Food Safety For Food Security Relationship Between Global Megatrends and Developments in Food Safety

Trends in Food Science & Technology 68 (2017) 160e175
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-food-science-
and-technology
Commentary
Food safety for food security: Relationship between global megatrends

and developments in food safety
Thea King a, *, Martin Cole a, f, Jeffrey M. Farber b, f, Gerhard Eisenbrand c, f,
Dimitrios Zabaras a, Edward M. Fox d, Jeremy P. Hill e
a
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
b
University of Guelph, Department of Food Science, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
c
Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Germany
d
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
e
Fonterra Cooperative Group, P.O. Box 11 029, Palmerston North, New Zealand
f
Food Safety Science Expert Advisory Panel to the Fonterra Cooperative Group, New Zealand
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Background: There is an urgent need to drive improvements in the efficiency and effectiveness of food
Received 29 August 2016 chains. The global population is expected to reach at least 9 billion by the year 2050, requiring up to 70%
Received in revised form more food, and demanding food production systems and the food chain to become fully sustainable. This
16 June 2017
challenge is complicated by a number of overarching issues, including increasing complexity of food
Accepted 20 August 2017
Available online 24 August 2017
supply chains, environmental constraints, a growing aging population and changing patterns of con-
sumer choice and food consumption. Within this context, food safety must be an enabler and not in-
hibitor of global food security.
Keywords:
Food safety
Scope and approach: This paper will highlight how recent developments and trends related to food safety
Food security will impact the food sector and ultimately the ability of the sector to deliver food security.
Global megatrends Key findings and conclusions: Global megatrends including climate change, a growing and aging popu-
Food industry lation, urbanisation, and increased affluence will create food safety challenges and place new demands
Regulation on producers, manufacturers, marketers, retailers and regulators. Advances in science and technology
Food safety communication such as whole genome sequencing, active packaging, developments in tracing and tracking technologies,
information computing technology and big data analysis has the potential to help mitigate the challenges
and meet demands, but will also create new challenges. Overcoming a number of these challenges will
be difficult for developed economies and large food companies, but even greater for small and medium-
sized enterprises (SMEs), developing economies and smallholder farmers, noting that each is a critical
component in the global food supply.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction about 450 million in 2005 to 2.1 billion in 2050, demand for
protein-rich foods such as meat and dairy could more than double
The need to reduce the complexity of and drive improvements from current needs (van der Mensbrugghe, Osorio-Rodarte, Burns,
in the efficiency and effectiveness of food chains has never been & Baffes, 2009).
greater. Sustainable nutrition and food security are front and center The global food sector operates in an environment where pol-
on the global agenda and key themes within the recently icies, standards, regulations, guidelines, education and advice
announced United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN, relating to food, including those related to the safety of food, are
2015). The world will need to feed around 9 billion people by continuously being either developed or updated. Such de-
2050 and to do so through safe sustainable food chains (Godfray velopments can be either aligned with and be supportive of
et al., 2010). With the global middle class estimated to grow from increased efficiency and effectiveness of food chains, or add to
complexity and confusion if they are not globally harmonized and
consumers are not better informed about food safety and nutrition.
* Corresponding author. An anticipated doubling of the global demand for food and
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. King).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.014
0924-2244/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. King et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 68 (2017) 160e175 161
international trade in food in the next few decades is considered as consuming contaminated food (WHO, 2015b), there is insufficient
the most significant factor that will drive an increase in foodborne evidence to support claims that the numbers of actual foodborne
disease with a high degree of certainty (Quested, Cook, Gorris, & illness outbreaks and cases are increasing (Byrd-Bredbenner et al.,
Cole, 2010). A number of other factors will also pose significant 2015; Nyachuba, 2010). According to the Centers for Disease Con-
challenges to global food safety; including climate change, the trol and Prevention (CDC), the increase in both reported outbreaks
emergence of new pathogens and toxicants, an increasing popu- and foodborne illness cases in recent years is likely a reflection of
lation of at-risk (immunocompromised and aging) consumers and, enhanced surveillance rather than a true increase in incidence
changing patterns of human consumption as fresh and minimally (Gould et al., 2013). Clearly, opportunities exist for food safety
processed foods are currently preferred by consumers. A number of communicators to use online communication channels to more
emerging technologies offer the promise of revolutionizing the way effectively engage, inform and educate consumers on food safety
we produce, process and package food. However, public percep- issues.
tions and safety concerns around the use of emerging food tech-
nologies will continue to present a challenge to the food industry 2. Global megatrends and food
and regulators. The magnitude of the changes required along the
entire food supply chain to meet these intersecting challenges, has In Megachange: The World in 2050 (Franklin & Andrews, 2012),
been likened to those which occurred during the 18th- and 19th- the fundamental trends that are shaping the world are analysed
century Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions and the 20th-cen- and discussed. One of the key challenges will be global food secu-
tury Green Revolution (Godfray et al., 2010). rity as we look to not only produce but also provide access to
As food trade expands throughout the world, food safety has enough of the right foods to meet the nutritional requirements of
become a shared concern among both developed and developing the global population.
countries. Aside from the value of life and health, foodborne disease
negatively impacts on the economy, trade and industries of affected 2.1. Global food security
countries. The costs associated with a foodborne outbreak can be
significant and include medical costs, nonmedical costs, produc- The global population is expected to reach 9 billion by the year
tivity losses, costs incurred by the implicated manufacturer and 2050 (Godfray et al., 2010) and a number of pathways have been
costs incurred by the responding local/provincial/territorial/federal explored to keep food supply and demand in balance (Keating,
agencies and public health and food safety authorities (Thomas Herrero, Carberry, Gardner, & Cole, 2014). In order to meet the
et al., 2015). The implicated manufacturer can also suffer from increased demand for food associated with the growing human
temporary and sustained negative financial impacts due to product population worldwide, industrial-scale and centralized production
recall and disposal, business interruption and damage to their systems, including large-scale farming, intensified animal produc-
brand (Shavel, Vanderzeil, & Zheng, 2016). While food security is a tion, and large-scale food processing and distribution, have dras-
matter of equal importance to importing and exporting countries, a tically increased over the past several decades. The fact that these
number of countries have inferior food safety standards and have systems are needed in order to meet the demand for food is un-
not yet established adequate surveillance or reporting mechanisms disputable. In addition, systems will also need to account for
to identify and track foodborne illnesses. Enforcement of food smallholder agriculture given the socioeconomic and nutritional
safety standards and effective surveillance networks at country, importance of smallholder farming systems in many developing
regional and global levels are required (WHO, 2015b). In addition, countries, systems will also need to account for smallholder agri-
harmonization and equivalence of standard and regulatory frame- culture. However, these systems will be constrained by the Earth's
works will be critical. These systems also need to be practical and finite resources (Godfray et al., 2010). There is also a need to curb
affordable to enable and facilitate more cross-border trade and the the many negative environmental effects of food production on the
integration of smallholder-based agricultural production that will environment; including but not limited to, the release of green-
be required for food security. Ultimately, improving food-import house gases, environmental pollution due to nutrient run-off, water
safety will strengthen free trade and improve the overall global shortages due to over-extraction, soil degradation and the loss of
level of food safety and public health (Zach, Ellin Doyle, Bier, & biodiversity through land conversion or inappropriate manage-
Czuprynski, 2012). ment and, ecosystem disruption due to the intensive harvesting of
Aside from the global standardization and enforcement of food fish and other aquatic foods. It is also now widely recognized that
safety standards, new analytical and omics technologies hold the food production systems and the food chain in general must
promise of improving food safety by facilitating enhanced surveil- become fully sustainable (Godfray et al., 2010).
lance. For example, routine, real-time, and widespread application Food producers are also facing challenges with the growing
of whole-genome sequencing (WGS) in food safety and public complexity of global food supply chains (see Fig. 1) introducing
health is on the horizon (Deng, Bakker, & Hendriksen, 2016). variations in food safety regulations across countries and a lack of
However, technological, operational, and policy challenges are still uniform requirements from one commodity to another. Also
present and need to be addressed by an international and multi- complicating matters is the fact that food safety challenges may
disciplinary community of researchers, public health practitioners, differ by region due to differences in income level, diets, local
and other stakeholders (Deng et al., 2016). conditions and government infrastructures.
The spread of information and communication technology and The role of developed countries in assisting developing coun-
global interconnectedness, is also representing a challenge in the tries must be clearly defined as an increasing volume of imported
communication of food safety issues to consumers. The media's food, the increasing percentage of imports from less developed
coverage of foodborne outbreaks and chemical contamination has countries, and the complexity of global food supply chains, pose
undoubtedly increased awareness, resulting in increased reporting numerous challenges to ensuring the safety of imported foods
and better diagnosis of foodborne illnesses (Nyachuba, 2010). (Zach et al., 2012, pp. 303e334).
Public perceptions of the consequences of foodborne illness have The increasing percentage of imports from less developed
also seemingly increased (Callaway & Sheridan, 2015). However, countries also poses significant food safety challenges. Practices
while the World Health Organisation (WHO) has estimated that prevalent within many developing countries include the use of
each year as many as 600 million people in the world fall ill after faecal contaminated irrigation water for fruit and vegetable
162 T. King et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 68 (2017) 160e175
Fig. 1. The global food system.
production, and the use of untreated chicken manure and human pathogens in the environment and by modifying environmental
faeces in aquaculture production (Doyle et al., 2015). In addition, conditions in which pathogens or their competitors must adapt to
production and processing establishments in developing countries survive and/or grow (Baker-Austin et al., 2016; Doyle et al., 2015).
often lack hygienic controls, various types of cleaning and sani- Many aspects of food safety and security are in turn likely to be
tizing equipment, and quality assurance management systems affected by climate change, ranging from spoilage organism prev-
(Doyle et al., 2015). Lack of documentation or traceability in the alence, changes in existing plant and animal pathogen epidemi-
exporting country can exacerbate the situation (Zach et al., 2012, ology, and migration, introduction and invasion of novel pests and
pp. 303e334). diseases (Lennon, 2015; Vezzulli et al., 2016). Climate change will,
in particular, affect the introduction of biological or chemical con-
taminants at the pre-harvest stage of fresh produce production
2.2. Climate change
(Uyttendaele, Liu, & Hofstra, 2015). The emergence and re-
emergence of pathogens may lead to a greater use of veterinary
Climate change is a current global concern. Climate change may
medicines in livestock management (Kemper, 2008) and conse-
rise with globalization of the food supply with, for example,
quently an increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Pesticide
increased greenhouse gas emissions associated with increased
residues may also increase in plant products due to increasing pest
production and food transport (Godfray et al., 2010). While there is
pressure (Uyttendaele et al., 2015). It is also likely that trace
continuing controversy about the magnitude of its effects, in gen-
element and/or heavy metal contamination may increase due to
eral, weather conditions have become more variable with extreme
heavy rainfalls, floods and droughts (Uyttendaele et al., 2015).
weather events increasing in regularity and intensity (Stewart &
To counter the impacts of climate change, political, technical and
Elliott, 2015).
investment support and incentive measures will be needed to help
Local climatic conditions influence local vegetation and so, as
develop diverse and resilient land use systems to feed the
the climate changes, growing seasons may change and biological
expanding population. New technologies, animal remedies and
consequences will be inevitable with variations in the crops that
pest control measures will be needed to combat more invasive and
are cultivated and animals farmed (Stewart & Elliott, 2015). This
resistant pest species as will assistance to agri-food chains in
could lead to changes in plant and animal epidemiology and
developing countries to minimise the impact of climate change on
transformations in entire ecosystems (Stewart & Elliott, 2015).
food safety. Similarly, more multi-disciplinary research is needed to
Erratic and extreme changes in climate can also affect the micro-
enhance our understanding of the ecological mechanisms behind,
biological safety of the food supply by impacting the dispersion of
for example, seafood security and safety concerns (Lloret, R€ atz, 2.5. Digital food and the internet of food
Lleonart, & Demestre, 2016; Tirado, Clarke, Jaykus, McQuatters-
Gollop, & Frank, 2010). Technological advancements, such as 3D printing of food, may
Climate change is likely to create new safety issues or exacerbate be on the brink of transforming the food industry. In addition,
existing issues to the point where, at least temporarily, we may continued global increases in mobile adoption and broadband
need to reassess our tolerance to risk and safety limits in order to penetration, have transformed the way we make informed de-
allow time for our regulatory environments and food chains to cope cisions about the foods we consume and have boosted online
and adjust. This may entail temporal adjustments to increase grocery sales. The Internet purchase of food is likely to grow with
tolerable levels of many contaminants (microbial, chemical, and increases in urbanisation especially in countries like China where a
radiation) presently established for the human food chain. relatively higher percentage of the population already purchase
goods over the Internet. This could improve food safety by enabling
food companies with robust food safety systems to have greater
reach, but have the opposite effect if systems suffer transportation
2.3. Mega-cities and mega-regions
failures with foods not being held at the right temperatures, or
other breakdowns or inadequacies. What is clear is that Internet-
Analyses of the evolution of global poverty and demographic
based purchase of food will need to be audited to the same stan-
patterns looking at the 2050 horizon have highlighted the emer-
dard as ‘bricks and mortar’-based systems.
gence of what was called a new global middle class in many
With 3D printing of food, ‘everyone’ can become a food
developing countries and emerging economies (van der
manufacturer (Pallottino et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2015; Yang, Zhang,
Mensbrugghe et al., 2009). The global middle class is estimated to
& Bhandari, 2017) with the potential to create new combinations
grow from about 450 million in 2005 to 2.1 billion in 2050, corre-
of ingredients, at higher than normal water activities, reduced
sponding to 8.2e28.4% of the global population (van der
acidity or lower/zero levels of preservatives, or moreover without
Mensbrugghe et al., 2009) and will be accompanied with higher
any risk assessment being undertaken as normally would be the
purchasing power, higher consumption and a greater demand for
case in the manufacture of such foods. It could be argued that
processed food, meat, dairy, and fish, all of which add pressure to
everyone can currently ‘cook up’ whatever combinations of in-
the food supply system (Godfray et al., 2010). In addition, there will
gredients using the tools in a conventional home kitchen without
be a growing demand for convenience and pre-cooked and ready-
any formal risk assessment or training in food safety management.
to-eat meals.
However, unlike conventional cooking that uses millennia of
A larger number of middle income consumers and a major in-
knowledge, recipes, practices and traditions, 3D printing may not
crease in the number of people living in cities, could facilitate a
rely on such a wealth of knowledge to create safety hurdles. Nor as
higher proportion of the population having access to modern food
is the case with other domestically produced foods will formal
