MODULE 5: SOIL CLASSIFICATION

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular group that would
likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil type that is
best suitable for a given application. There are several classification schemes available. Each
was devised for a specific use. For example, the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) developed one scheme that classifies soils according to their
usefulness in roads and highways while the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) was
originally developed for use in airfield construction but was later modified for general use. (Soil
Mechanics and Foundations – Muni Budhu)

Different soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and subgroups according to
their engineering behavior. Classification systems provide a common language to concisely
express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without detailed
descriptions. Most of the soil classification systems that have been developed for engineering
purposes are based on simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and plasticity.
Although several classification systems are now in use, none is totally definitive of any soil for all
possible applications because of the wide diversity of soil properties.

In general, there are two major categories into which the classification systems developed in the
past can be grouped.
1. The textural classification is based on the particle-size distribution of the percent of sand,
silt, and clay-size fractions present in a given soil. In this chapter, we will discuss the
textural classification system developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2. The other major category is based on the engineering behavior of soil and takes into
consideration the particle-size distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and plasticity
index). Under this category, there are two major classification systems in extensive use
now:
a. The AASHTO classification system, and
b. The Unified classification system.

Textural Classification
In a general sense, the texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is influenced
by the size of the individual particles present in it. Table 3.4 (refer to Module 3) divides soils into
gravel, sand, silt, and clay categories on the basis of particle size. In most cases, natural soils are
mixtures of particles from several size groups. In the textural classification system, the soils are
named after their principal components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth.

A number of textural classification systems were developed in the past by different organizations
to serve their needs, and several of those are in use today. Figure 5.1 shows the textural
classification systems developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). This
classification method is based on the particle-size limits as described under the USDA system in
Table 3.4; that is
• Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter
• Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
• Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

The use of this chart can best be demonstrated by an example. If the particle-size distribution of
soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-size particles, its textural classification can be
determined by proceeding in the manner indicated by the arrows in Figure 5.1. This soil falls into
the zone of clay loam. Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through
the No. 10 sieve. Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a certain percentage
of the soil particles is larger than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary. For example,
if soil B has a particle-size distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the
modified textural compositions are
10 × 100
Sand size: = 12.5%
100 − 20
 30 × 100
Silt size: = 37.5%
100 − 20
40 × 100
Clay size: = 50.0%
100 − 20

On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural classification is clay.
However, because of the large percentage of gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.

Several other textural classification systems are also used, but they are no longer useful for civil
engineering purposes.

Figure 5.1 U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification (USDA)

Situation 1:
Classify the following soil using the U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification chart.
Particle-size Distribution (%)
Soil Sand Silt Clay
A 20 20 60
B 55 5 40
C 45 35 20

Solution:
Determine the zone into which each soil falls.

Soil A: Clay
Soil B: Sandy Clay
Soil C: Loam
Situation 2:
Classify the following soil by the USDA Method.
Gravel = 18%
Sand = 51%
Silt = 22%
Clay = 9%

Solution:
Determine the relative percentage of sand, silt, and clay.
51
Sand size: × 100 = 62.20%
100 − 18
22
Silt size: × 100 = 26.83%
100 − 18
9
Clay size: × 100 = 10.98%
100 − 18

Using the USDA chart, it is a sandy loam. However, due to the presence of 18% gravel in the soil,
it is classified as gravelly sandy loam.
AASHTO Classification System
The AASHTO system of soil classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road
Administration classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present version
proposed by the Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type
Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method
M145).

Table 5.1 Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 5.1. According to this system, soil is
classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and
A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve.
Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-
5, A-6, and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. This classification system is
based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size:
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S.
sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200
(0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index
of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of
11 or more.
 3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from
the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the percentage
of such material is recorded.

To classify a soil according to Table 5.1, one must apply the test data from left to right. By process
of elimination, the first group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct classification.
Figure 5.2 shows a plot of the range of the liquid limit and the plasticity index for soils that fall into
groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also incorporate a
number called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This index is written
in parentheses after the group or subgroup designation. The group index is given by the equation
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) (5.1)

where
𝐹200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve
𝐿𝐿 = liquid limit
𝑃𝐼 = plasticity index

Figure 5.2 Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6,
and A-7

The first term of Eq. (5.1)—that is, (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)]—is the partial group index
determined from the liquid limit. The second term—that is, 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)—is the partial
group index determined from the plasticity index. Following are some rules for determining the
group index:
1. If Eq. (5.1) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (5.1) is rounded off to the nearest whole number (for
example, 𝐺𝐼 = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; 𝐺𝐼 = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always
0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the
partial group index for PI, or
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) (5.2)

In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely proportional to

the group index.
Situation 3:
The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:
Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 100%
Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 80%
Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 58%

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the soil are 30 and 10, respectively. Classify the soil by the
AASHTO Classification System.

Solution:
Percent passing No. 200 sieve = 58% (greater than 35%, silt-clay)
Liquid limit = 30 (less than 40, A-4 or A-6)
Plasticity index = 10 (less than or equal to 10, A-4 or A-5)

The soil falls under A-4.

Computing the group index:

𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = (58 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(30 − 40)] + 0.01(58 − 15)(10 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 3.45 ≈ 3

The soil is classified as A-4(3).

