“My sister was about to do her homework.”
(2) With perfective verbs
When the embedded predicate is perfective, the literal meaning of the sentence is “someone is at
the point where he/she just finished doing something.”
妹は宿題をしたところです。
“My sister has just done her homework.”
When the copula is perfective, it indicates that the action was completed at a certain time in the past
that the speaker has referred to in the discourse.
妹は宿題をしたところでした。
“My sister had just done her homework.”
 The difference between the two structures
The following two structures were presented above in terms of the difference between them because
they express a very similar meaning.
勉強しようとしましたが、できませんでした。
勉強するところでしたが、できませんでした。
The first sentence may be used in a situation in which the speaker has actually started studying but
was interrupted many times and could not complete what he or she had intended to complete. The
second sentence cannot be used in that situation, as the structure indicates that the speaker has not
even started the action.
(3) With ~ている
It is possible to use the continuous aspect with this complex predicate. The meaning of this con-
struction is “the person is at the point where she or he is in the middle of doing something.”
妹は宿題をしているところです。
“My sister is doing her homework right now.”
The sentence above closely resembles the following one in meaning:
妹は宿題をしています。
“My sister is doing her homework (right now).”
 Difference between ~ている and ~ているところ
As indicated above, the continuous aspect may be expressed by ~ている or ~ているところ. The differ-
ence between these two structures is that sentences with ~ているところ emphasize the current action
rather than the continuous aspect.
~ている, as has been introduced earlier, may express an ongoing action or an event that has been
taking place since some time in the past. This latter meaning may not be expressed by the complex
predicate with ところだ.
*妹は九時から宿題をしているところです。
[intended meaning] “My sister has been doing her homework since 9:00.”
いもうとくじしゅくだい
妹は九時から宿題をしています。
“My sister has been doing her homework since 9:00.”
~ている can also be used to expresses a continuous state. ~ているところ may not be used in these cases,
either.
*姉はもう起きているところです。
[intended meaning] “My sister is awake already.”
姉はもう起きています。
“My sister is awake already.”
(1) Do you know what I’m saying?
 私の言ってることが分かりますか。
 だめだというわけですか。
 Do you know what I’m saying?
 Are you saying, “No”?
 こと
こと refers to the content of what someone has said.
(2) It’s good, but…
 どうですか、あの人の日本語は？
じょうずじょうず
 上手なことは上手ですが・・・
 How’s that person’s Japanese?
 It’s good, but . . .
 上手（じょうず）なことは上手（じょうず）ですが・・・
This expression affirms the addressee’s expectation, but not without a condition. This second sen-
tence means something like, “The person’s Japanese is good, as you might imagine, but . . .” (the
speaker obviously wants to add a few qualifying comments).
(3) I wouldn’t worry about her
だいじょうぶ
 大丈夫でしょうか。
ひとだいじょうぶ
 あの人のことだから、大丈夫ですよ。
 Do you think she’s all right?
 I wouldn’t worry about her.
 あの人のことだから・・・
This sentence means something like, “because of who he or she is.” The entire sentence therefore
means something like, “Of course she’s all right, because you know how she is.”
(4) I really don’t think that’s true
かれ
 彼は私の言うことは聞かないと思いますが・・・
ぜったい
 それはどういうことですか。そんなことは絶対にないと思います。
かれ
 もう一度、彼に言うところですが・・・
 I don’t think he’ll listen to what I have to say.
 What do you mean? I really don’t think that’s true.
 I’ll tell him again, but . . .
 私の言うことは聞かない
In this case, 聞く means that the person would do what the speaker asked him to do.
 それはどういうことですか
This expression asks for clarification.
 そんなことは絶対（ぜったい）にない
This expresses a strong negation: “I really don’t think that would be the case.” 絶対（ぜったい）に is
an adverb meaning “absolutely; definitely.” It is acceptable to say this phrase without an adverb, as
in そんなことはない, “I don’t think that’s how it is.”
Stage 3-4 Sentences of Causation
Structures
1. Causative Sentences
(1) Causative verb formation
(2) Verbs with no causative forms
(3) Causative sentences
(4) The use of に and を with directional verbs
(5) The use of に and を with other verbs
(6) て-causatives with ください
2. Other Causative Forms
(1) Short causative forms
(2) Causative-like verbs
3. Other Constructions of Causation
(1) ~て欲しい
(2) Causatives and ~てもらう（~ていただく）
4. Causative-Passive Verbs and Sentences
(1) Causative-passive verb forms
(2) Short causative-passive verb forms
(1) What great news!
(2) You’re quite right!
(3) Volunteering
(4) Please wrap this
Structures
1: Causative Sentences
As mentioned in Stage 1–9, causative sentences, which are characterized by the use of causative
verbs, express a person’s causing another person to do something. The situation varies: it could be
that the topic forces someone to do something, allows someone to do something, lets someone do
something, or has someone do something, depending on the context. In all these situations in Japan-
ese, the topic of the causative sentence is a person with greater authority than the person mentioned
in the object position. When the topic has less authority than the person in the object position, a
causative sentence may not be used. In this case, other constructions must be used, some of which
will be introduced in this chapter.
(1) Causative verb formation
See Stage 1–9 for information on how to derive causative verbs from the base forms of verbs.
(2) Verbs with no causative forms
There are a few groups of verbs that lack causative forms.
 Verbs that express non-actions or non-events lack the corresponding causative verbs. For instance,
some semi-transitive verbs, such as ある “to have; to exist” and 要（い）る “to need,” do not have
causative forms.
 The intransitive counterpart in a transitive-intransitive verb pair lacks a causative form: e.g. 開（あ）
く “(something) opens” and 閉（し）まる “(something) closes.”
 Honorific verbs also lack causative forms: e.g. いらっしゃる “to be”; “to go”; “to come,” くださる “to
give (me),” おっしゃる “to say.”
(3) Causative sentences
Causative sentences have several different meanings, as shown in the English translation of the ex-
ample below. In some cases, only the context can determine which meaning the sentence conveys.
But in all cases, the person in the topic position has more power than the person in the object place.
It is therefore inappropriate to use a causative sentence to express the idea of a person with less
power making a person with more power do something.
先生は学生に日本語を話させます。
“The teacher makes/allows/lets the student speak Japanese.”
When expressing more than one causative action with the たり-form, the causative element may be
either in the final verb する, or in a verb in the non-final position, but not in both. For instance, to
describe the things a teacher makes his students do in class, the following sentence uses causative
elements in the non-final position.
先生は学生に漢字を書かせたり、日本語を話させたりします。
“The teacher makes his students do things like write kanji and speak Japanese.”
In the following sentence, the causative form is in the final verb する.
先生は学生に漢字を書いたり、日本語を話したりさせます。
“The teacher makes his students do things like write kanji and speak Japanese.”
(4) The use of に and を with directional verbs
Some linguists say that different causative meanings can be identified by the use of different parti-
cles. For instance, compare the following two sentences:
中村さんは子供にイギリスに行かせます。
“Nakamura-san will allow his child to go to England.”
中村さんは子供をイギリスに行かせます。
“Nakamura-san will make his child go to England.” [Literally, “Nakamura-san will force his child to
go to England.”]
It is commonly said and believed that the use of に conveys the meaning of allowing, whereas the
use of を in the second sentence above would imply that the child is going despite his or her wishes
to the contrary. It is true that the difference between these sentences can be interpreted that way,
but the difference is not as distinct as some linguists believe it to be. Both of these sentences actually
more or less convey the meaning of “making someone go somewhere.”
First of all, if this difference exists, it is a very slight one, and is true only when the verb expresses
direction; it does not apply to most other verbs. Furthermore, regardless of the particle choice, に or
を, the original meaning of the causative sentence still holds for both sentences; that is, a person
with power is causing a person with less power to do something. Most importantly, to convey the
meaning of allowing a person to do something, a more appropriate Japanese sentence would contain
a giving verb in the predicate, as shown below.
中村さんは子供にイギリスに行かせてやりました。
“Nakamura-san allowed his child to go to England.”
(5) The use of に and を with other verbs
In this section, the use of に and を with verbs other than the directional verbs will be examined. See
the following example with the verb 笑（わら）う, which means “to laugh”:
おもしろわら
あの人はいつも面白い話をして、人を笑わせます。
“That person always tells funny stories, and makes people laugh.”
In this case, the use of を indicates that the topic makes people laugh. It would be unnatural to in-
terpret the sentence as saying that the topic allows or forces another person to laugh, since the verb
expresses an involuntary action. For involuntary actions, を should be used for the person who is
being made to do the action. A similar example can be found in the following sentence, where the
act of crying is an involuntary action.
な
あの人はいつも子供を泣かせます。
“That person always makes children cry.”
In some artificial cases, it is possible for someone to have someone else do things such as laugh or
cry. For instance, if a movie director wanted to have an actor laugh in a particular scene, the use of
に rather than を would indicate that.
わら
その時に、チャンさんに笑わせます。
“At that time, I will make Chang-san laugh.”
 General rule for に or を for the person in the object position
The basic meaning conveyed by a causative sentence, regardless of the predicate used, is that the
person in the topic position makes the person in the object position do something. The implication
is that the person in the object position carries out an action as a result. The person in the object po-
sition of a causative sentence may be marked either by に or を, but these particles are not inter-
changeable.
When the verb is a transitive verb, the person who is made to act must be marked by に. を may not
be used here, because the direct object of the verb is marked by を.
おやじぶんはんりょうり
あのうちでは、親は子供に自分のご飯を料理させます。
“At that house, the parents have the children prepare their own meals.”
For intransitive verbs, the person in the object position may be marked by に or を. When を is used,
it implies that the action taken by this person is an involuntary action. In the following sentence,
being upset is not a controllable action.
おこ
あの人はいつも私を怒らせます。
“That person always makes me upset.”
The reason some linguists believe that the use of を gives a coercive meaning may be due to this in-
voluntary meaning conveyed by を. That is, the sentence conveys the meaning of “an act not carried
out deliberately” by the person mentioned in the object position.
When に is used, it indicates that a person deliberately carries out the action indicated by the verb:
およ
今日は、スミスさんに泳がせるつもりだ。
“I am planning to have Smith-san swim today.”
(6) て-causatives with ください
The て-form of a causative verb with ください indicates that the speaker is volunteering to do some-
thing.
この飲み物は私に買わせてください。
“Please let me buy this drink.”
The speaker can also use this structure to request that someone else (a third person) do something.
In this case, the speaker must be in an authoritative position over both the addressee and the person
who is being made to do something.
そうじせんたく
掃除は妹にさせてください。でも、洗濯は兄にさせてください。
“Have my younger sister do the cleaning. But have my brother do laundry.”
s2: Other Causative Forms
(1) Short causative forms
There is another set of causative forms called short causative forms. They are used frequently in
conversation. The short causative forms can be obtained by changing the causative suffix せる to す.
Base form Long causative form Short causative form Meaning
たべるたべさせるたべさす eat
まつまたせるまたす wait
かうかわせるかわす buy
くるこさせるこさす come
するさせるさす do
All short causative verbs are Group 2 verbs: たべさす→たべさします→たべさして; かえらす→かえらしま

す→かえらして; こさす→こさします→こさして.
Short causative forms are used more often in casual settings than long causative forms. However,
there are individual as well as regional differences in the use of long and short causative forms.
Compare the long and short causative verbs in the following sentences:
ま
あの人はいつも私を待たせます。[long causative]
“That person always makes me wait.”
ま
あの人はいつも私を待たします。[short causative]
“That person always makes me wait.”
(2) Causative-like verbs
Some verbs have inherent causative-like meanings. For instance, 起（お）こす means “to wake some-
one up”; and 着（き）せる “to put an outfit on someone else.” These verbs are used as shown below:
母は妹を毎朝、７時に起こします。
“My mother wakes my sister up at 7:00 every morning.”
あかき
寒い日には、私は赤ちゃんにセーターを着せます。
“On cold days, I put a sweater on the baby.”
These verbs resemble causative verbs in that the topic causes someone to do or undergo something
(e.g. my sister wakes up; the baby wears an outfit). There is, however, a basic difference between
the sentences above and sentences with causative verbs: sentences with causative verbs indicate that
the topic causes someone to actively do something. Neither of the sentences above indicates such a
voluntary action by the object.
In fact, these verbs do have causative forms, as shown below. In the example sentences, the person
marked by に actively carries out an action at the topic’s behest.
母は兄に妹を毎朝、７時に起こさせます。
“My mother makes my brother wake up my sister at 7:00 every morning.”
あかき
私は上の子供に赤ちゃんにセーターを着せさせます。
“I have my older child put a sweater on the baby.”
3: Other Constructions of Causation

The use of causative verbs is not the only way to indicate that someone causes someone else to do
something.
(1) ~て欲（ほ）しい
Recall that the stem with ~たい is a structure expressing the speaker’s desire to do something.
私はもっと勉強したいです。
“I want to study more.”
This structure may not be used when the speaker wants other people do something. For this purpose,
the て-form of the verb and the adjective 欲（ほ）しい is used.
 Positive
The following sentences demonstrate the use of the positive predicate:
私はあなたにもっと勉強して欲しいです。
“I want you to study more.”
かいぎ
あの会議では私は森さんに話して欲しいと思っています。
“I want Mori-san to speak at that meeting.”
Since 欲（ほ）しい, an emotive adjective, is a part of this structure, this construction may be used only
when the speaker is expressing his or her own wish or when the speaker is asking the addressee a
question directly. Like other emotive words, this structure may not be used to describe a third per-
son’s wish unless another element is added in the predicate. Many such elements may be added;
they all convey different nuances. The following is one such example:
田中先生は学生にもっと勉強して欲しいようです。
“It seems that Tanaka-sensei wants his students to study more.”
 Negative
There are two ways to negate the ~て欲（ほ）しい construction.
かいぎ
あの会議では私は森さんに話して欲しくないと思っています。
“I don’t want Mori-san to speak at that meeting.”
かいぎ
あの会議では私は森さんに話さないで欲しいと思っています。
“I don’t want Mori-san to say anything at that meeting.”
The difference in meaning between the two is subtle: the first sentence is based on the possibility
that Mori-san might say something, but the second sentence does not necessarily assume it.
 Causative-て　欲（ほ）しい
Compare the following three sentences:
私に行かせてください。
“Please let me go.”
私に行かせて欲しいです。
“I want you to let me go.”
中村さんに行かせて欲しいです。
“I want you to let Nakamura-san go.”
The first sentence is a direct request, while the latter two express requests by using statement sen-
tences.
(2) Causatives and ~てもらう（~ていただく）
As has been pointed out more than once, only a person with greater authority can be the topic of a
causative sentence. For instance, in a case where a mother makes her child do something, the use
of a causative sentence is appropriate.
うちの子に先生に手紙を書かせました。
“I made my child write a letter to her teacher.”
The following explanation and example sentences deal with a different power dynamic than the one
in the situation above. Suppose the speaker needs to ask someone with an equal level of authority
to do something on her or his behalf. In this case, it would not be appropriate to use a causative. In-
stead, the use of ~てもらう (or ~ていただく, depending on whom the speaker asks) is more appropriate.
The sentence implies that the topic asked the person in the object position to do something and re-
ceived the favor as a result of asking.
私はルームメートに手紙を書いてもらいました。
“I had my roommate write a letter for me.”
The following sentence is an example of a speaker making a request to someone who is in a position
of greater authority than the speaker.
せつめい
先生にこれを説明していただきました。
“I asked the teacher to explain this to me.”
When the speaker wants to volunteer something but needs to ask someone else, then a combination
of a causative verb and the verb もらう or いただく is necessary.
ほんやく
翻訳は私にさせてもらいました。
“I requested that I be allowed to do the translation.”
The difference between ~てもらう（いただく） and ~てくれる（くださる） may be reviewed in Stage 2–4.
s4: Causative-Passive Verbs and Sentences
(1) Causative-passive verb forms
Causative verbs may be changed into passive forms. Since all causative verbs are Group 1 verbs,
there is only one rule.
る of causative verbs → られる
The reverse does not work; that is, passive verbs cannot be changed into causative verbs.
Base form Causative form Causative-passive form
たべるたべさせるたべさせられる
いくいかせるいかせられる
かうかわせるかわせられる
するさせるさせられる
くるこさせるこさせられる
りょうしん
子供の時、私は両親にミルクをたくさん飲ませられました。
“When I was a child, I was made to drink a lot of milk by my parents.”
じゅぎょうしゅくだい
日本語の授業では、いつも宿題をたくさんさせられます。
“We are always made to do a lot of homework for our Japanese class.”
(2) Short causative-passive verb forms
Just as causatives have the short causative form, there is also a corresponding passive form called
the short causative-passive form.
As mentioned earlier, all short causatives are Group 2 verbs that end with す. The rule for changing
this into the passive is therefore as follows:
Change the final vowel u to a and add れる
 Examples of short causative-passives
Base form Long causative Short causative Short causative-passive
いくいかせるいかすいかされる
まつまたせるまたすまたされる
かうかわせるかわすかわされる
かれまあま
彼と待ち合わせをする時は、いつも待たされます。
“I am always made to wait for him when I meet with him.”
みせい
あの店に行くと、いつも要らない物をたくさん買わされます。
“Whenever I go to that store, I am always made to buy many unnecessary things.”
 Awkward short causative-passive forms
The short causative-passives are used most often with the original (i.e. not derived) Group 2 verbs.
The original Group 1 and 3 verbs result in the syllable repetition of ささ, which makes the forms awk-
ward. The only verbs among the original Group 2 verbs that produce such an awkward form are
those that end with ~す, like 話す. The following illustrates some awkward short causative-passive
forms. They are awkward, but some may be used colloquially.
Base form Long causative Short causative Short causative-passive
たべるたべさせるたべさすたべさされる
するさせるさすさされる
くるこさせるこさすこさされる
はなすはなさせるはなさすはなさされる

(1) What great news!
こんどむすこりゅうがく
 今度、息子を日本に留学させることになりました。
しゅっぱつ
 それは、それは・・・。で、出発はいつなんですか。
き
 九月の始めになると思いますが、まだ、決まってないんです。
きぜひし
 決まったら、是非、知らせてくださいね。
 We’re going to have our son go to Japan for overseas study.
 Oh, what great news. When will his departure be?
 I think it will be the beginning of September, but we don’t know yet.
 When it’s decided, do let us know.
 今度（こんど）
今度（こんど） may be used to express “this time” as well as “next time.”
しけんこんど
試験は、今度、できませんでした。
“I didn’t do well on the exam this time.”
こんどか
今度、デパートに行く時、きれいなかばんを買うつもりです。
“When I go to the department store the next time, I’m planning to buy a nice bag.”
 それは、それは
This is an expression that some people may use to indicate that they are pleasantly surprised. It
means something like “That’s wonderful.”
で
で here is a shortened form of それで (see Stage 4-4). This use of で is acceptable only in conversation.
 是非（ぜひ）
This adverb is used when the speaker wants to add emphasis or enthusiasm to an invitation or a re-
quest.
(2) You’re quite right!
おぼなんやくた
 小さい子にこんなにたくさん難しい漢字、覚えさせて、何の役に立つんですか。
やくた
 そのとおりです。すぐには、そんなに役に立たないかもしれません。
 じゃ、なんで？
あとやくたちが
 後で、きっと役に立つ時が来るに違いありませんから。
 What good is it to have small children learn so many difficult kanji?
 You’re quite right. It may not be of use immediately.
 Well, then, why do you make them do it?
 It will undoubtedly be useful later.
 そのとおりです
とおり comes from the stem of the verb とおる “to pass through.” The stem itself can mean
“way/street/road.” This expression means “that is exactly what I expected.”
 ~に違（ちが）いありません
違（ちが）う is a verb that means “to differ.” ~に違（ちが）いない is a fixed expression meaning “doubt-
less.”
しけんむずかちが
来週の試験は難しいに違いありません。
“The examination next week will no doubt be difficult.”
(3) Volunteering
くんてつだ
先生：田中君、わるいけど、ちょっと手伝ってくれない。
田中：かしこまりました。
ぼくてつだ
山中：先生、僕にも何か手伝わせて下さい。
も
先生：じゃ、これをウィリアムズ先生のところまで持っていってくれない。
しょうち
山中：承知いたしました。
Teacher: Tanaka-kun, I feel bad asking you this, but can you help me?
Tanaka: Certainly.
Yamanaka: Teacher, let me help you, too.
Teacher: OK, then. Can you take this to Williams-sensei?
Yamanaka: Certainly.
 かしこまりました and 承知（しょうち）いたしました

Both of these phrases, which are equally formal, may be used to acknowledge a request. 承知（しょう
ち） is a noun that literally means “acknowledgement,” while かしこまる is a humble verb meaning “I
humbly accept a request/command.”
(4) Please wrap this
つつ
 これを二つ包んでください。
しょうしょうま
 かしこまりました。少々お待ちくださいませ。
(Upon returning the purchased item to the customer)

ま
 お待たせしました。
 Could you wrap two of these?
 Certainly. Could you please wait a moment while I wrap it?
(Upon returning the purchased item to the customer)
 I’m sorry to have kept you waiting.
 包（つつ）んでください
包む（つつむ） is a verb that means “to wrap.” A shopper can direct this expression, which literally
means “please wrap this,” to the clerk.
 少々（しょうしょう）お待（ま）ちくださいませ
少々（しょうしょう） is a polite way to say 少し or ちょっと. When this phrase is used by the store clerk it
means “please wait a moment (while I wrap your item).”
 お待（ま）たせしました
Store clerks use this expression after returning from wrapping an item the shopper has bought or
whenever they put customers on hold. The expression is a humble structure with the causative verb,
待（ま）たせる. The literal meaning of this expression and its implication are “Sorry to have kept you
waiting” or “thank you for waiting.”
Stage 3-5 Expressions of Simultaneous Events
Structures
1. Review of ながら and あいだ（に）
(1) Adverbial phrases with ながら
(2) Adverbial clauses with あいだ（に）
2. Simultaneous Events with Other Adverbials
(1) Adverbial clauses with うちに
(2) Adverbial phrases with まま（で）
(3) ながら with stative verbs
(4) Conjunctions (そのまま・そのうちに・そのあいだに)
3. Similar Adverbial Phrases
(1) せいで and おかげで
(2) ほとんど and めったに
(3) わざわざ and せっかく
(4) やっと and とうとう
(5) Adverb あまり with positive predicates
(1) Things are too expensive in Japan!
(2) I was able to graduate because of you
Structures
1: Review of ながら and あいだ（に）
There are many structures that express two simultaneous events in Japanese. Many of these con-
structions are equated with English sentences in which “while” functions as a connector. Sentences
expressing simultaneous events with ながら-phrases and あいだ（に）-clauses were introduced in Stage
2–5. This chapter begins with a summary of the differences between these two structures and goes
on to introduce new constructions that express similar concepts.
(1) Adverbial phrases with ながら
Adverbial phrases with ながら are used to express a secondary action that accompanies a main action
when both are performed by the same person.
私はいつも新聞を読みながら、勉強します。
“I always read newspapers while studying.”
The ながら-adverbial phrase may not be used to describe simultaneous actions performed by different
people, however. In addition, if one of the predicates is stative, not active, the ながら-adverbial may
not be used.
(2) Adverbial clauses with あいだ（に）
An adverbial clause with あいだ（に） may be used for simultaneous actions performed by the same
person, or by different people. It can also be used for continuous actions, stative events, and even
punctual events.
In the following sentences, two different individuals are doing two different things at the same time.
When the action expressed in the main clause is shorter in duration than that in the adverbial clause,
the particle に should be used immediately after あいだ.
子供が寝ている間、私は勉強しました。
“I studied during the time that my child was sleeping.”
子供が寝ている間に、私は勉強しました。
“I studied for part of the time that my child was sleeping.”
This construction can be used to express simultaneous states as well as simultaneous actions.
私は日本にいる間、漢字をたくさん勉強しました。
“I studied a lot of kanji when I was in Japan.”
s2: Simultaneous Events with Other Adverbials
(1) Adverbial clauses with うちに
The most salient feature of the structure in which clauses are connected with うちに is that the con-
dition stated in the うち-clause is expected to change relatively soon. うち comes from the noun うち
“inside.” The literal interpretation of the condition marked by うち is therefore something like “within
the time that the condition holds true.” あいだ-clauses do not have such an assumption regarding
changes of condition.
あつ
お茶が熱いうちに、飲んで下さい。
“Please drink the tea before it gets cold.” [Literally, “while it’s still hot”]
あの人がここにいるうちに、聞いておいた方がいいですよ。
“You’d better ask him while he is still here.”
Because change is a prominent factor in the うち-clause, negative predicates are often used in this
clause.
雨が降らないうちに、家に帰りましょう。
“Let’s go home before it starts raining.” [Literally, “while it’s still not raining”]
寒くならないうちに、部屋に入ってください。
“Please go inside before it gets cold.” [Literally, “while it’s not cold yet”]
(2) Adverbial phrases with まま（で）
Like ながら-adverbials, adverbial phrases with まま are used to express two simultaneous events con-
cerning the same person. This structure cannot be used to discuss simultaneous events concerning
different people. The difference between the two structures is that the verb used in the まま-adverbial
phrase must be punctual; that is, non-continuous, in nature. In addition, the perfective form of the
verb must be used immediately before まま in this phrase, because the phrase implies a state of com-
pleted action expressed by the verb. で after まま is optional.
電車の中で立ったまま（で）、寝てしまいました。
“I fell asleep standing on the train.” [Literally, “I had stood up on the train, and in that state, I fell
asleep.”]
ふくき
服を着たまま（で）、寝てしまいました。
“I fell asleep with my clothes on.” [Literally, “I had put my clothes on, and in that state, I fell asleep.”]
およ
めがねをかけたまま（で）、泳がないで下さい。
“Please don’t swim with your glasses on.” [Literally, “If you have put your glasses on and are still in
that state, don’t swim.”]
(3) ~ながら with stative verbs
ながら-phrases have two different functions. The function introduced in Stage 2–5 describes a sec-
ondary action accompanying a main action. The second function, which is introduced in this section,
is similar to ~ても or のに. In this case, the verb in the phrase with ~ながら must be stative. Using ~
ながら in this way is quite formal.
へん
あの人は、家にいながら、電話に出ないのは、変ですね。
“It’s strange that he’s not answering the phone even though he’s home.”
かれ
彼はお金がありながら、物を買うことが好きじゃないんですよ。
“Hard to believe, but he doesn’t like to buy things, even though he has money.”
With adjectives (including adjectival nouns) and adverbs, ながら is used immediately after the word.
That is, the form of an adjective does not change in this construction.
かのじょ
彼女は、小さいながら、とっても元気です。
“Although she is small, she is very energetic.”
あの人は、ゆっくりながら、日本語をとても上手に話します。
“Although she speaks slowly, she speaks Japanese very well.”
(4) Conjunctions （そのまま・そのうちに・そのあいだに）
The conjunctions used for adverbial clauses introduced in this chapter, such as まま and うちに, may
actually be used as sentential and clausal conjunctions. In this case, the demonstrative その must
precede them. The following pairs of examples illustrate the sentential and clausal uses of these
conjunctions.
つかごろよこ
とても疲れて、６時頃、ソファに横になった。でも、そのまま、朝まで寝てしまった。
“I lay down on the sofa at around 6:00 because I was so tired. But I ended up sleeping until morn-
ing.”
つかごろよこ
とても疲れて、６時頃、ソファに横になったら、そのまま、朝まで寝てしまった。
“I lay down on the sofa at around 6:00 because I was so tired, and ended up sleeping until morn-
ing.”
テレビを見ていた。そしたら、そのうちに、寝てしまった。
“I was watching TV. As I sat there watching, I fell asleep.”
テレビを見ていたら、そのうちに、寝てしまった。
“I was watching TV, and fell asleep as I sat there.”
私は電話で話していた。その間に、ルームメートは晩ご飯を食べてしまった。
“I was talking on the phone. While I was still talking, my roommate finished her dinner.”
私は電話で話していたら、その間に、ルームメートは晩ご飯を食べてしまった。
“During the time I was talking on the phone, my roommate finished her dinner.”
3: Similar Adverbial Phrases

There are a number of adverbs and adverbial phrases that are quite close in meaning. Knowing the
nuances and implications of each of these is very important for successful communication. Some
of these adverbs have been already introduced and used, but the following overview presents them
all in the same place.
(1) せいで and おかげで
To attribute the cause of something to another person or thing, せいで or おかげで can be used. The
difference between the two is that せいで refers to a negative cause and おかげで to a positive one.
しけんしっぱい
あなたのせいで、私は試験に失敗しました。
“Because of you, I failed the examination.” [i.e., it’s the addressee’s fault]
しけんとお
あなたのおかげで、私は試験に通りました。
“Thanks to you, I passed the examination.”
The expression おかげさまで, a more polite phrasing of おかげで, was introduced in the Preparatory
Stage, as in the following:
おかげさまで、元気です。
“Thanks to you, I’m well.”
 せい or おかげ in predicates
せい and おかげ may also be used in the nominal predicate.
しけんしっぱい
あなたが試験に失敗したのは、私のせいです。
“It’s my fault that you failed the examination.”
しけんとお
私が試験に通ったのは、あなたのおかげです。
“Thanks to your help, I passed the test.”
(2) ほとんど and めったに
Some adverbs, such as あまり, そんなに, and 全然（ぜんぜん）, require the predicate to be in the nega-
tive form. There are a few more in this category, including ほとんど and めったに, which will be in-
troduced in this section.
ほとんど, which refers to frequency, means “almost never.”