chains including modern retail systems such as supermarkets and
audit be feasible. Food safety needs to be an important consider-
with these, more formalised and regulated food safety. This could
ation in the uptake of 3D printing for food. Regulatory environ-
improve food safety and decrease foodborne illness. Alternatively,
ments and food safety management systems will need to evolve to
more people living in close proximity could increase foodborne
take into account advances in digital processing, including such
disease in cases where humans can act as a vector, or where
things as personalised nutrition (see following), e-commerce and
microbiologically or chemically contaminated food is distributed
3D printing. Whilst empowering consumers, such innovations and
widely as a result of large scale manufacturing and distribution.
technologies have the potential to circumvent established mech-
anisms of providing consumer protection.
2.4. Growing aging population 2.6. Rising demand for personalised foods, diets, service and
experience
Foodborne illness is known to affect vulnerable populations,
including the aged, more severely. With a rapidly aging populace The food industry must focus on innovation to meet consumers’
and a growing population of immunocompromised persons, the new demands, as they are looking for food products that are highly
deleterious impacts of outbreaks are likely to become more sig- sensory, healthy, specific to their nutritional needs and are easy to
nificant from a public health perspective. This is particularly con- prepare, amongst other things. Rising ethical consumerism is also
cerning, considering current consumer and retailer pressures to fuelling the demand for seasonal, locally grown and organic and/or
develop foods that have no preservatives, lower salt concentra- sustainable food products. This represents an increasing challenge
tions, are closer to neutral pH and are suitable for ‘ambient storage’ for the food industry, as trends become cumulative, in that con-
(Parkin, Shepherd, Hall, & Hill, 2007). One possible solution pro- sumers “want it all”. Because of this demand, the convergence
posed to address this dilemma, is the design of “extra-safe” food between science and medicine, gastronomy and industry is today
products, such as irradiated, sterilized, or pasteurized foods, that more necessary than ever.
are targeted to higher-risk populations (Doyle et al., 2015). How- Personalised diets focus more on the nutritional aspects than on
ever, a number of innovative technologies entail uncertainties, food safety; the use of, for example, different types of microbiomes
safety concerns and/or suffer from a lack of consumer acceptance, to try and cure people of certain diseases could create unintended
which must be overcome. food safety issues, by changing the gut microflora in unexpected
Food manufacturers and marketers will need to become more ways. A totally empirical approach could be dangerous and more
aware, that a population with increased susceptibility is eating systematic research is needed including the use of nutrigenomics,
their foods, pay closer attention to how they determine the shelf metabolomics and toxicogenomics. The challenge of delivering
life of foods, etc. and design foods with built-in hurdles. Effective personalised nutrition in a personalised manner to the masses will
education campaigns will need to be designed for the higher-risk require novel, less heavily processed foods that preserve heat labile
groups; and hospitals and elderly care facilities should review nutrients. The equivalency of new less traditional food preservation
their menus continually with more emphasis on food safety, and technologies will require safety to be designed in and based on risk
not just on nutrition. management principles.
3. Emerging food safety issues lead to the worldwide availability of minimally processed high-risk
foods (Koopmans, von Bonsdorff, Vinje , de Medici, & Monroe, 2002)
3.1. Antibiotic resistance and the increasing import of products from HAV-endemic regions
to non-endemic countries (Todd & Grieg, 2015), pose a significant
The rates of antimicrobial resistant bacteria causing serious and issue. It is clear that we need better surveillance of foodborne vi-
life-threatening infections are rapidly rising (WHO, 2014). This ruses, especially in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. However, it is not clear
development is accelerated by selection pressures from the use and whether routine monitoring of food specimens for viral contami-
misuse of antimicrobial drugs (Holmes et al., 2016; WHO, 2014). nation will be feasible and given the difficulty of excluding food
The rapid transmission of resistance genes between bacteria, handlers likely to be shedding virus at any one time, infections from
combined with an increasingly connected world, further acceler- foodborne viruses are likely to increase in significance in the future
ates the spread of resistant strains on a global scale (Holmes et al., (Carter, 2005). The global expansion of livestock production and
2016). The potential for antimicrobial resistant livestock pathogens encroachment of wildlife habitats by invasive agricultural land use,
to pass their resistance onto human pathogens, represents an have also emphasised the need for increased awareness around the
alarming concern for the treatment of human infections with an- potential for emerging zoonotic viruses in food production areas;
tibiotics that may already be rendered ineffective. To support the especially where bats and primates are in contact with humans
global surveillance of AMR, in May 2015, the WHO set up the Global (FAO, 2011; Locatelli & Peeters, 2012).
Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) to establish a A particular viral issue is Avian influenza virus (AIV). Effort must
global standardized approach to the collection, analysis and sharing be focused on identifying and understanding situations or drivers
of data (WHO, 2015a). However, this initiative will not capture and where AIV's could potentially mutate into a form that is more
provide insight into the use of antibiotics by all smallhold farmers, zoonotic and/or more easily transmissible from human to human. It
who are estimated to account for more than 90% of all farms is clear that intensive One Health approaches are required to
worldwide (Lowder, Skoet, & Singh, 2014). The preservation of further guarantee farm-to-table food security and to prevent AIV
antimicrobial efficacy and appropriate use of key agents and pro- contaminated products from reaching the food chain (Harder, Buda,
cesses in the animal production environment is critical to ensuring Hengel, Beer, & Mettenleiter, 2016). While antibiotic use and AMR is
we keep pace with the increasing global demand for protein food a significant issue within the poultry industry (Van Boeckel et al.,
sources (Shaban, Simon, Trott, Turnidge, & Jordan, 2014). 2015) and the WHO has focused considerable attention on tack-
Due to the widespread problem of antibiotic resistance coupled ling AMR, a similar level of focus must be given to the surveillance
with the paucity of new antibacterial drugs, a number of alternative and development of control strategies for AIV.
methods have been proposed (Cheng et al., 2014; Endersen et al.,
2014; Sulakvelidze, 2011). However no ‘magic bullet’ replacement 3.3. Unintentional chemical contamination
exists (Allen, Levine, Looft, Bandrick, & Casey, 2013). In order that
AMR does not derail food security and severely undermine human Food represents one of the major routes of exposure to a myriad
disease control, scientists and industry must foster innovation and of environmental (natural and/or man-made) chemical substances,
research in the development of new measures and solutions to many of which are hazardous to humans and wildlife (Bergman,
avoid the emergence and spread of antibacterial resistance. Heindel, Jobling, Kidd, & Zoeller, 2013). These contaminants
include, but are not limited to, agrochemicals, environmental/in-
3.2. Viruses dustrial contaminants, processing/storage derived contaminants,
contact-material derived contaminants and, biotoxins.
Enteric viruses are major contributors to foodborne disease, Chemical hazards can contaminate the food supply chain at any
with norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) being the most point, may be persistent and can bio-accumulate in animals and
significant. Globally NoV accounts for the largest number of cases of humans, as well as biomagnify to increasing concentrations in the
foodborne disease (Ahmed et al., 2014; WHO, 2015b). While HAV tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in the food chain.
infection attributed to food is in the range of around 5% (FAO/WHO, However, acute impact on health is rare and it is well accepted that
2008), HAV is associated with more serious illness. the largest impact on human health is through low-level repeated
Viruses survive well in the environment and are much more exposure. This makes the link between exposure and ill-health very
resistant than bacteria to some of the current procedures used to difficult to establish, but there is increasing concern that chemical
mitigate bacterial infections during food processing, preservation exposure may play a major role in the etiology of many disorders
and storage (Baert, Debevere, & Uyttendaele, 2009; Koopmans & (Bergman et al., 2013).
Duizer, 2004; Li, De Keuckelaere, & Uyttendaele, 2015). It is Exposure to chemical hazards is rising steadily as global popu-
therefore of paramount importance that we gain a better under- lation and pollution are increasing. Other factors such as climate
standing of how a combination of technologies may be used to change (see previous) and global food transport (Ng & von Goetz,
inactivate foodborne viruses. 2016) also add to the complexity of this problem, as traditional
Virally contaminated food and water generally display no and emerging contaminants are now appearing in regions never
organoleptic changes. The ability to detect virus particles, which seen before (Q. Li et al., 2012; McKinney et al., 2011; Zhu et al.,
are often present in low numbers in contaminated food, is also 2013).
hampered by the fact that there are no universal or rapid culture-
based methods available for the cultivation of foodborne viruses. 3.4. Economically motivated adulteration of food
In the absence of culture methods, harmonized methods are
required for the molecular detection of foodborne viruses; espe- The intentional adulteration of food for economic benefit is a
cially for NoV and HAV (Stals, Baert, Van Coillie, & Uyttendaele, global phenomenon that has occurred throughout history (Wilson,
2012). 2008). High value food products/commodities are exclusively tar-
Most problems with foodborne viruses arise due to contami- geted in many economically motivated adulteration (EMA) cases
nation of food products during manual handling in combination due to the potential financial incentives. Food commodities with
with subsequent minimal processing of foods (Koopmans & Duizer, long and/or complex supply chains are also particularly vulnerable
2004). Changes in food processing and consumption patterns that to EMA (Kennedy, 2008). According to the EMA Incidents Database,
fish and seafood are by far the most impacted food category fol- Morris, & Cummins, 2015)). To date, the application of engineered
lowed by dairy products, and oils and fats (FPDI, 2016). In contrast nanoparticles (ENPs) in the food industry has mainly centred on
to unintentional contamination, EMA is often harder to detect and novel food packaging materials and there are a number of com-
confirm as the motive is always to evade detection and adulterants mercial products currently available (Bumbudsanpharoke & Ko,
are often employed that have a high degree of similarity to the 2015; Hannon et al., 2015). However, due to a lack of specific reg-
product being adulterated. ulations and harmonization in the nanotechnology area, it is diffi-
Although non-toxic adulterants are often used, EMA incidents cult to approximate its overall use worldwide (Coles & Frewer,
can have a devastating impact on health. In China in 2008, the 2013).
intentional adulteration of infant formula with melamine, to raise Public concern exists around the use of ENPs in the food chain,
its nitrogen content and therefore its value, affected an estimated due to the immense uncertainty which surrounds the potential for
300,000 people and resulted in the death of 6 infants (Gossner ENP migration from food contact materials (FCMs) and their asso-
et al., 2009). ciated health risks. Wide diversity exists in the current status of
The FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) contains a final regulations and legislation on nanomaterials in food packaging by
rule aimed at preventing intentional adulteration from acts inten- country (Bumbudsanpharoke & Ko, 2015). There must be interna-
ded to cause wide-scale harm to public health, including acts of tional cooperation in the pursuit of nano-safety, since nanoparticles
terrorism targeting the food supply (FDA, 2011). However, a global may well be difficult to detect in imported packaged goods
whole-of-system approach with multidisciplinary input from sci- (Bumbudsanpharoke & Ko, 2015). As the opportunities for the use
entists (e.g., testing methods), regulators (e.g., policy frameworks) of nanoparticles in the food production industry are infinite, more
and industry (e.g., simplification of supply chains), will be required. research in this space is warranted through a combined effort of
food regulators, authorities and industry at a local and global scale.
3.5. Allergens and intolerances
3.7. Genome editing
Food allergies affect approximately 3.5e4.0% of the world's
population (Leung, Shu, & Chang, 2014) and are increasing in Current applications of genome editing include some with
developed and developing countries (Prescott et al., 2013). The immense potential impact on the security of the world food supply.
complexity in protection of food-allergic consumers lies in the fact Genome editing via technologies such as transcription activator-
that, unlike bacterial or viral contamination which negatively af- like effector nucleases (TALENs) and clustered regularly inter-
fects everybody, the presence of allergens is only relevant to a spaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/Cas systems (e.g., Cas9),
susceptible segment of the population; of which the outcome of allow directed modification of specific DNA sequences at their
consumption could potentially be fatal. Most developed countries normal chromosomal locations; including changes as small as a
mandate labelling of the most common allergenic foods, as well as single base pair or as dramatic as a large deletion (Carroll & Charo,
ingredients derived from those foods in accordance with the 1999 2015; Selle & Barrangou, 2015). The animal and plant products of
Codex Alimentarius (Codex) guidelines (CodexAlimentarius, 1999). these modifications are essentially identical to ones that could
However, more than 170 foods have been identified as potentially occur naturally or could be created by traditional breeding methods
allergenic and novel food sources are now being explored in an (Carroll & Charo, 2015). In terms of agriculture, this might win over
effort to solve the future food insecurity problem (Houben et al., public and regulator opinion (Ainsworth, 2015). In particular,
2016; Verhoeckx, Broekman, Knulst, & Houben, 2016). Further CRISPR-based applications have the potential to revolutionize the
complicating matters, is the fact that differences in dietary patterns whole area of food science (Selle & Barrangou, 2015).
between countries can also lead to differences in allergenicity to While genome editing may not represent a food safety issue as
specific foods (Lee, Shek, Gerez, Soh, & Van Bever, 2008). There are such, however, it is certainly an issue that food safety regulators are
also significant differences between countries as to what allergens grappling with. An emerging challenge for regulators is to accom-
are required to be disclosed and how this is communicated to the modate new biotechnologies such as genome editing that do not
consumer (K. J. Allen et al., 2014). In addition, uncertainty over the fall neatly into the definitions of genetic modification laid down in
risk posed to allergic individuals by even minute residual traces of existing legislations (Jones, 2015). In most regions of the world, it
allergen has prompted many food manufacturers to provide advice still remains unclear how or whether this fledgling technology will
as to the potential for unintentional contamination with allergens be regulated (Jones, 2015). This lack of consistency risks stifling
during manufacture in the form of precautionary allergen labelling innovation, exacerbating already difficult international trade issues
(PAL). However, in the vast majority of countries, the use of PAL is and more importantly, undermining consumer confidence in both
not regulated by legislation and a formal risk assessment is not the risk assessment process and the safety of the biotechnology
performed (K. J. Allen et al., 2014). To this end, the VITAL (Voluntary products (Jones, 2015). In addition, it might be difficult to overcome
Incidental Trace Allergen Labelling) Program of the Allergen Bureau a fundamental resistance to intentional genetic manipulation.
of Australia & New Zealand (ABA), was created to provide a stan- However, transparency of use and accuracy of outcomes may pave
dardized allergen risk assessment process for the food industry. the way for sensible policies for their regulation and use (Editorial,
However, the global nature of food production and manufacturing 2016). Effective risk communication efforts out to the public related
makes harmonization of allergen regulations across the world a to the whole area of whole genome editing is definitely needed.
matter of critical importance. A framework has recently been pro-
posed that allows categorisation and prioritisation of allergenic 4. The current global regulatory environment
foods according to their public health importance, with the hope
that it can be adopted by regulators (Houben et al., 2016). Legislation and regulation relating to food safety and trade has
evolved as production systems have matured and international
3.6. Nanotechnology trade has become more widespread. Historically, legislation has
been developed at a national level, resulting in differences between
Nanotechnology is still in its infancy with regards to research jurisdictions. Global food trade has grown to an excess of US$520
and development, but has the potential to penetrate every aspect of billion per year, bringing new challenges to global food safety
food production (for a Review see (Hannon, Kerry, Cruz-Romero, regulation (MacDonald et al., 2015). Harmonization of regulations
and equivalence of standards are major challenges in the global requirements.