Situation 4:
Classify the soil according to AASHTO Classification System.
LL = 30%, PL = 20%

Percent passing the No. 4 sieve = 100%

Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 91%
Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 60%
Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 20%

Solution:
Following the classification table from left to right, group A-1 is eliminated due to too much material
passing the No. 40 sieve.

Group A-3 is also eliminated due to too much material passing the No. 200 sieve. The soil passes
the criteria for A-2-4 and is so classified. Calculate the group index (with 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 30 −
20 = 10):
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = (20 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(30 − 40)] + 0.01(20 − 15)(10 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = −2.25

As mentioned in Rule 4 of determining the group index, the group index of soils belonging to
groups A-2-4 is always 0. Hence, the soil is classified as A-2-4(0).
Situation 5:
A fine-grained soil has the following properties.
LL = 39%, PL = 28%

Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 49%

Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 34%
Classify the soil according to AASHTO Classification System.

Solution:
A-1 is eliminated because the percent passing No. 200 sieve is greater than 25%.
A-3 is eliminated because the percent passing No. 40 sieve is less than 51%.
It will be in the A-2 group because the percent passing No. 200 sieve is less than 35%.
A-2-5 and A-2-7 are eliminated because the LL is less than 41%. Calculating the plasticity index:
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 39 − 28 = 11

The soil will be in A-2-6. Computing the group index (NOTE: When calculating the group index
for A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index)
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(34 − 15)(11 − 10)
𝐺𝐼 = 0.19

The soil we be classified as A-2-6(0).

Unified Soil Classification System

The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield
construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II. In
cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At present, it
is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified classification system
is presented in Table 5.2.

This system classifies soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing
through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for
gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group
symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O
for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other highly organic
soils.

Other symbols used for the classification are:

• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information must
be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the No.
4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and
retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (𝐶𝑢 ) and the coefficient of gradation (𝐶𝑐 )
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve
The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-GM, GW-GM,
GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL, ML, OL,
CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.

More recently, ASTM designation D-2487 created an elaborate system to assign group names to
soils. These names are summarized in Figures 5.4, 5.5, and 5.6. In using these figures, one needs
to remember that, in a given soil,
• Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve
• Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
• Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
• Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) – (percent retained on No. 4 sieve)

Figure 5.3 Plasticity Chart

Table 5.2 Unified Soil Classification System (Based on Material Passing 76.2-mm Sieve)
Figure 5.4 Flowchart group names for gravelly and sandy soil (Source: From “Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 04.08.” Copyright ASTM
INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.5 Flowchart group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils (Source: From “Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 04.08.” Copyright ASTM
INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 5.6 Flowchart group names for organic silty and clayey soils (Source: From “Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 04.08.” Copyright ASTM
INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted with permission.)
Situation 6:
For a given soil, the following details are known:
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70%
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30%
Liquid Limit = 33%
Plastic Limit = 12%

Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System. Give the group symbol and the group
name.

Solution:
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30% (less than 50%, coarse-grained soil)
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70% (more than 50%, sandy soil)
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30% (more than 12% passing, SM or SC)

Calculate the plasticity index: 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 = 33 − 12 = 21 (plasticity index greater than 7)

The soil is classified as SC. Since the percentage of gravel is more than 15%—that is—100 – 70
= 30%, it is clayey sand with gravel.

Situation 7:
The grain-size analysis for a soil is given:
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Percent Passing (%)
4 4.750 94
10 2.000 63
20 0.850 21
40 0.425 10
60 0.250 7
100 0.150 5
200 0.075 3

Given that the soil is non-plastic, classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System.

Solution:
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 3% (less than 50%, coarse-grained soil)
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 94% (more than 50%, sandy soil)
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 3% (less than 5%, SW or SP)

Compute 𝐶𝑢 and 𝐶𝑐 :
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷60 × 𝐷10

Use Stat Mode (ln X) to interpolate the value for 30% finer and 60% finer, respectively:
Press AC then,

Hence, 𝐷30 = 1.021 𝑚𝑚 and 𝐷60 = 1.881 𝑚𝑚. Then,

𝐷60 1.881
𝐶𝑢 = = = 4.427 (not greater than 6)
𝐷10 0.425
2
𝐷30 1.0212
𝐶𝑐 = = = 1.304 (between 1 and 3)
𝐷60 × 𝐷10 (1.881)(0.425)

The soil is classified as SP, since it does not meet both requirements of SW. since the percentage
of gravel is less than 15%—that is—100 – 94 = 6%, it is a poorly graded sand.

Situation 8:
Classify the soil according to USCS.
LL = 30%, PL = 20%

Percentage passing the No. 4 sieve = 100%

Percentage passing the No. 10 sieve = 91%
Percentage passing the No. 40 sieve = 60%
Percentage passing the No. 200 sieve = 20%

𝐷60 = 0.41 mm
𝐷30 = 0.12 mm
𝐷10 = 0.074 mm

Solution:
Only 20% of the soil is smaller than the No. 200 sieve, therefore, the soil is coarse-grained. All of
the coarse fraction is smaller than the No. 4 sieve, so the soil is sand (therefore, the first letter is
S).

Since more than 12% is passing No. 200 sieve, it is SM or SC. The plasticity index is calculated
as 𝑃𝐼 = 30 − 20 = 10, which is greater than 7. Referring to the plasticity chart on Figure 5.3, the
coordinate (30, 10) is above and A-line; it meets the criteria for SC. Since the percentage of gravel
is less than 15%, it is clayey sand.