私は家にほとんど電話しません。
“I hardly ever call home.”
The adverb めったに indicates a little more frequency than ほとんど, but it is still not often.
あそ
うちの子供はめったに田中さんのお子さんと遊びません。
“My child rarely plays with Tanaka-san’s child.”
The adverbs 全然（ぜんぜん）, ほとんど, and めったに differ in degree of frequency. The frequency in-
creases from not at all to more frequent, in the following order:
ぜんぜん
全然→ほとんど→めったに
(3) わざわざ and せっかく
In many Japanese–English dictionaries, わざわざ and せっかく are defined similarly as “deliberately;
with much trouble.” Adverbs are in general very difficult to translate into another language, because
the implications of a given adverb tend to be quite different in each language. As ever, understanding
the underlying meaning of each word is more important than learning it via translation alone.
 わざわざ
This adverb implies that the topic is doing something even though it is not necessary, and that this
task may be a lot of trouble to complete. わざわざ may be used in either a dependent or independent
clause.
りょうり
わざわざ料理したけれども、だれも食べてくれなかった。
“I went to the trouble of cooking, but no one ate it.”
きものき
このパーティーにはわざわざ着物を着なくてもいいですよ。
“You needn’t take the trouble to wear a kimono to this party.”
Because of its meaning, わざわざ is often used to thank someone for what he or she did. The grateful
person wants the addressee to know that it wasn’t necessary to do what was done.
とお
遠くからわざわざ来てくださって、ありがとうございます。
“Thank you for coming here from so far away.”
 せっかく
This adverb indicates that the speaker is taking advantage of his or her current situation to do addi-
tional things. The situation described in the dependent clause, in which せっかく is used, provides
the opportunity for the action in the independent clause. Because of this structure, せっかく cannot
be used in simple sentences.
せっかくここまで来たのだから、海にも行きましょう。
“Since we came all the way here, let’s take advantage of it and go to the beach.”
せっかく日本に来たのに、田中さんに会えませんでした。
“I came all the way to Japan, but I was unable to see Tanaka-san.” [Literally, “it was too bad that I
couldn’t take advantage of being in Japan to see Tanaka-san”]
せっかく may be used to politely decline an offer or invitation by implying that the speaker regrets not
being able to take the opportunity. ですが in せっかくですが in this response implies that a more com-
plete structure is abbreviated. This expression has become a fixed expression for declining an offer
politely.
明日、うちにいらっしゃいませんか。
“Would you like to come visit me tomorrow?”
せっかくですが、明日は行けません。
“Thank you for the opportunity, but unfortunately I can’t take advantage of your invitation and visit
you tomorrow.”
In some cases, わざわざ and せっかく seem to be interchangeable, but there is a difference in nuance
originating from the meanings described above. The use of わざわざ modifies the action in the de-
pendent clause, while the use of せっかく gives the reason for the action expressed in the main clause.
わざわざここまで来たのだから、海にも行きましょう。
“Since we took the trouble to come here, let’s go to the beach as well.”
せっかくここまで来たのだから、海にも行きましょう。
“Since we came all the way here, let’s take advantage of it and go to the beach.”
(4) やっと and とうとう
The adverbs やっと and とうとう, which were introduced in Stages 2–6 and 2–7 of Workbook 2 respec-
tively, may both be translated as “finally” in a dictionary. However, the notions presupposed by these
adverbs are quite different.
やっと is used when the speaker’s expectation is reached after a long wait or prolonged effort. In the
first sentence below, it sounds as if the speaker has been waiting for rain for quite some time, and
this wish has now been fulfilled. In the second sentence, the implication is that the speaker had
been making an effort to understand something, and the goal was finally met.
やっと雨が降ってきました。
“The rain that I was hoping for has finally begun.”
やっと分かりました。
“I finally understood.”
とうとう literally means that something has reached its end. This adverb is often, but not always, used
when something that the speaker has been afraid might happen actually does happen. This fear
does not have to be very strong, however.
とうとう雨が降ってきました。
“It’s starting to rain; I was afraid it would.”
いぬし
とうとうぼくの犬は死んでしまいました。
“I was dreading my dog’s death, and it finally happened.”
In both cases, the speaker was fearfully anticipating the event in the sentence. In both sentences,
the event occurred despite the speaker’s wish that it would not.
Because of the difference in nuance between やっと and とうとう, confusing them could lead to a ter-
rible misunderstanding. For instance, when a long-awaited visitor finally arrives, it is definitely more
appropriate to use やっと than とうとう.
*とうとう、来たのね。
“You’ve come, just as I feared!”
やっと、来たのね。
“You’re finally here!”
In contrast, when the speaker fears that eventually it will be his or her turn to face something neg-
ative, the use of とうとう is more appropriate than やっと.
*やっと私の番が来てしまいました。
[intended meaning] “It’s my turn at last!”
ばん
とうとう私の番が来てしまいました。
“My turn has come, as I knew it would.”
(5) Adverb あまり with positive predicates
あまり was introduced earlier as an adverb that requires a negative predicate.

おもしろ
この本はあまり面白くありませんでした。
“This book was not very interesting.”
When this adverb is used with a positive predicate, it stresses that what is expressed in the predicate
exceeds expectations. This adverb, however, is used only in a dependent clause; the main clause
must express the consequence.
おもしろぜんぶ
この本があまり面白かったから、昨日、全部、読んでしまいました。
“This book was so interesting that I read the whole thing yesterday.”
When あまり is used in this way, the particle に or にも may also accompany it.
おもしろぜんぶ
この本があまりに（も）面白かったから、昨日、全部、読んでしまいました。
“This book was so interesting that I read the whole thing yesterday.”
(1) Things are too expensive in Japan!
ものたか
 日本は物があんまり高くて、びっくりしました。
ごろすこやすきたか
 この頃、少しは安くなったという気がしますが、まだまだ高いですよね。
ものしつ
 でも、物の質はいいですよね。
 それはそうですね。
 I’m shocked to find how expensive things are here in Japan.
 It seems like they’ve gotten a bit cheaper lately, but you’re right — things are still quite expensive.
 The quality is quite good, though.
 That’s true.
 気（き）がする
This idiomatic verb expresses the speaker’s hunch. The feeling is not based so much on evidence as
it is on the speaker’s instinct. See Stage 3–6 for more idioms with 気.
 物の質（もののしつ）
質（しつ） means “quality.” The meaning of this phrase is therefore “the quality of things.”
 まだまだ
The repetition of まだ emphasizes that things are still quite expensive.
 それはそうですね
When the speaker agrees with a specific point, using それ to refer to it, this expression may be used.
It means something like “the point you raise is true.”
(2) I was able to graduate because of you
きもそつぎょういわおも
おば：これ、ほんの気持ちだけだけど、卒業のお祝いにと思って・・・。
いわそつぎょうかげ
私：お祝いだなんて。卒業できたのは、おばさんのお陰なんだから・・・。
いっしょうけんめいがんばがんば
おば：そんなことないわよ。あなたが一生懸命、頑張ったからよ。これからも頑張ってちょうだいね。
がんばおばけんこうき
私：うん、頑張るわ。叔母さんの健康がちょっと気になるけど。
しんぱいごろ
おば：心配しないで。この頃、私、ピンピンしてるんだから。
Aunt: It’s not much, but here is a gift for your graduation.
Niece: A gift? But if it weren’t for you, I couldn’t have graduated.
Aunt: That’s not true. You worked very hard to graduate. Keep working hard.
Niece: Yes, I will. I’m a bit worried about your health, though.
Aunt: Don’t worry. I’m quite healthy these days.
 ほんの気持（きも）ちだけ
ほんの means “just a little bit”; 気持（きも）ち here refers to “the speaker’s thoughts.” So, ほんの気持
（きも）ちだけ is often used when a person giving a present wants to say that what he or she is about
to give is not a big thing, but that it expresses his or her thoughts.
 卒業（そつぎょう）のお祝（いわ）いにと思（おも）って
This phrase means “I thought this might be a good gift to celebrate your graduation.” お祝（いわ）い
means “celebration,” but it is also used to mean “gift.”
 そんなことない
This phrase can be used to negate another person’s statement. It means something like “It’s not
like that,” or “That’s not true.”
 頑張（がんば）ってちょうだい
ちょうだい is a colloquial version of ください. When combined with other verbs, this verb may be used
only when speaking to someone younger or to someone with less authority.
 気（き）になる
When something is either annoying or worrisome to the speaker, he or she can express it with this
idiomatic phrase (see Stage 3–6 for more idioms with 気):
かれいき
彼の言ったことが気になる。
“What he said was annoying.”
けんこうき
母の健康が気になる。
“I’m worried about my mother’s health.”
 ピンピンする
This onomatopoeia describes someone in good health.
Stage 3-6 Emotive Expressions
Structures
1. The Speaker’s vs. the Other’s Emotive Descriptions
(1) Expressing emotions in Japanese
(2) Expressing a third person’s emotions in Japanese
2. Adjective and Verb Pairs
(1) Examples of adjective and verb pairs
(2) Topics of emotive adjectives and verbs
(3) Emotive verbs to emotive nouns
3. From Adjectives to Verbs
(1) Suffix ~がる
(2) Even when there are pairs
(3) From derived adjectives to verbs
4. Idiomatic Phrases with 気（き）
(1) Emotive phrases with 気（き）
(2) Non-emotive phrases with 気
(3) にとって to mark the experiencer
(1) All about feelings
(2) Having fun
(3) Confusion
(4) Deep appreciation
Structures
1: The Speaker’s vs. the Other’s Emotive Descriptions
(1) Expressing emotions in Japanese
It has been stated previously that different structures must be used to express such things as desires
and emotions of the speaker and of the third person.
There are common rules for all structures related to this issue; that is, describing emotions in the
first person and the third person.
These common rules are:
 The structure that expresses the speaker’s emotions can also be used to ask a second person about
their emotions directly.
 Emotions experienced by a third person can be stated by adding certain elements to the sentence
structure that is used for the speaker. These will be summarized below.
This chapter will present new information concerning the different structures used to express the
speaker’s and the third-person’s emotions. For instance, pairs of emotive adjectives and verbs will
be discussed. In addition, the use of suffixes to mention emotions in the third person will also be
introduced.
 Language of the writer and story-teller
The rules for emotive expressions for the first person and the third person often do not apply to sto-
ries and novels. In novels, the following type of sentence is used often.
はなこうれ
花子は嬉しかった。
“Hanako was happy.”
The topic is in the third person, but the predicate consists of an emotive adjective. This is because
writers and story-tellers in Japanese often use the language as if they were the speaker of the sen-
tence, even when they use third-person pronouns or personal names. It is important to distinguish
such language uses from daily, real-life usage.
 What about English?
English has no such restrictions on the use of emotive expressions. In the following sentences, the
emotive expressions used for first-person and third-person subjects are identical:
I am sad. He is sad.
I want to go. He wants to go.
(2) Expressing a third person’s emotions in Japanese
Several different structures have been introduced that may be used to express a third person’s emo-
tive state. Each of these expresses a different nuance. For all examples below, consider the content
of the emotive event, “the third person wants more time.”
First, the speaker can report by saying what the third person has told him or her:
かれほ
彼はもっと時間が欲しいと言っています。
“He has been saying that he wants more time.”
If the speaker directly observes that the third person obviously needs time, he or she can say:
彼はもっと時間が欲しそうです。
“He looks as if he wants more time.”
The following is similar to the sentence above. The only difference is that in the sentence above, the
need for time sounds urgent; in the sentence below it does not. This sentence describes the speaker’s
inference based on his or her direct observation, but it is expressed in more general terms:
彼はもっと時間が欲しいようです。
“He appears to want more time.”
The next sentence reports information that the speaker has obtained from an objective source. It is
much like the first example, which reported what the third person said. In the following sentence,
the information source is not clear unless it is explicitly indicated. (In the sentence with 言う, of
course, the information source is the third person, who has the feeling).
彼はもっと時間が欲しいそうです。
“I heard that he wants more time.”
Sentences with らしい, like the following, are similar to the sentence with そうだ above. The only slight
difference is that the information source of the sentence with らしい is not totally objective. The
speaker acknowledges its validity.
彼はもっと時間が欲しいらしいです。
“He seems to want more time.”
A sentence with はず indicates that the speaker expects his or her assessment of the third person’s
emotion or desire to be true because there is some evidence to support it.
彼はもっと時間が欲しいはずです。
“I should think that he would want more time.”
Of course, the speaker can also express a third person’s emotive state as his or her own opinion by
using 思う.
彼はもっと時間が欲しいと思います。
“I believe that he would want more time.”
In addition to the list above, there are still more ways to express a third person’s emotive state. Some
of these will be introduced below.
s2: Adjective and Verb Pairs
Words that express emotions are not necessarily only adjectives. There are some verbs that describe
the topic’s emotions. In fact, there are some adjective-verb pairs that have similar meanings, and in
some cases, similar forms.
In terms of their uses, generally speaking, the speaker’s own desires and emotions are expressed
with adjectives while those of the third person are expressed with verbs. This does not mean, how-
ever, that emotive verbs are not used to describe the speaker’s emotions. They are used for objective
descriptions.
(1) Examples of adjective and verb pairs
 嬉（うれ）しい vs. 喜（よろこ）ぶ

しけんううれ
私は試験に受かって、本当に嬉しいです。
“I am very happy that I passed the test.”
娘は試験に受かって、本当に喜んでいます。
“My daughter is very happy that she passed the test.”
This verb may be used to describe the speaker’s emotion objectively. It is used often when the topic
is plural and includes the speaker:
娘が試験に受かって、私達もとても喜んでいます。
“We feel quite happy that our daughter passed the test.”
 悲（かな）しい vs. 悲（かな）しむ
しかな
僕はペットに死なれてしまって、本当に悲しいです。
“I am very sad that my pet died.”
妹はペットに死なれてしまって、本当に悲しんでいます。
“My sister is very sad that her pet died.”
The following example has a topic that includes the speaker:
妹も私もペットに死なれてしまって、本当に悲しんでいます。
“Both my sister and I are very sad that our pet died.”
 苦（くる）しい vs. 苦（くる）しむ
ねつくる
私は熱が高くて、とても苦しいです。
“I have a high fever, and I feel quite miserable.”
わか
彼は彼女と別れて、とても苦しんでいます。
“He’s having a hard time being separated from his girlfriend.”
The following example illustrates how a verb is used to describe a speaker’s emotion objectively.
彼と彼女が別れたことを聞いて、私もとても苦しんでいます。
“I’m finding it difficult to accept their separation, too.”
(2) Topics of emotive adjectives and verbs
The difference between some emotive adjectives and verbs is the relation between the topic and the
predicate. With some emotive adjectives, the thing that the speaker has the feeling about may be
the topic; with emotive verbs, the person who feels must be the topic. The following adjective and
verb pair illustrates this difference.
 楽（たの）しい vs. 楽（たの）しむ
In the sentence below with the adjective 楽（たの）しい, the feeling belongs to the speaker. The topic
is the thing about which the speaker feels something.
せいかつたの
大学の生活は楽しいです。
“For me, college life is fun.”
With the verb 楽（たの）しむ “to enjoy,” the topic must be the person who feels:
友達は大学の生活を楽しんでいます。
“My friend is enjoying life at college.”
As explained above, with emotive verbs, the first person may be the topic, but in this case, the emotive
state is described rather objectively compared to verbs with emotive adjectives.
私は大学生活を楽しんでいます。
“I’m enjoying life at college.”
(3) Emotive verbs to emotive nouns
The stems of emotive verbs can be used as emotive nouns.
Verb Stem (Noun) Meaning

かな
悲しむ悲しみ sadness

くる
苦しむ苦しみ suffering
よろこ
喜ぶ喜び happiness
いか
怒る怒り anger
たの
楽しむ楽しみ pleasure
The following section shows examples of some of these words.

 Verbs
にんげんよろこかなくるふくざつどうぶつ
人間は喜んだり、悲しんだり、苦しんだりするとても複雑な動物です。
“Human beings are complex animals that feel happiness, sadness, and suffering.”
 Stems
かん
あの人は喜びも悲しみも苦しみも感じないのでしょうか。
“Doesn’t he feel anything—happiness, sadness, or suffering?”
3: From Adjectives to Verbs

Not all emotive adjectives have corresponding verbs. In this case, there is a way to make an emotive
adjective into an emotive verb. The difference between emotive verbs and derived emotive verbs
(formed by adding ~がる) is that, unlike the emotive verbs explained above, the derived emotive verbs
may not be used to describe the speaker’s emotions.
(1) Suffix ~がる
The following rule shows how to derive emotive verbs from emotive adjectives.
Drop い from the emotive adjective and add ~がる
For instance, the verbal form of 欲しい is 欲しがる.

The following examples illustrate 欲しい for expressing desire in the first person and 欲しがる for ex-
pressing desire in the third person in two different aspects, habitual and current. Notice the object
marker が for the adjective and を for the verb.
じしょ
私は新しい辞書が欲しいです。
“I want a new dictionary.”
~ている in the sentence below expresses the current emotional state of the topic.
山田さんは新しい辞書を欲しがっています。
“Yamada-san wants a new dictionary.”
欲しがる in the following sentence expresses a habitual aspect.

ももの
山田さんは私が持っている物は何でも欲しがります。
“Yamada-san always wants what I have.”
(2) Even when there are pairs
The suffix ~がる may be used even when an adjective has a corresponding emotive verb.
 Emotive verbs and ~がる verbs
The adjective 悲（かな）しい “sad” has a verbal counterpart, 悲（かな）しむ “to become sad.” This ad-
jective may also be converted into a verb 悲（かな）しがる “to be sad.”
What, then, is the difference between the emotive verbs and the ~がる emotive verbs? As explained
above, one difference is that the verb 悲しむ may be used for both the speaker’s and the third person’s
emotions, but the derived verb 悲しがる is used to describe only the third person’s emotions—not
those of the speaker. Another difference is that emotive verbs objectively describe the topic’s emo-
tional state in rather general terms. On the contrary, verbs derived from ~がる express a more im-
mediate state based on the speaker’s direct observation.
むすこかな
山田さんは息子さんがアメリカに行ってしまって、悲しんでいます。
“Yamada-san is sad because her son has gone to America.”
山田さんは息子さんがアメリカに行ってしまって、悲しがっています。
“I can tell that Yamada-san is sad because her son has gone to America.”
 ~がる verbs and stem + そう
Both the suffix ~がる and the complex adjectival noun with そう can be used to describe an immediate
emotive state, based on the speaker’s direct observation. What is the difference between these two
structures?
The complex word with そう expresses an inference. Therefore, in the first sentence below, the speaker
really does not know that 山田さん is sad, although evidence suggests it. The verb with ~がる indicates
that the speaker actually knows that 山田さん is sad.
山田さんは息子さんがアメリカに行ってしまって、悲しそうです。
“Yamada-san looks sad because her son has gone to America.”
山田さんは息子さんがアメリカに行ってしまって、悲しがっています。
“I know that Yamada-san is sad because her son has gone to America.”
(3) From derived adjectives to verbs
As previously explained, ~たい expresses the first person’s desire to do things. From this derived ad-
jective, a third person’s desire may be expressed by adding the suffix ~がる. This changes the adjective
to a verb: たべる→たべたい→たべたがる; する→したい→したがる; くる→きたい→きたがる.
The following sentences show examples of this construction. The second example illustrates the ha-
bitual aspect while the third one describes a current state.
私はアイスクリームが食べたいです。
“I want to eat ice cream.”
妹はいつもアイスクリームを食べたがります。
“My sister always wants to eat ice cream.”
妹はアイスクリームを食べたがっています。
“My sister wants to eat ice cream right now.”
s4: Idiomatic Phrases with 気（き）
In this section, some commonly used idiomatic phrases that include the noun 気（き）, which literally
means “mind” or “spirit,” will be introduced. Some of these idiomatic phrases express emotions, and
the restrictions on the use of these phrases are similar to those on the use of emotive adjectives and verbs.
Being able to use some idiomatic phrases adds variety and sophistication to the language level of
the learner. At the same time, it is a challenge to learn such phrases, as they are usually not governed
by rules.
(1) Emotive idiomatic phrases with 気（き）
The following idioms are used only when the topic is the speaker. When the topic is the third person,
another element such as そうだ or らしい must be used (see earlier sections in this chapter for details).
 気がする “to have a feeling”

This expression means that the speaker has some feeling or premonition about something.
今日、母から電話が来る気がします。
“I have a feeling that my mother will call me today.”
 気になる “to be on one’s mind”
This expression means that the speaker noticed something, and that thing has become an annoyance
or something that the speaker cannot ignore.
私のルームメートがあまり寝ていないことが気になります。
“I’m a little concerned that my roommate hasn’t been sleeping much.”
あの人が昨日、言ったことがとても気になります。
“I can’t ignore what he told me yesterday.”
 気が重（おも）い “to feel troubled”
The adjective 重（おも）い means “heavy.” The idiom 気が重い literally means that the mind feels
heavy, implying that the speaker is troubled by something.
子供がこの頃、学校に行きたがらなくて、とても気が重いです。
“I’m quite troubled because my child does not want to go to school these days.”
 気が軽（かる）くなる “to feel relieved”
The adjective 軽（かる）い means “light” (referring to weight). The idiom, 気が軽くなる, which literally
means that the mind becomes lighter, is used to express the relief that the speaker feels about some-
thing.
山中さんの説明を聞いて、とても気が軽くなりました。
“I feel relieved after hearing Yamanaka-san’s explanation.”
(2) Non-emotive phrases with 気
Even though the following idioms include 気, they all can be used to describe the speaker as well as
a third person.
 気（き）をつける “to pay attention”
The verb つける literally means “to attach something onto something else.” The expression therefore
means “to pay attention to [= attach the mind] to something.” This idiom is used often in commands.
車に気をつけてください。
“Please watch out for cars.” [Literally, “Pay attention to cars.”]
はい、気をつけます。
“Yes, I will be careful.”
気をつけて、日本に行ってきてください。
“Be careful going to Japan.” [Literally, “Be careful as you go to and come back from Japan.”]
 気（き）がつく “to notice”
The verb つく is the intransitive counterpart of the transitive verb つける, which is used above. The
phrase literally means “the mind attaches itself to something.” It is used to mean “to notice some-
thing.”
私はあの人が毎日、漢字を勉強していることに気がつきました。
“I noticed that he studies kanji every day.”
彼は私が毎日、漢字を勉強していることに全然、気がつきませんね。
“He never even notices that I study kanji every day.”
This idiomatic phrase can be condensed into the single verb 気づく.
私はあの人が毎日、漢字を勉強していることに気づきました。
“I noticed that he studies kanji every day.”
When the idiom 気（き）がつく is used to describe a person, it means “to be considerate.”
あの人はよく気がつく人です。
“That person is very considerate of others’ needs.”
For this function, the condensed verb 気づく may not be used.
*あの人はよく気づく人です。
[intended meaning] “That person is very considerate of others’ needs.”
 気（き）にする “to be concerned”
This expression means that the topic is worrying or is concerned about something.
だいじょうぶ
気にしないでください。私は大丈夫ですから。
“Don’t worry. I’m all right.”
あの人は小さいことでも、何でもすぐに気にします。
“She’s always worried about even the smallest things.”
 気が長（なが）い “to be patient”
This expression literally means, “the mind is long”; in other words “to be patient.”
なが
私の母は本当に気が長いです。
“My mother is really patient.”
 気が短（みじか）い “to be impatient”
This expression literally means, “the mind is short”; in other words, “to be impatient.”
みじか
私の姉は本当に気が短いです。
“My older sister is really impatient.”
There are many more phrases that include the noun 気（き）. There are also many that include some
body parts such as 手（て） “arm/hand” or 足（あし） “leg/foot.” It is advisable to learn them as they
appear in reading and speech.
(3) にとって to mark the experiencer
It was explained earlier that the particle に is used to mark the person who experiences certain emo-
tions or feelings.
日本人に英語を話すことはとても難しい。
“It is very difficult for Japanese people to speak English.”
にとって works in a similar way to に. It is a set phrase that conveys that emotions referred to in the
comment are being attributed to the preceding noun.
よろこ
私にとって、花を育てることは大きな喜びなのだ。
“For me, taking care of flowers is a great source of happiness.”
わかもの
多くの若者にとって、物がないということはとても苦しいことのようだ。
“It seems to me that not having material things is painful to many young people.”
The difference between the use of に and にとって is that the latter sounds a little more emphatic in
singling out the person who experiences the emotion described. Both に and にとって can be used
with は and も, depending on the situation.
When the speaker wants to focus on the contrastive sense, then, は should be used. In the sentence
below, 日本人 is being singled out.
日本人にとっては、英語を話すことはとても難しい。
“For Japanese people in particular, it is very difficult to speak English.”
When the speaker has another topic in mind that applies to the same comment, then も should be
used. The sentence below implies that writing well in English is difficult for many people.
アメリカ人にとっても、英語を上手に書くことはとても難しい。
“For Americans, too, it is very difficult to write well in English.”
(1) All about feelings
じょしがくせいひとずいぶんはしつれい