food safety regulatory environment. A global approach to food In addition to differences in national regulatory requirements,
safety and security is necessary to ensure that differing standards the retail sector may have additional food safety criteria which
do not present barriers to trade. At a global level, emphasis must be must be satisfied by food producers wishing to supply them.
placed on a move towards outcome-based risk management rather
than prescriptive food standards.
Global food supply chains add additional complexity for coun-
tries when assessing food safety. Traditionally, many countries have 4.1. Private standards
relied on the border inspection of imported foods for safety because
they have no jurisdiction over process controls in exporting coun- Private food safety standards are generally set by private firms
tries. However, end product testing does not assure food safety and and standard setting coalitions, which contractually impose
greater assurance of safety can be achieved with hazard and risk- compliance with their standard to their suppliers. Private food
based through chain approaches. However, demonstrating equiv- safety standards are increasingly monitored and enforced through
alence of through chain approaches of some countries to food third party certification and may pertain to characteristics of the
safety standards and criteria of other, often less developed, coun- products themselves, or to process and production methods. The
tries still provides many challenges internationally and may pro- main drivers for the proliferation of these private food safety
vide barriers to free trade. The use of ranking models to compare schemes have been: the clear assignment of legal responsibility to
the food safety performance of different countries may help to food chain operators for ensuring food safety; increasingly global
clarify this, by focusing on overall performance rather than the and complex supply chains; and, increasing consumer awareness of
specifics of the food safety approaches used by one country relative food, health and food safety (FAO, 2010). In addition, private
to another (Charlebois, Sterling, Haratifar, & Naing, 2014). standards-setting bodies can move much faster than Codex to
Globalization of food supply chains has also required improve- address new issues and establish new or revised standards (FAO/
ments and innovations to traceability measures to secure food WHO, 2009). As global food retailers and processors become
chains and identify safety failures in their integrity, with many increasingly more concentrated, the implementation of private
countries implementing legislative requirements on robust food standards will become even more widespread (FAO, 2010). The
through chain traceability. The CAC directions set out a one-step fierce competition that exists between products using standardi-
forward, one-step back approach: i.e., the previous source where zation schemes, and the fact that those schemes have become a
the ingredient/food was obtained/purchased and where the next factor of differentiation between products, may lead to a standard
destination in the supply chain is. This legislation has been adopted becoming dominant on the market (Wouters, Marx, & Hachez,
by the EU in Regulation EC No. 178/2002 (EU, 2002), as well as many 2009). This has raised questions about the role of public and pri-
other jurisdictions including the US FDA (CFR Title 21) and Food vate institutions in establishing and enforcing food safety norms.
Safety Australia New Zealand (Standard 3.2.2). This approach, One of the key criticisms of private food safety standards is that
however, can be slow and cumbersome and the repercussions can they can undermine the process of harmonization, introducing a
be severe in a food safety breakdown/crisis (Codex, 2006). To new layer of governance that further fragments national markets
facilitate a more timely response, industry members may adopt an (Henson, 2007). These requirements may provide barriers to trade
approach of greater visibility throughout the supply chain, by and to this end, the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) was
tracing back/tracking forward further than one step. developed with the view to standardizing these requirements and
Data (see Big Data) can be used to perform informative risk promoting increased trade and improved food safety (Crandall
assessments which can proactively refine and optimise food safety et al., 2012). Private standards also frequently go beyond the re-
and legislation, rather than being reactive. One of the most notable quirements of public standards by setting a higher standard for
efforts to address this was the FDA's FSMA (FDA, 2011), which aims particular food product attributes, increasing the scope of activities
to ensure that preventative measures are implemented by the food regulated by the standard and, being more specific and prescriptive
industry across the entire food chain based on robust science and about how to achieve the outcomes defined by standards (FAO/
risk assessment (Doyle et al., 2015). This strategy acknowledges WHO, 2009). In addition, it is alleged that private standards are
that currently production and technologies do not allow produc- often not based on scientifically backed risk assessments (WTO,
tion of food with no risk of contamination and so a quantitative 2007, p. 4). The costs of processes of compliance and conformity
microbial risk assessment approach is optimal to direct legislation assessment also tend to be pushed down from standards adopters
and food safety interventions (Buchanan & Appel, 2010; Doyle and towards their suppliers, notably developing country exporters
et al., 2015). and producers (FAO/WHO, 2009). Financial difficulties and a lack of
Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) are common in global import and expertise to comply with the requirement of the standard, can
export markets, and facilitate increased trade between partici- contribute to the marginalisation of weaker economic players
pating countries. An important component of FTAs is the negotiated including small and poor countries, small and medium-sized en-
regulatory requirements. The Transatlantic Trade and Investment terprises (SMEs) and, smallholder farmers (Webb, 2015). The ability
Partnership (TTIP) aims to develop closer relationships between US of these smaller players to demonstrate equivalence of alternative
and EU regulators to examine the implications of existing regula- food safety management measures could contribute to overcoming
tions on trade, and develop or harmonize these where required to the challenges posed by overly prescriptive private standards (FAO,
foster increased trade (EU, 2016). This can be complicated by 2010). Overall, the adoption of private standards should not be
differing stances on food safety requirements. An example of this is encouraged unless they deliver genuine improvements over exist-
the current legal requirements for Listeria monocytogenes levels in ing public standards. In order for big retailers to prove the benefits
food. While the US has imposed a zero-tolerance rule, the EU allows of the standards they are demanding of their suppliers, they must
a limit of 100 colony forming units per gram or millilitre of food work with organisations such as the Food and Agriculture Orga-
product in those foods that cannot support growth or where the nisation (FAO), the WHO, the World Organisation for Animal Health
level will not exceed 100 cfu/g at the point of consumption (EU, (OIE) and Codex. Better co-ordination and alignment is also
2005; FDA, 2003). Such examples represent challenges for both required between organisations such as the GFSI, the Global
legislators and food producers to define and meet regulatory Harmonization Initiative (GHI) and Codex.
5. Advances in food safety & technology nucleotide sequences that are shared by all bacterial species, can
also be designed to assist with metagenomics studies (Oikonomou,
5.1. Whole-genome sequencing Machado, Santisteban, Schukken, & Bicalho, 2012). One of the most
promising applications of metagenomics is the ability to detect and
WGS is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence identify previously unknown pathogens in food matrices and food-
of an organism's genome at a single time. WGS technology has the associated environments. The CDC estimates that around 80% of
potential to play a significant role in the area of food safety and foodborne disease cases in the U.S. are caused by unspecified agents
security (FAO, 2016). The global use of WGS technology across food, (Scallan, Griffin, Angulo, Tauxe, & Hoekstra, 2011), indicating that a
veterinary and human health sectors, would facilitate sharing and better foodborne disease surveillance system is required to address
collaboration and lead to a significant increase in the availability of the current knowledge gap concerning unknown and unidentified
contextual data when interpreting results and recommending foodborne agents (Aw, Wengert, & Rose, 2016). In a shotgun met-
regulatory actions with scientific basis (FAO, 2016). WGS will agenomic sequencing study by Aw et al. (2016), rotaviruses and
enable the quick and accurate identification, mitigation and pre- picobirnaviruses were identified for the first time in both field-
vention of food safety problems and will translate into reduced harvest and retail lettuce samples, suggesting a potential
economic losses and food waste, both of which are important emerging foodborne transmission threat that has not yet been
contributors to food security (FAO, 2016). The GenomeTrakr recognized (Aw et al., 2016). The adoption and widespread use of
network (FDA, 2017), which is the first distributed network of WGS technologies will undoubtedly reveal the presence of previ-
laboratories to utilize whole genome sequencing for pathogen ously unforeseen food safety hazards. Questions remain as to how
identification, has already made significant impact by sequencing the food industry and regulatory bodies will act on these new
more than 113,000 isolates and closing more than 175 genomes to findings, especially as the use of metagenomics tools for the
date (8/6/2017). detection of foodborne pathogens still faces several challenges
The genomic information WGS provides can also be used by (Bergholz et al., 2014; Stasiewicz, den Bakker, & Wiedmann, 2015).
industry as a tool for monitoring ingredient supplies, the effec-
tiveness of preventive and sanitary controls, to develop new rapid 5.3. Transcriptomics and proteomics
methods and culture-independent tests as well as the broad-range
detection of many pathogens (not only bacteria) in a single test; to With the aim of developing rational control strategies for
determine and control the persistence of pathogens in the envi- foodborne pathogens in the food supply, there is a need to deter-
ronment; to monitor emerging pathogens; and as a possible indi- mine the physiological state of pathogens when present on foods
cator of antimicrobial resistance. This will be of great benefit to and in the food production environment (for a Review see
industry, for example, WGS can allow industry to trace contami- (Bergholz et al., 2014)). Transcriptomic and/or proteomic studies
nation within a food company back to an individual faulty process have been undertaken to characterise the response of various
or piece of equipment. Data-mining of sequencing data will also foodborne pathogens during adaptation and growth on specific
enable more effective control of foodborne pathogens, by providing food matrices (for example, (Liu & Ream, 2008; Tang et al., 2015))
insight into the biology, ecology, transmission, evolution, emer- and to obtain mechanistic information into how microbes respond
gence and control of new pathogens. WGS will also enable a deeper to different food processing treatments (for example, (Chueca,
understanding of the changes and physiological shifts associated Pagan, & García-Gonzalo, 2015)). This information can shed light
with the onset of food spoilage. This will enable the identification of on how synergy works at a mechanistic level with hurdle tech-
microbial communities which inhibit the growth of spoilage mi- nologies (Bergholz et al., 2014). In addition, biomarkers related to
croorganisms, the use of bacteriophages to control spoilage or- specific resistance characteristics of a pathogen can be identified
ganisms, or the design of rapid assays or biosensors to detect the and integrated into mathematical models to predict microbial
growth of spoilage organisms before they become a problem. behaviour, with the potential to improve control measures
The transformative potential as well as existing bottlenecks in (Bergholz et al., 2014).
applying WGS in public health microbiology are well documented Insights from these studies could also pave the way for devel-
(FAO, 2016). For WGS to be implemented successfully, significant oping better detection methods (e.g., methods targeting highly
investment would be required in terms of equipment, application expressed RNA molecules) and provide for improved risk assess-
tools, competence building and method standardization. The po- ments that account for the fact that the virulence of a given path-
litical, legal and psychological obstacles to free data sharing must ogen may be affected considerably by its physiological state (Tang
also be removed. Most importantly, there must be clarity on the et al., 2015). Therefore, companies and food regulatory agencies
regulatory response when suspect WGS profiles are found during will be tasked with determining how best to use the information
foodborne illness investigations. In addition, the general public will generated to tailor their processing and preservation processes
need to be made aware that WGS technologies are enabling an used in-house.
enhanced surveillance system and that the food safety system has
not likely failed. 5.4. Chemical risk assessment and safety evaluations
5.2. Metagenomics Safety assessment of food constituents and/or contaminants not