女子学生：　あの人、随分、恥ずかしがってたわね。失礼なことしたかしら、私。
だんしがくせいきほう
男子学生：　いいよ、そんなこと、気にしすぎない方が・・・
じょしがくせいひとくるみじぶんおも
女子学生：　そうかしら？でも、やっぱり、人が苦しんでるの見ると、自分のせいかなあって、思っちゃう。
Female student: I can see that he was really embarrassed. I wonder if I did something rude.
Male student: You shouldn’t worry about it too much.
Female student: Do you think so? I can’t help but think that it’s my fault when I see someone
having such a hard time.
 そうかしら？
This phrase, used by female speakers, means “Do you think so?” [Literally, “I wonder if you are
right”]. Male speakers may say そうかな？
(2) Having fun
だんしがくせいきたむらくんずいぶんりゅうがくせいかつたの

男子学生：　北村君、随分、フランス留学生活、楽しんでるようだねえ。
じょしがくせいほんとうまえいや
女子学生：　本当に。行く前は、あんなに嫌がってたのにね。
Male student: Kitamura-kun seems to be having a great time studying in France!
Female student: True. You know how reluctant he was to go before he left.
 あんなに嫌（いや）がってたのに
嫌（いや）がる means the speaker observes that another person does not want a certain thing.
(3) Confusion
こくる
 あの子は、こうでもない、ああでもないって、とっても苦しんでるようだけど・・・
べつしんぱいひつようこたこた
 別に心配する必要ないんじゃない。答えられないものは答えられないのだから。
 It looks like that child is having a hard time coming up with an answer.
 No need to worry, I think. If he doesn’t know the answer, he doesn’t know the answer.
 こうでもない、ああでもない
This is a way for the speaker to indicate different ways of solving an issue (or issues). So, the phrase
means something like “it is neither this way nor that way; it does not mean this or that; I shouldn’t
do this or that.”
 必要（ひつよう）ない
必要（ひつよう）, which means “necessity,” is used both as an adjectival noun and as a noun. When
used as a noun, 必要（ひつよう）ない means “there is no need.” が is used between the two words for
a more proper expression, 必要（ひつよう）がない.
 答（こた）えられないものは答（こた）えられない
This sentence seems quite tautological. Its literal meaning is “The thing that one cannot answer
cannot be answered.” The message in this sentence is, “There’s no need to try to come up with an
answer if you don’t know it.”
(4) Deep appreciation
しんせつこころかんしゃいた

 先生のご親切、心から感謝致します。
あらたあいさつ
 いやあ、そんなに改まって挨拶されると、てれますね。
 I truly appreciate your kindness, Professor.
 Oh, you’re so formal. I’m embarrassed.
 心から感謝致します（こころからかんしゃいたします）
心（こころ） means “heart,” and 感謝（かんしゃ） is a noun that means “appreciation.” So, the entire ex-
pression means “I thank you from my heart”; this is a very polite way to thank someone.
 いやあ
This response is used mainly by male speakers to indicate a rather strong negation of the previous
comment.
 改（あらた）まって
改（あらた）まる is a verb that means “to become formal.” Here it is used adverbially, 改（あらた）まって
meaning “in a formal manner.”
 てれる
てれる, which is written 照れる in kanji, is a verb that means “to become embarrassed.”
Stage 3-7 Requests, Commands, and Imperatives
Structures
1. Imperative Forms and Sentences
(1) Terms
(2) Imperative forms
(3) Direct imperatives
(4) Embedded imperative forms
(5) Imperfective verbs with ように
2. Structures for Giving Commands
(1) Stem + なさい
(2) ~てはいけない（だめ）
(3) お + stem
3. Indirect Commands
(1) Complex predicates with ものだ
(2) Different meanings with positive perfectives
(3) Complex predicates with べきだ
4. Politeness Levels of Requests and Commands
(1) Requests
(2) Commands
(3) Giving instructions
(1) My dad is so annoying
(2) Go ask him
(3) Being late
Structures
1: Imperative Forms and Sentences
(1) Terms
The terms “request,” “command,” and “imperative” are very close in meaning. The functions defined
by these terms, and the structures that convey them, are only generally correlated; there is really no
definite one-to-one correspondence between them. It is true that certain constructions are suitable
for certain functions, but in any language, different structures may be used for the same content,
depending on the situation.
This chapter attempts to show that different structures may be used for a single function, and, like-
wise, that a single structure can be used for many different functions. It is therefore very important
to be able to recognize the importance of appropriate judgment in using the right structure for the
right situation.
 Making requests
In this textbook, the term “request” is used when the speaker asks someone else to do something
on his or her behalf. Requests may be expressed by different types of sentences. The following ex-
amples therefore are not exhaustive.
When requesting that the addressee do something for the speaker, it is appropriate for the speaker
to use ~てくださいませんか if the addressee is someone who is of a higher social status.
すみませんが、日曜日までにこの手紙を書いてくださいませんか。
“I’m sorry to ask you this, but could you please write this letter by Sunday?”
When asking the same thing of someone who is senior to the speaker, but only slightly so (e.g., a
senpai in a social club), then the following may be more appropriate:
すみませんが、日曜日までにこの手紙を書いてくれませんか。
“I’m sorry to ask you this, but can you write this letter by Sunday?”
For a request to a close friend, the use of ~てくれない in the rising tone is sufficient. In this case, the
use of すみませんが is too polite.
わる
悪いけど、日曜日までにこの手紙を書いてくれない？
“Sorry, but can you write this letter by Sunday?”
A person may ask her or his friend to do something by using the て-form of a verb alone; the use of
the conjunctive form here does not have to be interpreted as a command, as one might expect, es-
pecially when some confirmation of the previous agreement is added. Here the use of the sentence-
final particle ね functions as confirmation.
わる
悪いけど、日曜日までにこの手紙を書いてね。
“Sorry, but I need you to write this by Sunday.”
Although colloquial, ~てちょうだい may be used as a request from an authority figure to an addressee.
This expression is not as polite as ~てください and should not be used as a public command. For in-
stance, a mother speaking to a child may use this expression to make a request.
これ、ちょっと読んでちょうだい。
“Read this for me.”
Many other structures may be used to make requests, as well. Other options will be presented in a
later part of this chapter, when issues related to politeness are discussed.
 Making commands
A “command” is used when an individual with greater authority tells the addressee what to do. For
instance, a teacher gives commands to his or her students, as shown below. Even though the teacher
is addressing children, she or he uses ください. This indicates that this speech is made in a public
place such as a school.
この宿題は来週、出してください。
“Please submit this homework next week.”
In a person-to-person interaction, even if it is a teacher speaking to a student, ください may be dropped.

For instance, when a teacher is explaining to a single student when assignments should be submit-
ted, the following sentence may be used. The speaker’s intent is conveyed through the sentence-
final particle. In the sentence below, the use of ね confirms the addressee’s understanding; the use
of よ suggests that the speaker wants to make sure that the addressee understands his or her duty.
この宿題は来週、出してね（or よ）。
“Submit this homework next week.”
A stem with なさい may also be used to give a command (see Stage 2–6). For instance, an elementary
school teacher may give a command to a pupil using this construction. This type of sentence can be
used by a mother or a father to her or his child as well. Depending on the situation and the tone
used, this construction may be used to give an order or a strong command.
この宿題は来週、出しなさい。
“Submit this homework next week.”
The colloquial ~てちょうだい may also be used as a command in appropriate situations. See above for
an example.
 Giving instructions
Giving instructions is a form of giving a command. The only difference between the two is the po-
sition of the speaker. When giving instructions, the speaker does not have to be someone who has
authority, but is the person who has the information in a certain social setting. For instance, a re-
ceptionist could give directions to a customer as follows:
すわ
こちらにお座りください。
“Please sit here.”
As pointed out in Stage 2–6, written instructions for a test, for instance, are expressed by a stem
with なさい. One may also see ~てください in such an instruction as well. In this case, a stem with な
さい lends a more authoritative ring to the instruction.
この言葉を漢字で書きなさい。
“Write this word in kanji.”
この言葉を漢字で書いてください。
“Write this word in kanji.”
For giving directions to a taxi driver, ~てください is common; using a stem with なさい would be inap-
propriate.
As is the case for request sentences, many other structures may be used for commands and giving
instructions. These will be presented and summarized in a later part of this chapter, with a special
focus on issues related to politeness.
(2) Imperative forms
An imperative, a stronger form of command, is used when the speaker is ordering the addressee to
do something in a very strong manner. One way to express imperatives is by using imperative verb
forms.
 Positive imperative forms
The following chart shows the rules of deriving imperative forms from base forms. Stative verbs
such as ある and いる, some honorific verbs, and some intransitive counterparts of transitive-intran-
sitive pairs lack imperative forms because of their meanings.
Rules Examples
Group 1* Change る to ろたべる→たべろ, みる→みろ
Group 2 Change the last u to e かく→かけ, はなす→はなせ, かう→かえ
Group 3 する→しろ, くる→こい same as at left

*くれる→くれ（ろ）; normally ろ is dropped for this verb.
 Negative imperatives
The negative imperative forms are made by adding な to the positive imperfective form.
たべるな, のむな, いくな, するな, くるな
(3) Direct imperatives
When an imperative form is used alone to make a direct order, the expression sounds extremely
harsh and direct. Only a limited number of situations allow such a use. An example could be when
a senior member, most likely male, of a sports club is training a junior member:
はし
走れ！
“Run!”
と
止まるな！
“Don’t stop!”
An older brother might say to his little brother:

だま
黙れ！
“Be quiet!”
な
泣くな！
“Don’t cry!”
When a sentence-final particle is added to the imperative forms, the expression may not sound so
harsh, especially with a falling intonation. With a harsher tone of voice, the sentence could still
sound quite rude and punitive. In either case, however, this is used only by male speakers.
だれにも言うなよ。
“Don’t tell anyone this.”
食べろよ。
“Eat, will you?”
What would a female speaker say in these situations? For positive imperatives, using ~て alone or ~
てちょうだい, and for negative imperatives, using ~ないで or ~ないでちょうだい with appropriate sen-
tence-final particles is common.
だま
黙って（ちょうだい）！
“Be quiet!”
な
泣かないで（ちょうだい）！
“Don’t cry!”
 Fixed expressions
Some fixed expressions in the imperative form may be used by both genders. The following expres-
sion is used to give encouragement, not an order. It may be repeated for emphasis.
がんばがんば
頑張れ！頑張れ！
“You can do it!” or “Good luck!”
The same content can be expressed by the て-form alone as well. The following expression sounds
a little milder than the one with the imperative form.
がんば
頑張って！
“You can do it!” or “Good luck!”
(4) Embedded imperative forms
Embedded imperative forms are often used to convey what someone was told by someone else. For
example, they may be used to express how the speaker was told to do or not do certain things. In
such a situation, what the speaker was told can be expressed with the imperative form, even if the
imperative form was not actually used in the original statement. Gender need not be considered
when imperative forms are used in embedded clauses.
僕は父に早く帰れと言われました。
“My father said to come home soon.” [Literally, “I was told by my father to come home soon.”]
いそ
私はいつも母にそんなに急いで食べるなと言われます。
“My mother always tells me not to eat so fast.” [Literally, “I am always told by my mother not to eat
in a hurry.”]
(5) Imperfective verbs with ように
Sentences containing the imperative form of a verb, even within embedded clauses, may still sound
quite direct and strong. For a softer approach, the following construction with ように may be used.
The verb preceding ように must be in the imperfective form.
 With positive verbs

こえ
大きな声で話すように言われました。
“I was told to speak loudly.”
たの
来月までに終えるように頼まれました。
“I was asked to finish it by next month.”
 With negative verbs
たいしょく
森さんに来年まで退職しないように言っておきました。
“I told Mori-san not to retire until next year.”
あきら
日本語の勉強を諦めないように言ってください。
“Please tell him not to give up on his Japanese studies.”
2: Structures for Giving Commands

In the above section, it was shown that a certain function, such as a “command,” can be expressed
by different structures. In this section, several different functions for which a single structure may
be used will be presented. Typical structures for giving a command, such as ~て（ください） and ~て（ち
ょうだい）, will not be included here.
(1) Stem + なさい
 Giving commands to children

As explained above, the stem with なさい is used to give a direct command; it is often used by parents
to their children, older siblings to younger siblings, or by teachers, especially those of younger chil-
dren, to their pupils.
早く寝なさい。
“Go to bed early.”
やさい
もっと、野菜を食べなさい。
“Eat more vegetables.”
 Giving instructions
The stem with なさい is also used to give written instructions, especially in tests and examinations.
やく
この文を日本語に訳しなさい。
“Translate this sentence into Japanese.”
For other instructions, such as those written in manuals or driving directions, this construction is
not suitable. ~てください is better to use for these purposes.
(2) ~てはいけない（だめ）
 Prohibition
The stem with なさい has no negative counterpart. To express this concept, one of the previously in-
troduced constructions used for prohibition, ~てはいけない or ~てはだめ, may be used.
はし
ここで走っては、いけません。
“Running is not allowed here.”
はし
ここで走っては、だめです。
“It’s not a good idea to run here.”
Of course, a negative command, both polite and casual, with ないで is also possible:
はし
ここで走らないでください。
“Please don’t run here.”
はし
ここで走らないで。
“Don’t run here.”
 Casual speech, ~ちゃいけない（だめ）
Speech tends to be casual when children are being addressed. In casual speech, many things that
are not heard in formal speech may surface. For instance, sentence-final particles are used much
more frequently; these particles may differ depending on the speaker’s gender. Predicate endings
may also differ based on gender. In addition, more contractions may occur in casual speech.
For instance, the following contractions were introduced in the Conversational Devices section of
Stages 2–7 and 2–8: ~てしまう→~ちゃう, ~ておく→~とく, and ~なければ→~なきゃ.
忘れちゃった。
“I totally forgot it.”
ちゃんと買っとくから、心配しないで。
“I’ll buy them, don’t worry.”
宿題しなきゃ。
“I have to do my homework.”
In prohibitions, the ~ては of ~てはいけない or ~てはだめ (as well as other uses of ~ては) is contracted
to ~ちゃ in casual speech.
そんなこと、言っちゃ、だめ。
“You shouldn’t say things like that.”
 Advice for children

The colloquial constructions ~ちゃいけない（だめ） may be used by an adult to give advice or sugges-
tions to children. The use of the copula at the end of the sentence is limited to male speakers.
授業、休んじゃ、だめだよ。
“It’s not good to skip school; you know that, don’t you.”
A female speaker would say the sentence above without the copula.
授業、休んじゃ、だめよ。
“It’s not good to skip school; you know that, don’t you.”
うそ
嘘、ついちゃ、だめよ。
“You shouldn’t tell lies.” [Literally, “It’s not good to tell lies.”]
(3) お + stem
Orders using the honorific お with the stem are often given to animals.
すわ
お座り！
“Sit!”
Sometimes a much older person may give such a command to a much younger person, but this
usage is extremely restricted, and is used only by a certain type of person. When this kind of con-
struction is used, the speaker is either quite irritated or not very refined.
お食べ！
“Eat!”
お行き！
“Go!”
Included in any construction are fixed expressions that may not carry all of the implications or mean-
ings of the original construction; the following command is one of these. Most fixed phrases may
be used with fewer restrictions. The following command may be given by an adult to a child, for ex-
ample, and it does not sound as harsh as those above.
い
お出で！
“Come this way!”
The fixed expression above comes from an honorific verb, お出（い）でになる. This honorific verb is
for both 行く and 来る, and お出（い）でになる is more honorific than the honorific いらっしゃる. Because
it is a fixed expression, however, the honorific implications are not conveyed in the expression above,
except in that it is less harsh than others using the same structure.
s3: Indirect Commands
Commands can be expressed directly or indirectly. The constructions discussed above are direct
commands. Commands can also be implied in some sentences. Some ways to express commands
indirectly are introduced below.
(1) Complex predicates with ものだ
 もの as a noun
The noun 物（もの） refers to tangible things or concepts (when used for concepts, もの is not normally
written in kanji). こと is often contrasted with 物（もの）, as both are translated as “things.” For the
difference between こと and 物（もの）, see Stage 2–2. In the following sentences, the first 物（もの）
refers to a tangible thing, while the second もの refers to a concept.
あの大きい物は何ですか。
“What is that big thing?”
ことば
言葉というものは難しいものだ。
“What we call language is a very difficult thing.”
 Complex predicates with positive imperfectives
もの is also used as a functional noun in the complex predicate ものだ. In this case, もの is not written
in kanji. This complex predicate expresses commonly expected modes of behavior (such as customs
in a certain country). Although the nuance is not as strong as a direct command or imperative, it
still indicates a strong expectation.
A construction with a positive imperfective predicate before ものだ is used to convey behavior that
the speaker believes is dictated by common sense.
たずみやげも
人を訪ねる時は、いつもお土産を持っていくものだ。
“When you visit someone, you should always bring a gift with you.”
れい
人から物をもらった時には、きちんとお礼を言うものです。
“When you receive something from someone, you should politely thank him (or her).”
 Complex predicates with negative imperfectives
Either the copula or the verb immediately before ものだ may be negated. By negating the copula, the
speaker is pointing out the undesirable action that he or she has observed, thereby conveying the
message that it should not be repeated.
しつれい
そんな失礼なことを言うものではありません。
“You shouldn’t say those kinds of rude things.” [I.e., the person has made the rude statement al-
ready.]
When the verb before ものだ is in the negative form, the speaker expects that the action will not take
place.
しんせつもんく
親切にしてもらったら、文句を言わないものです。
“Don’t complain when receiving such kindness.” [I.e., the addressee is expected not to complain.]
(2) Different meanings with positive perfectives
Indirect commands must be expressed with imperfectives. If a perfective is used in the predicate
before ものだ, the implication of an indirect command is absent. Instead, the construction indicates
that the action referred to is something the speaker used to do in the past.
僕はこの店でよくコーヒーを飲んだものだ。
“I often used to drink coffee at this store.”
こうえんあそ
子供の時、私はよくこの公園で遊んだものだった。
“When I was a child, I used to play in this park.”
The difference between the imperfective copula だ and perfective copula だった is slight. The nuance
that the event occurred quite a while ago is emphasized much more with だった, but this is really a
matter of the speaker’s or writer’s perspective.
(3) Complex predicates with べきだ
The complex predicate with べきだ expresses a strong obligation. The use of べきだ in a complex
predicate sounds very objective and impersonal compared with something like ~なければならない.
Because of this nuance, it is often used to talk about social expectations or obligations. Note that the
complex predicate with ものだ lacks the meaning of obligation.
あやま
先生に謝るべきです。
“You should apologize to the teacher.”
たいしょく
退職するべきです。
“You should retire.”
Negatives are only expressed in the copula, not in the predicate before べきだ.
あきら
*どんなことがあっても、諦めないべきです。
[intended meaning] “One should never give up, no matter what.”
どんなことがあっても、諦めるべきでは（じゃ）ありません。
“One should never give up, no matter what.”
 Controversial acts
The negative perfective of the copula in this construction can be used to indicate that a person has
committed a controversial act. The speaker judges that the act, which has already happened, should
never have taken place.
あの人はこんな手紙を書くべきでは（じゃ）ありませんでした。
“He really shouldn’t have written this kind of letter.”
4: Politeness Levels of Requests and Commands

Many structures can be used to express requests and commands. In this section, they are summa-
rized according to their level of politeness.
(1) Requests
 ~てくださいませんか
~てくださいませんか is one of the most typical constructions introduced as a way to make requests. As
explained earlier, the sentence below may be used to request something of your teacher, a senior,
or an older non-family member whom you are expected to respect.
すいせんじょう
推薦状を書いてくださいませんか。
“Can you please write me a recommendation letter?”
 ~てもらえませんか and ~ていただけませんか
もらえる and いただける in these constructions are the potential forms of もらう and いただく. When
these verbs are used to make requests, they should be used in the negative. The literal meaning of
this construction is something like “Wouldn’t it be possible for me to receive your doing such-and-
such for me?” Because of this circumlocution, these requests are much more polite than the one
above. They can be used to make requests of the same people addressed with ~てくださいませんか;
these structures are simply more polite.
推薦状を書いてもらえませんか。
“Could you please write me a recommendation letter?”
Since いただく is the humble form of もらう, using this verb makes the expression even more polite
than one with もらう:
推薦状を書いていただけませんか。
“Would it be possible for you to write a recommendation letter for me?”
Even more indirect, and thus more polite, is the use of the volitional copula でしょう, as in the follow-
ing:
推薦状を書いてもらえないでしょうか。
“Do you think it might be possible for you to write me a recommendation letter?”
推薦状を書いていただけないでしょうか。
“Do you think it might be possible for you to write a recommendation letter for me?”
Further politeness can be obtained by changing もらえない and いただけない before でしょうか into the
polite forms.
推薦状を書いてもらえませんでしょうか。
“Is there any way that you might write me a recommendation letter?”
推薦状を書いていただけませんでしょうか。
“Is there any way that you might write a recommendation letter for me?”
 Casual direct request with ~てくれる？~てくれない？
All of the above may be changed into the plain predicates. These sentences may be used for making
casual requests of friends or acquaintances. When the negative form is used, it is more indirect,
and thus more polite, than the positive ending.
これ、読んでくれる？
“Can you read this for me?”
これ、読んでくれない？
“Could you read this for me?”
 Casual indirect request with ~てもらえない？ ~ていただけない？
Even though the expression is still casual, the use of the potential with the receiving verbs もらう and
いただく is more indirect and polite. The use of いただく is more polite than もらう.
これ、読んでもらえない？
“Could you please read this for me?”
これ、読んでいただけない？
“Could you please read this for me?”
 ~てちょうだい
The colloquial spoken form ~てちょうだい may be used to ask children or others with less power to do
something for the speaker. On the politeness scale, this structure may be the most casual, at least
of those compared in this section.
ちょっと、手伝ってちょうだい。
“Give me a hand for a moment, will you?”
(2) Commands
In all cases, regardless of its politeness level, a command is given from a person with more power
to one with less power; for instance, from a teacher to a student or from a senior member to a junior
member of a group.
 Polite command with ~てください
Polite commands are used in more public situations, such as in a high school or a college class-
room.
しず
静かにしてください。
“Please be quiet.”
 Casual command with ~て
ください may be deleted when speaking to children or in a less formal situation.
しず
ほら、静かにして。
“Be quiet, you guys.”
 Stem + なさい
This construction is often used to give commands to children or to students.
しず
静かにしなさい
“Be quiet.”
(3) Giving instructions
 お + stem + ください
A store clerk might use the following structure to tell a customer how to fill out an application form:
じゅうしょ
こちらにお名前とご住所をお書きください。
“Write your name and address here.”
ま
こちらでお待ちください。
“Please wait here.”
 The use of ませ
In the above cases, ませ may be added to make the instructions more polite.
じゅうしょ
こちらにお名前とご住所をお書きくださいませ。
“Please write your name and address here.”
ま
こちらでお待ちくださいませ。
“Please wait here.”
 Stem + なさい (written instructions)
やく
これを日本語に訳しなさい。
“Translate this into Japanese.”
かせんぶ
下線部を漢字に書きかえなさい。
“Write the underlined parts in kanji.”
Endings such as ませ are never used for test instructions, but ~てください may be used.
(1) My dad is so annoying
ほんとうちち
 やれ、やれって、本当にうちの父はうるさいの。
おやおな
 どこの親も同じじゃない？
とくおも
 そうかしら？うちのは特にうるさいと思うんだけど。
おな
 そんなことないよ。どこだって同じだよ。
 My dad’s always telling me what to do; it’s so annoying.
 All parents are the same, aren’t they?
 Really? I think mine must be particularly annoying.
 I don’t think so. They’re all the same.
 やれ、やれって
やる is a casual verb meaning “to do.” やれ is its imperative form. When repeated, as above, the ex-
pression means something like, “Do this, do that!”
 うるさい
This adjective has the meaning of “noisy” in the literal sense, but it can also mean “annoying.”
 どこだって同（おな）じ
どこだって is a casual equivalent of どこでも. So, the meaning of this phrase is “it’s the same every-
where.”
(2) Go ask him
ゆ
 このバス、どこ行きのバスですか。
くろぼうし
 さあ、どこかな・・・ちょっと、分かんないから、あの黒い帽子かぶったおじさんに聞いてみて。
 Where does this bus go?
 Hmm, I wonder . . . I don’t know. Why don’t you go ask that guy in the black hat?
 分（わ）かんない
This is a casual way to say わからない. It is used often in casual conversation.
 おじさん
Family terms such as おじさん, おばさん, おじいさん, and おばあさん may be used to address strangers.
These terms may sound insulting to some individuals who are age-sensitive. It is difficult to give
definite guidelines as to when these terms are better avoided, but when in doubt, either avoid them
or use a “younger” term to address someone: for example, おばさん rather than おばあさん and おじさ
ん than おじいさん.
(3) Being late
[Dialogue between two female speakers]
おそま
 ごめんなさい、遅くなっちゃって！待ったでしょう？
だいじょうぶきかいぎあとはじ
 大丈夫よ、気にしなくても。会議は後、１５分ぐらいで始まるから。
と
 そう、よかった。タクシーの方が早いからタクシーで行けって父に言われて、タクシーで来たんだけど、途
ちゅうこうつうじこじゅうたい
中で交通事故があったみたいで、すごい渋滞だったの。
たいへんまあ
 それは、大変だったわね。でも、ちゃんと間に合って、よかったわねえ。
 I’m so sorry I’m late! I hope you haven’t been waiting long.
 No problem. Don’t worry. The meeting will begin in about 15 minutes.
 I’m glad, then. My dad told me it would be faster to take a taxi, but I think there was an acci-
dent on the way. The traffic was terrible.
 That’s too bad. But I’m glad you made it.
 気にしなくても
In this expression, いい is omitted from 気にしなくてもいい (“You don’t have to worry about it”).
 後（あと）、１５分（ふん）ぐらいで
This phrase means “in about 15 minutes (things will begin).”
 渋滞（じゅうたい）
This word means “traffic jam.” It is possible to combine it with 交通（こうつう） “transportation,” as
in 交通渋滞（こうつうじゅうたい）, which also means “traffic jam.”
Stage 3-8 Overriding Particles
Structures
1. The Overriding Particle こそ
(1) Overriding particles
(2) こそ with a positive predicate
(3) こそ with a negative predicate
2. The Overriding Particle さえ
(1) さえ with a negative predicate
(2) さえ with a positive predicate
3. The Overriding Particle ばかり
(1) ばかり as an overriding particle
(2) Complex predicates with ばかりだ
(3) Difference between ところだ and ばかりだ
(4) Fixed expressions with ばかりじゃなく~も
(5) ばかり with numbers
4. Complex Predicates with だけだ
(1) With the imperfective form
(2) With the perfective form
(1) Promise
(2) Forgetfulness
(3) Perfect timing
(4) Polite apologies
Structures
1: The Overriding Particle こそ
(1) Overriding particles
Recall that there are three kinds of particles: (1) linking particles, which connect two elements such
as a noun and a predicate, or a noun and another noun (e.g., が, を, の); (2) sentence-final particles,
which are placed at the end of sentences to show what type of sentence it is (e.g., か, よ, ね); and (3)
overriding particles, which add other meanings to the original particles (e.g., は, も, だけ). This chapter
will introduce additional overriding particles.
(2) こそ with a positive predicate
こそ indicates that, to the speaker, the preceding noun is the ultimate one in its category. Here the
term “highlighting” is used to indicate this function.
 こそ with a noun
If the speaker believes that an ideal teacher possesses a certain quality, and, consequently, that
Tanaka-sensei has that exact quality, Tanaka-sensei could be highlighted as in the following state-
ment:
りそう
田中先生こそ私が理想としている先生です。
“I consider Tanaka-sensei to be the ideal teacher.”
A noun phrase marked by こそ has a meaning similar to one marked with が, which puts emphasis
on the topic. The difference between が and こそ is that が can be used only for the topic that is being
emphasized, but こそ may be used in other parts of a sentence (e.g., the object position). In the fol-
lowing sentence, 日本に留学すること is actually the object of 楽しみにする. When こそ is used, it is
usually placed at the beginning of a sentence.
日本に留学することこそ、私が一番、楽しみにしていたことだ。
“What I’ve been looking forward to, above all, is studying abroad in Japan.”
 こそ in the predicate
こそ may highlight an entire clause, rather than just a noun or noun phrase:
学生のことを思っているからこそ、たくさん勉強させているのです。
“I’m making my students study a lot precisely because I care about them.”
べんきょうどりょく
勉強は、努力してこそ、意味があるものなのです。
“Studying has meaning only when you make an effort.”
The expression こちらこそ was introduced in the Preparatory Stage as a way to respond to an expres-
sion of thanks or an apology. For instance, suppose that someone offered the following apology to
the speaker:
本当にすみませんでした。
“I’m really sorry.”
The speaker could then respond by saying,
いいえ。こちらこそ。
“No, I’m the one (who should apologize).”
こそ is used here because the speaker believes that he or she, referred to as こちら, is, above all, the
one who should apologize.
(3) こそ with a negative predicate
A noun modified by こそ in a sentence with a negative predicate is highlighted as an ultimate possible

event or condition that did not take place. In this case, the second clause normally indicates that the
situation is not bad, despite the fact that the condition has not been realized.
The following example implies that ideally speaking, the book would be published, but the negative
predicate indicates that in reality it has not been, but the quality of the book is superb despite this
negative condition.
しゅっぱんすばしょもつ
この本は出版こそされていないが、素晴らしい書物だと思う。
“It hasn’t been published, but I think it’s a wonderful book.”
The next example expresses that while having money is ideal, this is a condition that has not been
met; however, this negative situation has not had a serious effect on the speaker’s life.
しあわせいかつ
お金こそないが、幸せな生活をしている。
“I don’t have money, but my life is quite happy.”
2: The Overriding Particle さえ