only requires the evaluation of a hazard potentially exerted by a
Metagenomics is defined as the culture-independent analysis of specific compound, but also needs to take into account the level of
genomes contained within an environmental sample. Meta- exposure to the consumer. By definition, a hazard in food means a
genomic tools offer the opportunity to enhance our understanding biological, chemical, or physical agent present in food that may
of complex, diverse and dynamic microbial communities in foods have an adverse health effect. The term also encompasses an
and food-associated environments (for a Review see (Bergholz, inherent property of an agent or situation having the potential to
Moreno Switt, & Wiedmann, 2014)). The ability of next- cause adverse effects. By contrast, the term risk describes the
generation sequencing to generate large amounts of DNA probability of an adverse effect and its magnitude in an exposed
sequence data has considerably facilitated metagenomics studies. system or (sub)population (Eisenbrand, 2015). Under emergency
Broad-range 16S rDNA PCR assays, that target highly conserved situations, when immediate estimates of potential health concern
are required, a hazard-based approach can be of value. Hazard- around the ability to accurately predict in-vivo tissue functions in
based approaches also may apply to agents exerting potent non- humans have fuelled interest in alternative approaches. For
threshold effects, such as certain strong genotoxic carcinogens. A example, current alternative techniques in development include
hazard-based element also is intrinsic to the so-called threshold of microfluidic organs-on-chips (Bhatia & Ingber, 2014), ‘omics’
toxicological concern (TTC) concept, which provides a generic techniques (e.g., transcriptomic fingerprinting of appropriate cell
approach to the safety assessment of chemicals with no or insuf- cultures) (Pielaat et al., 2013) and computational estimation
ficient toxicological data (Barlow, 2005). The concept provides methods for predicting acute and chronic systemic toxicity
guidance about deriving acceptable risks by defining toxicologically (Lapenna, Gatnik, & Worth, 2010).
insignificant exposures according to hazard and chemical structure The determination of suitable biomarkers in human/animal
(Cramer, Ford, & Hall, 1976; Kroes et al., 2004; Munro, Renwick, & biological fluids (e.g., serum, plasma, urine, breast milk and others)
Danielewska-Nikiel, 2008). The European Food Safety Authority or in tissue biopsies has also allowed for more accurate population
(EFSA) and WHO recently embarked on a project to review the exposure estimates for hazardous contaminants. It requires
current approach and proposed some modifications (EFSA/WHO, detailed knowledge of the metabolism of the respective compound
2015). to focus on specific metabolites as quantitative exposure indicators
In general, for food safety assessments, risk based approaches (Eisenbrand, 2015). An example is provided by the considerable
are adequate, based on reliable exposure estimates, taking into database already available of human exposure estimates for the
account uncertainties in exposure assessment. Of equal importance genotoxic carcinogen acrylamide (AA), based in part on biomarkers
is the elucidation and appropriate consideration of the mode of of exposure (EFSA, 2015). Uncertainties associated with the
action (MOA), which needs to be put into perspective with an assessment of consumer exposure to AA were recently addressed in
appropriate estimate of consumer exposure. detail (EFSA, 2015) and research needs have been identified for the
development and validation of biomarkers as adequate metrics for
5.5. Advances in chemical analytical testing aggregate consumer exposure to genotoxic agents.
The DNA damage induced by such agents has been recognized as
The ability to accurately determine the concentration of a a valuable alternative exposure metric. Today, DNA adducts are
particular contaminant in a food matrix is critical for the evaluation amenable to specific determination at levels of about 1 adducted
of potential risk to the consumer. As a result, innovative analytical DNA base in 100 million DNA bases and this has allowed real-time
approaches are continuously being developed as a response to the measurement of DNA damage in humans. This methodology is
ever growing number of contaminants already present in food or being continuously refined, allowing for simultaneous detection of
emerging risks threatening to enter the food supply chain. The multiple DNA adducts (Monien et al., 2015). A new development in
main pursuit of many analytical approaches revolves around monitoring DNA adducts of known and unknown identity, termed
obtaining a higher sensitivity for difficult-to-detect contaminants ‘‘adductomics’’ (Balbo, Hecht, Upadhyaya, & Villalta, 2014), has
and, a reduction in cost and analysis time per sample. Advances in enabled reliable dosimetry at low levels of consumer exposure
the development of mass spectrometers have led to an increased (Eisenbrand, 2015). Appreciation of the substantial background of
capacity to accurately determine; quantitatively and qualitatively, DNA damage in human tissues, consistently induced by endoge-
numerous analytes with different physicochemical characteristics, nous genotoxic agents generated during normal metabolism,
simultaneously (for example, (Hird, Lau, Schuhmacher, & Krska, means that future risk assessments of exposure to genotoxic agents
2014; Wang, Wang, & Cai, 2013)). ‘Dilute-and-shoot’ quantitative may evaluate the incremental contribution of a given exogenous
multi-residue assays that target hundreds of analytes in one run exposure to the endogenous background DNA damage. This will
with minimal sample preparation are now the rule rather than the provide a data based approach to risk assessment (bottom-up) in
exception (for example, (Stahnke, Kittlaus, Kempe, & Alder, 2012)). contrast to mathematical extrapolation over several orders of
High-resolution mass spectrometers (e.g., Orbitrap, Time-of-flight) magnitude, from the dose range accessible by animal experiments
have enabled the identification and confirmation of previously down to consumers exposure (top down) (Lu, Gul, Upton, Moeller,
unknown toxicants, and their metabolites in foods/biological fluids, & Swenberg, 2012; Swenberg et al., 2011; Watzek et al., 2012).
with higher confidence (for example, (Knolhoff & Croley, 2016;
Senyuva, Go € kmen, & Sarikaya, 2015)). In addition, there have also 5.7. Processing and packaging
been many advances in microbial testing (e.g., mass spectrometry is
now commonly used for ID, etc.). While continuous progress in Thermal processing is the primary method for food pasteuri-
analytical specificity and sensitivity has made accessible the zation and sterilization. However, the application of heat impairs
determination of just a couple of molecules in a given environ- food quality. Food manufacturers are therefore continuously chal-
mental matrix, this alone does not necessarily support dependable lenged by consumer expectations for products that are pathogen-
exposure assessment. In addition to reliable metrics relating to the free and minimally processed, in a globalised food market where
amount of an agent present in food or other consumer items, its supply chains are getting longer. Novel non- or mildly-thermal
bioavailability from the matrix as well as duration, magnitude and techniques, offer new possibilities for innovation to meet con-
frequency of exposure are major determinants of the knowledge sumer drivers (Awad, Moharram, Shaltout, Asker, & Youssef, 2012;
needed for a risk assessment. Barbosa-Ca novas & Altunakar, 2006; Farkas, 1998; Heinrich,
Zunabovic, Bergmair, Kneifel, & Ja €ger, 2015; Ibarz, Garvín, &
5.6. Advances in chemical hazard characterization Falguera, 2015; Niemira, 2012; Turantaş, Kılıç, & Kılıç, 2015; C.-Y.;
Wang, Huang, Hsu, & Yang, 2016). However, recent food preserva-
The continuing progress in genomics, transcriptomics, prote- tion, processing or packaging technologies and trends, in spite of
omics, and metabolomics in combination with novel tools in bio- their benefits (mild treatment, extended product shelf-life,
informatics and system biology has brought about promising new “fresher” quality, RTE pre-cooked convenience), also bring poten-
avenues toward improved toxic hazards characterization and this is tial safety risks to the consumer level: incomplete microbial inac-
expected to be further developed in the years to come. While whole tivation, possibly not respecting proper storage conditions and
animal toxicity studies remain the centrepiece of current regulatory expiration dates, undercooking, and generation of stress-resistant
frameworks, animal welfare concerns, high cost, and questions microorganisms (Cheftel, 2011). Consequently, there is a risk that
the effects of foodborne illnesses on the economy may increase, recording devices in food processing environments (e.g., tempera-
unless interventions can reduce the incidence of these illnesses. ture data for refrigerated storage) and employment data (e.g.,
This emphasizes the need to develop and implement novel food identifying the individuals that perform sanitation tasks), could
processing and preservation methods to improve food safety also prove to be an innovative and effective way to enhance regu-
throughout the food chain. As regulatory agencies move towards latory compliance and track compliance with desired standards.
outcome-based regulations, it will become increasingly necessary Geographic information system (GIS)-based datasets have also
for the food industry to have a variety of inactivation technologies been used to predict and manage the spatial and temporal occur-
at their disposal. rence of foodborne pathogen contamination in produce production
However, consumer acceptance is crucial to the development of environments (Strawn et al., 2013).
successful food products. Not all technologies are equally accepted The possibilities for big data to facilitate improved approaches
by consumers. For example, there are hardly any negative discus- to food safety and food quality are endless. However, rather than
sions about high-pressure processing (HPP) of food (Hurtado et al., merely collecting increasingly large datasets and hoping that
2015), while food irradiation is considered highly controversial something materialises, it is essential for industry to critically
(Siegrist, Keller, & Kiers, 2006). Consumers may not only have dif- evaluate its needs and high impact areas and define specific
ficulties in assessing risks associated with novel food technologies, questions and issues (Wiedmann, 2015). Contributing to the chal-
but the benefits of such technologies may also not be obvious lenge, is the fact that there are few trained data scientists who are
(Siegrist, 2008). It is very important, therefore, that the public be also familiar with food systems type issues (or food systems sci-
informed and educated about possible benefits of novel food entists who can work with large datasets). It is unlikely that SMEs
technologies so that they are more likely to accept it (Siegrist, will be able to afford to train staff in this area. However, digital
2008). In addition, in marketing the benefits of new alternative companies are getting involved in big data analytics and forming
technologies, it will be important to ensure that the value of partnerships with large food companies to try and improve food
existing technologies are not undermined, along with food safety. safety and quality. There is a definite and important need for the
The food-packaging industry has also been challenged with industry to take action to prepare to take advantage of big-data
respect to maintaining safety and quality, as traditional passive- tools and solutions for food safety and quality dilemmas. Data
barrier packaging systems have reached their limit with regards integration and ownership will be some of the most important
,
to further shelf life extension of packaged food (Mahalik, 2014; Siro challenges that the food industry will need to address. Big data
2012, pp. 23e48). To provide such extension and to improve the processing and consequent outcomes will need to be shared
quality, safety and integrity of the packaged food, innovative active amongst producers, retailers, health authorities and regulators.
and smart packaging concepts have been developed (for a review
, 2012, pp. 23e48)).
see (Siro 5.9. Predictive microbiology, systematic reviews and meta-analyses
5.8. Big data Predictive microbiology involves knowledge of microbial

growth responses to environmental factors summarized as equa-
The response to foodborne disease outbreaks is complicated by tions or mathematical models (TA McMeekin et al., 1997). Predic-
the globalization of our food supply chains. The creation of a big tive microbiology has demonstrated a broad utility within the food
data culture in the food industry could facilitate considerable ad- industry and can aid in quantitative risk assessment and decision-
vancements in global food safety, food quality and sustainability making during Hazard Analysis for Critical Control Point (HACCP)
(Strawn et al., 2015). Big data represents high volume, high velocity, planning, estimation of the shelf-life of foods and in the design or
high veracity, and/or high variety information assets that require reformulation of food products. Predictive microbiology holds
new forms of processing to enable enhanced decision-making, immense value for industry and government, for example, in
insight discovery and process optimization (Wiedmann, 2015). challenge studies with Listeria and the determination of whether
Most uses of large datasets and big data analytics in food safety and new food formulations support or inhibit growth of the pathogen.
quality to date focus on providing improved root cause and retro- In addition, industry can benefit from obtaining an estimation of
spective analyses, but development and use of predictive analytics the kinetics of heat inactivation of an organism of interest within a
in food safety is likely to grow quickly in the near future specific food product. While many models have been developed
(Wiedmann, 2015). As already discussed, one of the most mature and published, independent and industry-based trials are still
examples of the use of large datasets in food safety is the use of required for validation. Transfer of the knowledge of predictive
WGS-based subtyping of foodborne pathogens by both public microbiology into real world food manufacturing applications will
health and regulatory agencies to allow for better outbreak detec- continue to rise with the development of open, community driven
tion and source attribution. Similarly, word searches on Internet and web-based predictive microbial model repositories (Plaza-
engines and online discussion sites and analysis of sales data may Rodríguez et al., 2015). The integration of omics data into mecha-
provide near real-time information on disease outbreaks, aiding in nistic predictive models also holds the promise of providing more
rapid initiation of product recalls and other consumer safety actions accurate predictions under specific physical and chemical changes
(Harris et al., 2014; Harrison et al., 2014). Integration of diverse data and extending the model outside the range of space bounded by
sources may not only allow for improved and accelerated root cause observations (Brul, Mensonides, Hellingwerf, & de Mattos, 2008;
analysis, but this information could be used to adjust food safety McMeekin, Olley, Ratkowsky, Corkrey, & Ross, 2013; Perez-
and operational practices in near real-time to include additional Rodriguez & Valero, 2013). The use of systematic reviews in
barriers and controls. For example, the rapid public release of full various aspects of food safety is also increasing (Aiassa et al., 2015).
sequencing data by public health and regulatory agencies means Systematic reviews will help industry and government, for
that industry can compare subtype data for isolates from process- example, to determine which interventions work and are most
ing facilities. For large companies, that are well resourced and have appropriate for adoption. A deeper understanding of supply chain
the capability and potential, the ability to quickly and reliably track risks, will also benefit the development of through-chain risk
the source of contamination from sourced ingredients would be of management strategies. With an enhanced knowledge of food
tremendous benefit. Subtype information in combination with safety risks and intervention strategies, the question remains as to
other data, for example data automatically captured through how this information will be used, whether new regulatory
requirements will be imposed and the subsequent consequences for the food industry, around accessing and responding to trace-
for the food industry. ability data. However, it is likely that expectations around the
rapidity of response will move from days to hours.
5.10. Traceability tools and the supply chain
5.11. The role of traditional and social media in the public
An increase in global trade of food items, has led to a heightened perception of food safety
need to be able to trace affected products internationally and
domestically when there is an incidence of foodborne illness or Globalization has not only resulted in the ability of foodborne
animal or plant disease. Traceback is essential during the initial hazards to be transported and spread quickly, but the globalization
stages of an outbreak, to quickly identify the potential source of the of news (e.g., TV, Internet) has resulted in the ability for news to
outbreak. Timely identification of the source of the outbreak can spread quickly and cause unfavourable economic consequences for
result in the outbreak being stopped in its tracks. This results in producers. The media is widely reported as amplifying and mis-
smaller outbreaks, a reduction in spoiled food due to the rapid representing the risk posed by food incidents, diminishing trust in
identification of the right food involved in the outbreak, prevention the food supply (Henderson et al., 2014). The rush to publish and
of future outbreaks due to the ability to trace a problem back to a the strategies adopted for the construction of a ‘newsworthy’ story,
herd or a farm and, an enhanced ability to quickly implement may result in food issues not being fully researched prior to pub-
measures to identify and eliminate the problem at its source. Many lication/transmission and the overstatement of the level of risk
developed countries have implemented new legal requirements for posed (Henderson et al., 2014). Therefore, the media may
traceability, and exporting countries are under pressure to comply contribute to public anxiety about food risk and may be a poor
with the regulations set up by importing countries. Charlebois et al. source of food risk information (Henderson et al., 2014). As new
(2014) examined existing global food traceability regulations in 21 technologies emerge to aid delivery of a safe, nutritious and sus-
major OECD countries and found that none of the countries had an tainable food supply, news sources must be aware of the potential
electronic tracking system for all commodities (Charlebois et al., for generating or contributing to societal concern. For example, if
2014), highlighting the need for more advanced traceability sys- more foodborne outbreaks and illnesses are detected because of an
tems for other domestic and imported products. enhanced surveillance system through the adoption and imple-
A number of technological advancements have shown promise mentation of WGS technologies, it will be important that infor-
in providing new opportunities for enhancing traceability systems. mation sources carefully communicate to the general public that
Current advancements in RFID technology and the incorporation of the risk has not changed, it was there all the time and only our
data logger capabilities and integrated sensors, has provided a new ability to detect and better quantify the risk has changed, i.e., they
dimension to the application of RFID technology in the food are at no more risk today than they were yesterday.
traceability systems (Costa et al., 2013). Stable isotope analysis has Social media can be an asset to food safety risk communicators,
emerged as a powerful tool for tracing the geographical origin of and a hindrance as well (Chapman, Raymond, & Powell, 2014).
agro food products (Badia-Melis, Mishra, & Ruiz-García, 2015). Social media can change the discourse on food safety very quickly
Synergistic use of instrumental analytical techniques and chemo- and online discussion of risk may lead to a social amplification of
metrics modelling represents a promising way for the development risk perception, wherein risks assessed by technical experts as
of authenticity and traceability models (Badia-Melis et al., 2015). An relatively minor elicit strong public concerns (Chapman et al.,
integrated high-throughput DNA sequencing and metabolomics 2014). Misinformation and false assertions may be easily dissemi-
approach would likely permit the determination of all the putative nated via social media with or without malicious intent and be
food-related pathogens within a foodstuff, as well as the presence widely believed (Chapman et al., 2014). Of particular concern is the
of specific toxins, metabolites, antibiotics and pesticides, etc. (Ferri significant and expanding role of “influencers”; individuals (often
et al., 2015). Future advances in this area will determine to what with no background in food safety or food science) communicating
extent this type of approach will be universally adopted. about food safety issues through online social media and signifi-
Despite technological advancements, the design, implementa- cantly influencing public perceptions of food safety. The challenge
tion, and maintenance of a traceability system is often decentral- for influencers in online social media is to be conscientious about
ized, and therefore self-interested parties need to be motivated to providing balanced, complete, and accurate food-related informa-
commit (Dai, Ge, & Zhou, 2015). In addition, while many food tion to consumers (Byrd-Bredbenner et al., 2015). This may be
producers often have good electronic traceability systems inter- easier said than done. Care needs to be taken, as the public may
nally, exchange of information between the links in the supply avoid certain foods which are not risky and eat other foods that are
chain is very time-consuming or difficult due to the diversity and of a high risk, especially in high-risk households. For example, the
proprietary nature of the respective internal systems (Storøy, public may avoid irradiated foods because of public perception;
Thakur, & Olsen, 2013). There are new trends in traceability in even though it is likely a safer product. In contrast, consumers may
the food sector focused on improving the processes (Badia-Melis drink raw milk and unpasteurized juice because of the public
et al., 2015). However, similar to above, cost is the overarching perception that these are healthier foods.
issue in the implementation of these systems. As traceability sys- The benefits of social media for food safety risk communicators
tems become more widespread, consumer preference for these include speed, accessibility and interactive capacity when raising
products may side-line some smaller producers who are financially awareness about an issue or during crisis communications
unable to deploy these technologies. Similarly, developments in (Chapman et al., 2014). Minimal research has been carried out on
regulatory requirements around traceability may also lead to some how best to use social media to communicate to the public about
producers being excluded from the marketplace. food risks and benefits (Rutsaert et al., 2014). Given that this is
While the speed of information exchange has enhanced modern arguably one of the more critical aspects of creating a robust food
information management to enable traceability, so has the speed at safety environment, undertaking research in this area represents a
which information about a food safety issue can spread. Consumers huge opportunity. The reserved attitude towards social media
will demand transparency and rapid traceability, especially around witnessed amongst official bodies in the area of food risk/benefit
perceived ‘long and distant’ food chains. It remains to be seen what communication may result from a lack of evidence-based guide-
future regulatory requirements and consumer expectations will be lines advising officials on how to most effectively incorporate social
media (Rutsaert et al., 2014). This is also likely to be the case for requirements of food security, safety and sustainability, at all levels
food safety professionals within the food industry. While the need of the food chain. For food safety, one of the most significant
for effective communication with the public via social media may technological leaps will be achieved through WGS. The genomic
arise from the contamination of foods, there are many additional information WGS provides will be used extensively, not only to
opportunities for providing information related to food handling, rapidly determine sources and scopes of outbreaks, but also to
preparation and consumption (Byrd-Bredbenner et al., 2015). Ac- speed up trace-back investigations. It is hoped that the creation of a
curate and transparent communication about the application of central database for foodborne pathogens, accessible and sup-
specific agricultural practices or food processing technologies ported by health authorities worldwide, will enable faster detec-
which have the potential to generate societal concern, could also tion and targeted control of outbreaks globally. As an industry tool,
help to win over public opinion and aid implementation of prac- WGS will be useful for monitoring ingredient supplies, effective-
tices and technologies that enhance our ability to deliver global ness of preventive and sanitary controls, to develop rapid testing
food security. Overall, it will be important for food safety pro- methodology, monitor emerging pathogens and to become an in-
fessionals to be proactive in creating and maintaining social media dicator for antimicrobial resistance. WGS is expected to become the
channels and means of disseminating food safety information in a major tool in detection of outbreaks at an earlier stage, when the
targeted manner to seek discussion and educate the media and number of outbreak-associated cases is still small. The great chal-
consumers. lenge is to build a global system to facilitate disease detection and