When a noun is followed by the particle さえ, it indicates that it is the least likely thing, person, or
event the speaker can imagine in a certain situation.
(1) さえ with a negative predicate
Because of the meaning that noun phrases with さえ convey, sentences with さえ are often in the neg-
ative.
Suppose the speaker cooked something that did not turn out well. The speaker knows that the last
person who would complain about such a thing is Mori-san. In the following sentence, さえ expresses
that even Mori-san, who would normally eat just about anything, did not eat the food the speaker
cooked.
りょうり
森さんさえ私の料理に手をつけなかった。
“Even Mori-san didn’t touch the food I cooked.”
 さえ with numbers
さえ is often used to indicate the least possible amount. Suppose the speaker wants to express that
she or he has no money, the following sentence may be used to express this situation.
一セントさえ持っていなかった。
“I had no money, not even a cent.”
The overriding particle も with a negative predicate conveys a similar meaning.
一セントも持っていなかった。
“I didn’t have a cent.”
In fact, さえ and も may be combined to emphasize the severity of the situation:
一セントさえも持っていなかった。
“I didn’t have a single cent.”
 も and さえ
Although sentences with も and さえ may convey similar meanings, this does not mean that も and さ
え have the same meaning and are thus interchangeable. In fact, they differ slightly in nuance. In
the following examples, both も and さえ indicate that people other than Mori-san did not touch the
food. The sentence with さえ, however, implies that the speaker expected that at least Mori-san would
eat the food, but even this minimum requirement was not fulfilled. Such an assumption is lacking
with も. The use of も simply indicates that Mori-san was not an exception.
りょうり
森さんさえ私の料理に手をつけなかった。
“Even Mori-san didn’t touch the food I cooked.”
りょうり
森さんも私の料理に手をつけなかった。
“Mori-san didn’t touch the food I cooked, either.”
(2) さえ with a positive predicate
A noun phrase marked by さえ indicates that this is the least expected person or thing to do some-
thing. Suppose the speaker is a comedian, and everyone laughed during his or her performance.
The sentence below indicates that Mori-san is the last person that anyone expected to laugh, and
even he or she laughed at the performance.
もりわら
森さんさえ笑ってくれた。
“Even Mori-san laughed.”
 さえ with a conditional predicate
When used in general statements containing a positive predicate, さえ often accompanies a condi-
tional adverbial clause.
Suppose that the speaker’s minimum requirement for a meal is that there be rice.
ご飯さえあれば、食事は何でもいい。
“As long as there’s rice, anything will make a meal.”
ご飯さえあったら、食事は何でもいい。
“As long as there’s rice, anything will make a meal.”
If the speaker believes that practicing every day is what is minimally necessary to be good at Japanese,
then she or he can say the following:
毎日、練習さえしていれば、日本語は上手になる。
“If you at least practice every day, you’ll get good at Japanese.”
 すら
すら is a particle that is very similar to さえ in usage, especially in negative sentences. すら is used
more in formal writing and speech, whereas さえ is used for both colloquial and formal writing and
speech.
一セントすら持っていなかった。
“I didn’t have a single cent.”
3: The Overriding Particle ばかり
(1) ばかり as an overriding particle
When ばかり precedes a noun, the phrase indicates that that is the only thing or person that will do
or did the action.
森さんばかり話していた。
“Mori-san was the only one talking.” [I.e., other people did not have a chance to speak.]
The overriding particle だけ expresses a similar meaning.
森さんだけ話していた。
“Only Mori-san was talking.”
The above sentence with だけ expresses the event as one incident; it is not clear if others wanted to
speak. Using ばかり implies that every time the occasion arose to speak, it was Mori who spoke, and
he or she did not give others a chance to speak.
Compare the following sentences in which ばかり and だけ are used for the direct objects.
やさい
あの人は野菜ばかり食べる。
“All he eats is vegetables.”
やさい
あの人は野菜だけ食べる。
“He will only eat vegetables.”
When だけ is used, the sentence says that among the choices that the topic has, he or she chooses
only vegetables. This sentence does not imply that this happens every time that the topic eats, which
is the implication expressed by ばかり.
(2) Complex predicates with ばかりだ
When ばかりだ is used in complex predicates, the aspect of the verb before ばかり conveys a specific
meaning.
 With the positive imperfective form
When the verb before ばかりだ is imperfective, ばかり singles the verb out as the only action that the
topic will do or does.
In the following sentence, the use of the imperfective before ばかりだ indicates that writing the paper
still remains to be completed.
そつぎょうあと
卒業までに後はこのレポートを書くばかりです。
“The only thing left to do before graduation is to write this paper.”
The following example indicates that in the past, the student has just had fun and never studied,
and implies that this behavior is habitual.
あそぜんぜん
あの学生は遊ぶばかりで、全然、勉強をしない。
“That student just goofs off and doesn’t study at all.”
In either case, however, one action is being singled out.

 With the positive perfective form
When the verb before ばかりだ is in the perfective, the sentence means that the action was completed
recently.
そぼたいいん
祖母は退院したばかりです。
“My grandmother was discharged from the hospital just a little while ago.”
This usage of ばかりだ is very similar to the use of complex predicates with ところだ. The difference
between the two will be discussed in the following section.
(3) Difference between ところだ and ばかりだ
Complex predicates with ばかりだ and ところだ are quite similar, especially when the verb is in the
perfective form. Sentences with ところだ assume that no time has passed between the completion of
an event and the time of speaking, while those with ばかりだ indicate that the event was completed
recently, so a short period of time may have passed between the completion of an event and the time
of speaking.
In the following examples, because of these meaning differences, the sentence with ところだ might
be used on the day of the wedding, while the one with ばかりだ would be used after a short period of
time has passed.
けっこん
兄は結婚したところです。
兄は結婚したばかりです。
“My brother just got married.”
The following example indicates that the time between when the computer was bought and when
it broke was short:
こわ
このコンピュータは、買ったばかりなのに、もう壊れてしまった。
“We just bought this computer, but it’s already broken.”
In this case, the use of ところだ is inappropriate because the sentence with ところだ indicates that the
action of buying was only just completed.
(4) Fixed expressions with ばかりじゃなく~も
The expression ばかりじゃ（or では）なく and も means something similar to “not only . . . but also . . .”
The first part may be ばかりではなく, ばかりでなく, or ばかりじゃなく, in order from most to least formal:
あの人はきれいなばかりではなく、頭もとてもいい。
“Not only is she pretty, but she is also very smart.”
あの人はほとんど何も食べないばかりでなく、水も飲まない。
“Not only is he not eating, but he’s not even drinking water.”
外国語は話すことが難しいばかりじゃなく、書くこともとても難しい。
“Not only is speaking in a foreign language difficult, but writing is, as well.”
(5) ばかり with numbers
ばかり can also be used after numbers, indicating that the number is approximate. This is similar to
the use of ぐらい. The difference is that ばかり has the combined meaning of “only” and “approxi-
mately” whereas ぐらい indicates only approximation. Because of this meaning, the number with ば
かり gives the sense that the number mentioned is a small amount, at least to the speaker.
二分ばかり待っていたら、田村さんが来た。
“I only waited for Tamura-san for about two minutes, and then he came.”
s4: Complex Predicates with だけだ
The overriding particle だけ is also used in complex predicates.
(1) With the imperfective form
When the verb used immediately before だけ is in the imperfective form, the structure indicates that
the only thing to be done is what the verb indicates:
りょこうじゅんびぜんぶあと
旅行の準備は全部した。後は、母に電話をするだけだ。
“I’ve done everything in preparation for the trip. The only thing left to do is to call my mother.”
The verb before だけ may also be nominalized by こと, as in the following:

りょこうじゅんびぜんぶあと
旅行の準備は全部した。後は、母に電話をすることだけだ。
“I’ve done everything in preparation for the trip. Now I just have to call my mother.”
The difference between the verb with こと and without it is very slight, especially when only one verb
is used. Using こと allows more than one verb to be listed in the sentence, however.
りょこうじゅんびぜんぶあとぎんこう
旅行の準備は全部した。後は、母に電話をすることと銀行に行くことだけだ。
“I’ve done everything in preparation for the trip. Now I just have to call my mother and go to the
bank.”
(2) With the perfective form
When the verb used immediately before だけ is in the perfective form, the structure indicates that
the only thing the topic did is what the verb indicates:
れいきっぷおく
スミスさんに宿題の漢字を教えてあげただけなのに、お礼にと言って、高いコンサートの切符を送ってくれた。
“All I did was to help Smith-san with the kanji in her assignment; she gave me an expensive concert
ticket in return.”
たのだまむ
彼に頼んだのに、彼は黙って、向こうに行っただけだった。
“I asked him, but he just left without saying a word.”
 The difference between だけだ and ばかりだ
Complex predicates with だけだ and ばかりだ are similar when the verb that precedes them is in the
imperfective. With だけだ, the meaning focus is that the only action the topic takes is to respond.
When ばかりだ is used, it is possible to interpret the sentence as meaning that each time someone
asks, the topic responds.
へんじあと
あの人は返事をするだけで、後は何もしない。
“When asked, all he does is respond; he never does anything.”
へんじあと
あの人は返事をするばかりで、後は何もしない。
“Whenever he is asked, all he does is respond; he never does anything.”
(1) Promise
やくそくまちが
 森君、来ませんねえ。約束の時間を間違えたんでしょうか。
おぼ
 森君にかぎって、そんなことはありませんよ。昨日、ちゃんと覚えてましたよ。もうすぐ、来るんじゃないでしょ
うか。
 Mori-kun isn’t here yet. I wonder if he got the appointment time wrong.
 He wouldn’t do something like that. He remembered it yesterday. I’m sure he’ll be here soon.
 森君にかぎって、そんなことはありませんよ
かぎって comes from the verb 限（かぎ）る “to limit.” Used adverbially, this entire sentence means
“Mori-kun won’t do something like that,” and 森君にかぎって expresses the notion that “of all people,
it would never be Mori-kun who . . .”
 来るんじゃないでしょうか
This sentence means “He’ll probably come soon”; literally, “Isn’t it the case that he will come?”
(2) Forgetfulness
こまわす
 困ったわねえ。さっき、言ったばっかりなのに、もう忘れてる。
ごろいそが
 彼、この頃、忙しすぎるんですよ。
 そうかもしれないわねえ。
 How annoying! I just told him, and he’s forgotten already.
 I think he’s really busy these days.
 He must be.
 さっき、言ったばっかりなのに
ばっかり is a colloquial spoken form of ばかり. This clause means “I just told him or her a little while
ago, but in spite of that . . .”
(3) Perfect timing
しょくじぼく
 今から、食事なんですか。僕、ちょうどいいところに来ましたねえ。
 ちゃっかりしてるんだなあ。
 Are you eating now? I came at the right time, didn’t I?
 Oh! You’re shameless!
 ちょうどいいところに
ところ here does not refer to a physical place. It refers to a “place in time.”
 ちゃっかりする
It may be impossible to capture the concept of this phrase with a single word in English, but it refers
to the following kind of behavior: when a person easily or readily takes advantage of the other per-
son’s work, then that kind of behavior is expressed as ちゃっかりする.
(4) Polite apologies
せんじつもうわけ
 先日は申し訳ございませんでした。
しつれいいた
 いいえ、とんでもございません。こちらこそ失礼致しました。
 I’m so sorry about the other day.
 Oh, no — not at all. I’m the one who should apologize.
 先日
This is a more formal version of この間（あいだ）, “the other day.”
 申し訳（もうしわけ）ございません
申し訳（もうしわけ） means “excuse”; 申し訳（もうしわけ）ありません literally means that “I have no excuse,”
and thus the expression is used to express an apology. 申し訳（もうしわけ）ございません is more polite
than 申し訳（もうしわけ）ありません, which was introduced in Stage 2–3.
 とんでもございません
This is a very polite way of responding when someone offers thanks or an apology. This expression
means something like “there is no need to thank me/apologize to me.” Even when ありません is used
instead of ございません as in とんでもありません, the expression is still quite formal.
Stage 4
Referencing
Many structures and vocabulary items have been introduced in this textbook. Learning Japa-
nese, of course, does not stop there. There are still many other structures, vocabulary items,
kanji, pieces of cultural information, and other things to learn. Students will need to know
what to pay attention to and what questions to ask when something new appears in readings
or when engaged in speech. The following points should be understood:
1. Long sentences are nothing more than combinations of smaller parts (words, phrases,
clauses, and sentences). The structures of long sentences may be either compound or
complex. In the case of long and complex sentences, it is important to be able to figure
out which clauses are dependent or independent and whether the dependent clauses
are adjectival or adverbial.
2. In discourse, topics and other elements are often deleted, and it is important to be able
to identify those deleted elements.
3. Students who check the meaning of new words in a dictionary should keep in mind
that the English meaning that is given for the word will not share the exact same prop-
erties of meaning as the Japanese word. There is really no dictionary that can provide
all the information needed for an accurate understanding of each word, but students
can ask their instructors questions that will help them to grasp the precise nuances.
4. Just as Japanese and English words do not translate exactly, neither do grammatical
structures. Just because certain structures are used in English does not guarantee that
the same structures are used in Japanese.
5. The speaker’s point of view and/or interpretation are built into many Japanese sen-
tences. Students need to pay great attention to the use of complex predicates to add
these nuances of the speaker’s view.
6. Do not get discouraged if words or kanji learned earlier prove difficult to remember.
The most frequently used words and kanji will stay in one’s memory longer, but once
learned, they will come back if used again. They will be easier to remember if the student
has seen them even once; twice is better than once, three times is better than twice, and
so on. Students should not feel frustrated when they forget what they have learned.
Frustration is a great hindrance to learning.
Stage 4 takes up some of the language features that students may encounter through new
readings or conversations. Only a few selected structures are given here; many more struc-
tures and expressions could have been listed.
Use this stage, therefore, as a reference rather than something to be learned in order. Be-
cause of the nature of the features of this Stage, the chapters are simply listed alphabeti-
cally.

Stage 4-2 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases
Stage 4-4 Conjunctions
Stage 4-5 Counters
Stage 4-6 Honorifics (Summary)
Stage 4-7 Media Print Language
Stage 4-8 On Words and Vocabulary
1. 限り（かぎり）
2. 結果（けっか）
3. 頃（ころ）
4. 際（さい）
5. 次第（しだい）
6. 瞬間（しゅんかん）
7. ために
8. 度に（たびに）
9. 場合（ばあい）
10. やいなや
1: Adverbial Clauses with 限（かぎ）り
かぎり used in adverbial clauses comes from the verb 限（かぎ）る, which means “to limit.” The verb
preceding かぎり in adverbial clauses should be in the imperfective form. An adverbial clause with
かぎり expresses a condition limited to what is expressed in that clause.
あなたがここにいるかぎり、私は勉強できません。
“As long as you are here, I cannot study.”
あなたが僕に英語を話すかぎり、僕の日本語は上手にならないと思います。
“So long as you speak English to me, I believe that my Japanese will not improve.”
さけ
あなたは、お酒をやめないかぎり、元気になりませんよ。
“You will not be healthy, as long as you do not quit drinking.”
 ~にかぎって
The adverbial phrase ~にかぎって also derives from the verb 限（かぎ）る. The statement made in the
main clause applies only to the person or a thing expressed in ~にかぎって.
田中さんにかぎって、そんなことを言うはずがない。
“There is no way that Tanaka-san would say such a thing.”
s2: Adverbial Clauses with 結果（けっか）
結果（けっか）, used as a noun in this structure, means “result.”

けっか
先週、試験を受けましたが、その結果はまだ分かりません。
“I took the examination last week, but I don’t know its result yet.”
結果（けっか） can also be used as a sentential conjunction.

いっしょうけんめいけっかごうかく
一生懸命に勉強しました。その結果、試験に合格しました。
“I studied hard. As a result, I passed the exam.”
結果（けっか） may also be used in adverbial clauses. The meaning of the adverbial clause with this
結果（けっか） is the reason for the result expressed in the main clause.
けっかこんかいしあいか
毎日、五時間、練習した結果、今回は試合に勝つことができました。
“I was able to win the competition this time as a result of having practiced five hours a day.”
s3: Adverbial Clauses with 頃（ころ）
The word 頃, pronounced ごろ, has already been introduced in Stage 1–4 with specific times, as fol-
lows.
ごろ
今は三時頃でしょうか。
“Is it around 3:00 now?”
頃 may be used as a time adverb, but in this case it is pronounced ころ and never ごろ. ころ in this use
is normally written in hiragana rather than kanji.
あなたは三年前、日本にいたのですか。私はそのころ中国で勉強していました。
“So, you were in Japan three years ago? I was studying in China around that time.”
ころ may also be used in adverbial clauses. This clause expresses another event occurring around
the time the event expressed in the main clause occurred or will occur.
あなたが日本に着いたころ、私はまだ寝ていました。
“Around the time you arrived in Japan, I was still asleep.”
私がドイツで勉強しているころは、あなたはもうそこにはいませんね。
“Around the time I will be studying in Germany, you will no longer be there, will you?”
s4: Adverbial Clauses with 際（さい）
際（さい）, when used as a sentential conjunction, is very similar in meaning to 時（とき）. The use of
際（さい） is, however, rather formal.
さいぜひ
来年、日本にいらっしゃるんですか。その際には、是非、うちにもいらして下さい。
“You will come to Japan next year? Do come visit us, if you come at that time.”
When 際（さい） is used in an adverbial clause, the clause expresses the time when the event described
in the main clause has occurred or will occur. The use of 際（さい） here is also very similar to 時, but
it is more formal.
さいぜひたよ
日本にいらした際には、是非、お立ち寄りください。
“When you come to Japan, please do visit us.”
5: Adverbial Clauses with 次第（しだい）

The adverbial clause with 次第（しだい） expresses a time condition for an event referred to in the
main clause. The sentence with this adverbial clause explains that the event expressed in the main
clause occurred or will occur as soon as the event described in the adjectival clause is complete. The
predicate of this adverbial clause must be formed by combining the stem of a verb and 次第（しだ
い）.
しだい
朝ご飯が終わり次第、仕事に出かけます。
“As soon as I finish my breakfast, I will leave for work.”
Using the adverb すぐに “immediately” instead of the adverbial clause with 次第（しだい） conveys a
similar meaning. The adverb すぐに modifies the main clause, and the adverbial clause may be ex-
pressed by such forms as the たら-form or て-form.
朝ご飯が終わったら、すぐに仕事に出かけます。
朝ご飯が終わって、すぐに仕事に出かけます。
There are differences between the two structures, the one with the adverbial clause with 次第（しだ
い） and the other with the adverb すぐに. One difference is the level of formality. 次第（しだい） is
used in more formal situations than すぐに. Another difference is time. The length of the interval
between the end of the event expressed in the adverbial clause and the beginning of the event ex-
pressed in the main clause is shorter in sentences with 次第（しだい） than in those with すぐに.
 Noun with 次第（しだい）
In addition to its use in the adverbial clause, 次第（しだい） may be used to mean “something is up
to/depends on the noun.”
いつ行きましょうか。
“When shall we go?”
しだい
あなた次第です。
“It is up to you.”
せいこうかれのうりょくしだい
成功するかしないかは彼の能力次第です。
“Whether we will succeed or not depends on his ability.”
s6: Adverbial Clauses with 瞬間（しゅんかん）
瞬間（しゅんかん） means “a moment.” So, when an adverbial clause with 瞬間（しゅんかん） is used in
a sentence, the events described in the two clauses occur very close to each other.
つしゅんかん
ここに着いた瞬間、雨が降り出した。
“The moment I arrived here, it began to rain.”
瞬間（しゅんかん） can also be used as a sentential conjunction, which means “at that moment.”
いなずまはししゅんかんなかでんきぜんぶき
稲妻が走った。その瞬間、うちの中の電気が全部、消えてしまった。
“Lightning flashed. At that moment, all the lights in the house went out.”
7: Adverbial Clauses with ために

The first two uses of ために in the following were introduced in Stages 2–4 and 2–5, but the third
structure is new.
 Beneficiary phrase
ために used after a noun indicates that the preceding noun is the beneficiary of the event expressed
in the sentence.
母のために、この手紙を書いています。
“I am writing this letter for my mother.”
た
子供のために、たくさんお金を貯めたいと思っています。
“I want to save a lot of money for my children.”
 Purpose clause (imperfective predicates)
ために used in an adverbial clause expresses the purpose of the action expressed in the main clause.
In this case, the predicate in the adverbial clause is always in the imperfective.
来年、日本に行くために、今、日本語を勉強しています。
“I am studying Japanese in order to go to Japan next year.”
 Causal clause (perfective predicates)
An adverbial clause with ために, when the predicate of that clause is in the perfective form, is used
to give a reason for the event expressed in the main clause. The consequence stated in the main
clause in this construction is usually not a positive one. This differs from the other adverbial reason
clauses (e.g., から, ので, ~て).
日本に三年間、住んでいたために、英語の話し方を少し忘れました。
“Because I lived in Japan for three years, I forgot a little how to speak English.”
きょういくうつ
あの人はいい教育を受けなかったために、いい仕事に就けなかった。
“Because he did not receive good education, he was not able to get a good job.”
s8: Adverbial Clauses with 度（たび）に
An adverbial clause with 度（たび）に indicates that every time the event described in that clause hap-
pens, the result is the event described in the main clause.
くるまのきぶんわる
私は車に乗るたびに、気分が悪くなる。
“Every time I ride in a car, I feel sick.”
しけんういや
試験を受けるたびに、勉強が嫌になる。
“Every time I take a test, I feel discouraged about my studies.”
Adverbial clauses with と express a similar meaning. Recall that the adverbial clause with と expresses
natural consequences in the main clause. If a sentence with the adverbial clause with 度（たび）に is
used to express a natural consequence, the sentence becomes quite awkward. Compare the following
two sentences:
春が来ると、暖かくなる。
“When spring comes, it gets warm.”
*春が来る度に、暖かくなる。
[intended meaning] “Whenever spring comes, it gets warm.”
The above sentence with 度に is awkward because the event expressed in the main clause sounds as
if the information is totally new to the listener or the reader of this sentence. 度に, therefore, should
be used when the consequence expressed in the main clause is a personal event or experience, as
shown below.
はるくにわはなうか
春が来る度に、庭の花を植え替える。
“Every spring, I plant new flowers in the garden.”
s9: Adverbial Clauses with 場合（ばあい）
場合（ばあい）, a noun meaning “occasion”; “case,” is used either as a sentential conjunction or in

adverbial clauses.
 As a sentential conjunction
When used as a sentential conjunction, it is used with pronouns such as この（その・あの） and こんな
（そんな・あんな）.
きばあい
薬は飲んでも効かないことがあります。そんな場合には、飲むのを止めてください。
“Sometimes medicine does not work. When that happens, you should stop taking it.”
 In adverbial clauses
When 場合（ばあい） is used in an adverbial clause, the clause with 場合 expresses a certain situation
that becomes the condition for the occurrence of another event described in the main clause. The
following sentences may sound similar to the sentences with the adjectival clauses with 時, but the
clause with 時 specifies a time condition rather than a situation.
こばあいでんわ
先生が来ない場合は、電話をしてください。
“If the teacher does not show up, please call me.”
じゅぎょうやすばあいつぎひい
授業を休んだ場合は、次の日に先生に言うことにしています。
“I make it a rule to tell my teacher on the following day in the event that I did not go to class.”
s10: Adverbial clauses with やいなや
When やいなや is used in an adverbial clause, an event expressed in the main clause comes imme-
diately after the event expressed in the adverbial clause is complete. Use the imperfective form before
やいなや.
うちかえともだちでんわ
家に帰るやいなや、友達から電話がありました。
“As soon as I returned home, I had a phone call from a friend.”
Adverbial clauses with やいなや are very similar in meaning to adverbial clauses with 瞬間（しゅんか
ん）に and 次第（しだい）. The following summarizes the meaning and structural differences of the
three:
 Meaning differences
The adverbial clause with 次第（しだい）に focuses on the completion of the event expressed in the
adverbial clause. The adverbial clauses with 瞬間（しゅんかん）に and やいなや, rather than focusing
on the completion, emphasize the short time between the two events described in the adverbial and
main clauses. The use of やいなや sounds more formal than the use of 瞬間（しゅんかん）に.
 Predicate forms in the adverbial clauses
Pay special attention to the predicate forms when using 次第（しだいに）, 瞬間（しゅんかん）に, and や
いなや in adverbial clauses. Before やいなや, use the imperfective form; before 瞬間（しゅんかん）に,
use the perfective; and before 次第（しだい）に, use the stem form.
Stage 4-2 Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases
1. What Do Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases Do?