surveillance and for food producers, manufactures, distributors and
6. Conclusions retailers to find practical and cost effective ways to incorporate
WGS into food safety management systems.
Without food safety, we cannot have food security and Assessment of exposure is pivotal for health risk evaluation and
achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. Availability of is increasingly based on methodology of extreme specificity and
food has in the past and will remain pivotal to the development of sensitivity. Continuous progress in analytical specificity and sensi-
human society. A reliable and adequate supply of healthy and safe tivity has made accessible the detection of just a couple of mole-
foods not only means freedom from hunger. Relieving individuals, cules in a given environmental matrix, but this alone does not
families and populations from laborious daily food procurement necessarily support dependable exposure assessment, because in
has been the major catalyst for individual and societal development addition to reliable metrics relating to the amount of an agent
and education in ancestral societies. Food security in fact may be present in food or other consumer items, its bioavailability from the
seen as a prerequisite for societal development. In the foreseeable matrix as well as duration, magnitude and frequency of exposures
future the world will need to feed over 9 billion people, requiring are major determinants of the knowledge needed for risk assess-
substantially increased efforts towards dependable, safe and sus- ment. Significant progress has been made toward monitoring of
tainable food production. Food safety systems will need to exposure biomarkers in humans, reflecting aggregate exposure
accommodate the needs of developed and developing economies from all routes. Novel techniques, such as metabolomics, enable us
with increased attention and support for food chains involving to picture the totality of metabolites, the metabolome, in a given
smallholder producers. body fluid or compartment. This will allow the collection of
Technological development needs to cope with the great chal- comprehensive analytical information about specific food intakes
lenges posed by an anticipated doubling of the global demand for and their biological impact.
food and international trade in the next few decades. On a global We need to close the gap between consumer response and
scale, inadequate techniques of food production, storage, process- regulatory developments relating to food safety. The former can
ing and distribution today pose the most substantial risks to food literally happen at the speed of light via the Internet, whilst the
security and food safety. Significant challenges to global food se- latter is glacial in comparison, especially the development of
curity and safety encompass climate change, the emergence of new internationally harmonized food safety standards which can take
pathogens or unintentionally present food contaminants and other years. A big challenge arises from consumer understanding, both of
potential hazards, including those associated with consumer de- food safety risks and/or perception of novel/emerging processing
mand for minimally processed ‘natural’ foods, online ordering/3D technologies which could reduce food safety risks. In a world where
printing of food and also adulteration and fraud. There is a need to societal discussion, often focusing on merely perceived health risks,
develop new adaptation strategies to address climate change and is spread globally almost instantaneously, it becomes indispensable
its sequelae for food security and safety and to invest in trans- to provide consumers and other stakeholders with impartial,
disciplinary research to enhance our understanding of the under- dependable, and strictly science-based information about risks and
lying ecological mechanisms of organisms and the environment. benefits. There is an urgent need for intensified communication
The emergence of a growing global middle class in developing and improved dissemination of timely consumer-relevant infor-
countries is accompanied by changing patterns in global con- mation, covering all aspects of the food chain, to create confidence
sumption, with an increasing number of better nourished in- within the stakeholder network, inviting media early on to get
dividuals shifting from basic staple consumption to more informed, and making increased use of appropriate social media
processed, ready for consumption/convenient food items. The ever channels. At a generic level, consumers (and the media) need to
increasing number of global megacities and megaregions may also understand the difference between hazard and risk when it comes
increase the risk of foodborne outbreaks and illness by microbio- to food safety. Efforts should also be intensified to create more
logical or chemical hazards. By the same token, the rapid aging of harmonized and equivalent food safety standards and regulations;
the population is associated with enhanced risk of age-related and mechanisms to do this more quickly than is currently the case.
health deficiencies including a compromised immune system. Ag- The same urgency should be allotted to the necessity to build a
ing populations will be more susceptible to health hazards, espe- global data sharing system for food, regulatory and health author-
cially when in suboptimal nutritional status. Food manufacturers ities worldwide, providing real-time open access for all official in-
and marketers need to pay closer attention to how they design and stitutions in charge of food safety. This should in the long run bring
supply foods with the necessary built-in hurdles to aging about a harmonized global platform of food safety surveillance and
populations. establish a common accountability system of safety control and
Technological development has to adapt to future societal management. Big data mining and processing and its outcomes
with respect to food safety need to be shared by regulators, health International Journal of Food Microbiology, 223, 50e56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijfoodmicro.2016.02.008.
authorities, producers, distributors/retailers and the inherent
Badia-Melis, R., Mishra, P., & Ruiz-García, L. (2015). Food traceability: New trends
problems of data integration and ownership need to be addressed and recent advances. A review. Food Control, 57, 393e401. http://dx.doi.org/10.
nationally and globally. These and other information and commu- 1016/j.foodcont.2015.05.005.
nications technology (ICT)-enabled developments should facilitate Baert, L., Debevere, J., & Uyttendaele, M. (2009). The efficacy of preservation
methods to inactivate foodborne viruses. International Journal of Food Microbi-
major improvements in food safety and food safety management ology, 131(2e3), 83e94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.03.007.
and better connectivity with consumers. In contrast, developments Baker-Austin, C., Trinanes, J. A., Salmenlinna, S., Lo € fdahl, M., Siitonen, A.,
in ICT could reduce the impact of formal food safety advice, with Taylor, N. G., et al. (2016). Heat waveeassociated vibriosis, Sweden and Finland,
2014. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 22(7), 1216.
consumers instead relying on online information sources from non- Balbo, S., Hecht, S. S., Upadhyaya, P., & Villalta, P. W. (2014). Application of a high-
experts, i.e., ‘wiki’. resolution mass-spectrometry-based DNA adductomics approach for identifi-
Developments in the way the world addresses all aspects of food cation of DNA adducts in complex mixtures. Analytical Chemistry, 86(3),
1744e1752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac403565m.
safety covered in this paper, including the communication and Barbosa-C anovas, G. V., & Altunakar, B. (2006). Pulsed electric fields technology for
connection with consumers, will either enable or derail global food the food industry: Fundamentals and applications. In J. Raso, & V. Heinz (Eds.),
security. This is due to the fact that food security is reliant on Food engineering series (pp. 3e26). New York: Springer.
Barlow, S. (2005). Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) e a tool for assessing
providing access to sufficient amounts of affordable safe food and substances of unknown toxicity present at low levels in the diet.
the fact that the food safety related issues covered in this paper Bergholz, T. M., Moreno Switt, A. I., & Wiedmann, M. (2014). Omics approaches in
create complexity and inefficiencies in the food supply that are food safety: Fulfilling the promise? Trends in Microbiology, 22(5), 275e281.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.01.006.
likely to limit our ability to provide this food affordably. To sus-
Bergman, Å., Heindel, J. J., Jobling, S., Kidd, K. A., & Zoeller, R. T. (2013). Endocrine
tainably produce enough food to provide food security for 9 billion disrupting chemicals-2012. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Environment
people, significant improvements will be required in the efficiency Programme and the World Health Organization.
and effectiveness of food chains. Harmonization and equivalence of Bhatia, S. N., & Ingber, D. E. (2014). Microfluidic organs-on-chips. Nature Biotech-
nology, 32(8), 760e772. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt.2989.
standard and regulatory frameworks will be critical. But in a world Brul, S., Mensonides, F. I., Hellingwerf, K. J., & de Mattos, M. J. T. (2008). Microbial
where information can travel at the speed of light, finding ways to systems biology: New frontiers open to predictive microbiology. International
better engage with, educate and inform consumers via social net- Journal of Food Microbiology, 128(1), 16e21.
Buchanan, R. L., & Appel, B. (2010). Combining analysis tools and mathematical
works and other channels will be just as important. Overcoming all modeling to enhance and harmonize food safety and food defense regulatory
the challenges associated with global megatrends and food safety requirements. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 139(Supplement),
developments will be difficult enough for developed economies, S48eS56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.01.015.
Bumbudsanpharoke, N., & Ko, S. (2015). Nano-food Packaging: An overview of
mature supply chains and large food companies, but even greater market, migration research, and safety regulations. Journal of Food Science,
for SMEs, developing economies and smallholder farmers, noting 80(5), R910eR923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12861.
each will remain a critical component in the global food supply. Byrd-Bredbenner, C., Cohn, M. N., Farber, J. M., Harris, L. J., Roberts, T.,
Salin, V., … Sperber, W. H. (2015). Food safety considerations for innovative
Nevertheless, the global food community needs to find innovative nutrition solutions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1347(1), 29e44.
ways to overcome these challenges. While it is tempting to prior- http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12779.
itize the order of importance in addressing these challenges, this Callaway, T. R., & Sheridan, T. G. (2015). Smarter arrow now available in the food
safety quiver. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(40),
task is complicated by the fact that influence may be exerted by
12230e12231.
additional and often unpredictable factors; including political and Carroll, D., & Charo, R. A. (2015). The societal opportunities and challenges of
social factors. A flexible and responsive approach will be needed to genome editing. Genome Biology, 16(1), 1e9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13059-
adequately address the food challenges of the future. 015-0812-0.
Carter, M. (2005). Enterically infecting viruses: Pathogenicity, transmission and
significance for food and waterborne infection. Journal of Applied Microbiology,
Acknowledgements 98(6), 1354e1380.
Chapman, B., Raymond, B., & Powell, D. (2014). Potential of social media as a tool to
combat foodborne illness. Perspectives in Public Health, 134(4), 225e230. http://
We are grateful for the financial support of Fonterra, the support dx.doi.org/10.1177/1757913914538015.
from Christina Gomes for assistance in preparation of the manu- Charlebois, S., Sterling, B., Haratifar, S., & Naing, S. K. (2014). Comparison of global
food traceability regulations and requirements. Comprehensive Reviews in Food
script, the advice and administrative support from Cathy Moir and Science and Food Safety, 13(5), 1104e1123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1541-
shift™ for Fig. 1 on the global food system. 4337.12101.
Cheftel, J. C. (2011). Emerging risks related to food technology. NATO Science for
Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology, 223e254.
References Cheng, G., Hao, H., Xie, S., Wang, X., Dai, M., Huang, L., et al. (2014). Antibiotic al-
ternatives: The substitution of antibiotics in animal husbandry? Frontiers in
Ahmed, S. M., Hall, A. J., Robinson, A. E., Verhoef, L., Premkumar, P., Microbiology, 5, 217. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00217.
Parashar, U. D., … Lopman, B. A. (2014). Global prevalence of norovirus in cases Chueca, B., Paga n, R., & García-Gonzalo, D. (2015). Transcriptomic analysis of
of gastroenteritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Escherichia coli MG1655 cells exposed to pulsed electric fields. Innovative Food
Diseases, 14(8), 725e730. Science & Emerging Technologies, 29, 78e86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.
Aiassa, E., Higgins, J., Frampton, G., Greiner, M., Afonso, A., Amzal, B., … Lo €vei, G. 2014.09.003.
(2015). Applicability and feasibility of systematic review for performing Codex. (2006). Principles for traceability/product tracing as a tool within a food in-
evidence-based risk assessment in food and feed safety. Critical Reviews in Food spection and certification system.
Science and Nutrition, 55(7), 1026e1034. CodexAlimentarius. (1999). Codex general standard for the labelling of pre-packaged