2. Onomatopoeia
3. Adverbial Phrases with ~ずに
4. Fixed Phrases
(1) 生まれながらにして
(2) 思い切って
(3) 思わず・・・てしまう
(4) 正直（なところ）
(5) ただ一人
(6) たった一人
(7) ひょっとすると
(8) ふいに
(9) ふと
(10) ~ぶり
1: What Do Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases Do?
Adverbs are single words, but adverbial phrases and clauses consist of more than one word. Adver-
bial phrases cannot stand alone, but adverbial clauses contain the same minimum elements as sen-
tences. Adverbs and adverbial phrases add a great deal of information to what the speaker or the
writer wishes to convey.
For instance, to express different ways to “walk,” English speakers may use different verbs, e.g.,
“stroll,” “trail,” “stride,” “hobble,” “waddle,” among others. Japanese speakers tend to rely on a single
verb 歩（ある）く, combined with various adverbs (including onomatopoeia) to express different ways
of walking.
歩く “walk”
ぶらぶら歩く “stroll”
足をひきずって歩く “limp”
おお
大またに歩く “stride”
びっこをひいて歩く “hobble”
よたよた歩く “waddle”
よちよち歩く “toddle” (e.g., infants)
There are obviously too many adverbs and adverbial phrases to list here, so the list is limited to some
common onomatopoeia and adverbial phrases, especially fixed phrases.
2: Onomatopoeia
The use of onomatopoeia enriches expressions, especially when speaking. They are best learned
with the appropriate verb, especially when they are used adverbially. The list of onomatopoeia below
therefore gives the verbs they are associated with.
Onomatopoeia Meaning
な
ワンワン泣く cry (bawling)
シクシク泣く cry (sobbing)
エーンエーン泣く cry (baby)

わら
ゲラゲラ笑う laugh aloud
にっこり笑う smile (brief; fleeting)
にこにこ笑う smile (beaming)

ね
こっくりこっくり寝る sleep (nod or doze)
ぐうぐう寝る sleep (soundly)
ぐうすか寝る sleep (carefree; snoring)

ふる
がたがた震える tremble (large shakes)
ふる
ぶるぶる震える tremble (shiver)
ジーっと見る stare (one place)
じろじろ見る stare (eyes moving around)

もんく
ぶつぶつ文句を言う complain (by mumbling)
Onomatopoeia Meaning
もんく
くどくど文句を言う complain (naggingly; repeatedly)
ぬ
びしょびしょに濡れる get wet (could be a part of the body)
ぬ
びっしょり濡れる get wet (the entire body)
じりじり暑い hot (scorching)
ぽかぽか暖かい warmth (from sunshine)

あせなが
汗をたらたら流す sweat (dripping sweat)
あせ
汗がじっとり出る sweat (light sweat; no dripping)
3: Adverbial Phrases with ~ずに

The adverbial use of ~ないで was introduced in Stage 2–1, and sentences with this expression mean
that the action described in the main clause was or will be achieved without completing the action
described in the adverbial phrase. Equivalent to the ~ない negative, the ~ず negative is an older way
to indicate the negative of verbs. Adding the particle に, ~ずに sounds more formal than ~ないで in
both writing and speech.
朝ご飯を食べないで（食べずに）、学校に行きました。
“I went to school without eating breakfast.”
りょうしんにゅうがくしけん
両親に言わないで（言わずに）、大学院の入学試験を受けました。
“I took an entrance examination for graduate school without telling my parents.”
The ~ず negative forms of する and くる are せず and こず, respectively.
宿題をせずに、授業に行った。
“I went to class without doing my homework.”
お金を持ってこずに、買い物に行きました。
“I went shopping, but didn’t take any money.”
4: Fixed Phrases
Fixed adverbial phrases come up all the time in reading and conversation and are valuable to learn.
The phrases listed here as examples are some of the more common ones.
(1) 生（う）まれながらにして
Using the verb 生（う）まれる, meaning “to be born,” this phrase means “at birth”; “by birth”; “from
birth,” etc.
さいのうめぐ
あの子は生まれながらにして、音楽の才能に恵まれているようですね。
“That child is naturally talented in music.”
ごがく
あの学生は生まれながらにして、語学の才能があるのでしょうか。
“Do you think that student has a gift for languages?”
(2) 思い切って（おもいきって）
思い切る（おもいきる） is a complex verb, consisting of the verb 思（おも）う “to think” and 切（き）る “to
cut.” The combination literally means “to cut thinking”; that is “to stop thinking and decide.” When
used adverbially, the verb must be in the conjunctive form.
おもき
思い切って、日本に行くことにしました。
“I wasn’t sure in the beginning, but I made up my mind to go to Japan.”
けっかおもき
してみないと結果は分かりませんから、思い切って、やってみて下さい。
“Since you don’t know what will happen unless you try, you should just give it a try.”
(3) 思（おも）わず・・・~てしまう
思（おも）わず contains the ~ず negative which was explained above. When 思わず is used adverbially,
the sentence often ends with ~てしまう to convey that the result has been achieved unintentionally.
おももんく
あまりまずかったので、思わず文句を言ってしまった。
“It tasted so bad that I complained without stopping to think.”
おもさけ
とてもなつかしく、思わず叫んでしまった。
“It was so nostalgic, I shouted out loud (without thinking).”
(4) 正直（しょうじき）なところ
正直（しょうじき） is an adjectival noun meaning “honest.” This word may be used alone as an adverb
for the entire sentence or with ところ, meaning “my honest feeling right now.” The following exam-
ples show two different ways of using this word or phrase. The expression 正直言う carries the same
meaning.
しょうじきところはたら
正直（なところ）、私はもうこんな所で働きたくないと思っています。
しょうじきところはたら
正直言って、私はもうこんな所で働きたくないと思っています。
“Honestly speaking, I no longer want to work at this kind of place.”
(5) ただ一人（ひとり）
ただ一人（ひとり） in itself is not a fixed expression, but it illustrates that only very small numbers can
follow the adverb ただ. ただ emphasizes the smallness of the number before it. “Small” of course is
relative to the context. “One” may be a small number in one context, and in another, “one hundred”
may be small.
りょうさいしょくしゅぎしゃ
僕の寮では菜食主義者の学生は、僕、ただ一人だけだった。
“In my dorm, I was the only student who was a vegetarian.”
(6) たった一人（ひとり）
This phrase is almost the same as the expression with ただ. たった is more colloquial than ただ, but
it emphasizes aloneness or emptiness even more.
うちものみんな
家の者は皆、出てしまって、たった一人ぽっちになってしまった。
“Everyone in the family had left, and I was all alone.”
(7) ひょっとすると
The fixed phrase ひょっとする may be used to express the following nuance: “possibly”; “by chance.”
Because the phrase expresses ambiguity, the predicate of a sentence with this phrase often contains
かもしれない or some similar ending.
かれ
ひょっとすると、彼が今日、帰ってくるかもしれない。
“It just might happen that he will come home today.”
ひょっとすると、あの人は私が言ったことが分かっていなかったのだろうか。
“It is quite possible that he didn’t understand what I told him.”
(8) ふいに
The adverbial phrase ふいに consists of the noun 不意（ふい） and the particle に. The noun 不意（ふ
い） literally means “suddenness; unexpectedness.” ふいに used adverbially indicates an event occurs
or has occurred “suddenly”; “abruptly”; “without warning.”
彼はふいに外に出て行った。
“Abruptly he went outside.”
彼女のことをふいに思い出した。
“I suddenly started thinking about her.”
(9) ふと
This adverb indicates that the action following this adverb was done spontaneously without plan-
ning.
そらみあふうせんと
ふと空を見上げたら、きれいな風船が飛んでいた。
“When I happened to look up, there was a beautiful balloon floating in the sky.”
ふと頭を上げたら、そこに小さな子供が立っていた。
“I just happened to look up, and there stood a small child.”
(10) ~ぶり
The Preparatory Stage introduced the expression ひさしぶりですねえ “We have not seen each other
for quite a while, have we?” The suffix ~ぶり indicates the time interval that has passed since the last
event, so the element before ~ぶり should be time-related. It is often used with the words that express
duration.
三年ぶりに、山中さんに会った。
“I saw Yamanaka-san for the first time in three years.”
五日ぶりに、ご飯を食べた。
“I had a meal for the first time in five days.”
1. つもりだ
2. はずだ
3. ~ずには・ないではいられない
4. とはかぎらない
5. というようなことではない
6. ではないだろうか
7. ~てたまらない
8. ~つつある
9. ~ざるをえない
1: Complex Predicates with つもりだ
The complex predicate with つもりだ was introduced and discussed in Stages 1–7, 1–9, and 2–7. This
construction expresses the speaker’s intention to do or not to do something. These points are re-
viewed below, and some additional information is added.
 When the predicate is in the imperfective
The speaker’s intention to do or not to do something is expressed by the positive and negative im-
perfective predicate preceding つもりだ, respectively.
私は来年、日本で勉強するつもりです。
“I plan to study in Japan next year.”
来年、日本で勉強しないつもりです。
“I do not plan to study in Japan next year.”
This construction may be used to express the speaker’s plan or to ask an addressee directly about
his or her plan. It may not be used to express a third-person’s plan, however.
卒業したら、どんなことをするつもりですか。
“What are you planning to do after you graduate?”
*卒業したら、山中さんはどんなことをするつもりですか。
[intended meaning] “What is Yamanaka-san planning to do after she graduates?”
 Denying intention or having no plan
There is a subtle meaning difference depending on whether the negation is placed in the predicate
preceding つもりだ or in the main predicate.
When the predicate preceding つもりだ is negative, the sentence indicates that the speaker has no
plan to do something. For instance, when asked whether or not he/she plans to study in Japan, the
following sentence may be used to respond negatively to that question.
来年は日本で勉強しないつもりです。
“I do not plan to study in Japan next year.”
The following sentence indicates that the speaker negates someone else’s assumption. For example,
when the addressee believes that the speaker will go to Japan next year, the following response may
be used to deny such an assumption.
来年、日本で勉強するつもりはありません。
“I have no plan to study in Japan next year.” [Literally, “The plan of studying in Japan does not exist.”]
The above structure is not the negative construction of the complex predicate with つもりだ. Rather,
the functional noun つもり is modified by the adjectival clause, 日本で勉強する, and the verb ある in
the negative form is used following it.
In fact, the negative structure of the complex predicate with つもりだ is not used to convey the above
message.
*来年、日本で勉強するつもりじゃありません。
[intended meaning] “I have no plan to study in Japan next year.”
 Perfective copula
When the speaker had a plan or intention that did not materialize, the complex predicate with つも
りだ with the perfective copula is used, as follows.
私は今日、行くつもりでしたが、行けませんでした。
“I had planned to go, but I couldn’t.”
彼に言うつもりでしたが、言えませんでした。
“I meant to tell him, but I couldn’t.”
 Perfective verbs
When the speaker thought the action had been carried out but then found it had not, the perfective
form in the predicate preceding つもりだ is used.
彼にメールを出したつもりですが、まだ出していなかったのです。
“I thought I had sent him an e-mail message, but found I hadn’t done it yet.”
しかまったき
あの子を叱ったつもりですが、あの子は全く気がついていないようです。
“I thought I was scolding him, but he didn’t even know that I was.”
s2: Complex Predicates with はずだ
The complex predicates with はずだ were introduced in Stage 2–7 to express the speaker’s expectation
of others or events. Below, after reviewing the structure in which the imperfective predicate is used
preceding はずだ, some additional information is added.
 When the predicate is in the imperfective
The complex predicate with はずだ expresses the speaker’s expectation of others, of events, or even
of the speaker him/herself. When the expectation is of the speaker him/herself, it is an objective ex-
pectation of him/herself. The assertion or denial of an expected event is expressed in the predicate
preceding はずだ.
あの人からの手紙は今日、来るはずです。
“The letter from him ought to arrive today.”
あの人からの手紙は今日は来ないはずです。
“I don’t think the letter from him will arrive today.”
 Denying an expectation or having no expectation
Like the complex predicate with つもりだ, there is a subtle meaning difference depending on whether
the negation is placed in the predicate preceding はずだ or in the main predicate.
First, when the predicate preceding はずだ is in negative, the sentence indicates that the speaker ex-
pects that the event will not occur. For example, when asked whether or not the letter from a certain
person will arrive today, the following sentence may be used in the case that the speaker expects the
letter will not arrive today.
あの人からの手紙は今日、来ないはずです。
“I don’t think that the letter from him will arrive today.”
Secondly, the following sentence indicates that the speaker denies someone else’s expectation that
a certain event will take place. For instance, when the speaker knows that the addressee has an
expectation that the letter from a certain person will arrive today, the following sentence is likely be
used to overule such an assumption.
あの人からの手紙が今日、来るはずはありません。
“There is no possibility that the letter from him will arrive today.”
As with つもり, the functional noun はず is modified by the adjectival clause, 手紙が来る, and the
verb ある is used in the negative form. The negative structure of the complex predicate with はずだ
is not used.
*あの人からの手紙が今日、来るはずじゃありません。
[intended meaning] “There is no possibility that the letter from him will arrive today.”
 Perfective copula
When the speaker wants to say that an expected event did not materialize, the copula of the complex
predicate with はずだ must be in the perfective form.
彼は今日、来るはずでしたが、来ませんでした。
“He was supposed to come, but he didn’t.”
 Perfective verbs
When the expectation is that the event had already happened, the perfective predicate preceding は
ずだ must be used.
あの人は来たはずですが、会いませんでした。
“I believe he has come, but I haven’t seen him.”
あの子はもう卒業したはずです。
“I think he has already graduated.”
3: Complex Predicates with ~ずには・~ないではいられない

The complex predicate with ~ずには・~ないではいられない is comprised of the negative verb form
and another predicate いられない, the negative potential form of いる. This construction conveys the
following meaning: the topic of the sentence has a strong urge to do something.
The negative suffix ~ず is an old way of negating verbs (see Stage 4–2). To obtain this ず-form,
replace the modern negative ~ない with ~ず. The only exception is the verb する, the old negative of
which is せず rather than しず. The には before いられない are the particles に and は.
When ~ない is used instead of ~ず, the conjunctive form of the copula, で, and the particle は must
be used before いられない.
These two constructions should be considered fixed expressions. As mentioned above, this sentence
with this complex predicate means something like: “one cannot help but do (something).”
東京に行くと、あの人に電話せずにはいられません。
東京に行くと、あの人に電話しないではいられません。
“Whenever I go to Tokyo, I cannot help calling him.”
あの店では、何か買わずにはいられない。
あの店では、何か買わないではいられない。
“When I go to that store, I cannot help buying something.”
s4: Complex Predicates with とはかぎらない
The complex predicate with とはかぎらない means “(the statement made in the preceding clause) is
not necessarily true.” This meaning comes from the verb at the end, 限（かぎ）る, which means “to
limit.” と is the quotative particle and は is contrastive. The clause before と indicates a certain state-
ment, and the speaker negates its validity. This complex predicate should be considered a fixed ex-
pression.
やさいすべ
野菜だけを食べることが全ての人にとっていいとはかぎりません。
“It is not necessarily true that eating only vegetables is good for everyone.”
日本語を勉強している学生が日本に行くとはかぎらない。
“It is not always true that students who study Japanese will go to Japan.”
s5: Complex Predicates with というようなことではない
The use of ということ was introduced in several places in this course (e.g., Stages 2–2 and 2–5). という
こと is used when the speaker rephrases or gives a definition of a certain concept. ような is used to ex-
press a simile (see Stage 3–2). Thus, the sentence with the complex predicate with というようなことで
はない means something like: “(concept) does not mean simply (what is explained preceding という
ようなこと).”
そだた
子育ていうのは単に食べさせればいいというようなことではない。
“Raising a child does not mean simply providing food.”
たんごおぼ
外国語を勉強するということは単語を覚えるというようなことではない。
“Studying a foreign language does not mean simply memorizing words.”
6: Complex Predicates with ではないだろうか

The complex predicate with ではないだろうか is used for rhetorical questions, which are questions
not particularly addressed to anyone. It consists of the negative of the copula, ではない, the volitional
form of the copula, だろう, and the sentence-final particle か.
けんこうがい
こんなものばかりを食べていると、健康の害になるのではないだろうか。
“If this is the only kind of thing you are eating, it could be bad for your health.”
あんなに夜も寝ずに勉強していては、病気になってしまうのではないでしょうか。
“If she studies without getting much sleep, I am afraid she will get sick.”
s7: Complex Predicates with ~てたまらない
Sentences with the complex predicate with たまらない express an overwhelming feeling on the part
of the speaker. The feeling is expressed by the て-form of the predicate preceding たまらない.
むすこさび
息子が大学に行ってから、寂しくてたまりません。
“Since my son left for college, I am indescribably lonely.”
りょこう
ヨーロッパに旅行したくてたまりません。
“I have a burning desire to travel in Europe.”
For emphasis, the word in the て-form may be repeated twice or more.
うれうれかお
嬉しくて、嬉しくてたまらないといった顔をしている。
“(S)he has the look of someone who is indescribably happy.”
s8: Complex Predicates with ~つつある
Sentences with the complex predicate with ~つつある express that the event described is “about to
happen or take place.” The verb form before ~つつ must be the stem.
じんせいおもしろはじ
私の人生にも面白いドラマが始まりつつある。
“An interesting drama in my life is beginning.”
A similar meaning may be expressed by the complex predicate with ところ, which was introduced in
Stage 3–3.
今から、勉強するところです。
“I am about to begin studying.”
Although these examples of the complex predicates with ~つつある and ところ indicate actions that
are about to begin, the contexts are different.
The construction with ところ may be used for everyday actions such as studying, eating, etc., while
that with ~つつある is for more serious or unusual events that are about to happen. Another differ-
ence is that the action or event expressed with ~つつある suggests that the initial stage, but not the
main event itself, might have already begun, but the structure with ところ does not imply the same
thing.
9: Complex Predicates with ~ ざるをえない

The replacement of the negative ~ない with an old form of the negative, ~ざる, and the addition of を
えない forms an expression meaning that the speaker has no choice but to do something.
行きたくないが、行かざるをえない。
“I don’t want to go, but I have no choice.”
その時、日本語の勉強をやめざるをえなかった。
“I had no choice but to cease studying Japanese at that time.”
The ざる-negatives of する and くる are せざる and こざる respectively.

うんてんきんきゅうばあい
運転はあまり好きではないが、緊急の場合は、運転せざるをえない。
“I don’t like driving very much, but when there is an emergency I have no choice but to drive.”
たのも
あれだけ頼まれると、僕のラップトップを持ってこざるをえなかった。
“I was asked so many times that I had no choice but to bring my own laptop.”
Stage 4-4 Conjunctions
1. Adding Information
(1) その上
(2) しかも
(3) あるいは
2. Consequences
(1) したがって
(2) すると
(3) その結果
(4) それで
3. Rephrasing
(1) いわば
(2) すなわち
(3) つまり
4. Contradiction
(1) しかし
(2) しかしながら
(3) ところが
5. Clarification
(1) だからといって
(2) ただし
(3) もっとも
6. Stems and Adverbial Forms as Clausal Conjunctions
7. Criteria of Usage
The mainly sentential conjunctions covered here are grouped according to function. Some have al-
ready been introduced. Needless to say, there are many more, but the number of functions is more
or less finite.
1: Adding Information
(1) その上（うえ）
上（うえ） means “above; over; top,” and the conjunction その上 is used to mean “moreover.” The
function of this conjunction is to add information beyond what has been given in the previous sen-
tence.
てんさいせいかくすば
あの人は何でもできる天才のようだ。その上、性格も素晴らしいと言われている。
“She seems to be a genius who can do anything. On top of that, I hear that she is a wonderful per-
son.”
(2) しかも
The conjunction しかも is similar to その上（うえ）. Derived from the overriding particles, しか and も,
しかも forms a sentential conjunction that adds the information in the first sentence onto that of the
second sentence. The two sentences joined by しかも mean something like “not only (information
given in the first sentence), but also (information given in the second sentence).”
だんせいまったくちことばもんくしまつ
あの男性は人の言うことなんか全く聞かない。しかも、口から出てくる言葉は文句ばかりだというから、始末
お
に終えない。
“That man does not listen to others. Not only that, all he does is complain, so he is very difficult to
deal with.”
The difference between その上 and しかも is the following. When two sentences are joined by その上,
the information given in the second sentence is a simple addition to the first. When joined by しか
も, the information given in the second sentence strengthens the statement made in the first sen-
tence.
(3) あるいは
あるいは indicates that the information given in the second sentence is alternative to the information
given in the first sentence.
なつらうれ
あんなに泣いているのは辛いからなのだろう。あるいは、嬉しいからなのだろうか。
“Is she crying because she is in pain? Or is it because she is happy?”
2: Consequences
(1) したがって
The conjunction したがって derives from the verb 従（したが）う “to follow.” It is used to link the pre-
ceding and following sentences into a cause-and-consequence relation.
なつうりょうさいていしみずぶそくたいさく
この夏の雨量は最低である。したがって、市は水不足対策にとりかかっている。
“Rainfall this summer was the lowest ever. The town, therefore, has begun to implement a water
shortage strategy.”
The function of したがって is the same as だから, but だから is less formal.
(2) すると
As introduced in Stage 2–5, the clausal conjunction と signals that the event described in the first
clause is soon followed by the event described in the second clause.
部屋に入ると、電話がなった。
“As soon as I entered the room, the phone rang.”
This same meaning carries over in usage of the sentential conjunction すると.
ろくじごろへやはいきゅうでんわだ
いつものように六時頃、部屋に入った。すると、急に電話がなり出した。
“I went into the room around 6:00 as usual. Right then, the phone suddenly began ringing.”
(3) その結果（けっか）
The noun 結果（けっか） means “result.” The conjunction その結果（けっか） therefore indicates that
the second sentence is the result of the event described in the first sentence.
おんがくさんかきびれんしゅう
音楽コンクールに参加するために三年間、毎日、厳しい練習をさせられた。
けっかゆうしょう
その結果、コンクールで優勝でした。
“For three years I had to practice very hard for the music competition. As a result, I won the com-
petition.”
(4) それで
それで is composed of the demonstrative pronoun それ and で, the conjunctive form of the copula.
それ refers to the content expressed in the first sentence. で connects the consequence expressed in
the second sentence to its reason in the first sentence. それで together functions as a sentential con-
junction.
この漢字が分からなかった。それで、先生に聞きに行った。
“I couldn’t read this kanji at all. So, I went to the teacher for help.”
The conjunction それで is similar to だから.
この漢字が分からなかった。だから、先生に聞きに行った。
“I couldn’t read this kanji at all. Therefore, I went to the teacher for help.”
The difference between それで and だから is the same as that between ~て and から when they are
used to connect two clauses, the first clause giving the reason and the second the consequence (see
Stage 2–4). Recall that the second clause, when joined by ~て, may not be such things as commands
and suggestions. This same restriction applies to the sentential conjunction それで.
こわ
これは壊れています。だから、使わないでください。
“This is broken, so don’t use it.”
こわ
*これは壊れています。それで、使わないでください。
[intended meaning] “This is broken, so don’t use it.”
s3: Rephrasing
(1) いわば
Literally meaning “in other words” or “one might say,” いわば is the old form of today’s 言（い）えば,
the ば-form of the verb 言う. いわば signals that the second sentence is a rephrasing of the first sen-
tence.
ものこじ
私は父も母もいない者となってしまった。いわば、孤児である。
“I became a person with neither father nor mother; in other words, an orphan.”
(2) すなわち
The rephrasing of a previously stated word, phrase, clause, or sentence is marked with the conjunc-
tion すなわち. The rephrased sentence may contain the speaker’s conclusive statement.
なんごくらくえんすけんこうとりもど
南国の楽園、すなわち、ハワイに住めると健康が取戻せるかもしれない。
“You might regain your health if you could live in a southern paradise — somewhere like Hawai‘i.”
さいごひぼくたいしょくせいかつはじ
今日が僕の最後の日。すなわち、明日から僕の退職生活が始まるということになります。
“Today is my last day. In other words, my retirement begins tomorrow.”
(3) つまり
Like すなわち above, つまり is used to rephrase a word, phrase, clause, or sentence in the following
sentence. Unlike すなわち, it does not convey a conclusive nuance, but rather another expression or
interpretation of the event or idea.
いもうとようこす
私の妹、つまり、洋子はここには住んでいない。
“My sister — that is, Yoko — does not live here.”
しけんお
私は試験に落ちた。つまり、来年は、日本に行けないということだ。
“I didn’t pass the test. What that means is that I cannot go to Japan next year.”
s4: Contradiction
(1) しかし
The conjunction しかし, like でも and けれども, is used by the speaker or writer to present a statement
in the second sentence that is contradictory to the expectation that is likely to be inferred from the
content of the first sentence.
かれぜんりょくつがんばかれどりょくみの
彼は全力を尽くして頑張った。しかし、彼の努力は実らなかった。
“He did his best, but his efforts were not rewarded.”
In the above sentence しかし may be replaced by でも and けれども, and the sentence will have the
same meaning. The tone of しかし, however, is more formal.
(2) しかしながら
しかし and しかしながら are similar in meaning and use. しかしながら carries an additional nuance,
however. It conveys the speaker’s or writer’s confirmation the value or truth of the content stated in
the first sentence, but it adds a statement in the second sentence, the content of which might con-
tradict the inference of the first sentence.
もちろんちからい
勿論、勉強に力を入れるということはいいことだ。しかしながら、勉強し過ぎるというのもどうかと思う。
“Of course, I realize it is good to study hard. However, it’s not a good idea to study too much.”
(3) ところが
The conjunction ところが connects two sentences in which the second sentence expresses an unex-
pected event or an event opposite to what is described in the first sentence.
しゅじんおもゆうじんしゅじん
主人がいないと思って友人と家に帰った。ところが、主人がもう家に帰っていて、本当にびっくりした。
“I went home with my friend thinking that my husband was not there. However, I was surprised to
find him home.”
s5: Clarification
(1) だからといって
This conjunction marks a reference to the previous statement, indicating a clarification of its mean-
ing in the second. The predicate of the second sentence is often interpretative.
はたら
私は学生だ。だからといって、働かないわけにはいかない。
“I may be a student, but that doesn’t mean that I can afford not to work.”
ぜったい
私には英語が話せない。だからといって、アメリカには絶対に行かないというわけではない。
“I cannot speak English, but that does not mean that I will never go to the United States.”
(2) ただし
When the conjunction ただし (“however; excepting that”) connects two sentences, the second sen-
tence expresses a condition that is needed if the first sentence’s statement is to be valid or true.
りょこうしゃちょうきょかばあいだめ
来週は旅行したいと思っている。ただし、社長が許可を出さない場合は駄目になるだろう。
“I planned to go on a trip next week. If the president does not approve, however, I may not be able
to go.”
(3) もっとも
When もっとも (“however; though”) is used to connect two sentences, the second sentence presents
the possibility of additional interpretation or view.
かれきこうしかってかのうせい
彼は貴公子のような人だ。もっとも、私が勝手にそう思っている可能性は高いが。
“He is like a prince. Of course, the chances are that I am the only one who thinks so.”
もっとも and ただし are similar to one another, but the second of the two sentences joined by ただし
simply provides a condition, while the second of those joined by もっとも adds another possible inter-
pretation or view.
s6: Stems and Adverbial Forms as Clausal Conjunctions
One of the functions of the て-form is to connect clauses. Stems of verbs and the adverbial forms of
adjectives also have this function, but only in formal writing and speech. In the examples below,
both the conjunctive forms (in parentheses) and the stems or the adverbial forms are given.
おおすところすく
日本には山が多くあり（あって）、住める所が少ないと思われているようだ。
“People seem to think that the space for dwelling is limited in Japan because there are many moun-
tains.”
くるまべんり
あの車は小さく（小さくて）、とても便利だ。
“That car is small and easy to drive.”
しまぐにかざん
日本は島国であり（で）、火山が多い。
“Japan is an island country and has many volcanic mountains.”
7: Criteria of Usage
The phrasal, clausal, and sentential conjunctions introduced here are close in meaning. It is true
that many of them are interchangeable, and the meaning will be conveyed no matter which one the
speaker or writer chooses, as long as the connection is made correctly for the content. Students of
Japanese will naturally wonder which to choose in speaking and writing.
When trying to choose an appropriate conjunction, one criterion you should keep in mind is the
formality of the speech or writing. It is also good to avoid repetition. Using different conjunctions
between sentences in the same paragraph is more effective in speech and writing.
Subtle nuances are important in conveying messages. As mentioned, many of the conjunctions dis-
cussed above, as well as others not listed here, are interchangeable, but carry subtle differences in
meaning. Understanding the nuances of these conjunctions will no doubt make speech and writing
more effective and polished, but a great deal of time and effort will of course be required to attain
such mastery.
Stage 4-5 Counters
1. 回（かい） turns 23. 着（ちゃく） clothes

2. 階（かい） floors 24. 通（つう） letters
3. 巻（かん） book volumes 25. 滴（てき） drops of fluid
4. 切（き）れ slices 26. 点（てん） scores and points
5. 行（ぎょう） lines of writing 27. 度（ど） frequency and temperature
6. 曲（きょく） pieces of music 28. 頭（とう） large animals
7. 口（くち） bites of food 29. 人前（にんまえ） servings of food
8. 組（くみ） school classes 30. 杯（はい） cups (liquid)
9. 軒（けん） houses 31. 敗（はい） losses
10. 個（こ） small things 32. 倍（ばい） multiples
11. 語（ご） words 33. 泊（はく） overnight stays
12. 匙（さじ） spoonfuls 34. 箱（はこ） boxes
13. 皿（さら） dishes of food 35. 番線（ばんせん） train platforms
14. 字（じ） characters 36. 匹（ひき） domestic animals
15. 種類（しゅるい） categories 37. 票（ひょう） votes
16. 章（しょう） chapters 38. 秒（びょう） seconds (time)
17. 勝（しょう） wins 39. 部（ぶ） printed matter
18. 錠（じょう） pills 40. 部屋（へや） rooms
19. 畳（じょう） tatami mats 41. 歩（ほ） strides
20. 世紀（せいき） centuries 42. 名（めい） persons
21. 足（そく） pairs of footwear 43. 夜（や） nights
22. 台（だい） machinery and vehicles 44. 羽（わ・ば） birds
The counters below are given in the order of the 五十音（ごじゅうおん） syllabary.
1: 回（かい） turns 2: 階（かい） floors

Number Kanji Kana Used for both a specific and total number of
floors.
1 一回いっかい
2 二回にかい Number Kanji Kana
3 三回さんかい 1 一階いっかい
4 四回よんかい 2 二階にかい
5 五回ごかい 3 三階さんがい
6 六回ろっかい 4 四階よんかい
7 七回ななかい 5 五階ごかい
8 八回はち（はっ）かい 6 六階ろっかい
9 九回きゅうかい 7 七階なな（しち）かい
10 十回じゅっかい 8 八階はち（はっ）かい
? 何回なんかい 9 九階きゅうかい
10 十階じゅっかい
? 何階なんがい
3: 巻（かん） book volumes 4: 切れ（きれ） slices

Used for both a specific and total number of vol- Bread, meat, etc.
umes.
Number Kanji Kana
Number Kanji Kana 1 一切れひときれ
1 一巻いっかん 2 二切れふたきれ
2 二巻にかん 3 三切れみきれ
3 三巻さんかん 4 四切れよんきれ
4 四巻よんかん 5 五切れごきれ
5 五巻ごかん 6 六切れろっきれ
6 六巻ろっかん 7 七切れななきれ
7 七巻なな（しち）かん 8 八切れはち（はっ）きれ
8 八巻はち（はっ）かん 9 九切れきゅうきれ
9 九巻きゅうかん 10 十切れじゅっきれ
10 十巻じゅっかん ? 何切れなんきれ
? 何巻なんかん
5: 行（ぎょう） lines of writing 6: 曲（きょく） pieces of music

Number Kanji Kana Number Kanji Kana
1 一行いちぎょう 1 一曲いっきょく
2 二行にぎょう 2 二曲にきょく
3 三行さんぎょう 3 三曲さんきょく
4 四行よんぎょう 4 四曲よんきょく
5 五行ごぎょうう 5 五曲ごきょく
6 六行ろくぎょう 6 六曲ろっきょく
7 七行ななぎょう 7 七曲ななきょく
8 八行はちぎょう 8 八曲はっきょく
9 九行きゅうぎょう 9 九曲きゅうきょく
10 十行じゅうぎょう 10 十曲じゅっきょく
? 何行なんぎょう ? 何曲なんきょく
7: 口（くち） bites of food 8: 組（くみ） school classes

Number Kanji Kana A group of students or people in a school or
1 一口ひとくち other institution. This counter may also be used
for the name of individual classes.
2 二口ふたくち
Number Kanji Kana
3 三口みくち
1 一組いちくみ
4 四口よ（ん）くち
2 二組にくみ
5 五口ごくち
3 三組さんくみ
6 六口ろっくち
4 四組よんくみ
7 七口ななくち
5 五組ごくみ
8 八口はっくち
6 六組ろっくみ
9 九口きゅうくち
7 七組ななくみ
10 十口じゅっくち
8 八組はっくみ
? 何口なんくち
9 九組きゅうくみ
10 十組じゅっくみ
? 何組なんくみ
9: 軒（けん） houses 10: 個（こ） small things

Mainly small dwellings, not highrises. The coun- Things that fit into the palm of the hand such as
ter 棟（むね） may be used to count highrises and small roundish fruit, pebbles, etc.
houses.
Number Kanji Kana
Number Kanji Kana 1 一個いっこ
1 一軒いっけん 2 二個にこ
2 二軒にけん 3 三個さんこ
3 三軒さんげん 4 四個よんこ
4 四軒よんけん 5 五個ごこ
5 五軒ごけん 6 六個ろっこ
6 六軒ろっけん 7 七個なな（しち）こ
7 七軒ななけん 8 八個はち（はっ）こ
8 八軒はち（はっ）けん 9 九個きゅうこ
9 九軒きゅうけん 10 十個じゅっこ
10 十軒じゅっけん ? 何個なんこ
? 何軒なんげん
11: 語（ご） words 12: 匙（さじ） spoonfuls

Number Kanji Kana Unit of measurement, as in “one spoonful of
sugar.”
1 一語いちご
2 二語にご Number Kanji Kana
3 三語さんご 1 一匙ひとさじ
4 四語よんご 2 二匙ふたさじ
5 五語ごご 3 三匙みさじ
6 六語ろくご 4 四匙よんさじ
7 七語ななご 5 五匙ごさじ
8 八語はちご 6 六匙ろくさじ
9 九語きゅうご 7 七匙ななさじ
10 十語じゅうご 8 八匙はちさじ
? 何語なんご 9 九匙きゅうさじ
10 十匙じゅっさじ
? 何匙なんさじ
13: 皿（さら） dishes of food 14: 字（じ） characters

For empty plates, use 枚（まい）. For counting kana, kanji, and other letters.
1 一皿ひとさら 1 一字いちじ
2 二皿ふたさら 2 二字にじ
3 三皿みさら 3 三字さんじ
4 四皿よんさら 4 四字よ（ん）じ
5 五皿ごさら 5 五字ごじ
6 六皿ろくさら 6 六字ろくじ
7 七皿ななさら 7 七字なな（しち）じ
8 八皿はち（はっ）さら 8 八字はちじ
9 九皿きゅうさら 9 九字きゅうじ
10 十皿じゅっさら 10 十字じゅうじ
? 何皿なんさら ? 何字なんじ
15: 種類（しゅるい）categories 16: 章（しょう） chapters

Number Kanji Kana Used for both a specific chapter and total num-
ber of chapters.
1 一種類いっしゅるい
2 二種類にしゅるい Number Kanji Kana
3 三種類さんしゅるい 1 一章いっしょう
4 四種類よんしゅるい 2 二章にしょう
5 五種類ごしゅるい 3 三章さんしょう
6 六種類ろくしゅるい 4 四章よんしょう
7 七種類なな（しち）しゅるい 5 五章ごしょう
8 八種類はち（はっ）しゅるい 6 六章ろくしょう
9 九種類きゅうしゅるい 7 七章なな（しち）しょう
10 十種類じゅっしゅるい 8 八章はち（はっ）しょう
? 何種類なんしゅるい 9 九章きゅうしょう
10 十章じゅっしょう
? 何章なんしょう
17: 勝（しょう） wins 18: 錠（じょう） pills

Used in competition in sports and games. Number Kanji Kana
Number Kanji Kana 1 一錠いちじょう
1 一勝いっしょう 2 二錠にじょう
2 二勝にしょう 3 三錠さんじょう
3 三勝さんしょう 4 四錠よんじょう
4 四勝よんしょう 5 五錠ごじょう
5 五勝ごしょう 6 六錠ろくじょう
6 六勝ろくしょう 7 七錠なな（しち）じょう
7 七勝なな（しち）しょう 8 八錠はちじょう
8 八勝はち（はっ）しょう 9 九錠きゅうじょう
9 九勝きゅうしょう 10 十錠じゅうじょう
10 十勝じゅっしょう ? 何錠なんじょう
? 何勝なんしょう
19: 畳（じょう） tatami mats 20: 世紀（せいき） centuries

Generally used for the number of mats in cover- Used for both the name and the number of cen-
ing the floor of a room. turies.
1 一畳いちじょう 1 一世紀いっせいき
2 二畳にじょう 2 二世紀にせいき
3 三畳さんじょう 3 三世紀さんせいき
4 四畳よんじょう 4 四世紀よんせいき
5 五畳ごじょう 5 五世紀ごせいき
6 六畳ろくじょう 6 六世紀ろくせいき
7 七畳なな（しち）じょう 7 七世紀なな（しち）せいき
8 八畳はちじょう 8 八世紀はち（はっ）せいき
9 九畳きゅうじょう 9 九世紀きゅうせいき
10 十畳じゅうじょう 10 十世紀じゅっせいき
? 何畳なんじょう ? 何世紀なんせいき
21: 足（そく） pairs of footwear 22: 台（だい） machinery

and vehicles
Shoes, socks, boots, sandals, clogs, etc.
Number Kanji Kana Telephones, computers, cars, etc.
1 一足いっそく Number Kanji Kana
2 二足にそく 1 一台いちだい
3 三足さんぞく 2 二台にだい
4 四足よんそく 3 三台さんだい
5 五足ごそく 4 四台よんだい
6 六足ろくそく 5 五台ごだい
7 七足なな（しち）そく 6 六台ろくだい
8 八足はち（はっ）そく 7 七台なな（しち）だい
9 九足きゅうそく 8 八台はちだい
10 十足じゅっそく 9 九台きゅうだい
? 何足なんぞく 10 十台じゅうだい
? 何台なんだい
23: 着（ちゃく） clothes 24: 通（つう） letters

Suits, dresses, etc. Letters and correspondence. For empty en-
velopes, use 枚（まい）.
Number Kanji Kana
1 一着いっちゃく Number Kanji Kana
2 二着にちゃく 1 一通いっつう
3 三着さんちゃく 2 二通につう
4 四着よんちゃく 3 三通さんつう
5 五着ごちゃく 4 四通よんつう
6 六着ろくちゃく 5 五通ごつう
7 七着ななちゃく 6 六通ろくつう
8 八着はち（はっ）ちゃく 7 七通なな（しち）つう
9 九着きゅうちゃく 8 八通はち（はっ）つう
10 十着じゅっちゃく 9 九通きゅうつう
? 何着なんちゃく 10 十通じゅっつう
? 何通なんつう
25: 滴（てき） drops of liquid 26: 点（てん） scores and

points
Number Kanji Kana
1 一滴いってき Points in examinations, or scores in sports and
games.
2 二滴にてき
3 三滴さんてき Number Kanji Kana
4 四滴よんてき 1 一点いってん
5 五滴ごてき 2 二点にてん
6 六滴ろく（ろっ）てき 3 三点さんてん
7 七滴なな（しち）てき 4 四点よんてん
8 八滴はっ（はち）てき 5 五点ごてん
9 九滴きゅうてき 6 六点ろくてん
10 十滴じゅってき 7 七点ななてん
? 何滴なんてき 8 八点はっ（はち）てん
9 九点きゅうてん
10 十点じゅってん
? 何点なんてん
27: 度（ど） frequency and 28: 頭（とう） large animals

temperature
Cows, horses, lions, elephants, etc.
1 一度いちど 1 一頭いっとう
2 二度にど 2 二頭にとう
3 三度さんど 3 三頭さんとう
4 四度よんど 4 四頭よんとう
5 五度ごど 5 五頭ごとう
6 六度ろくど 6 六頭ろくとう
7 七度なな（しち）ど 7 七頭ななとう
8 八度はちど 8 八頭はっ（はち）とう
9 九度きゅうど 9 九頭きゅうとう
10 十度じゅうど 10 十頭じゅっとう
? 何度なんど ? 何頭なんとう
29: 人前（にんまえ） 30: 杯（はい） cups (liquid)

servings of food
Cups, glasses, or containers of liquid.
1 一人前いちにんまえ 1 一杯いっぱい
2 二人前ににんまえ 2 二杯にはい
3 三人前さんにんまえ 3 三杯さんばい
4 四人前よにんまえ 4 四杯よんはい
5 五人前ごにんまえ 5 五杯ごはい
6 六人前ろくにんまえ 6 六杯ろくはい・ろっぱい
7 七人前なな（しち）にんまえ 7 七杯なな（しち）はい
8 八人前はちにんまえ 8 八杯はちはい・はっぱい
9 九人前きゅうにんまえ 9 九杯きゅうはい
10 十人前じゅうにんまえ 10 十杯じゅっぱい
? 何人前なんにんまえ ? 何杯なんばい
31: 敗（はい） losses 32: 倍（ばい） multiples

Defeats in sports, games, and other competi- Example: “The area of the United States is two
tions. times larger than Japan.”
1 一敗いっぱい 1 一倍いちばい
2 二敗にはい 2 二倍にばい
3 三敗さんばい 3 三倍さんばい
4 四敗よんはい 4 四倍よんばい
5 五敗ごはい 5 五倍ごばい
6 六敗ろっぱい・ろくはい 6 六倍ろくばい
7 七敗ななはい 7 七倍なな（しち）ばい
8 八敗はっぱい・はちはい 8 八倍はちばい
9 九敗きゅうはい 9 九倍きゅうばい
10 十敗じゅっぱい 10 十倍じゅうばい
? 何敗なんぱい・なんはい ? 何倍なんばい
33: 泊（はく） overnight stays 34: 箱（はこ） boxes

三泊四日（さんぱくよっか） “three nights and four Number Kanji Kana
days.”
1 一箱ひとはこ
Number Kanji Kana 2 二箱ふたはこ
1 一泊いっぱく 3 三箱みはこ・さんばこ
2 二泊にはく 4 四箱よんはこ
3 三泊さんぱく 5 五箱ごはこ
4 四泊よんはく 6 六箱ろっぱこ
5 五泊ごはく 7 七箱ななはこ
6 六泊ろっぱく 8 八箱はっぱこ
7 七泊ななはく 9 九箱きゅうはこ
8 八泊はっぱく 10 十箱じゅっぱこ
9 九泊きゅうはく ? 何箱なんはこ
10 十泊じゅっぱく
? 何泊なんぱく
35: 番線（ばんせん） train 36: 匹（ひき） domestic

platforms animals
Number Kanji Kana Dogs, cats, squirrels, mice, etc.
1 一番線いちばんせん Number Kanji Kana
2 二番線にばんせん 1 一匹いっぴき
3 三番線さんばんせん 2 二匹にひき
4 四番線よんばんせん 3 三匹さんびき
5 五番線ごばんせん 4 四匹よんひき
6 六番線ろくばんせん 5 五匹ごひき
7 七番線ななばんせん 6 六匹ろっぴき
8 八番線はちばんせん 7 七匹なな（しち）ひき
9 九番線きゅうばんせん 8 八匹はっぴき・はちひき
10 十番線じゅうばんせん 9 九匹きゅうひき
? 何番線なんばんせん 10 十匹じゅっぴき
? 何匹なんびき
37: 票（ひょう） votes 38: 秒（びょう） seconds

(time)
Number Kanji Kana
1 一票いっぴょう Number Kanji Kana
2 二票にひょう 1 一秒いちびょう
3 三票さんびょう 2 二秒にびょう
4 四票よんひょう 3 三秒さんびょう
5 五票ごひょう 4 四秒よんびょう
6 六票ろっぴょう 5 五秒ごびょう
7 七票ななひょう 6 六秒ろくびょう
8 八票はっぴょう・はちひょう 7 七秒なな（しち）びょう
9 九票きゅうひょう 8 八秒はちびょう
10 十票じゅっぴょう 9 九秒きゅうびょう
? 何票なんひょう 10 十秒じゅうびょう
? 何秒なんびょう
39: 部（ぶ） printed matter 40: 部屋（へや） rooms

The counter 冊（さつ） is used for bound objects; Number Kanji Kana
部（ぶ） for both bound and unbound documents 1 一部屋ひとへや
such as newspapers.
2 二部屋ふたへや
Number Kanji Kana
3 三部屋みへや
1 一部いちぶ
4 四部屋よ（ん）へや
2 二部にぶ
5 五部屋ごへや
3 三部さんぶ
6 六部屋ろくへや
4 四部よん（よ）ぶ
7 七部屋ななへや
5 五部ごぶ
8 八部屋はちへや
6 六部ろくぶ
9 九部屋きゅうへや
7 七部なな（しち）ぶ
10 十部屋じゅうへや
8 八部はちぶ
? 何部屋なんへや
9 九部きゅうぶ
10 十部じゅうぶ
? 何部なんぶ
41: 歩（ほ） strides 42: 名（めい） persons

Number Kanji Kana 名（めい） is more formal than 人（にん）.
1 一歩いっぽ Number Kanji Kana
2 二歩にほ 1 一名いちめい
3 三歩さんほ・さんぽ 2 二名にめい
4 四歩よんほ 3 三名さんめい
5 五歩ごほ 4 四名よん（よ）めい
6 六歩ろっぽ 5 五名ごめい
7 七歩なな（しち）ほ 6 六名ろくめい
8 八歩はっぽ・はちほ 7 七名なな（しち）めい
9 九歩きゅうほ 8 八名はちめい
10 十歩じゅっぽ 9 九名きゅうめい
? 何歩なんほ・なんぽ 10 十名じゅうめい
? 何名なんめい
43: 夜（や） nights 44: 羽（わ・ば） birds

Number Kanji Kana Birds, rabbits, chickens.
1 一夜いちや Number Kanji Kana
2 二夜にや 1 一羽いちわ
3 三夜さんや 2 二羽にわ
4 四夜よんや 3 三羽さんば・さんわ
5 五夜ごや 4 四羽よんわ
6 六夜ろくや 5 五羽ごわ
7 七夜なな（しち）や 6 六羽ろくわ
8 八夜はちや 7 七羽なな（しち）わ
9 九夜きゅうや 8 八羽はちわ
10 十夜じゅうや 9 九羽きゅうわ
? 何夜なんや 10 十羽じゅうわ
? 何羽なんわ
Stage 4-6 Honorifics (Summary)
1. Honorifics and Politeness

(1) 待遇表現（たいぐうひょうげん）
(2) Use of plain forms in honorific sentences
2. Honorific Verbs
(1) The honorific いらっしゃる
(2) The verb 言う
3. Honorifics of Other Classes of Words
(1) The copula でいらっしゃる
(2) Honorific nouns
(3) Honorific pronouns
(4) Honorific adjectives and adjectival nouns
4. Regular and Irregular Honorific and Humble Forms
(1) Irregular forms
(2) Regular forms
(3) Stems of the five honorific verbs
(4) Regular and irregular humble forms
5. Passive Forms as Honorific Forms
6. Examples of Politeness and Honorifics
(1) When the topics of a conversation are the speaker and addressee themselves
(2) When the topic is a third party not present in the conversation
1: Honorifics and Politeness
The concepts of honorifics and politeness as well as some relevant words are introduced in Stages
1–5, 1–8, 2–6 and other parts of the course. This chapter summarizes these concepts.
(1) 待遇表現（たいぐうひょうげん）
 敬語（けいご）, 謙譲語（けんじょうご）, and 丁寧語（ていねいご）

待遇表現（たいぐうひょうげん） is the umbrella term for a language system in which personal relations
are reflected in language use. Within this system, 敬語（けいご） is used by a speaker to show respect
for the topic referred to, and 謙譲語（けんじょうご） is used to refer to an action or state of the speaker
himself or herself in a humble manner, showing respect for the addressee.
As described in Stages 1–5, 1–8, and 2–6, politeness 丁寧語（ていねいご） and honorifics 敬語（けい
ご） are related, but with the following distinction. Politeness is determined by the relationship be-
tween the speaker and the addressee whereas honorifics address the relationship between the
speaker and the topic.
(2) Use of plain forms in honorific sentences
The use of the plain form indicates a close relationship between the speaker and addressee. For ex-
ample, the following sentence is used when speaking to a close friend or family member.
僕は家にいることにするよ。
“I will stay at home.”
In the sentence below, however, the verb is the honorific verb in the plain form. The reason why
the plain form of the verb is used is because the speaker is speaking to a close friend or family mem-
ber. The honorific verb is used because the verb refers to a topic, the teacher, toward whom the
speaker shows his or her respect.
中村先生はまだ授業にいらっしゃるよ。
“Nakamura-sensei is still in class.”
The use of ~ます at the end of a verb indicates that the relationship between the speaker and ad-
dressee is not close.
私はもう少し家にいます。
“I will stay at home a little longer.”
じゅぎょう
中村先生はまだ授業にいらっしゃいます。
“Nakamura-sensei is still in class.”
The following shows the parts of a verb that reflect the relationship between the speaker and the ad-
dressee, and between the speaker and the topic.
いらっしゃるいらっしゃいます
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
topic addressee topic addressee
 Speech form used with family members

All family members are considered to be うち-group, so neither the polite form nor honorifics should
be used when talking to them. When talking about them, honorifics should not be used ( even when
they are older than the speaker).
s2: Honorific Verbs
(1) The honorific いらっしゃる
Although this verb, いらっしゃる, is a Group 2 verb, the stem is いらっしゃい rather than いらっしゃり,
which was the form used long ago. The polite form therefore is いらっしゃいます rather than いらっし
ゃります. The verb いらっしゃる is the honorific form for いる, 行く, and 来る.
 The verb いる
今日はうちにいることにします。
“I decided to stay at home today.”
中村先生はお宅にいらっしゃいます。
“Nakamura-sensei is at home.”
 The humble おる
In a situation where the use of honorifics is preferred, when talking about the speaker herself or
himself, the use of the humble form, 謙譲語（けんじょうご）, is most appropriate. The topic of the
humble forms must be the speaker or members of the うち group. For instance, the humble form of
the verb いる is おる（おります）. By using the humble form, the speaker lowers himself or herself,
which results in exalting the addressee.
先生:「明日はどこにいますか。」
Teacher: “Where will you be tomorrow?”
学生:「私は明日ここにおります。」
Student: “I will be here tomorrow.”
 The verb 行く
私は京都に行きます（行く）。
“I will go to Kyoto.”
先生はイギリスにいらっしゃいます（いらっしゃる）。
“The teacher will go to England.”
 The verb 来（く）る
メアリーさんは三時頃、家に来ます（来る）。
“Mary will come to my house around 3:00.”
中川先生は夕方、学校にいらっしゃいます（いらっしゃる）。
“Nakagawa-sensei will come to school in the evening.”
 The humble まいる
まいる is the humble verb for 行く and 来（く）る.
私は明日、韓国にまいります。
“Tomorrow I will go to Korea.”
私の姉もこちらにまいります。
“My sister, too, will come here.”
(2) The verb 言（い）う
For the verb 言（い）う, おっしゃる is the honorific and おっしゃいます the polite form. As in the case of
the verb いらっしゃる, the stem is not おっしゃり, despite the fact that it is a Group 2 verb. The stem is
おっしゃい.
先生は漢字は大切だとおっしゃいました。
“The teacher said that kanji are very important.”
 The humble 申（もう）す
Recall the following expression from the Preparatory Stage chapter. 申（もう）す in this sentence is
the humble form of 言（い）う.
もう
私は田中と申します。
“My names is Tanaka.” [Literally, “I am called Tanaka.”]
もう
私は明日、行くと先生に申しました。
“I told the teacher that I would go tomorrow.”
s3: Honorifics of Other Classes of Words
(1) The copula でいらっしゃる
The honorific form of the copula also includes いらっしゃる, but in this case で must precede いらっし
ゃる.
森先生でいらっしゃいますか。
“Are you Mori-sensei?”
 The humble copula でござる

The humble form of the copula is でござる. Like いらっしゃる and おっしゃる, the polite form of ござる is
ございます rather than ござります. There are, in fact, just five verbs, all in the honorific system, that,
like these three verbs, use い rather than り for the polite form.
私は森でございます。
“I am Mori.”
(2) Honorific nouns
 Use of polite prefixes

The prefixes of お or ご are added to nouns when the situation requires the speaker to use polite or
honorific language. The use of these prefixes, as well as knowing which prefix to use, is complex.
The use of お, the polite prefix, is much more prevalent among female speakers, while the use of ご,
the honorific prefix, may be used by both male and female speakers.
It is sometimes said that お is used with 大和言葉（やまとことば） and ご with 漢語（かんご）, but there
are numerous exceptions.
prefix お: お花, お机, お勉強, お仕事

prefix ご: ご本, ご兄弟, ご両親, ご親切
In some words, the polite お and the honorific ご have become inseparable parts of the words. Some
examples are such words as お茶（ちゃ） and ご飯（はん）, which are used in both male and female
speech.
 Separate honorific nouns
Some nouns are reserved only for honorifics. お宅（たく） is the honorific word for the noun, 家（う
ち）. The second sentence below therefore not only possesses an honorific verb but expresses the
place, the teacher’s home, in the honorific form as well. This noun is used by both genders.
私はうちにいます。
“I am at home.”
たく
先生はお宅にいらっしゃいます。
“The teacher is at home.”
(3) Honorific pronouns
どちら is the honorific of どこ, both of which mean “where,” and どなた together with どちら is the
honorific of だれ “who.”
スミスさんはどこにいますか。
“Where is Mr. Smith?”
スミス先生はどちらにいらっしゃいますか。
“Where is Professor Smith?”
だれがそこにいますか。
“Who is there?”
どなたがそこにいらっしゃいますか。
“Who is there?”
(4) Honorific adjectives and adjectival nouns
As with nouns, the most common way to make adjectives and adjectival nouns into polite forms is
to add the polite prefix お or ご.
いそが
お忙しいでしょう？
“You must be busy.”
じょう
先生のお嬢さんはおきれいですね。
“Your daughter is very pretty, Professor.”
しんせつかんしゃ
ご親切、感謝します。
“I appreciate your kindness.”
When describing things, even if they belong to people that the speaker pays respect to, the honorific
prefixes お and ご are not used with adjectives and adjectival nouns. For example, it is very strange
to describe someone’s bag with an honorific adjective.
せんせいちい
*先生のかばんはお小さいですねえ。
[intended meaning] “Your bag is very small, isn’t it, sensei?”
If the topic is a person, however, an honorific adjective may be used.