Ainsworth, C. (2015). Agriculture: A new breed of edits. Nature, 528(7580), S15eS16. foods.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/528S15a. Coles, D., & Frewer, L. J. (2013). Nanotechnology applied to European food pro-
Allen, H. K., Levine, U. Y., Looft, T., Bandrick, M., & Casey, T. A. (2013). Treatment, duction e a review of ethical and regulatory issues. Trends in Food Science &
promotion, commotion: Antibiotic alternatives in food-producing animals. Technology, 34(1), 32e43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2013.08.006.
Trends in Microbiology, 21(3), 114e119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2012.11. Costa, C., Antonucci, F., Pallottino, F., Aguzzi, J., Sarria, D., & Menesatti, P. (2013).
001. A review on agri-food supply chain traceability by means of RFID technology.
Allen, K. J., Turner, P. J., Pawankar, R., Taylor, S., Sicherer, S., Lack, G., … Mills, E. C. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6(2), 353e366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
(2014). Precautionary labelling of foods for allergen content: Are we ready for a s11947-012-0958-7.
global framework? World Allergy Organization J, 7(1), 10. Cramer, G., Ford, R., & Hall, R. (1976). Estimation of toxic hazardda decision tree
Awad, T. S., Moharram, H. A., Shaltout, O. E., Asker, D., & Youssef, M. M. (2012). approach. Food and Cosmetics Toxicology, 16(3), 255e276.
Applications of ultrasound in analysis, processing and quality control of food: A Crandall, P., Van Loo, E. J., O'Bryan, C. A., Mauromoustakos, A., Yiannas, F.,
review. Food Research International, 48(2), 410e427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Dyenson, N., et al. (2012). Companies' opinions and acceptance of global food
foodres.2012.05.004. safety initiative benchmarks after implementation. Journal of Food Protection,
Aw, T. G., Wengert, S., & Rose, J. B. (2016). Metagenomic analysis of viruses asso- 75, 1660e1672.
ciated with field-grown and retail lettuce identifies human and animal viruses. Dai, H., Ge, L., & Zhou, W. (2015). A design method for supply chain traceability
systems with aligned interests. International Journal of Production Economics, McCullum, D., … Ward, P. R. (2014). The role of the media in construction and
170(Part A), 14e24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.08.010. presentation of food risks. Health, Risk & Society, 16(7e8), 615e630. http://
Deng, X., Bakker, H. C. d., & Hendriksen, R. S. (2016). Genomic epidemiology: dx.doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2014.966806.
Whole-genome-sequencingdpowered surveillance and outbreak investigation Henson, S. J. (2007). The role of public and private standards in regulating inter-
of foodborne bacterial pathogens. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, national food markets. Journal of International Agricultural Trade and Develop-
7, 16.11e16.22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-041715-033259. ment, 4.1, 52e66.
Doyle, M. P., Erickson, M. C., Alali, W., Cannon, J., Deng, X., Ortega, Y., … Zhao, T. Hird, S. J., Lau, B. P. Y., Schuhmacher, R., & Krska, R. (2014). Liquid chromatography-
(2015). The food industry's current and future role in preventing microbial mass spectrometry for the determination of chemical contaminants in food.
foodborne illness within the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 61(2), TRAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 59, 59e72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.
252e259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/civ253. 2014.04.005.
Editorial. (2016). Where genome editing is needed. Nature Genetics, 48(2), 103. Holmes, A. H., Moore, L. S. P., Sundsfjord, A., Steinbakk, M., Regmi, S.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ng.3505. Karkey, A., … Piddock, L. J. V. (2016). Understanding the mechanisms and
EFSA. (2015). Outcome of the public consultation on the draft scientific opinion of drivers of antimicrobial resistance. The Lancet, 387(10014), 176e187. http://dx.
the EFSA panel on contaminants in the food chain (CONTAM) on acrylamide in doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00473-0.
food. EFSA Supporting Publications, 12(6). http://dx.doi.org/10.2903/sp.ef- Houben, G., Burney, P., Chan, C.-H., Crevel, R., Dubois, A., Faludi, R., … Ronsmans, S.
sa.2015.EN-817. (2016). Prioritisation of allergenic foods with respect to public health relevance:
EFSA/WHO. (2015). Threshold of toxicological concern approach: Conclusions and Report from an ILSI europe food allergy task force expert group. Food and
recommendations of the EFSA/WHO expert workshop. Chemical Toxicology, 89, 8e18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2015.12.028.
Eisenbrand, G. (2015). Current issues and perspectives in food safety and risk Hurtado, A., Picouet, P., Jofre , A., Guardia, M. D., Ros, J. M., & Ban~o
n, S. (2015).
assessment. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 34(12), 1286e1290. http:// Application of high pressure processing for obtaining “Fresh-Like” fruit
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0960327115598408. smoothies. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 8(12), 2470e2482. http://dx.doi.org/
Endersen, L., O'Mahony, J., Hill, C., Ross, R. P., McAuliffe, O., & Coffey, A. (2014). Phage 10.1007/s11947-015-1598-5.
therapy in the food industry. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 5(1), Ibarz, A., Garvín, A., & Falguera, V. (2015). Ultraviolet in food preservation and
327e349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-030713-092415. processing. Conventional and Advanced Food Processing Technologies, 411e436.
EU. (2002). Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European parliament and of the council Jones, H. D. (2015). Future of breeding by genome editing is in the hands of regu-
of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food lators. GM Crops & Food, 6(4), 223e232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures 21645698.2015.1134405.
in matters of food safety. Keating, B. A., Herrero, M., Carberry, P. S., Gardner, J., & Cole, M. B. (2014). Food
EU. (2005). EU Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria wedges: Framing the global food demand and supply challenge towards 2050.
for foodstuffs. Global Food Security, 3(3e4), 125e132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.08.
EU. (2016). TTIP-EU proposal for Chapter: Regulatory Cooperation. 004.
FAO. (2010). Private food safety standards: Their role in food safety regulation and their Kemper, N. (2008). Veterinary antibiotics in the aquatic and terrestrial environ-
impact. ment. Ecological Indicators, 8, 1e13.
FAO. (2011). Investigating the role of bats in emerging zoonoses: Balancing ecology, Kennedy, S. (2008). Epidemiology. Why can't we test our way to absolute food
conservation and public health interests. safety? Science (New York, NY), 322(5908), 1641.
FAO. (2016). Applications of whole genome sequencing in food safety management. Knolhoff, A. M., & Croley, T. R. (2016). Non-targeted screening approaches for
FAO/WHO. (2008). Viruses in food: Scientific advice to support risk management ac- contaminants and adulterants in food using liquid chromatography hyphenated
tivities: Meeting report. to high resolution mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A, 1428,
FAO/WHO. (2009). The impacts of private food safety standards on the food chain and 86e96.
on public standard-setting processes. Koopmans, M., & Duizer, E. (2004). Foodborne viruses: An emerging problem. In-
Farkas, J. (1998). Irradiation as a method for decontaminating food: A review. In- ternational Journal of Food Microbiology, 90(1), 23e41.
ternational Journal of Food Microbiology, 44(3), 189e204. http://dx.doi.org/10. Koopmans, M., von Bonsdorff, C.-H., Vinje , J., de Medici, D., & Monroe, S. (2002).
1016/S0168-1605(98)00132-9. Foodborne viruses. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 26(2), 187e205.
FDA. (2003). Quantitative assessment of relative risk to public health from foodborne Kroes, R., Renwick, A. G., Cheeseman, M., Kleiner, J., Mangelsdorf, I.,
Listeria monocytogenes among selected categories of ready-to-eat foods. Piersma, A., … Würtzen, G. (2004). Structure-based thresholds of toxicological
FDA. (2011). FDA food safety modernization act. concern (TTC): Guidance for application to substances present at low levels in
FDA. (2017). GenomeTrakr network. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/food/ the diet. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42(1), 65e83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodscienceresearch/wholegenomesequencingprogramwgs/ucm363134.htm. fct.2003.08.006.
Ferri, E., Galimberti, A., Casiraghi, M., Airoldi, C., Ciaramelli, C., Lapenna, S., Gatnik, M. F., & Worth, A. P. (2010). Review of QSA R models and software
Palmioli, A., … Labra, M. (2015). Towards a universal approach based on omics tools for predicting acute and chronic systemic Toxicity: Publications office of the
technologies for the quality control of food. BioMed Research International, 2015, European Union Luxembourg.
14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/365794. Lee, B. W., Shek, L. P.-C., Gerez, I. F. A., Soh, S. E., & Van Bever, H. P. (2008). Food
FPDI. (2016). Incidents database. Retrieved from https://foodprotection.umn.edu/ allergyelessons from Asia. World Allergy Organization Journal, 1(7), 1e5. http://
innovations/food-fraudema/incidents-database. dx.doi.org/10.1097/WOX.0b013e31817b7431.
Franklin, D., & Andrews, J. (2012). Megachange: The world in 2050 (Vol. 105). John Lennon, J. J. (2015). Potential impacts of climate change on agriculture and food
Wiley & Sons. safety within the island of Ireland. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 44(1),
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., 1e10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2014.07.003.
Muir, J. F., … Toulmin, C. (2010). Food Security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion Leung, P. S. C., Shu, S.-A., & Chang, C. (2014). The changing geoepidemiology of food
people. Science, 327(5967), 812e818. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1185383. allergies. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, 46(3), 169e179. http://
Gossner, C. M.-E., Schlundt, J., Ben Embarek, P., Hird, S., Lo-Fo-Wong, D., dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12016-014-8411-5.
Beltran, J. J. O., … Tritscher, A. (2009). The melamine Incident: Implications for Li, D., De Keuckelaere, A., & Uyttendaele, M. (2015). Fate of foodborne viruses in the
international food and feed safety. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(12), “Farm to Fork” chain of fresh produce. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science
1803e1808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900949. and Food Safety, 14(6), 755e770. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12163.
Gould, L. H., Walsh, K. A., Vieira, A. R., Herman, K., Williams, I. T., Hall, A. J., et al. Li, Q., Li, J., Wang, Y., Xu, Y., Pan, X., Zhang, G., … Jones, K. C. (2012). Atmospheric
(2013). Surveillance for foodborne disease outbreaksdUnited States, short-chain chlorinated paraffins in China, Japan, and South Korea. Environ-
1998e2008. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 62(2), 1e34. mental Science & Technology, 46(21), 11948e11954. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/
Hannon, J. C., Kerry, J., Cruz-Romero, M., Morris, M., & Cummins, E. (2015). Advances es302321n.
and challenges for the use of engineered nanoparticles in food contact mate- Liu, Y., & Ream, A. (2008). Gene expression profiling of Listeria monocytogenes strain
rials. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 43(1), 43e62. http://dx.doi.org/10. F2365 during growth in ultrahigh-temperature-processed skim milk. Applied
1016/j.tifs.2015.01.008. and Environmental Microbiology, 74(22), 6859e6866. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/
Harder, T. C., Buda, S., Hengel, H., Beer, M., & Mettenleiter, T. C. (2016). Poultry food aem.00356-08.
productsda source of avian influenza virus transmission to humans? Clinical Lloret, J., Ra €tz, H.-J., Lleonart, J., & Demestre, M. (2016). Challenging the links be-
Microbiology and Infection, 22(2), 141e146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2015. tween seafood and human health in the context of global change. Journal of the
11.015. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 96(Special Issue 01), 29e42.
Harris, J. K., Mansour, R., Choucair, B., Olson, J., Nissen, C., & Bhatt, J. (2014). Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0025315415001988.
department use of social media to identify foodborne illness d Chicago, Illinois, Locatelli, S., & Peeters, M. (2012). Non-Human Primates, Retroviruses, and zoonotic
2013e2014. infection risks in the human population. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(10), 62.
Harrison, C., Jorder, M., Stern, H., Stavinsky, F., Reddy, V., Hanson, H., … Balter, S. Lowder, S. K., Skoet, J., & Singh, S. (2014). What do we really know about the number
(2014). Using online reviews by restaurant patrons to identify unreported cases of and distribution of farms and family farms worldwide?. Background paper for The
foodborne illness d New York city, 2012e2013. State of Food and Agriculture 2014.
Heinrich, V., Zunabovic, M., Bergmair, J., Kneifel, W., & Ja €ger, H. (2015). Post-pack- Lu, K., Gul, H., Upton, P. B., Moeller, B. C., & Swenberg, J. A. (2012). Formation of
aging application of pulsed light for microbial decontamination of solid foods: A hydroxymethyl DNA adducts in rats orally exposed to stable isotope labeled
review. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 30, 145e156. http://dx. methanol. Toxicological Sciences, 126(1), 28e38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/
doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.06.005. toxsci/kfr328.
Henderson, J., Wilson, A., Meyer, S. B., Coveney, J., Calnan, M., MacDonald, G. K., Brauman, K. A., Sun, S., Carlson, K. M., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S.,