こちい
先生のお子さんはまだお小さいですねえ。
“Your child is still very young, isn’t she, sensei?”
 Humble adjectives
Humble adjectives are used only on very formal occasions, and mostly by female speakers.
When the vowel before い is either a or o, change it to long o, and then add ございます, as in the fol-
lowing.
くつ
この靴は私には小そうございます。
“These shoes are (too) small for me.”
きものあお
私の着物は青うございます。
“My kimono is blue.”
When the vowel before い is a u, make it into long u, and then add ございます.
さむ
寒うございます。
“I am cold.”
When the vowel before い is an i, make it into a long palatalized syllable, and then add ございます.
いそが
忙しゅうございます。
“I am busy.”
くつ
この靴は私には大きゅうございます。
“These shoes are (too) big for me.”
s4: Regular and Irregular Honorific and Humble Forms
(1) Irregular forms
There are regular and irregular honorific and humble forms. The irregular forms must be memo-
rized (see the chart below). For the regular ones, there are convenient formulas for their formation.
Neutral Honorific Humble Meaning
いるいらっしゃる（*）おる to be
いくいらっしゃるまいる to go
くるいらっしゃるまいる to come
だでいらっしゃるでござる（*） copula
あるおありになるござる（*） to be; to possess
いうおっしゃる（*）もうす・もうしあげる to say
たべる・のむめしあがるいただく to eat; to drink
みるごらんになるはいけんする to see

Neutral Honorific Humble Meaning
しるごぞんじだぞんじる to know
するなさる（*）いたす to do
(*) As in the case of いらっしゃる, おっしゃる, and くださる, the ~ますforms of these verbs are the following: ござる→ございます,
なさる→なさいます
(2) Regular forms
Formula (honorific form) Formula (humble form)
お（stem）になるお（stem）する・いたす
Even when there is an irregular honorific verb, the honorific derived by the above formula may be
used. For instance, compare the following:
田中先生はお昼ご飯をたくさんお食べになりました。
めあ
田中先生はお昼ご飯をたくさん召し上がりました。
めあ
田中先生はお昼ご飯をたくさんお召し上がりになりました。
“Tanaka-sensei ate a big lunch.”
Japanese has different degrees of honorifics and quite a few ways to express courtesy and respect.
For instance, the verb of the last of the above examples is the most honorific of the three. There are
others in addition to those listed above, but not all possible options are presented in this course.
(3) Stems of the five honorific verbs
The stems of the following five honorific verbs are irregular, as summarized below.
いらっしゃる → いらっしゃい → いらっしゃいます

おっしゃる → おっしゃい → おっしゃいます
くださる → ください → くださいます
なさる → なさい → なさいます
ござる → ござい → ございます
(4) Regular and irregular humble forms
Regular humble forms are more complicated to use than irregular forms. Irregular humble forms
may be used just about anytime desired to speak politely. This is not true with the regular humble
forms.
The regular humble forms may not be used merely to sound polite when describing what one is
doing. They are used only when the speaker does something for someone else. Compare the follow-
ing two sentences, both of which intend to express that the speaker is reading as her or his own
task.
今、本を読んでおります。
“I am reading.”
*今、本をお読みしています。
[intended meaning] “I am reading.”
The irregular おります is used in the first sentence, but the regular humble form is used in the second
sentence. The reason why the second sentence is not acceptable is because the sentence sounds as
if the speaker is reading for someone else.
When offering to do something for someone, one may use the regular humble form because the
action is beneficial to the addressee.
お読みしましょうか。
“Shall I read this for you?”
s5: Passive Forms as Honorific Forms
All passive forms, when meaning permits, may also be used as honorific verbs. Expressions formed
by the passive forms of verbs are less honorific than such honorific verbs as いらっしゃる.
As in the case of passive and potential, there is normally no meaning confusion among passive, po-
tential, and honorific sentences because of the structural differences of the three types of sentences.
中村先生はいつもここでコーヒーを飲まれます。
“Nakamura-sensei always drinks coffee here.”
スミス先生はもう帰られましたか。
“Did Smith-sensei return home?”
The potential and honorific readings can, however, in some cases be ambiguous if some parts of
the sentences are deleted, which often happens in conversation. See the following sentence:
明日また来られますか。
[honorific] “Will you come here again tomorrow?”
[potential] “Are you able to come here again tomorrow?”
 Notes on the use of honorifics
Some use of honorific expressions is expected. In some social settings, although the level of polite-
ness used may be a personal choice, the use of honorifics is expected. An example of such a social
setting is a language used by a store clerk in a store.
The use of honorific expressions is a personal choice. Although use of honorifics is preferred in
some social settings, it is a personal choice what level of politeness or honorific language to use.
Some people use honorific and polite language more often than others, even when they are in iden-
tical situations.
Honorific forms are used as polite expressions. Honorifics are often used simply to be polite, and
the use has little to do with who the speaker and the addressee are, or who or what the topic is.
People from older generations and women tend to use this style more often than others.
s6: Examples of Politeness and Honorifics
(1) When the topics of a conversation are the speaker and addressee themselves
When considering the level of politeness and honorifics to use, the speaker must be aware of the
following: (1) the social status of the speaker and the addressee, and (2) the relationship of the two.
These factors are not absolute. In some cases, more subtle and sometimes not-so-subtle factors may
need to be considered. Age, for example, is often an important factor.
 Situation 1
social status – speaker and addressee roughly the same
relationship – speaker and addressee know each other but not very well
Speaker: 明日うちにいますか。
“Will you be home tomorrow?”
Addressee: ええ、いますよ。
“Yes, I will.”
In the above case, the use of ~ます indicates that the two people are not very close, but the use of the
verb いる indicates that there is very little difference in their social status, or if there is, the difference
is not significant to either the speaker or the addressee. Perhaps the two people who are conversing
in this dialogue are working in the same company, but they are not particularly well acquainted.
Here, there is no hard-and-fast rule for the decision to use a certain speech style based on these fac-
tors. Even if the objective factors are clear to the speaker and the addressee, the speaker may decide
to use a different speech style than the one expected. Because of this, not every possible style the
speaker may choose can be illustrated here.
 Situation 2
social status – speaker and addressee roughly the same
relationship – speaker and addressee are close friends
Speaker: 明日うちにいる？
Addressee: うん、いるよ。
“Yes, I will.”
In this case, the plain form is used rather than the ~ます form. The verb ending of the plain form
indicates that the relationship between the speaker and the addressee is close. Notice that even the
word for “yes” うん is more casual. In other words, not only the verb is affected by the speech style.
Note that the same speech style as the one above is used in conversations between members of an
immediate family. Although there are certainly differences in social status (and age, of course), these
factors need not be considered within one family.
 Situation 3
social status – speaker (student), addressee (speaker’s teacher)
relationship – speaker and addressee have known each other for quite some time
たく
Speaker: 明日お宅にいらっしゃいますか。
Addressee: ええ、いますよ。or うん、いるよ。

“Yes, I will.”
In the student’s speech, the use of the honorific verb indicates that the speaker respects the addressee
because of the higher social status the addressee holds. In this speech, even the noun for the ad-
dressee’s house is in the honorific form, お宅（たく）, rather than 家（うち）. The verb ending, ~ます, in-
dicates that the speaker maintains the distance that is expected between a student and a teacher
despite the fact that they have known each other for quite some time.
The teacher cannot use the honorific verb here because he/she is speaking to his/her student about
himself/herself. Therefore, the verb, いる or います, is used. The choice between the polite form and
the plain form depends on the teacher. Women in Japan generally tend to speak more politely than
men, and it is therefore quite possible to find a female teacher using います and a male teacher using
いる. It is not strange to see a teacher using the ~ます form with a student. A male teacher, on the
other hand, may choose to speak more casually even to a student.
The following examples of relationships between the speaker and the addressee are equivalent to
the one given above:
(1) speaker (student), addressee (the speaker’s friend’s parent(s))

(2) speaker (company employee), addressee (speaker’s boss, or anyone of a higher rank)
(3) speaker (store clerk), addressee (customer)
The last case is interesting. The speaker (store clerk) will always use the honorific verb in the polite
form when speaking to the addressee (even if the clerk is older or in a higher social rank). It is a
social convention in Japan for store clerks to show respect for their customers, regardless of their
social status and age.
 Situation 4
social status – speaker (teacher), addressee (student)
relationship – speaker and addressee have known each other for quite some time
Speaker: 明日、うちにいますか。
Addressee: ええ、おります。
“Yes, I will.”
The humble form is used when talking about oneself in the presence of a respected addressee.
(2) When the topic is a third party not present in the conversation
 Situation 1
social status – speaker (student), addressee (student), topic (student)
relationship – speaker, addressee and topic do not know each other very well
Speaker: 田中さんは明日うちにいますか。
“Will Tanaka-san be home tomorrow?”
Addressee: ええ、いますよ。
“Yes, he/she will.”
Situation 2
social status – speaker (student), addressee (student), topic (student)
relationship – speaker, addressee, and topic are close friends
Speaker: 田中さんは明日うちにいる？
“Will Tanaka-san be home tomorrow?”
Addressee: うん、いるよ。
“Yes, he/she will.”
 Situation 3
social status – speaker (student), addressee (student), topic (teacher)
relationship – speaker and addressee are not very close
たく
Speaker: 田中先生は明日お宅にいらっしゃいますか。
“Will Tanaka-sensei be at home tomorrow?”
Addressee: ええ、いらっしゃいますよ。
“Yes, he will be.”
Since both students are talking about the teacher, both use the honorific verb. The polite form is
used because the speaker and the addressee are not close.
 Situation 4
social status – speaker (student), addressee (student), topic (teacher)
relationship – speaker and addressee know each other quite well
たく
Speaker: 田中先生は明日お宅にいらっしゃる？
“Will Tanaka-sensei be at home tomorrow?”
Addressee: うん、いらっしゃるよ。
“Yes, he will be.”
In the above conversation, both the speaker and the addressee use the honorific verb because both
are talking about their teacher. However, they use the plain form because the speaker and the ad-
dressee know each other quite well.
 Situation 5
social status – speaker (teacher), addressee (student), topic (addressee’s mother)
relationship – there is social distance between speaker and addressee
Speaker: お母さんは明日うちにいますか。or
たく
お母さんは明日お宅にいらっしゃいますか。
“Will your mother be at home tomorrow?”
Addressee: はい、おります。
“Yes, she will be.”
The teacher can use either neutral polite or honorific polite speech. The choice is entirely up to him
or her. It is important to notice that the student uses the humble verb despite the fact that he/she is
not talking about himself/herself. Since the speaker refers to his/her own mother, the verb form is
humble in the presence of someone the speaker respects.
Stage 4-7 Media Print Language
1. Headlines
(1) Copula omission
(2) Deletion of する
(3) Use of nominal forms
(4) Deletion of an entire predicate
(5) Particle deletion
2. Main Text
(1) である as the copula
(2) The use of 漢語（かんご）
(3) Long adjectival clauses in the topic position
1: Headlines
Newspapers and magazines exhibit different kinds of writing. Without attempting to cover all of them,
this chapter addresses only some examples of language used for reporting in media materials.
Headlines of newspapers, magazines, or advertisements aim for efficiency of communication. They

are intended for maximum communication using minimal words. This is often achieved by includ-
ing only the essential words. Deletion, therefore, is widely used in headlines.
Deletion is not random, but follows certain rules. Conventional ways of deleting elements in media
language will include the following:
(1) Copula omission
Headlines tend to end with nominal elements. For sentences with nominal predicates, the copula
is deleted.
とうひょうび
投票日は７月２９日。
“Voting day is July the 29th.”
まうんどうたいせつ
先ず、運動が大切。
“Above all, exercise is important.”
(2) Deletion of する
The nominal ending of some verbal predicates is achieved by deleting する from verbs consisting of
kanji or katakana.
だいとうりょうらいにち
大統領が来日。
“The President came to Japan.”
しゅしょうとべい
首相が渡米。
“The Prime Minister went to the United States.”
いっぷんまい
一分で３００枚コピー。
“You can copy 300 pages per minute.”
(3) Use of nominal forms
Other nominal forms may also be used. In the following, なし is a nominal form of ない.
ぜんいん
今年は全員、ボーナスなし。
“This year it’s no bonus for anyone.”
The stem may also be used:

はじこころ
初めての試み。
“Their first attempt.”
(4) Deletion of an entire predicate
The entire predicate may be deleted when it is obvious to the reader. This occurs often in headlines.
In some cases, particles or conjunctions may be left in the text because they suggest the deleted
predicate.
しゅしょう
首相カナダへ。
“The Prime Minister leaves for Canada.”
コンピュータなら、これ。
“For computers, this is the best.”
(5) Particle deletion
When the relation between words is clear from the context, particles may be omitted.
さんしょうめ
田中、三勝目。
“Tanaka’s third win.”
s2: Main Text
The main text of newspapers and magazines is often written in the formal style. Here are some of
the factors that contribute to formality in writing.
(1) である as the copula
である is used as the copula in formal writing. The tone of である writing is strong and assertive.
まど
東京はアジアの窓である。
“Tokyo is a window on Asia.”
の must be inserted between adjectival and verbal predicates and である.

はるさくらじつうつく
日本の春は桜が実に美しいのである。
“Cherry blossoms are truly beautiful in spring in Japan.”
なつむあつ
夏になると、日本はとても蒸し暑くなるのである。
“When the summer comes, it becomes very muggy in Japan.”
As seen above, である may be placed immediately after a noun, but の may be added for a stronger
assertion of the writer.
せんそうぎせいしゃしみん
戦争の犠牲者は市民なのである。
“Civilians are the victims in war.”
 である between nouns
The assertive tone explained above is absent when である is used between two nouns, the first one
modifying the second, which is the same function as の. The use of のである is more formal than の.
せいじゃ
聖者であるマザー･テレサ
“Mother Teresa, the Saint”
めいもんこうだいがく
日本の名門校であるXX大学
“Japan’s prestigious X University”
(2) The use of 漢語（かんご）
漢語（かんご） are used much more often in the media. For example, in newspaper headlines, 来日
（らいにち） and 渡米（とべい） are more likely to be seen than their equivalent phrases.
らいにち
日本に来る→来日 “come to Japan”
わたとべい
亜米利加（アメリカ）に渡る→渡米 “go over to the United States”
(3) Long adjectival clauses in the topic position
Topics of newspaper sentences often have long adjectival clauses modifying them.
ふじんともさくやおそとうちゃくべいこくだいとうりょう
[夫人と共に昨夜、遅く日本に到着した] 米国大統領は・・・
“The American president, who arrived in Japan late last night with his wife . . .”
In the above phrase, the topic 米国大統領（べいこくだいとうりょう） “the U.S. President” is modified by
everything that precedes it.
Stage 4-8 On Words and Vocabulary
1. Complex Words
(1) ~がい
(2) ~がち
(3) Combinations of more than two elements
2. Derived Words
(1) ~さ
(2) ~的（てき）
(3) ~ぽい
(4) 真（ま）~
(5) Fixed derived words
3. The Verb する
(1) Describing occupations
(2) Describing facial and bodily features
4. Negative ぬ
5. Kanji Compounds
(1) 漢語（かんご）
(2) 四字熟語（よじじゅくご）
6. Rules for Transitive-Intransitive Verb Pairs
(1) Examples of transitive-intransitive verb pairs
(2) Rules
1: Complex Words
One way to join words is to join the stem of a predicate and another element, and several examples
of these complex words have been introduced in Stage 2–6. This section lists a few more.
(1) ~がい
A verb stem with がい refers to an “[action] worth doing.”

いしあわ
生きがいのある仕事を持てることはとても幸せなことです。
“Anyone who has a job that he (she) finds fulfilling is lucky indeed.”
As introduced in Stage 2–4, both やる and する mean “to do.” やる is used in casual conversation. In
complex words with ~がい, however, やる rather than する is normally used.
しごと
この仕事は本当にやりがいがある。
“This is a job that is really worth doing.”
(2) ~がち
The suffix ~がち comes from the verb 勝（か）つ “to win.” The complex words with this suffix have
the meaning of “tendency to (verb).”
ひとゆううつ
あの人はどちらかというと憂鬱になりがちです。
“That person tends to get depressed.”
(3) Combinations of more than two elements
An almost infinite number of meanings can be expressed by combining two words, with the first
word in the stem form.
さむす
寒過ぎる “too cold”
か
書きやすい “easy to write”
はらわす
払い忘れる “forget to pay”
まづか
待ち疲れる “tired of waiting”
ふや
雨が降り止む “stop raining”
More than two elements can be combined. For example, the combination 読みやすそう consists of
the verb 読む, the adjective やすい, and the adjectival noun そう, and means the following.
この本は読みやすそうですね。
“This book looks easy to read.”
これは食べにくそうですね。
“This looks hard to eat.”
雨が降り出しそうですね。
“It seems as if it is about to rain.”
s2: Derived Words
Words in one category can sometimes be converted into another in a predictable manner. Some ex-
amples are given below.
(1) ~さ
Descriptive words, which are mostly adjectives and adjectival nouns (and a few nouns such as color
terms), can express the degree of description by adding the suffix ~さ. As for adjectives, drop the
final い and add さ, and for nouns and adjectival nouns, add さ to the original word.
Original ~さ (Nouns) Meaning

たか
高い高さ height
おも
重い重さ weight
いいよさ goodness
しず
静か静かさ（静けさ）* quietness
べんり
便利便利さ convenience
しろ
白白さ whiteness
* Both 静（しず）かさ and 静（しず）けさ are acceptable, but the latter is more common.
くにねだんたかまい
この国の値段の高さには本当に参ってしまった。
“I am quite discouraged by the high price of things in this country.”
しずきい
ここの静けさが気に入っている。
“I am fond of the serenity of this place.”
(2) ~的（てき）
Some nouns may be changed into adjectival nouns by adding the suffix ~的（てき）. For example,
when ~的（てき） is added to 日本 as in 日本的（にほんてき）, this derived adjectival noun indicates
that the thing or the person that the speaker describes has “defining characteristics of things or per-
sons in Japan.”
じょせいてき
あの女性は本当に日本的ですねえ。
“That woman is very Japanese, isn’t she?”
てきたてもの
あの中国的な建物は何ですか。
“What is that Chinese-looking building?”
(3) ~ぽい
When the suffix ~ぽい is added to a noun (the /p/ of ぽい is often doubled), the derived adjective is
used to describe something or someone having pronounced attributes of the noun used with ~ぽい.
For example, 子供っぽい（こどもっぽい） indicates that someone is “childish.” The derived meaning
is not necessarily negative, but it is often used in a negative way. The derived adjectives are collo-
quial.
だんせいこども
あの男性はいつまでも子供っぽいですねえ。
“That man acts forever the child, doesn’t he?”
(4) 真（ま）~
The prefix 真（ま）~, when added to some descriptive words, indicates an extreme degree. The con-
sonant immediately after 真（ま）~ is usually doubled, and may be written with the small つ between
the two kanji, as seen below. For the noun 赤（あか）, the first vowel あ disappears and the consonant
/k/ of か is doubled. For the noun 青（あお）, the consonant /s/, doubled, is inserted between 真（ま）
and 青（あお）.
Original 真（ま）~ Meaning

あかまか
赤真っ赤・真赤 bright red
あおまさお
青真っ青・真青 deep blue
しろましろ
白真っ白･真白 pure white
くろまくろ
黒真っ黒・真黒 pitch black
なかまなか
中真ん中・真中 dead center
しょうめんまっしょうめん
正面真正面* directly in front
さきまさき
先真っ先・真先 immediately; right away
なつまなつ
夏真夏 midsummer
ふゆまふゆ
冬真冬 midwinter
* Also ましょうめん without doubling the consonant /sy(sh)/.
For color terms, when 真（ま）~ is added, the word category changes from a noun （赤（あか） is a
noun） to an adjectival noun, 真っ赤（まっか）.
あか
あの赤のセーターはだれのですか。
“Whose is that red sweater?”
まか
あの真っ赤なセーターはだれのですか。
“Whose is that bright red sweater?”
(5) Fixed derived words
As examples, the following two fixed expressions contain the old negative ず.
 食（た）べずぎらい
ぎらい comes from 嫌（きら）い “not fond of (something).” This fixed phrase means one “does not
like a certain food, even without trying it.”
あの子は食べずぎらいの食べ物がとても多いです。
“That child dislikes many kinds of foods without ever trying them.”
 見ず知らず（みずしらず）
This expression, combining 見（み）ず “not to see” and 知らず “not to know,” is used to describe “a
total stranger.”
みしたにんたよせいかつたいへん
見ず知らずの他人を頼ることもできませんから、外国で生活をするのは大変です。
“I found it difficult to live abroad, because I do not want to rely on total strangers.”
3: The Verb する
The verb する has a wide variety of uses. The following points focus on some ways that する is used
for description.
(1) Describing occupations
The verb する has been presented thus far as meaning “to do,” but it has many other functions. One
of them is to describe a person.
When describing current occupations, for example, する is used in the continuous aspect, している.
ははこうこう
私の母は高校の先生をしています。
“My mother works as a teacher.”
わたしあねはなや
私の姉は花屋をしています。
“My sister has a flower shop.”
Note that independent occupations are not expressed with している.

あねさっか
*姉は作家をしています。
[intended meaning] “My sister is a writer.”
In this case, it should be expressed with the copula.

あねさっか
姉は作家です。
“My sister is a writer.”
(2) Describing facial and bodily features
A very common mistake is to describe facial and bodily features using the verb ある.
じょせいながかみ
*あの女性は長い髪があります。
[intended meaning] “That woman has long hair.”
This misuse of あります is influenced by the use of have in the English sentence, “that woman has
long hair.” Use either the verb する (in the form of している) or the topic-subject structure (see Stage
1–7).
じょせいながかみ
あの女性は長い髪をしています。
“That woman has long hair.”
じょせいかみなが
あの女性は髪が長いです。
“That woman has long hair.”
The difference between the two sentences above is not very great, but the first sentence with してい
る describes a temporary state while the second sentence with the topic-subject structure indicates
a more permanent one. For instance, the use of している is better when saying that someone’s face
is red due to drinking, because the use of the topic-subject structure sounds as if the topic always
has a red face.
のあかかお
飲みすぎて、あの人は赤い顔をしています。
“That person has a red face because he drank too much.”
のかおあか
*飲みすぎて、あの人は顔が赤いです。
[intended meaning] “That person has a red face because he drank too much.”
4: Negative ~ぬ
In some formal speech or writing, ~ぬ may be used in place of the negative ~ない, as, for example,
in the following constructions.
ねが
これはだれにも話さぬように、お願いします。
“I would like to ask that you not tell anyone about this.”
まちが
間違いをくりかえさぬために、ここに書いておこう。
“I will write it down so that I will not make a mistake.”
This negative, like ~ず, is an old form. The ぬ-negatives of the Group 3 verbs, する and くる, are せぬ
and こぬ. The ず-negative may be used with に to form an adverbial phrase but ~ぬ may not. Likewise,
the ぬ-negative may be used with a functional noun such as よう, but ~ず may not.
s5: Kanji Compounds
(1) 漢語（かんご）
As explained in Stage 2–5, the use of 漢語（かんご） rather than 大和言葉（やまとことば） normally
adds formality to speech and writings, although there are some exceptions. For instance, the follow-
ing two sentences have the same meaning, but the one with 大和言葉（やまとことば） sounds more
casual than the one with 漢語（かんご）.
まった
私はあなたのことが全く分かりません。
“I really don’t understand you at all.”
まったりかい
私はあなたのことが全く理解できません。
“I really don’t understand you at all.”
 漢語（かんご） formation
The structure of 漢語（かんご） is often related to the equivalent phrases in Japanese.
本を読む → 読書（どくしょ）
“to read books” “reading”
Phrases in Japanese Equivalent 漢語（かんご） Meaning

じぶんならじしゅう
自分で習う自習 self-learning
やまのぼとざん
山に登る登山 mountain climbing
はんたすいはん
ご飯を炊く炊飯 cook rice
ひところさつじん
人を殺す殺人 kill others
Such pairs cannot be found for every expression, but they are quite numerous.
 最（さい）~
Knowing the components of kanji compounds is quite useful. For instance, when the kanji prefix
最（さい）~ is added to another kanji, the compound expresses the superlative.
Kanji Kana Meaning
最高さいこう highest; best
最低さいてい lowest; worst
最大さいだい biggest
最小さいしょう smallest
 以（い）~
The kanji prefix 以（い）~ marks a level for measurement. The measure is specified by a specific
number that is used before the kanji compound with this prefix.
Kanji Kana Meaning
以上いじょう more than
以下いか (fewer) than
以前いぜん before
以後いご after
以内いない within
以外いがい except
ひゃくえんいじょうかねも
子供に学校には五百円以上お金を持たせないでください。
“Please do not allow your child to bring more than 500 yen to school.”
ぷんいないき
３０分以内にこちらに来てください。
“Please come here within half an hour.”
(2) 四字熟語（よじじゅくご）
Many kanji compounds are made up of four kanji, called 四字熟語（よじじゅくご）. Dictionaries that
focus on the meanings and usages of these compounds are called 四字熟語辞典（よじじゅくごじてん）.
See Stage 3–8 (Workbook 2).
四字熟語かな Literal meaning English
春夏秋冬しゅんかしゅうとう spring, summer, fall, winter four seasons
東西南北とうざいなんぼく east, west, south, north in all directions
喜怒哀楽きどあいらく happy, mad, sad, fun the range of human feelings
弱肉強食じゃくにくきょうしょく strong animals eat weak ones the survival of the fittest
以心伝心いしんでんしん communicating without words non-verbal communication
一石二鳥いっせきにちょう kill two birds with one stone accomplish two things at once
自画自賛じがじさん praise one’s own painting self admiration
自業自得じごうじとく one receives punishment consequence of one’s

for one’s own deeds own action
s6: Rules for Transitive-Intransitive Verb Pairs
Several transitive-intransitive pairs of words have been introduced, one of which is given as an ex-
ample below, in which 出（だ）す “to take (something out)” is transitive while 出（で）る “to go out” is
intransitive.
ねえいぬそとだ
お姉さんは犬を外に出しました。
“My sister let the dog outside.”
いぬそとで
犬が外に出ました。
“The dog went outside.”
(1) Examples of transitive-intransitive verb pairs
Transitive Meaning Intransitive Meaning

ああ
開ける open 開く open
しし
閉める close 閉まる close
おお
終える finish 終わる finish
はじはじ
始める start 始まる start
だで
出す put something out 出る leave; appear
いはい
入れる put something in 入る enter
つける turn on つく turn on

けき
消す turn off 消える turn off
とと
止める stop 止まる stop
おお
落とす drop 落ちる fall
こぼす spill こぼれる spill

こわこわ
壊す break 壊れる be broken
そだそだ
育てる raise 育つ grow up
うう
産む give birth 生まれる be born
きき
聞く hear; listen 聞こえる be audible
みみ
見る see; look 見える be visible
(2) Rules
There are quite a few rules that indicate the sound correspondences between transitive and intran-
sitive verb pairs (kanji is not used in the chart below). Some common correspondences are given
below (16 rules including one miscellaneous group have been suggested).1
Transitive Examples Meaning Intransitive Examples Meaning

Ending Ending
~eru しめる close ~aru しまる close
おえる finish おわる end
はじめる begin はじまる begin
とめる stop とまる stop
~eru あける open ~u あく open
つける turn on つく turn on
そだてる raise そだつ grow
~su こぼす spill ~reru こぼれる spill
こわす break こわれる break
~asu だす make go out ~eru でる leave
はがす peel off はげる peel off
~esu けす turn off ~ieru きえる disappear
~u うむ bear child ~areru うまれる be born
1
See Wesley Jacobsen. The Transitive Structure of Events in Japanese. Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers, 1992.
Grammar Index (Japanese Words)
【あ】がち (complex word) (4-8)

かもしれない (complex predicate) (2-4, 3-1)
あいだ（間）（に） (conjunction) (2-5, 3-5) から (particle) (1-4)
あ（合）う (with stem) (2-5) から (conjunction) (1-2, 1-9, 2-3)
あと（後）（で） (conjunction) (1-9, 2-3) がる (suffix) (3-6)
あまり (with negative predicate) (1-2) かんご（漢語） (word) (2-5, 4-7, 4-8)
あまり (with positive predicate) (3-5)
あるいは (conjunction) (4-4) 【き】
【い】き（気） (idioms) (3-6)
い（以） (prefix) (4-8) 【く】

いち（一） counter も (not one) (2-2, 2-8)
いわば (conjunction) (4-4) ください (suffix) (1-4, 1-6, 1-9, 2-1)
ぐらい (suffix) (1-4)
【う】
【け】
うちに (conjunction) (3-5)
けっか（結果） (adverbial clause) (4-1)
【お】けれども (conjunction) (1-2)
お (prefix) (prep, 4-6) 【こ】

お (with stem) (2-6, 3-7)
お (with stem ください(ませ)) (request) (2-6) ご (prefix) (4-6)
おかげ（で） (adverbial phrase) (3-5) こそ (particle) (3-8)
こと (nominalizer) (1-7, 1-9, 2-2, 3-1)
【か】こと (functional noun) (2-2, 3-1)
こと (noun) (2-2, 3-1)
か (question particle) (1-1) ことがある (with perfective verb) (2-2, 3-3)
か (noun phrasal conjunction) (1-2) ことがある (with imperfective verb) (3-3)
か (with interrogative pronouns) (1-5, 2-8) ことができる (ability) (1-9, 2-2)
が (object particle) (1-1, 1-7) ことにする (person-focus) (3-1)
が (topic, questioned) (1-2) ことになる (situation-focus) (3-1)
が (conjunction) (1-2)
が (object marker) (1-1,1-5) 【さ】
が (subject particle) (1-7)
が and は (particle) (1-7) さ (making nouns) (4-8)
がい (complex word) (4-8) さい（最） (prefix) (4-8)
かぎ（限）り (conjunction) (4-1) さえ (particle) (3-8)
かた（方） (complex noun) (2-6)
【し】だ（出）す (with stem) (2-6)

ただ (adverb) (4-2)
し (conjunction) (2-3) たった (adverb) (4-2)
しか (particle) (1-5) ただし (conjunction) (4-4)
しかし (conjunction) (4-4) たち（達） (plural marker) (1-1)
しかしながら (conjunction) (4-4) たび（度）に (adverbial clause) (4-1)
しかも (conjunction) (4-4) ために (beneficiary) (2-4)
したがって (conjunction) (4-4) ために (purpose) (2-5)
しだい（次第） (adverbial clause) (4-1) ために (causal clause) (4-1)
しゅんかん（瞬間） (adverbial clause) (4-1) たら (conditional) (2-3)
たりする (representative) (2-3)
【す】
【つ】
す（過）ぎる (with stem) (2-6)
ずつ (suffix) (1-4) つつある (complex predicate) (4-3)
ずに (suffix) (4-2) つまり (conjunction) (4-4)
すら (particle) (3-8) つもりだ (complex predicate) (1-7, 1-9, 2-7, 4-3)
する (person-focus) (1-6)
する (describing) (4-8) 【て】
すると (conjunction) (2-3, 4-4)
すなわち (conjunction) (4-4) て (conjunctive form) (1-3, 1-9, 2-1)
て (expressing means) (1-3, 2-1)
【せ】て (cause) (2-4)
て (with giving and receiving verbs) (2-4)
せい（で） (adverb) (3-5) で (instrumental particle) (1-3)
せっかく (adverb) (3-5) で (conjunctive form) (1-3, 1-9, 2-1)
で (boundary particle) (1-7)
【そ】てある (with transitive verb) (3-1)
である (as the copula) (2-8, 4-7)
そう (with stem) (2-6, 3-2) ていく (going away) (2-7)
そうだ (complex predicate) (2-7, 3-2) ておく (for future purpose) (2-7)
そして (conjunction) (1-1) てから (after action completed) (2-1)
その上（うえ） (conjunction) (2-3, 4-4) てき（的） (derived words) (4-8)
その結果（けっか） (conjunction) (4-4) てみる (resultative) (2-1)
それで (conjunction) (3-4, 4-4) ても (suffix) (2-8)
それとも (conjunction) (1-2) ても (with interrogative pronoun) (2-8)
でも (conjunction) (1-2)
【た】でも (with interrogative pronoun) (2-8)
てもいい (permission) (2-1, 2-8)
だ (identification) (1-1) てもかまわない (permission) (2-8)
だ (abbreviate predicate) (1-5) ては (adverbial clause) (2-8)
たい (with stem) (1-7, 2-5) てはいけない (prohibition) (2-1, 2-8)
だからといって (conjunction) (4-4) てはだめ (prohibition) (2-8)
だけ (particle) (1-5) てほしい (causation) (3-4)
だけ (complex predicate) (3-8)
510 Grammar Index (Japanese Words)
【と】によって (adverbial phrase) (2-4)
と (conjunction) (1-1) 【ぬ】

と (particle) (1-3)
と (quotative) (1-6, 1-9, 2-5) ぬ (negative suffix) (4-8)
と (conditional) (2-3)
という (specific-generic) (2-2) 【ね】
ということ (definition) (2-2, 3-3)
というわけ (complex predicate) (3-3) ね (particle) (1-3)
とき（時） (adverbial clause) (1-9, 2-3) ねえ (particle) (1-1)
ところ (complex predicate) (3-3)
ところが (conjunction) (4-4) 【の】
として (adverbial phrase) (2-8)
としては (adverbial phrase) (2-8) の (particle) (1-2, 2-2)
としても (adverbial phrase) (2-8) の (with other particles) (1-5)
とする (with volitional) (3-2) の (nominalizer) (2-2)
の (in complex predicates) (3-1)
【な】の (pronoun) (1-1, 2-2, 3-1)
の (with verbs of perception) (3-1)
な (particle) (1-2) のだ (complex predicate) (2-7)
ないで (suffix) (2-1) のだろう (complex predicate) (3-1)
なお（直）す (with stem) (2-6) ので (conjunction) (2-3, 3-1)
ながら (with active verbs) (2-5, 3-5) のに (conjunction) (3-1)
ながら (with stative verbs) (3-5)
なくては (suffix) (2-8) 【は】
なければ (suffix) (2-8)
なさい (with stem) (2-6, 3-7) は (topic) (1-1)
なら (conditional) (3-1) は (contrastive) (1-3)
なるべく (adverb) (3-2) は (topicalizing) (1-3, 1-7)
ば (conditional) (2-8)
【に】ばあい（場合） (adverbial clause) (4-1)
ばかり (particle) (3-8)
に (directional particle) (1-1) ばかり (complex predicate) (3-8)
に (specific time) (1-4) ばかり (with number) (3-8)
に (indirect object particle) (1-5) はじ（始）める (with verb stem) (2-6)
に (location particle) (1-5) はずだ (complex predicate) (2-7, 4-3)
に (experiencer particle) (1-7)
に (purpose particle) (2-5) 【ふ】
にくい (with verb stem) (2-6)
にする (person-focus) (1-6) ふいに (adverb) (4-2)
について (particle) (1-3) ぶり (suffix) (4-2)
にとって (adverbial phrase) (3-6)
にとっては (adverbial phase) (3-6) 【へ】
にとっても (adverbial phrase) (3-6)
によると (adverbial phrase) (2-7) へ (particle) (1-1)
べきだ (complex predicate) (3-7) 【や】
【ほ】や (noun phrasal conjunction) (1-5)

やいなや (adverbial clause) (4-1)
ほど (particle) (1-7) やすい (with verb stem) (2-6)
ぽい (suffix) (4-8) やまとことば（大和言葉） (word) (2-3)
【ま】【よ】
ま（真） (prefix) (4-8) よ (particle) (1-1)

まえ（前）に (adverbial clause) (1-9, 2-3) よう（用） (suffix) (2-6)
まだ (adverb) (2-1) ようだ (complex predicate) (3-2)
まで (particle) (1-4) よじじゅくご（四字熟語） (kanji compound) (4-8)
までに (particle) (2-1) より (particle) (1-7)
まま（で） (conjunction) (3-5)
まるで (adverbial phrase) (3-2) 【ら】
【み】ら (plural marker) (1-1)

らしい (complex predicate) (3-2)
みたい (complex predicate) (2-6)
【わ】
【め】
わけだ (complex predicate) (3-3)
めったに (adverb) (3-5) わざわざ (adverb) (3-5)
わす（忘）れる (with verb stem) (2-6)
【も】
【を】
も (particle) (1-1)
も (with interrogative pronouns) (1-5, 2-8) を (particle) (1-1)
も (with counter) (2-8) を (with intransitives) (1-5)
も (with て-forms) (2-8)
もう (adverb) (2-1) 【ん】
もし (adverb) (2-8)
もしかすると (adverbial phrase) (3-1) んだ (complex predicate) (1-6, 2-7)
もっと (adverb) (1-7) んで (conjunction) (3-1)
もっとも (conjunction) (4-4)
ものだ (complex predicate) (3-7)
Terminology Index (English)
[A] complex words (2-6, 4-8)

compound sentences (2-2)
adjectival clauses (1-9, 2-2) conditional adverbials (2-3, 2-8)
adjectival nouns (1-2) conjunctions (1-2, 1-3, 4-4)
adjectival predicates (1-1) conjunctive forms (1-3)
adjectives (1-1) cause (2-4)
complex (2-6, 4-8) expressing time in the (1-3)
honorific (4-6) joining predicates with (1-3, 1-6, 2-1)
humble (4-6) means (1-3, 2-1)
and verb pairs (3-6) overview of conjunctive forms (1-3, 2-1)
adverbial clauses (1-9, 2-3, 3-3, 3-5, 4-1, 4-7) with いる (1-3, 1-6, 1-9, 2-1)
adverbs (1-1) with おく、しまう、くる、いく (2-7)
affective passive ( 2-4) with みる (2-1)
aspect (1-3) copula (1-1)
honorific (4-6)
[B] humble (4-6)
omission of in media language (4-7)
backchanneling (1-2) counters (1-4)
base forms (1-3, 1-8)
[D]
[C]
dates (1-6)
calendar years (Japanese and Western) (1-6) defining words (2-2)
causative-passives (3-4) deletion (1-1)
causatives (1-9, 3-4) of a noun after の (1-2)
color terms (2-1) of the topic (1-1)
commands and requests (1-6, 1-9, 2-1, 3-7) of particle (1-8, 4-7)
complex predicates (1-9) of predicate (1-1, 4-7)
with そうだ (2-7, 3-2) derived verbs (1-9, 2-4, 3-4)
with だけだ (3-8) devoicing (prep)
with つもりだ (1-9, 2-7, 4-3) dictionary forms (1-1, 1-3, 1-5, 1-8 )
with ところだ (3-3, 3-8) direct object (1-1)
with はずだ (2-7, 4-3) double consonants (prep)
with ばかりだ (3-8)
with べきだ (3-7) [E]
with ものだ (3-7)
with ようだ (3-2) embedded clauses (3-3)
with らしい (3-2) emotive expressions (1-7, 2-5, 3-6)
with わけだ (3-3) emotive words (1-7)
complex sentences (1-9, 2-2) eras, names of (1-6)
Terminology Index (English) 513
[F] numbers (1-4)
female vs. male language (prep, 1-8) [O]

honorific and humble language (2-6, 4-6)
onomatopoeia (1-6, 4-2)
[H] out-group (そと) (1-5, 1-8)
honorific language (1-5, 1-8, 2-6, 4-6) [P]

humble language (2-6, 4-6)
palatalized sounds (prep)
[I] particles (prep, 1-1)
linking (1-1)
imperative forms (3-7) overriding (1-1)
in-group (うち) (1-5, 1-8, 4-6) sentence-final (1-1)
intransitive (1-5) passives (1-9)
affective (2-4)
[L] as honorific (2-6, 4-6)
regular (1-9, 2-4)
long vowels (prep) person-focused statements (1-6, 3-1)
personal names (prep)
[M] pitch (prep)
plain forms (1-8)
making requests (1-6, 1-9, 2-1) polite command and request (1-6, 1-9, 2-1)
media print language (4-7) polite invitations (2-6)
politeness and honorifics (1-5, 1-8)
[N] potential verbs (1-9, 2-4)
predicates (1-1)
names, personal (prep) adjectival (1-1)
negative imperfectives (1-8) aspects (1-3)
negative perfectives (1-8) complex (1-9, 2-7, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-8, 4-3)
nominal predicate (1-1) conjugation (plain) (1-8)
nouns (1-1) conjunctive forms (1-3, 1-6, 1-9, 2-1)
definite vs. indefinite (1-5) joining (1-3, 1-9, 2-1)
functional (1-4) nominal (1-1)
ぐらい (1-4) non-final position (2-2)
こと (1-7, 2-2, 3-1) transitivity (1-5)
つもり (1-9, 2-7, 4-3) verbal (1-1)
はず (2-7, 4-3) volitional (1-8)
もの (3-7) pronouns (1-1)
honorific (4-6) demonstrative (1-1, 1-2, 1-6)
modifying nouns (1-2) first person (1-1)
repetition as plural (1-1) honorific (4-6)
singular vs. plural (1-1) interrogative (1-5)
plural suffixes (1-1) place (1-5)
verb stem as a (2-5) plural (1-1)
514 Terminology Index (English)
second-person pronouns (1-1) transitive-intransitive pairs (1-6, 1-7, 3-1, 4-8)

third-person pronouns (1-1) transitivity (1-5)
[Q] [V]
question sentences (1-1) verbal predicate (1-1)

alternative (1-2) verbs (1-1)
double questions (3-3) and adjective pairs (3-6)
embedded questions (1-9, 3-3) complex (2-6)
information-seeking (1-2) conjugation (plain) (1-8)
yes-no (1-1) conjunctive form (1-3)
continuous aspect (1-3, 2-1)
[R] derived verbs (1-9, 2-4, 3-4)
dictionary form (1-8)
regular passive sentences (2-4) emotive (3-6)
requests (1-6, 1-9, 2-1, 3-7) giving (1-5)
grouping (1-8)
[S] honorific forms (1-5, 1-8, 2-6)
humble forms (2-6)
semi-transitive (1-5) modifying nouns (2-2)
short causative-passive form (3-4) of existence (1-5)
Sino-Japanese numbers (1-4) passive (2-4)
situation-focused statements (1-6, 3-1) affective-passive (2-4)
sound system (prep) as honorific (2-6, 4-6)
speech styles (prep, 1-1) potential (1-9, 2-4)
spoken vs. written language (prep) receiving (1-5)
subject (1-7) stem formation and use (2-5, 4-4)
two-object transitive verbs (1-5)
[T] volitional forms (1-3, 1-8)
voiced variations (prep)
time (1-4)
topic (1-1) [W]
and subject (1-7)
deletion of (1-1) word order (prep)
particle は (1-1, 1-3, 1-7) writer and story-teller, language of (3-6)
が in topic position (1-2) writing systems (prep)
transitive (1-5, 1-6, 3-1)
Index of Expressions
This index is a compilation of all the fixed idioms and expressions introduced in the Conversational
Devices sections of the Grammar Textbook. Phonetic guides for kanji are not given in the chart below.
Refer to the corresponding chapters for these guides if necessary.
Chapter Expression Meaning
Stage 1-1 とっても colloquial expression of とても
山田さんは？ “How about you, Yamada-san?”
Stage 1-2 じゃ used to change the topic or state a conclusion
Stage 1-3 そうですか used to acknowledge a question
Stage 1-4 あのう hesitation sound; attention-getter
さあ unsure of a response
へえ used to express surprise
いらっしゃいませ used to welcome a guest or customers
（を）お願いします “Please wrap this”; “I’ll take this.”
（を）下さい “Please wrap this”; “I’ll take this.”
いかがですか offering or suggesting
Stage 1-5 もしもし “Hello?” (on the phone)
それでは失礼します used to end a telephone conversation
何もございませんが “It’s nothing big.” (offering food)
どうぞお召し上がりください “Please have some.” (offering food)
いただきます used before eating
ごちそうさま（でした） used after eating
すごい！ “Wow!”
516 Index of Expressions
Stage 1-6 いえいえ、まだまだです “I still have a long way to go.”
実は “Actually”; “To tell you the truth . . .”
おめでとう（ございます） “Congratulations!”
そっくり used to remark on a strong physical resemblance
Stage 1-7 どっち colloquial expression of どちら
どうしましたか “What happened?”
それはいけませんね “That’s too bad.”
お大事に “Please take care.”
ええと vocalization used as a filler/delaying device
大丈夫です “All right.”
Stage 1-8 うん、ん used to agree casually
もちろん “Of course.”
じゃない？ used to confirm the speaker’s assumption
ううん used to disagree casually
さあ (with a falling tone) vocalization used when the answer is unsure
Stage 2-1 大変ですね “That must be hard.”
頑張ってください “Best of luck”; “Good luck.”
どうぞ、どうぞ “Please”; “By all means.”
心配しないでください “Please don’t worry.”
Stage 2-2 どういうこと “What do you mean?”
そういうこと “That’s what I mean.”
残念 “That’s too bad.”
仕方がない “Nothing can be done.”

Stage 2-3 別に大したことない “It’s not really anything serious.”
何でもない “It’s nothing serious.”
悪いけど . . . “I feel bad for asking this, but . . .”
申し訳ないけど . . . “I’m sorry to have ask you this, but . . .”
申し訳ありませんが . . . “I regret to say this, but . . .”
具合が悪い to feel unwell
Stage 2-4 どうしたんですか “What happened?”
どうやって “In what way (i.e., by what method)?”
成績をつける、点をつける to give grades or points
一生懸命 making every effort
気をつける to be careful
Stage 2-5 どこ行き used to ask for a destination
どうしよう？ plain form of どうしましょう
やっぱり; やはり (formal) “As expected . . .”
私がいけないんです “It’s my fault.”
（に）間に合う to be on time
本当に助かります “It’s a great help.”
Stage 2-6 ごめんください “Hello.” (used when visiting someone’s home)
いらっしゃい “Welcome!”
お上がりください “Please come in”
お邪魔します used when entering someone’s place
何だか “For some reason . . .”
~かな “I wonder . . .”
可哀そう used when feeling pity for someone
例えば “For instance . . .”
文句を言う to complain
Stage 2-7 ~ちゃう colloquial expression of ~てしまう
~とく colloquial expression of ~ておく
ちょっと出てきます “I’m going out.”
いってきます statement of farewell used when going out and

planning to come back
いってらっしゃい statement of farewell used by person staying

behind to one who is leaving
ただいま “I’m home!” (greeting upon returning home)
お帰りなさい “Welcome home!” (greeting to person returning)
Stage 2-8 お茶でも、飲む？ “Do you want tea or something?”
今はちょっと used to decline an offer
~気しない to not feel like doing (something)
だって “But . . .” (casually)
なるほど “I see.” (acknowledgement)
Stage 3-1 ええ？ vocalization used to express surprise
でしょ shortened でしょう
これで十分です “This is enough.”
もう結構です “No, thank you.”
うん、ちょっと response acknowledging, but not accepting,

what was said
Stage 3-2 婚約したんだって！ “I heard (name) got engaged!”
そうらしい “It seems that way.”
ドライブに行く to go for a drive
都合が悪い inconvenient
なかなか苦労する to have trouble with
Stage 3-3 上手なことは上手ですが . . . “It’s true that he’s good at it, but . . .”
あの人のことだから . . . “It’s him we’re talking about, so he’ll be fine.”
私の言うことは聞かない “He wouldn’t listen to what I’d say.”
そんなことは絶対にない “That would never happen.”
Stage 3-4 それは、それは “Oh, is that so!”
で shortened それで
是非（ぜひ） “By all means!” (used to add emphasis)
そのとおりです “That’s exactly right.”
~に違いありません “Must be . . .”
かしこまりました “Certainly.”
承知しました “Certainly.”
少々お待ちください “Please wait a moment.”
お待たせしました “Thank you for waiting.”
Stage 3-5 気がする to have a feeling
気になる to be worried about
ピンピンする very healthy
ほんの気持ち just a thought
それはそうですね “That’s true.”

そんなことない “It’s not like that.”
~ちょうだい colloquial for ください
Stage 3-6 そうかしら “I’m not so sure” (female speaker)
こうでもない、ああでもない “Neither this way nor that way.” (prevaricating)
答えられないものは答えられない “There’s no way to respond.”
心から感謝、致します “Thank you from the bottom of my heart.”
いやあ “No.” (male speaker)
改まって in a formal manner
Stage 3-7 どこだって同じ “They’re all the same.”
分かんない colloquial for 分からない
Stage 3-8 ~に限って “Of all the possibilities, the one . . .”
ちゃっかりする to readily take advantage of
申し訳ございません “I’m sorry.” (humble)
とんでもございません “No need to apologize/thank me.”

Conjugations of Verbs, Adjectives, and the
Copula
The kana in the charts below are the final syllables of the conjugated predicates.
 Independent predicates
The following (1 – 4) are independent verb forms that are used as the bases for conjugations. The
potentials, causatives, and passives are derived from the base forms (1) and are themselves used as
the base for conjugations (5 – 14).
Name of the form Verb Verb Verb Adjective Copula

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
1. Base るく, ぐ, すするいだ
む, ぬ, ぶくるである
つ, う, る
2. Potential る→られる u→e るできる — —

こられる
3. Causative る→させる u→a せるさせる — —

こさせる
4. Passive u→a れるされる — —

こられる
All derived verbs (potentials, causatives, and passives) belong to the Group 1 verbs.
 Aspects of predicates
Each of the above forms has the following aspects.
Name of the Verb Verb Verb Adjective Copula

form Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
5. Negative る→ない u→a ないしないい→くないだ→ではない

imperfective こない or じゃない
6. Positive る→たく→いた*, ぐ→いだしたい→かっただ→だった

perfective す→した, きたである→であった
む, ぬ, ぶ→んだ
つ, う, る→った
522 Conjugations of Verbs, Adjectives, and the Copula

7. Negative る→なかった u→a なかったしなかったい→くなかっただ→ではなかった

perfective こなかった or じゃなかった
8. Volitional る→よう u→oo しよう — だ→だろう

こようである→であろう
9. Imperative る→ろ u→e しろ — である→であれ

こい
*exception; 行く→行った
 Dependent predicates
The following forms must be used in combination with other elements in sentences; they cannot
be used independently as predicates in the final position within a sentence. The meanings of these
forms vary depending on the construction in which each one is used.

10. Stem delete る u→i しい→くである

き →であり
11. Conjunctive る→てく→いて*, ぐ→いでしてい→くてだ→で

す→してきて
む, ぬ, ぶ→んでである
つ, う, る→って →であって
12. Representative る→たりく→いたり*, ぐ→いだりしたりい→かったりだ→だったり

す→したり, きたり
む, ぬ, ぶ→んだりである
つ, う, る→ったり →であったり
13. Time conditional る→たらく→いたら*, ぐ→いだらしたらい→かったらだ→だったら

す→したら, きたら
む, ぬ, ぶ→んだらである
つ, う, る→ったら →であったら
14. Situation る→れば u→eばすればい→ければである

conditional くれば →であれば
*exception; 行く→行って, 行ったり, 行ったら

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Japanese Stage-Step Course Grammar Textbook)

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The Japanese Stage-Step Course

The book is divided into the following four stages:

 Stage 1: Building a foundation

Simultaneously published in the UK

Typeset in Japan by Komiyama Printing Company

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN13: 978-0-415-77605-9 (grammar textbook)

Stage 1 Building a Foundation 1

Preparatory Stage Beginning the Study of Japanese 3

Stage 2 Towards More Complex Structures 199

Stage 2-1 Conjunctive Forms and Their Uses 201

Stage 3 Adding Sophistication 321

Stage 3-1 Objective vs. Personal Expressions 323

Stage 4 Referencing 439

Stage 4-1 Adverbial Clauses 441

Grammar Index (Japanese Words) 508

Beliefs underlying foreign language learning

Goal of this course

Preparatory Stage Beginning the Study of Japanese

1. Overview of the Japanese Language

1: Overview of the Japanese Language

(2) Writing systems

accentuation is performed by the strengthening or weakening of sounds, which is called stress,

 Spoken vs. written forms

s 2: Japanese Sound System

(1) 46 basic sounds

(2) Voiced variations

t→d da [di (ji)] [du (zu)] de do

(3) Palatalized sound

kya kyu kyo

gya gyu gyo

sya (sha) syu (shu) syo (sho)

zya (ja) zyu (ju) zyo (jo)

tya (cha) tyu (chu) tyo (cho)

dya (ja) dyu (ju) dyo (jo)

nya nyu nyo

hya hyu hyo

bya byu byo

pya pyu pyo

mya myu myo

rya ryu ryo

(4) Long vowels

Short vowel Long vowel

obasan “aunt” obaasan “grandmother”

Short vowel Long vowel

(5) Double consonants

Single consonant Double consonants

kaki “persimmon” kakki “energy”

moto “origin” motto “more”

isho “will” issho “together”

masatsu “friction” massatsu “erase”

hashi “bridge” hashi “chopsticks”

(1) Greetings and farewells

Ohayoo (gozaimasu).* Good morning.

KoNnichi wa. Good afternoon.

KoNbaN wa. Good evening.

Oyasumi (nasai). Good night.

Sayo(o)nara. Good bye.