et al. (2015). Rethinking agricultural trade relationships in an era of globaliza- , I. (2012). Active and intelligent packaging of food Progress in food preservation.
Siro
tion. Bioscience, 65, 275e289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biu225. Wiley-Blackwell.
Mahalik, N. P. (2014). Advances in packaging methods, processes and systems. Stahnke, H., Kittlaus, S., Kempe, G., & Alder, L. (2012). Reduction of matrix effects in
Challenges, 5(2), 374e389. liquid chromatographyeelectrospray ionizationemass spectrometry by dilution
McKinney, M. A., Letcher, R. J., Aars, J., Born, E. W., Branigan, M., of the sample extracts: How much dilution is needed? Analytical Chemistry,
Dietz, R., … Sonne, C. (2011). Flame retardants and legacy contaminants in polar 84(3), 1474e1482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac202661j.
bears from Alaska, Canada, East Greenland and Svalbard, 2005e2008. Envi- Stals, A., Baert, L., Van Coillie, E., & Uyttendaele, M. (2012). Extraction of food-borne
ronment International, 37(2), 365e374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010. viruses from food samples: A review. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
10.008. 153(1), 1e9.
McMeekin, T., Brown, J., Krist, K., Miles, D., Neumeyer, K., Nichols, D., … Ross, T. Stasiewicz, M. J., den Bakker, H. C., & Wiedmann, M. (2015). Genomics tools in
(1997). Quantitative microbiology: A basis for food safety. Emerging Infectious microbial food safety. Current Opinion in Food Science, 4, 105e110. http://dx.doi.
Diseases, 3(4), 541. org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.06.002.
McMeekin, T., Olley, J., Ratkowsky, D., Corkrey, R., & Ross, T. (2013). Predictive Stewart, L. D., & Elliott, C. T. (2015). The impact of climate change on existing and
microbiology theory and application: Is it all about rates? Food Control, 29(2), emerging microbial threats across the food chain: An island of Ireland
290e299. perspective. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 44(1), 11e20. http://dx.doi.org/
van der Mensbrugghe, D., Osorio-Rodarte, I., Burns, A., & Baffes, J. (2009). Macro- 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.04.007.
economic environment, commodity markets: A longer term outlook. Paper pre- Storøy, J., Thakur, M., & Olsen, P. (2013). The TraceFood Framework e principles and
sented at the Expert Meeting on How to feed the World in 2050 FAO guidelines for implementing traceability in food value chains. Journal of Food
Headquarters, Rome, Italy. Engineering, 115(1), 41e48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.09.018.
Monien, B. H., Schumacher, F., Herrmann, K., Glatt, H., Turesky, R. J., & Chesne , C. Strawn, L. K., Brown, E. W., David, J. R. D., den Bakker, H. C., Vangay, P., Yiannas, F.,
(2015). Simultaneous detection of multiple DNA adducts in human lung sam- et al. (2015). Big data in food safety and quality. Food Technology, 69, 42e49.
ples by isotope-dilution UPLC-MS/MS. Analytical Chemistry, 87(1), 641e648. Strawn, L. K., Fortes, E. D., Bihn, E. A., Nightingale, K. K., Gro € hn, Y. T.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac503803m. Worobo, R. W., … Bergholz, P. W. (2013). Landscape and meteorological factors
Munro, I. C., Renwick, A. G., & Danielewska-Nikiel, B. (2008). The threshold of affecting prevalence of three foodborne pathogens in fruit and vegetable farms.
toxicological concern (TTC) in risk assessment. Toxicology Letters, 180(2), Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 79(2), 588e600. http://dx.doi.org/
151e156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.05.006. 10.1128/aem.02491-12.
Ng, C. A., & von Goetz, N. (2016). The global food system as a transport pathway for Sulakvelidze, A. (2011). Safety by nature: Potential bacteriophage applications.
hazardous Chemicals: The missing link between emissions and exposure. Envi- Microbe, 6, 122e126.
ronmental Health Perspectives. Sun, J., Peng, Z., Zhou, W., Fuh, J. Y. H., Hong, G. S., & Chiu, A. (2015). A review on 3D
Niemira, B. A. (2012). Cold plasma decontamination of foods. Annual Review of Food printing for customized food fabrication. Procedia Manufacturing, 1, 308e319.
Science and Technology, 3(1), 125e142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.09.057.
022811-101132. Swenberg, J. A., Lu, K., Moeller, B. C., Gao, L., Upton, P. B., Nakamura, J., et al. (2011).
Nyachuba, D. G. (2010). Foodborne illness: Is it on the rise? Nutrition Reviews, 68(5), Endogenous versus exogenous DNA Adducts: Their role in carcinogenesis,
257e269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00286.x. epidemiology, and risk assessment. Toxicological Sciences, 120(suppl 1),
Oikonomou, G., Machado, V. S., Santisteban, C., Schukken, Y. H., & Bicalho, R. C. S130eS145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfq371.
(2012). Microbial diversity of Bovine mastitic milk as described by pyrose- Tang, S., Orsi, R. H., den Bakker, H. C., Wiedmann, M., Boor, K. J., & Bergholz, T. M.
quencing of metagenomic 16s rDNA. PLoS One, 7(10), e47671. http://dx.doi.org/ (2015). Transcriptomic analysis of the adaptation of Listeria monocytogenes to
10.1371/journal.pone.0047671. growth on vacuum-packed cold smoked salmon. Applied and Environmental
Pallottino, F., Hakola, L., Costa, C., Antonucci, F., Figorilli, S., Seisto, A., et al. (2016). Microbiology, 81(19), 6812e6824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.01752-15.
Printing on food or food printing: A review. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 1e9. Thomas, M. K., Vriezen, R., Farber, J. M., Currie, A., Schlech, W., & Fazil, A. (2015).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-016-1692-3. Economic cost of a Listeria monocytogenes outbreak in Canada, 2008. Foodborne
Parkin, M., Shepherd, J., Hall, R., & Hill, J. (2007). Meeting the needs of markets and Pathogens and Disease, 12(12), 966e971. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/
customers - ensuring the regulatory building blocks are in place. The Australian fpd.2015.1965.
Journal of Dairy Technology, 62(2), 116e121. Tirado, M. C., Clarke, R., Jaykus, L. A., McQuatters-Gollop, A., & Frank, J. M. (2010).
Perez-Rodriguez, F., & Valero, A. (2013). Predictive microbiology in foods. In Climate change and food safety: A review. Food Research International, 43(7),
R. W. Hartel (Ed.), Predictive microbiology in foods (pp. 1e10). Springer. 1745e1765. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2010.07.003.
Pielaat, A., Barker, G., Hendriksen, P., Hollman, P., Peijnenburg, A., & Ter Kuile, B. Todd, E., & Grieg, J. (2015). Viruses of foodborne origin: A review. Virus Adaptation
(2013). A foresight study on emerging technologies: State of the art of omics and Treatment, 7, 25e45.
technologies and potential applications in food and feed safety. EFSA Supporting Turantaş, F., Kılıç, G. B., & Kılıç, B. (2015). Ultrasound in the meat industry: General
Publications, 10(10). applications and decontamination efficiency. International Journal of Food
Plaza-Rodríguez, C., Thoens, C., Falenski, A., Weiser, A., Appel, B., Kaesbohrer, A., Microbiology, 198, 59e69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.12.026.
et al. (2015). A strategy to establish food safety model repositories. International UN. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development.
Journal of Food Microbiology, 204, 81e90. Uyttendaele, M., Liu, C., & Hofstra, N. (2015). Special issue on the impacts of climate
Prescott, S. L., Pawankar, R., Allen, K. J., Campbell, D. E., Sinn, J. K. H., change on food safety. Food Research International, 68, 1e6. http://dx.doi.org/10.
Fiocchi, A., … Lee, B.-W. (2013). A global survey of changing patterns of food 1016/j.foodres.2014.09.001.
allergy burden in children. The World Allergy Organization Journal, 6(1), 21. Van Boeckel, T. P., Brower, C., Gilbert, M., Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1939-4551-6-21. Robinson, T. P., … Laxminarayan, R. (2015). Global trends in antimicrobial use in
Quested, T. E., Cook, P. E., Gorris, L. G. M., & Cole, M. B. (2010). Trends in technology, food animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
trade and consumption likely to impact on microbial food safety. International of America, 112(18), 5649e5654. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1503141112.
Journal of Food Microbiology, 139, Supplement, S29eS42. http://dx.doi.org/10. Verhoeckx, K., Broekman, H., Knulst, A., & Houben, G. (2016). Allergenicity assess-
1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.01.043. ment strategy for novel food proteins and protein sources. Regulatory Toxicology
Rutsaert, P., Pieniak, Z., Regan, A., McConnon, A., Kuttschreuter, M., and Pharmacology, 79, 118e124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.03.016.
Lores, M., … Verbeke, W. (2014). Social media as a useful tool in food risk and Vezzulli, L., Grande, C., Reid, P. C., He laoue€t, P., Edwards, M.,
benefit communication? A strategic orientation approach. Food Policy, 46, Ho€ fle, M. G., … Pruzzo, C. (2016). Climate influence on Vibrio and associated
84e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.02.003. human diseases during the past half-century in the coastal North Atlantic.
Scallan, E., Griffin, P. M., Angulo, F. J., Tauxe, R. V., & Hoekstra, R. M. (2011). Food- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201609157.
borne illness acquired in the United Statesdunspecified agents. Emerging In- Wang, C.-Y., Huang, H.-W., Hsu, C.-P., & Yang, B. B. (2016). Recent advances in food
fectious Diseases, 17(1), 16e22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1701.P21101. processing using high hydrostatic pressure technology. Critical Reviews in Food
Selle, K., & Barrangou, R. (2015). CRISPR-based technologies and the future of food Science and Nutrition, 56(4), 527e540.
science. Journal of Food Science, 80(11), R2367eR2372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ Wang, X., Wang, S., & Cai, Z. (2013). The latest developments and applications of
1750-3841.13094. mass spectrometry in food-safety and quality analysis. TRAC Trends in Analytical
Senyuva, H. Z., Go €kmen, V., & Sarikaya, E. A. (2015). Future perspectives in Orbi- Chemistry, 52, 170e185.
trap™-high-resolution mass spectrometry in food analysis: A review. Food Watzek, N., Bo € hm, N., Feld, J., Scherbl, D., Berger, F., Merz, K. H., … Eisenbrand, G.
Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 32(10), 1568e1606. (2012). N7-Glycidamide-Guanine DNA adduct formation by orally ingested
Shaban, R. Z., Simon, G. I., Trott, D. J., Turnidge, J., & Jordan, D. (2014). Surveillance acrylamide in rats: A doseeresponse study encompassing human diet-related
and reporting of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic usage in animals and exposure levels. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 25(2), 381e390. http://
agriculture in Australia. dx.doi.org/10.1021/tx200446z.
Shavel, M., Vanderzeil, S., & Zheng, D. (2016). Food Safety: In a state of Webb, M. (2015). Overview of food safety standards. In A. Hammoudi, C. Grazia,
transformation. Y. Surry, & J.-B. Traversac (Eds.), Food safety, market organization, trade and
Siegrist, M. (2008). Factors influencing public acceptance of innovative food tech- development (pp. 45e58). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
nologies and products. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19(11), 603e608. WHO. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance global report on surveillance.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2008.01.017. WHO. (2015a). Global antimicrobial resistance surveillance System: Manual for early
Siegrist, M., Keller, C., & Kiers, H. A. L. (2006). Lay people's perception of food implementation.
hazards: Comparing aggregated data and individual data. Appetite, 47(3), WHO. (2015b). WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases: Foodborne
324e332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2006.05.012. disease burden epidemiology reference group 2007-2015.
Wiedmann, M. (2015). Can big data revolutionize food Safety? Food quality and safety. Yang, F., Zhang, M., & Bhandari, B. (2017). Recent development in 3D food printing.
Retrieved from http://www.foodqualityandsafety.com/article/can-big-data- Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57(14), 3145e3153. http://
revolutionize-food-safety/. dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1094732.
Wilson, B. (2008). Swindled: The dark history of food fraud, from poisoned candy to Zach, L., Ellin Doyle, M., Bier, V., & Czuprynski, C. (2012). Summary and recom-
counterfeit coffee. Princeton University Press. mendations for the safety of imported foods improving import food safety. John
Wouters, J., Marx, A., & Hachez, N. (2009). In search of a balanced relationship: Public Wiley & Sons, Inc.
and private food safety standards and international law. Zhu, N., Fu, J., Gao, Y., Ssebugere, P., Wang, Y., & Jiang, G. (2013). Hex-
WTO. (2007). Committee on sanitary and phytosanitary measures, private standards abromocyclododecane in alpine fish from the Tibetan Plateau, China. Environ-
and the SPS agreement, note of the secretariat, January 24, 2007, Doc. No. G/SPS/ mental Pollution, 181, 7e13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.050.
GEN/746.

Food Safety For Food Security Relationship Between Global Megatrends and Developments in Food Safety

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Food Safety For Food Security Relationship Between Global Megatrends and Developments in Food Safety

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Food Safety For Food Security Relationship Between Global Megatrends and Developments in Food Safety

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Trends in Food Science & Technology 68 (2017) 160e175

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

Food safety for food security: Relationship between global megatrends

Fig. 1. The global food system.

and equivalence of standards are major challenges in the global requirements.

5.2. Metagenomics Safety assessment of food constituents and/or contaminants not

5.8. Big data Predictive microbiology involves knowledge of microbial

You might also like